Conventionally, buildings with underground basement are built by bottom-up method where sub-structure and super structure floors

are constructed in sequence from the bottom of the substructure to the top of the superstructure. However this conventional method is not feasible for the gigantic projects with limited time and with site constraints. Top down method construction as the name implies is a construction method which builds the permanent structure members of the basement along with the excavation from the top to the bottom. The down method has been used for deep excavation project where tieback installation is not feasible and soil movement had to be minimized. The sequence construction begins with retaining wall installation and the load bearing elements that will carry the future super-structure. The basement columns are constructed before any excavation take place and rest on the piled foundation.

The underground retaining wall which is a diaphragm wall is installed before excavation commences. A guide wall is constructed to set out the position of the diaphragm wall. The grab/trench cutter cuts and removes the soil to form the panel. The excavation is stabilized by filling it with bentonite slurry to support the wall of the excavation. The crane lifts up the reinforcement-bar cage and places it within the panel. Concrete is poured into the panel to form the diaphragm wall.

The soil is excavated just below roof slab level of the underground structure. Struts are installed to support the retaining walls, which in turn support the soil at the sides.

The roof slab is constructed, with access openings provided on the slab for works to proceed downwards. The roof slabs also provides a massive support across the walls.

The next level of slab is constructed, and this process progresses downwards till the base slab is completed

The side walls are constructed upwards, followed by removal of the intermediate struts. The access openings on the roof slab are then sealed.

After the underground structure is completed, the soil is backfilled to the top strut level before the strut is removed. This is followed by completely backfilling the top of the underground structure and finally reinstating the surface areas.

Pumping from sumps is the most widely used since it can be applied to all types of ground conditions and is economical to install and maintain. The only problem is the settlement; where the ground is likely to move as the water flows towards the sump area. There is also a risk of instability at the formation level in supported excavation. These problems can be partially overcome by positioning the sump at the corner of the excavation at a level below the formation level. A sideline drain filled with gravel will be dug to collect water at formation level and channel it to the sump for drier and more stable work area.

Well pump system. Since normal pumping method limit the depth of suction lift to a maximum of 9m and conditions may not allow the pump to be placed in the excavation, well pumping may be employed. The well is formed by sinking a lined borehole, of a diameter between 300 and 600mm to the required depth. Into this borehole another tube is placed, known as the inner well lining which provided with a perforated screen for the section which dewatering is required. The lower end of the inner lining is non-perforated and acts as a sump for settlement of fine material. A week is formed outside the excavation area to a level below the proposed formation.

Grouting method can be used in situations where the permeability of the soil would create a heavy demand on pumping and where the ground conditions would make the boring wells very costly. The basic method is to inject the soil or rock with fluid which on setting, will reduce the permeability of the material. Since the process is costly, it must be carefully controlled to prevent wastage of material. Cement grouting is suitable for injecting into coarse materials which have a high permeability. A grout curtain is formed by boring holes into the ground around the excavation area and injecting cement grout of varying thicknesses. It is usual to begin grouting with a batch of thin grout and then increase the thickness of the grout as the process continues, by reducing the water-cement ratio. Secondary holes are bored between the lines of the primary boreholes to ensure complete grouting of the curtain. Bentonite/clay grouting is used in ground conditions where the particles of the soil are too small for cement grouting. Clay also adds little strength to the soil, and it has a high resistance to water flow and therefore produces an excellent barrier. Bentonite is produced from montmorillionite clay which highly resistant to water and if mixed with certain additives, such as Portland cement, the barrier formed will be permanent. It is particularly useful for grouting soil beneath dam foundations to prevent seepage of water under the finished structure.

Bridge is a structure designed to provide continuous passage over an obstacle (waterways, deep valleys and other transportation routes). Planning and executing the construction of a bridge is often very complicated and time consuming. The preliminary stage in bridge project involves selection of the best bridge system from available alternatives. The following are some consideration to be concerned in designing a bridge system; site location and condition, aesthetic, construction technology and material, subsoil characteristic. The engineers also must consider the distance and feature to be crossed, the type of traffic, the amount of load the bridge will have to carry, the minimum span and height required for traffic travelling across and under the bridge and the best bridge design for that particular situation. Typically, several feasible choices exist in each category and each option is evaluated in terms of convenience, appearance, endurance and cost. Convenience: construction and material technology, how to build, expertise, labor, maintenance, site location and condition. Appearance: it is important in gaining public approval, which is particularly critical for taxpayer-funded projects. Aesthetic, bridge design and patterns Endurance: bridges must be designed to endure, as most structures can be expected to provide service for at least 50 to 100 years, loads, traffic condition, location, construction material Cost: durability of materials and maintenance requirements are important considerations, as the true cost of a bridge is not simply the initial construction expense, but the total cost of constructing and maintaining the structure throughout its service life. Good designs will minimize total cost. Bridge Types The bridge type (such as beam, arch, truss, and others) depends largely on the required dimensions for the bridge and the type of traffic to be carried. The required length and clearances needed by traffic are major considerations in bridge design. Many bridges are long enough to require several intermediate supports, or piers. The location of piers is usually a crucial factor, whether in water or on land. Materials Materials historically used for bridge building include rope and other fibers, wood, stone and masonry, iron, steel, and concrete. Fiber, timber, stone, and masonry are still used occasionally, but steel and concrete are the materials used for most modern bridge building. Fiber rope is occasionally used for short pedestrian bridges. Timber is perceived as a rustic material and is sometimes used in public parks, on private property, or in other situations in which a natural or historic appearance is desirable. The strength and durability of timber are quite limited compared to those of steel and concrete. Therefore, timber is suitable only for short spans that carry minimal traffic loads. Stone and masonry are sometimes used as facing materials on concrete and steel bridges, if appearance is important enough to justify the additional expense. When deciding between steel and concrete, designers evaluate the tradeoffs among weight, strength, and expense to determine which material is best for a particular bridge. Concrete is heavier than steel, but steel is much stronger. The major advantages of concrete are that it is considerably cheaper than steel and can be formed into a greater variety of shapes. For short bridges, the weight of material is not an important concern, and so concrete is an economical choice. However, as span increases, the weight of the structure grows substantially, and greater strength is needed to support the overall structure. Steel tends to be preferred for large bridges because less material has to be handled and supported during the construction process. The distinction between steel and concrete is not absolute, as most steel bridges have concrete decks, and all concrete is reinforced with steel to provide greater tensile strength (resistance to pulling). Reinforced concrete is made by pouring concrete mix over steel bars or mesh. The concrete and metal bond as the mix hardens, producing a material in which the high tensile strength of steel is combined with the great compressive strength (ability to resist pushing or squeezing) of concrete. An alternative method of reinforcing concrete is prestressing. Prestressed concrete is made by pouring concrete over stretched and anchored steel strands. After the concrete has set, the anchors are released. As the steel tries to return to its original length, it compresses the concrete, resulting in a relatively lightweight, extremely strong material. Foundations All bridge piers rest on foundations that transfer loads from the bridge structure into the ground. The foundations support the bridge, and their design is critical. Difficult conditions, such as deep water or soft ground, can make foundation construction complicated and expensive. In such circumstances designers may choose to decrease the number of piers by increasing span length. Of course, greater span lengths often require a more expensive bridge type, and therefore the tradeoffs must be evaluated carefully. If the ground is very strong at a bridge site, a foundation is formed by pouring a simple concrete mat beneath each of the piers. If the soil is weak, it may be excavated down to bedrock, and the piers can then be built directly on the solid rock. Alternatively, a group of vertical posts, or piles, can be driven through the soil to bedrock, and piers can be built on top of the piles. Construction Methods Bridges are erected using a variety of construction methods. Some techniques are associated with a particular bridge type, and care must be taken not to select a design that requires construction methods unsuitable for the site. Concrete and steel bridges are generally built using similar techniques, although concrete bridges are built in shorter sections than are steel bridges because of the greater weight of the material. One of the simplest construction methods for bridges is to assemble a span away from the bridge site and then transport it to the site. The span can then be lifted into position as one piece. This method is most often suitable for small truss bridges or for the suspended span of a cantilever truss. Another approach is to use falsework, or temporary scaffolding, to support the incomplete parts of a bridge before they are joined and able to support themselves. The use of falsework is not always possible, owing to strong river currents, interference with river traffic, or great distances to the ground. If falsework is impractical, bridges can be constructed by the cantilever method. With this technique, a bridge is built piece by piece, with the entire structure supported from the section previously completed. Thus, the structure is self-supported throughout the entire construction process. The use of cantilever construction methods saves material and therefore expense, but it is very complex, as great care must be taken not to unbalance the structure during construction. Most arch bridges, and of course cantilever bridges, are built using cantilever methods. The large towers

and cable anchorages of suspension bridges are built without the use of falsework, and then the suspension cables are spun. Many individual wires are draped over the towers and are then squeezed together into a circular shape and clamped at intervals to create a main cable. Suspension wires are dropped from the cables to support the roadway, and the roadway is completed. For all bridge types, underwater foundations require unique construction methods. Builders use cofferdams and caissons to obtain access to ground that is normally under water. A cofferdam is a temporary watertight enclosure constructed on the spot where a pier is to be built. A cofferdam usually consists of sheets of steel driven into the ground to create a walled chamber. The cofferdam is then pumped dry to expose the riverbed. Soil can be excavated to bedrock, or piles can be driven to create the pier foundation. A simply supported bridge is supported at both ends with load applied between the supports. There are 2 types which is single span and multi span. The advantages of this bridge are the design is simple, most inexpensive kind of bridge, it is easy and rapid to construct with pre-formed elements. It can also suit for spans up to 6om. Because of their thin profile, they are also extremely useful where headroom is limited. The disadvantage of this bridge is they got many complicated joints in multi span. The riding surface is poorer compared to continuous bridge. The length for each span is also limited.

GIRDER BEAM BRIDGE

A continuous bridge is a bridge which extends without joints across three or more supports/piers. Continuous bridges rely on rigid truss connection throughout the structure for stability. The main span of continuous bridge is supported at both ends. The advantages of continuous bridge are longer spans are possible to construct and they require fewer number of expansion joints. They also have a better rigidity quality, particularly because of lesser joints. The disadvantages of continuous bridge are they are very sensitive to the secondary stress, occurs from settlement of support, differential temperature or shrinkage effects. And if settlement occurs, a possible large stress would also occur. The continuous bridges also require greater skill in construction. Beam bridge is very simple and the most common type of bridge, usually cover short distances. The supports of a beam bridge are simple vertical piers and as a beam bridge is lengthened, it needs more piers to support it. The farther apart the piers are from each other, the weaker the bridge becomes. Even if the beam bridge is curved, it is still considered as a beam bridge. Advantages, beam bridges are simple and economical when covering a short distance. Disadvantage, beam bridges can be very expensive over a long distance. The longer the bridge, the more piers are needed to support it, thus increasing the total cost. Girder bridge is the most common and most basic type of basic beam bridge. The typical span lengths between 10200m. In modern steel girder bridges, the 2 most common types of girders are I beam girders and box girders. An I-beam is very simple to design and build and works very well in most cases. However, if the bridge contains any curves, the I-beams may become subject to twisting forces, also known as torque. The added second web in a box girder adds stability and increases resistance towards twisting forces. This makes the box girder the ideal choice for bridges with any significant curve in them. Box girders are also more stable and able to span greater distances, where I-beams would not be sufficiently strong or stable. However, the design and fabrication of box girders is more difficult and expensive than I-beam. Truss bridge is a simple skeletal structure. It typical span lengths between 40-500m. Truss bridge comprised of many small beams that together can support a large amount of weight and span great distances. In most cases the design, fabrication and erection of trusses is relatively simple. However, once trusses take up a greater amount of space and in more complex structure, it can serve as distraction to drivers. Rigid frame bridge. In a standard girder bridge, the girder and the piers are separate structure. However in a rigid frame bridge, the piers and girder are one solid structure. The rigid

TRUSS BRIDGE

BATTER POST RIGID FRAME

frame bridges are usually using I-shaped or box shaped for the girder. The junction between the pier and the girder can be difficult to fabricate and requires accuracy and attention to detail. Though there are many possible shapes, the styles used mostly used are the batter post frame, the v shaped frame, and the pi-shaped frame. Batter post rigid frame is particularly well suited for river or valley crossing because the piers leaned at an angle can span the crossing more effectively without requiring the construction of foundation in the middle of the river or piers in deep parts of a valley. V shaped frames make effective use of foundation. Each V shaped pier provide two supports to the girder, reducing the number of foundations needed and creating less complicated profile. Pi shaped rigid frame structure are used frequently as the piers and supports for city highways. The frame supports the upper raised highways and the same time allows traffic to run directly under the bridge.

V SHAPED FRAME

PI SHAPED FRAME

Arch bridges are one of the oldest types of bridges and have great natural strength. Instead of pushing straight down, the weight of an arch bridge is carried outward along the curve of the arch to the supports at each end. These supports are called the abutments; carry the load and keep the ends of the bridge from spreading out. Arch bridges typically are used in situations such as an entry to a city or park, where design and aesthetics are particularly important. When supporting its own weight and the weight of crossing traffic, every part of the arch is under compression. For this reason, arch bridge must be made of materials that are strong under compression such as masonry and concrete. Constructing an arch bridge can be tricky, since the structure is completely unstable until the 2 spans meet in the middle. One technique is to build false-work below the spans to support them until they meet. Advantage, the entire arch is in compression, the absence of tension in the arch means that it can sustain much greater spans than beam can achieve. It also the most efficient shape for supporting gravity loads. Arches are also good choices for crossing valleys or river since the arch doesnt require piers in the center. The disadvantage of arch design is it cannot stand until it is complete. Therefore it must rest on false-work or cables until it is completed. Arch bridge also requires a great deal of material even for a short span.

Cable-stayed bridge is currently gaining popularity as a signature structure. A typical cable stayed bridge is a continuous girder with one or more towers erected above piers in the middle of the span. From these towers, cables stretch down diagonally (usually to both sides) and support the girder/deck. It is designed so that straight cables connect the bridges towers or pylons to its deck. The cables can be attached to the deck in variety patterns. In a radial pattern, cables connect from several points on the deck to a single point at the top of the tower. In a parallel pattern, cables are attached at different heights along the tower, running parallel to one another. Steel cables are extremely strong but very flexible. Thus, only a few cables are strong enough to support the entire bridge. Cable stay bridge may look similar to suspension bridge, both have roadways that hang from cables and both have tower. But the 2 bridges support the load of the roadway in very different ways. The difference lies in how the cables are connected to the towers. In suspension bridges, the cables ride freely across the towers transmitting the load to the

anchorages at either end. In cable stayed bridges, the cables are attached to the towers which alone bear the load. The advantages of cable stayed bridge are it more economical and aesthetically pleasing. There is no need for anchorages to sustain strong horizontal forces, because the spans are selfanchoring. The cable-stayed bridge also has many variations of designs and pattern. However, the lighter weight of the bridge may become a disadvantage in a heavy wind. The cables also require careful treatment to protect them from corrosion. The fabrication of cable stay bridge is also relatively difficult. The cable attachments for the deck and tower are very complex and requiring precision fabrication.

The suspension bridge is aesthetic, light and strong and It can span longer than other kind of bridge. They also tend to be the most expensive type of bridge to build. A suspension bridge suspends the roadway from huge main cables, which extend from one end of the bridge to the other one. These cables are resting on top of high towers and are secured at each end by anchorages. At both ends of the bridge large anchors or counter weights are placed to hold the ends of the cables. From the main cables, smaller cables known as hanger cables or hanger ropes are hung down and attached to the girder. The function of the various parts are easy to understand, the towers hold the cable up, the anchorages pull the cables outward and downward, the hangers connect the deck to the main cable and the deck is there to carry the traffic. Most of the weight of the bridge is carried by the cables to the anchorages, which are embedded in solid rock or massive concrete blocks. Inside the anchorage the cables are spread over a large area to evenly distribute the load and to prevent the cables from breaking. Advantages, the main sustaining members, the cables and hangers are purely in tension and are not required to be rigid, so they can be only as thick as needed to resist the tension. The towers also are almost purely in compression, so their design is relatively simple. Disadvantages, great attention is required in the design stage to deal with aerodynamic/wind loads. The anchorage must also sustain very strong horizontal forces as well as vertical ones. Special measures are taken to assure that the bridge does not vibrate or sway excessively under heavy winds. Constructing the cables across the gap also can be a lengthy process.

Dredging is the process of removing material from the bed or banks of a waterway and disposing of it either in another part of the waterway or on land. Dredging operations are primarily for the purpose of deepening or widening the waterway channels or to obtain fill material for land development. Same of dredging projects in Malaysia include Penang Port in Pulau Pinang, Kemaman Port in Terengganu and Klang Port in Selangor. DREDGING PROCESS PRE-TREATMENT Chemical Method of pretreatment involves the use of explosive or expanding gas cartridges. The cartridge is placed in borehole drilled vertically into the material to be blasted. The work is carried out underwater by divers with submersible drills. a) Explosive in boreholes b) Slab charge in boulder c) Shaped charges d) Lay on charges Mechanical Method of pretreatment is less common now than chemical method. However the rock breaker, which is the standard mechanical pretreatment machine, still has applications in cases where explosives might be undesirable or inefficient. e) Rock chisel shearing rock f) Rock chisel crushing rock

EXTRACTION

Mechanical dredging is generally done with a barge mounted crane using clamshell/clam bucket or dragline bucket. A hydraulic excavator can also be used. The material is excavated and placed in a barge. A boat moves/tow the barge to the disposal area. a) Bucket Mechanical dredgers used buckets to excavate sediments and place the dredged material into barges that are subsequently unloaded them into dredge disposal areas. The bucket can dig in various sea-bottom deposits, from sand/soil to crushed stones. It is available for powerful dredging, sea-floor leveling and rock uplifting. Clamshell A clamshell dredge has a crane mounted on a barge and is equipped with a clamshell bucket. It is best for working in soft soil/sediments and works well in difficult to access area. Dragline Dragline dredgers are suitable for digging tranches in shallow water in soft and moderate hard soil/sediments. They gain their digging ability through horizontal pull on the bucket. Ladder or continuous Ladder dredger can dig deeply more than 40m and in hard material. They are much used in channel maintenance dredging in existing harbors because their ability to control as well as to dig to an accurate elevation.

b)

c)

d)

Hydraulic dredging Hydraulic dredges perform both phases of dredging operations, extraction/digging and disposing. They are more efficient, versatile and economical. The dredged material is first loosened and mixed with water jets or cutter heads and pumped as a slurry fluid through a long pipeline or to a hopper bin or by side casting. Hydraulic Methods for lifting soil (a) Centrifugal pump (b) Jet Pump (c) Air Lift (d) Seabed Pump Dredging design criteria a) Depth-important to provide a safe access depth for a ship to enter the waterway channel. For dredging work is normal to use Chart Datum. b) Width- the required width affects the volume of both capital and maintenance dredging. Consideration factors, one way or two way traffic, maximum vessel dimension. c) Side Slope-side slope is more difficult for underwater, especially in locations subject to strong wave and sediment movement. A balance also needs to be reached between what is stable in the long term and what can be practically and economically achieved during dredging. TRANSPORTATION a) Self-propelled barge b) Dumb barge c) Pipeline DISPOSAL a) Grab b) Bottom discharge by hopper bin c) Pipeline d) Scrapers

Tunnel A tunnel is a horizontal passageway located underground. There are many different ways to excavate tunnel including manual labor, explosives, rapid heating and cooling, tunneling machinery or a combination of these methods. Because tunnels must withstand tremendous pressure from all sides, the continuous arch is an ideal shape. The tunnel is built with strong materials such as masonry, steel or concrete to withstand the surrounding forces. Benefits a) b) c) d) e) Reduced congestion on the surface road in the city Improved access for pedestrian, cyclist and public transportation Reduce time travel, to avoid long circuitous route around a mountain Reduce the traffic noise levels and vibration impacts Air quality will be improves by taking car off from the surface of the streets

Disadvantages a) b) c) High initial and maintenance cost Long construction period Specialize work and construction technology (need special requirement and highly skilled labor)

List of cost for tunnel construction a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) Cost of exploration/meter length Unit cost of excavation Unit cost of transporting earth Construction cost of tunnel site per meter Annual maintenance cost of tunnel per meter Manual maintenance Cost of supplementary structures (lining, light, drainage and others) Standard time of refund

How a tunnel is built depends heavily on the materials through which it must pass either in soft ground, hard/soft rock or underwater. Soft ground tunnel are typically shallow and are often used as subways, water supply systems and sewer. Because the ground is soft, a support structure, called a tunnel shield must be used at the head of the tunnel to prevent it from collapsing. The tunnel shield is a steel cylinder is pushed into the soil. It shaped a perfectly round hole and supports the surrounding earth while workers remove debris and install permanent lining made of precast concrete or steel. When the workers complete a section, jacks push the shield forward and they repeat the process. Hard rock requires little or no extra support during construction and often us as railways or roadways through mountains. Tunneling through hard rock almost always involves drilling and blasting. After vacuuming out the harmful gases during explosion, workers can enter and begin carrying out the debris, using wheelbarrow. Then they repeat the same process until the tunnel finished. Soft rock will use tunnel-boring machines to create the tunnel and provide support. The circular plate is covered with disk cutters. As the circular plate rotates, the disk cutter will slice into rocks. As the machines excavates, two drills just behind the cutters will bore into the rock. Then workers will pump grout into the holes and attach bolt to hold everything in place until the permanent lining can be installed. Underwater tunnel particularly tricky to construct as water must be held back while the tunnel is being built. Early engineers used pressurized chambers to prevent water from coming into tunnels. Today prefabricated tunnel segment can be floated into position, sunk and attached to other section. Cut and cover is a method of tunnel construction that involves an open cut excavation in a trench with the tunnel being covered back at the completion of its construction. The cut and cover method of tunneling involves excavating a trench, constructing tunnel within the trench, and then covering it with soil/backfilling materials. This method is suitable for shallow excavation as well as in areas without properties nearby. But if the area is congested with traffic or in the city, the trench must be covered with temporary deck as soon as it is excavated to avoid long term disturbance and to restore pedestrian/vehicle traffic as soon as possible. Hydraulic jacked is a method of tunnel construction where hydraulic jacks are used to push tunnel boring machine or tunnel shield. This technique is commonly used to create tunnels under existing structures such as roads, railways or building. This technique normally used to install underground sewer pipes and water supply system. The hydraulic jack will pushed steel cylinder into the soil. The cylinder will support the surrounding earth while workers remove debris and install permanent lining made of precast concrete or steel. When the workers complete a section the hydraulic jack will push the cylinder forward and repeat the process to advance the tunnel without disturbing the structures at the surface. Sequential Excavation Method, since the TBMs can only excavate a fixed (generally circular) shape, SEM permits a tunnel of any shape or size to be excavated. This makes it useful in areas where the tunnel shape or size needs to change, such as highway ramps and subway stations. Mining equipment, such as backhoes and road headers, is used to excavate the tunnels.

ROAD Generally, a road is an open public way for the passage of vehicle, people and animal. Covering these roads is a hard smooth pavement helped them durable and able to withstand traffic and the environment. Road pavements have a life expectancy of between 20-30 years. Road pavement is expected to last for 20-30 years. Road pavements depreciate over time due to the impact of traffic, and environmental factors. Pavement purpose a) Load support, one of the primary functions of a pavement is for load distribution. There are a lot of vehicle forces exerted on the road every day, especially in a congested traffic area. The pavement covering can protect and increase the life expectancy of the road. Smoothness, pavement can provide smoothness on the road surface when there are compacted, and harden. This will directly affect the ride quality of a vehicle. Drainage, pavement material can assist quick and efficient drainage thus eliminating moisture problems such as mud and ponding on the road.

b) c)

Material definitions a) Hot mix asphalt is a combination between aggregate and asphalt, mixed together at high temperatures and will forms a hard, strong construction material when cooled down. HMA is also known as asphalt concrete and bitumen. Its the most common material used on paved roads. Portland cement concrete is a combination of aggregate, water and Portland cement to form a hard, strong construction material when set. PCC is known by several names including cement and concrete.

b)

PAVEMENT TYPES, basically all hard surfaced pavement types can be categorized into 2 groups which are rigid pavements and flexible pavements. Flexible Pavements are those which are surfaced with bituminous or asphalt materials. Its flexible since the total pavement structure deflects or depreciate due to traffic loads and environmental factors. Flexible pavements generally require some sort of maintenance for every 10-15 year. A flexible pavement structure is typically composed of several layers of material. Each layer receive load from the above layers and spread them out to the natural ground below. The typical flexible pavement structure consisting of: a) Surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and normally contains the highest quality materials. In addition it serves to prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into underlying base and sub-base. It may compose of one or several different HMA sub-layers. Base course is the layer directly below the HMA layer and generally consist of aggregate (crushed granule stone). It provides additional load distribution and contributes to drainage and frost resistance. Base course are generally constructed out off; i. Aggregate. Base courses are most typically constructed from durable aggregates that will not damage by moisture or frost action. Aggregates can be either stabilized or un-stabilized. ii. HMA. In certain situation where high base stiffness is desired, base courses can be constructed using a variety of HMA mixes. Sub-base course is the layer between base course and subgrade course (ground soil). It functions primarily as structural support but it can also minimize the interference of fine from the subgrade into the pavement structure. It also provide a working platform for construction. The sub-base generally consist of lower quality materials than the base course but higher than the subgrade soils.

b)

c)

Rigid Pavements are composed of a PCC (Portland cement concrete) surface course. Such pavements are greatly stiffer than flexible pavement due to the high modulus of elasticity of the PCC material. Further, these pavements can have reinforcing steel which is generally to reduce joints. The typical rigid pavement structure consisting of: a) b) Surface course is the layer in contract with the traffic loads and it is made of PCC. The surface course can vary in thickness but it is usually between 150mm for light loading traffic and 300mm for heavy loads and high traffic. Base course is the layer directly below the PCC layer and generally constructed out of aggregate, stabilized subgrade, dense grade HMA or lean concrete. It provides, additional load distribution, contributes to drainage and frost resistance and uniform support to the pavement. Base course also help to prevent sub grade soil movement due to slab pumping. Sub-base course is the layer under the base layer. A sub base is not always needed for the rigid pavements, thus it often be omitted.

c)

Pavement Finishes i. ii. iii. iv. Composite Pavement is a combination of flexible and rigid pavements to give riding quality. Another bituminous layer is overlay on surfaces of concrete slab. Drainage- Surface and Subsurface. It is constructed to cope with heavy water run-off during a storm Curb is constructed to define the limits of carriageway Hard Shoulder is a continuous strip alongside pavements, which vehicles may drive during emergencies. Normally it is 3m wide. Types of interchanges Cloverleaf interchange

Diamond interchange

Stack interchange

Trumpet Interchange

EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURE Gravity walls rely on their significant mass and geometrical dimension for stability against sliding or overturning. No stability is made from the passive resistance any soil acting on the face of the wall. Gravity wall can be broken into 3 types, mass construction, semi mass construction and reinforced construction. Mass construction can be broken down into 5 types, concrete, concrete with masonry facing, reinforced masonry, gabions and crib. i. Mass concrete walls are suitable for retained heights of up to 3 m. the cross section shape of the wall is affected by stability, the use of space in front of the wall, the required wall appearance and method of construction. The lateral forces from backfill are resisted by the weight of the wall itself. Gabions are free-draining walls constructed by filling broken granular stone into cage/basket. Retaining is achieved from combination of the stones weight and its interlocking and frictional strength. The wall height is approximately 10m. Crib walls are constructed by interlocking individual boxes made from timber, precast concrete or metal members. The boxed are filled with crushed stone or other materials to create a free drainage structure.

ii. iii.

Semi mass construction is compromise between simplicity of mass concrete and reinforced concrete. It can be cost effective if the reinforcement details are kept simple. Reinforced construction is gravity structure s in which the stability against overturning is provided by the weight of the wall together with the weight foundation material which rest on the slab. The following are the main types of the wall: i. ii. Concrete Cantilever walls are reinforced concrete wall. They are composed of a vertical retaining wall with slab base. Simple forms of cantilever wall utilize the weight of the earth or backfill on the base heel. Counterfort walls are cantilever walls strengthened with solid counterforts. The counterforts are to reduce the shearing and bending stress. Counterforts are used for high wall with heights greater than 8-12m.

Soil nailed wall is a construction technique that can be used to treat unstable natural soil slopes. Its involve reinforcing the soil as work progresses in the area being excavated by the introduction of tension-resisting steel bars, which basically work in tension. These are used parallel to one another and slightly inclined downward. The walls are generally constructed from the top down.

Reinforced earth walls are structures which made using steel or soil reinforcements which are placed in layers within a controlled granular fill. The combination of earth filling and reinforcements create a composite structure which is internally stables as long as sufficient reinforcements are placed within the earth. A soil nailed wall is different to reinforced earth wall. A soil nailed wall will have been built downward with the soil being reinforced in situ. Reinforced earth wall in the other hand s constructed by building embankment that is then strengthened to 90o as the work progresses.

Sheet Pile Wall Steel sheet pile walls are constructed by driving steel sheets into a slope or excavation. Their most common use is within deep excavations. Vibratory hammers are used to install sheet piles. If soils are too hard or dense, an impact hammer can be used to complete the installation. At certain sites where vibrations are a concern, the sheets can be hydraulically pushed into the ground.. They are considered to be most economical where retaining of high earth pressures of soft soils is required. The full wall is formed by connecting the joints of adjacent sheet pile sections in sequential installation.

Sheet pile walls are constructed by: 1. Laying out a sequence of sheet pile sections, and ensuring that sheet piles will interlock. 2. Driving (or vibrating) the individual sheet piles to the desired depth. 3. Driving the second sheet pile with the interlocks between the first sheet pile and second "locked" 4. Repeating steps 2 & 3 until the wall perimeter is completed 5. Use connector elements when more complex shapes are used.