Natural Science in Archaeology

Series Editors: B. Herrmann . G.A. Wagner

Springer
Berlin Heidelberg New York Barcelona Budapest HongKong London Milan Paris Singapore Tokyo

Bruce Velde . Isabelle C. Druc

Archaeological Ceramic Materials

Origin and Utilization

With 98 Figures

Springer

E-mail: gwagner@goanna.mpi-hd.mpg.de

Series Editors Professor Dr. Giinther A. Wagner Institute of Archaeometry Max-Planck-Institute of Nuclear Physics Saupfercheckweg 1 D-69117 Heidelberg, Germany

Professor Dr. Bernd Herrmann Institute of Anthropology University of G6ttingen BiirgerstraBe 50 D-37073 G6ttingen, Germany E-mail: bherrma@gwdg.de

Authors Dr. Bruce Velde Laboratoire de Geologie URA CNRS 1316 Ecole Normale Superieure 24, rue Lhomond 75231 Paris Cedex 05 France

E-mail: papa@euclase.ens.fr

Dr. Isabelle C. Druc Yale University Peabody Museum of Natural History Division of Anthropology P.O. Box 208118 New Haven, CT 06520-8118 USA E-mail: idruc@interlinx.qc.ca

ISBN-13: 978-3-642-64176-3 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York

Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for Velde, B. Archaeological ceramic materials: origin and utilization: with 98 figures / Bruce Velde; Isabelle C. Druc. --(Natural science in archaeology) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-3-642-64176-3 DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-59905-7 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-59905-7

1. Pottery--Analysis. 2. Archaeological chemistry. 3. Petroglyphs I. Druc, Isabelle C. (Isabelle Clara). II. Title. III. Series. CC79.5.P6V 45 1998 98-26273 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether me whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfIlm or in other ways, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution act under German Copyright Law.
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1999 Softcover reprint of me hardcover 18t edition 1999

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Typesetting: Fotosatz-Service Kohler GmbH, Wiirzburg Cover design: design & production, Heidelberg 32/3020-543210 - Printed on acid -free paper SPIN:I0534807

Preface

The text which follows is based largely on the personal experience of the authors. The examples used which concern archaeological material, thin sections of sherds and many of the case studies are for the most part those which we have developed ourselves. This experience. may seem biased when one thinks of the large experience of petrographic archaeology, and this is surely true, but it is a reflection of our observations which are more complete for the objectives we have in mind than most of the examples given in the literature. For example, we have access to initial sherds, photographs, grain-size measurements and so forth for the same materials and we can present a specific archaeological context and problem using these data. Of course, there have been many studies on the same general subjects published elsewhere. As it turns out, our collective experience covers two of the major fields of investigation, the old (European) world and the new (American) one. It is evident that the problems are different in these two worlds. The contexts of production, distribution and use are different. The evolution of techniques is very different although covering similar time periods. These two view points are complementary and, we hope, will enrich the investigative methods and outlook of workers in both cultural areas. Our overall objective is to provide a more solid basis for understanding the origins of ceramic materials which were presented to and used by the largest part of the "archaeological" potters throughout the ages. The source of their materials can help in understanding their eventual use in an archaeological context. The eternal questions of the archaeologist are: when was the object made, where was it made and why was it made? We hope to give elements for answering the first two questions. We have not attempted to describe the analysis methods themselves which are beginning to find regular use (chemical and physical). They are commonly employed to determine the various chemical and physical properties of the ceramics which one can encounter. This is the work of archaeometry, which is not our subject. However, the identification and use of the elements

VI

Preface

used to construct a paste which will become a ceramic is of great help in understanding the chemical signature of these materials as they are found in a ceramic material. Minerals contain certain chemical elements, and these will be found in the ceramic itself in the proportion of the abundance of the minerals as they have been selected and combined by the potter to make his paste. Measurement of the physical properties of the actual ceramic sherd, thermal expansion, hardness and so forth, can give an idea of the conditions under which the paste was transformed into a ceramic object. The materials and the firing process determine these properties. Hence, we attempt to give a rudimentary understanding of the firing process. Thus, it is evident that our approach is an empirical one, where processes are stressed above measurements. Another objective we have attempted to attain is to use bibliographical references which are easily available to students in University libraries. Hence, most works cited are in English and most are from books published by regular publishers or in widely distributed professional journals. This does not mean to say that most of the useful information concerning the subject of archaeological ceramic materials is dealt with in these sources. We give only examples of the most easily available materials. Very much information can be found in the Acts of Congresses, Proceedings of Symposia and so forth. Unfortunately, this material is often kept in small circles for reasons of distribution and, as a consequence, is not readily consultable, even in today's internet age. Hence, we have attempted to restrict the references given to more available sources. The major point we would like to make is that one can do much research of archaeological ceramics simply by using one's eyes. There are new computer aids to quantify what the eye sees, but, in general, we still insist that one take a look at the material and then assess it. We would like to thank, of course, our students for their ardour in their tasks, and our colleagues for their help and understanding. We would like to thank especially the following people for help with specimens and technical advice: in particular, we are thankful to Dr. J. B. Stoltman of the University of Wisconsin Madison; Mrs. Pirazzoli-s' Terstevens, University of Paris I; Dr.A. Labbe, Bowers Mus;eum; M.J.-P. Mercier, ceramist. I. Druc received support from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada which is greatfully acknowledged. Paris, October 1998 New Haven, October 1998 BruceVelde Isabelle C. Druc

Contents

Introduction

1 1

1.1 1.2

Objectives Methods Vocabulary Structure of the Book

5
8
11 11

Rocks and Minerals Chemical Elements and Their Chemical Affinities Major Rock Types Minerals . . . . . Mineral Formulae Major Mineral Families Silicates . . . . . . . . The Silica Minerals and Quartz Feldspars . . . . . . . . . Pyroxenes and Amphiboles Olivine . . . . . . Micas and Chlorite Carbonates . . . . Oxides . . . . . . Mineral Grain Shapes Minerals in Rocks Sedimentary Rocks Igneous Rocks . . Metamorphic Rocks Metamorphic Pelites Metamorphosed Carbonates Metamorphosed Igneous Rocks

2.1 2.2 23 231 2.3.2 232.1 2.3.2.1.1 232.1.2 2321.3 2321.4 2.3.2.1.5 232.2 2.3.2.3 233 24 241 242 243 2431 2432 2433

16
18 18

19
20 20

21
22

23 23 24 25

26

27 28 28
30 30 31 32

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Contents

Clay Minerals and Their Properties Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . Chemical Constitution of Clay Minerals and Clay Mineral Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mica-Like Clays (Illite, Celadonite and Glauconite) Smectites . . . . . . . . . . . Kaolinite Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . Chlorites and Related Minerals . . . . General Chemical Identity of the Clays Physical Properties of Clay Minerals Clay-Water Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . Clay Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thermal Stability of Clays and Clay-Water Mixtures Kinetics Grain Size Heating Rate Summary Origin of Clay Resources Segregation of the Elements by Weathering Weathering of Minerals . . . . .

35 35
39 39

31 32 32.1 32.2 323 324 325

33

41 44 45 45
46 46 48

331 332 34 35 3.5. 2

36

51

351

54 54
55
56 59 59

61

43 431 432 433 434 435 44

From Rocks to Soils to Sediments Weathering Profiles . . . . . . . Transportation by Water Flow, Grain-Size Sorting Transport and Deposition of Clays Wind Transport . . . . . Burial of Sediments .. . Hydrothermal Alteration Sources of Materials Suitable for Ceramics Clays . . . . . . Non-Clay Grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Physical and Chemical Processes of Making Ceramics Plasticity . . . . . . . . Mineral Temper Grains Natural Mineral Grains

62
63 66 67

68 69

70 71
71 71

45
451

4.5. 2
5

75 75
77

51

52 52.1

78

Contents

IX

52.2 523

5. 2 .3. 1
5232 53 531 532 533 534 54 541 541.1 541.2 541.3 541.4 541.5 5-4. 2 542.1 542.2 5-423 543

Decantation and Separation of Natural Mineral Temper Grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tempering by Mixtures of Source Materials Mixtures of Clays and Non-Clay Grains from Different Sources Mixtures of Clay Sources Decorations and Surfaces Surface Smoothing Slip .. Paint . . . . . . Glazes . . . . . Firing and Furnaces Variables of Transformation to Make a Ceramic The Firing Process: Time and Temperature . . Stages of Transformation in Time-Temperature Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paste Composition and Fusing Agents Reduction of Iron Particle Size . . . . Firing Practices Firing on the Ground Pit Firing . . . . . . . Kilns . . . . . . . . Summary of Factors in the Formation of a Ceramic Body During Firing . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structure, Porosity and Density of Ceramics: Non-Plastics, Clays and Pores Pores . . . . . . Primary Pores Secondary Pores Microporosity Temper, Material and Firing Thermal Properties of Oriented Clays Hardness . . . . . . . . . . Oxidation-Reduction Effects Oxidation -Reduction Cycles Mineral Reactions During Firing Families of Ceramic Products Earthenware . . . . . . . . . . Pottery, Terra Cotta and Faience

82
84

86 90
93

85 85

96 96 97

99
103 105 106 106 107 107

109
110 110 111 111 112 116 116 119

55

5.5. 1
551.1 551.2 551.3 552 553 554 56

120 122
125

57 58
59 591 592

126
129

131 132

x
593 594 5. 10

Contents

Stoneware Porcelain. Summary The Making of Pots Temper and Tempering Raw Materials . . . . . Clay Material . . . . . Tempering Materials and Methods of Tempering Tempering and Temper Identification . . . . . Making a Pot: Physical and Chemical Reactions Needs as a Function of the Object . . . . . . . . Plasticity and the Role of Temper and lion-Plastics Drying and Shrinkage Material Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grain Angularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paste as Related to Function, Form and Manufacturing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Needs as a Function of Use of the Object .. Durability and Breakage Resistance; Strength and Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Porosity, Density, Permeability, Impermeability . . . . Thermal Stress Resistance and Thermal Conductivity Preparation of Material Forming Techniques . . Surface Coatings as Related to the Function of the Ware Firing and Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . Open Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pit -Kilns, Semiclosed Structures, Open Kilns Kilns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Needs of a Type of Paste Related to the Type of Firing Summary Optical Observation of Ceramics Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . Methods: How Can One See a Ceramic Sherd? Computer Scanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

133 133 134 139 140

141

6
6.1 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.23 6.3 6.3. 1 6.31.1 6.3. 1.2 631.3 6.31.4 6.32 633 6.331 6.332 6.333

141 142 144 151 151 152 152 156 156 157 158 158 160 161 161 163 167 169 170 172 173 174

6-4
65

6.6
6.7 671 6.72 673 6.7046.8

175

177 177 177

177

Contents

XI

72.2 723 73 731 732 733 734 7341 7342 7343 74 75

Binocular Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Petrographic Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Characteristics Observed: What Can One See in a Ceramic Sherd? . . . Slip, Glaze or Paints . . . . . . . . . Temper Grains and Clays . . . . . . Temper Grains and Size Distribution Grain Shapes . Crystal Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . Angularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . Size Distribution of Temper Grains Identification of Different Techniques in Paste Preparation Texture of Paste Summary Ceramics and Archaeology: Case Studies Yellow Garnets and Trafficking Wine .. Iron Age Pottery in Southwestern England and its Geological Sources . . . . . . . . .

178
179 180 180 182 183 190 190 191 195 197 198 201 205 205

76
8
8.1 8.2 83 831 832 833 83-4 83.4.1 8342 84 841 842 843 85 851 852 852.1 852.2 8523

. . . . . . 209
211

Whole-Sample Compositions of Some Sigillate ware Produced in France Lezoux Samples . . . . . . . . . Identifying Production Areas .. Lezoux Coarse or Common Ware Specific Problems of Archaeological Interest Using Sigillate Ware Data Arezzo Moulds . Atevis Workshop . Prehistoric Peru Petrographic Analysis Modal Analysis Chemical Analysis . . Modern Ceramic Production in the Andes Production Setting Petrographic Analysis . . . . . The Unprepared Black Clay . . The Unprepared Yellow Temper The Clay-Temper Mix . . . . .

213 214 219 222 223 224 225 227 232 234 237 238 240 240 240 242

XII

Contents

85.3 854 8.6 87 8.8

9 9. 1 91.1 91.1.1 91.1.2 91.1.3 91.2 91.3 91.4

The Fired Pot Fragment . . . Image Analysis . . . . . . . . Clay Characterization by SEM (Scaning Electron Microscope) Determination of Firing Temperature Mossbauer Spectroscopy Some Current Analysis Methods Ceramic Analysis What For and How? Classification The Study of Pottery Technology Provenance Studies . . . . . . . Quantitative Studies . . . . . . . Use of Qualitative and Quantitative Studies Sample Size and Qualitative and Quantitative Studies Versus Time and Cost Invested Physical and Chemical Analysis Methods A Brief Description of the Methods Visual Methods . . . . . Binocular Microscope . . . . . . . Petrographic Microscope . . . . . Computer Scanner and Video Systems Electron Microscopes . . . . . . . . . Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM) High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopes (HRTEM) . . . . . . . . . . Mineral Identification by Non-Optical Methods X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) . . . . . . Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) Infrared Spectral Analysis (IR) Electron Microprobe (EMP) Whole Sample Analysis X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Proton Activated X-Radiation (PIXE) Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) Mossbauer Analysis . . . . . . . . .

243 245 247 250 254 259 259 259 259 260 260 261 262 264 266 268 268 268 269 270 27 1 27 1 272 272 273 273 274 274 274 276
277

93 931 931.1 931.2 931.3 931.4 931.41 931.42 9.3. 1-4-3 932 9.3. 2 .1 932.2 9323 9324 9325
93~3

9331 9.3.3.2 9333 9334

278 279 279 280

Contents

XIII

934 935 9.3.5. 1 9352 9353

10 10.1 10.2

Age Determinations by Thermoluminescence (TL) Density, Porosity and Hardness Density and Porosity Hardness . . . . . Magnetic Analysis . . How to Acquire the Knowledge to Do the Job Courses in Geology, Chemistry and Physics . Some Journals, Books, and Laboratories Active in the Field of Interest

280 282 282 282 283 287 287 290 295

Subject Index . . . .