*

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THE

HOW

AND WHY

WONDER

BOOK

OF

R A N D W A T E R

W r i t t e n b y M A R T I N L. K E E N and CLAIRE COOPER CUNNIFF TALLARICO D. WOLF

Illustrated Editorial

by T O N Y

Production:

DONALD

E d i t e d u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f D r . P a u l E. B l a c k w o o d Washington, Text and illustrations D.C. approved by N.Y.

O a k e s A. W h i t e , B r o o k l y n C h i l d r e n s M u s e u m , B r o o k l y n ,

^W**M;

WONDER BOOKS NEW YORK A Division of GROSSET & DUNLAP, Inc.

Introduction I like to t h i n k of air a n d w a t e r as bridges, for across t h e m m o v e the airplanes a n d ships t h a t bring closer together the world's people. B u t air a n d w a t e r are bridges in a n o t h e r sense. W h a t scientists h a v e learned a b o u t m a n y of the physical characteristics of these fluids, they h a v e been able t o use as bridges t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g o t h e r fluids gases a n d liquids. W i t h this How and Why Wonder Book of Air and Water you c a n cross these bridges of discovery with the scientists. Y o u will see just how m a n y of the big ideas a b o u t air a n d w a t e r are t r u e of other gases a n d liquids. P e r h a p s , as you study, you will cross a n o t h e r bridge, the o n e t h a t will b r i n g to you a greater a p p r e c i a t i o n of air a n d water. T h o u g h they are all a r o u n d you, you m a y never h a v e noticed h o w surprising a n d interesting these substances are. Because you m a y w a n t to b e the scientist a n d cross t h a t first bridge yourself, this b o o k suggests experiments for you to try. So r e a d a n d think, experiment, observe, a n d check y o u r findings. H a v e a good passage as you cross n e w bridges with The How and Why Wonder Book of Air and Water. Paul E. Blackwood

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 69-20500 Copyright 1969 by Grosset & Dunlap, Inc. All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. Published simultaneously in Canada. Printed in the United States of America.

C O N T E N T S Page CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR AND WATER W h a t is air? W h a t is air m a d e of? H o w can you show t h a t air takes u p space? W h a t is a diving bell? H o w c a n w e p r o v e t h a t air h a s weight? W h y does a p e n n y fall faster t h a n a piece of p a p e r ? H o w c a n y o u show t h a t air is elastic? W h a t is w a t e r ? W h a t is t h e scientific n a m e for w a t e r ? W h e n is w a t e r n o t wet? W h y is ice lighter t h a n w a t e r ? W h y aren't fish frozen i n t o the ice of lakes a n d rivers? H o w c a n y o u float a piece of steel? AIR AND WATER IN NATURE W h a t a r e the layers of the a t m o s p h e r e ? W h a t are t h e a u r o r a s ? H o w c a n y o u show t h a t cool air takes up less space t h a n w a r m air? H o w c a n y o u p r o v e t h a t cool air is heavier t h a n w a r m air? W h a t m a k e s the wind blow? W h y is t h e s e a s h o r e cool in the s u m m e r ? H o w does water get i n t o t h e air? W h a t is h u m i d i t y ? How c a n you m e a s u r e h u m i d i t y ? H o w does m o v i n g air h e l p cool your b o d y ? H o w do desert plants store w a t e r ? W h a t a r e clouds? How can scientists m a k e r a i n ? W h a t is the w a t e r cycle? How does w a t e r get to the tops of trees? 4 5 6 6 8 8 11 11 12 12 12 13 14 14 16 16 17 17 18 18 19 20 21 22 23 23 24 24 25 26 H o w c a n you d e m o n s t r a t e capillary a c t i o n in plants? W h a t is a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e ? H o w c a n y o u show t h a t air exerts pressure? W h a t was von Guericke's e x p e r i m e n t ? H o w d o we m e a s u r e a t m o s p h e r i c pressure? H o w does air get into our lungs? AIR AND WATER AT WORK H o w did ancient m a n use w a t e r to m e a s u r e time? H o w d o windmills w o r k ? H o w d o w a t e r wheels w o r k ? H o w c a n y o u m a k e a water wheel? H o w does w a t e r p r o d u c e electricity? W h a t is Bernoulli's Principle? W h a t holds a n airplane u p ? H o w c a n y o u show why its wings will lift an airplane? H o w does a baseball pitcher t h r o w Page

27 27 28 28 29 31 32 32 33 35 36 37 38 38 39

a c u r v e ball? 40 H o w c a n you m a k e a siphon? 40 H o w does a siphon w o r k ? 41 H o w did A r c h i m e d e s solve the p r o b l e m of K i n g Hiero's c r o w n ? W h a t is A r c h i m e d e s ' Principle? H o w c a n you p r o v e A r c h i m e d e s ' Principle? Why How in How d o battleships float? does a fish m o v e u p a n d d o w n water? does a s u b m a r i n e m o v e u p a n d 41 43 43 44 45 46 46 47 48 48

d o w n in w a t e r ? W h a t is Pascal's Principle? H o w does a hydraulic j a c k w o r k ? AIR, WATER, AND YOU H o w c a n you help k e e p air a n d w a t e r clean?

Characteristics A i r a n d w a t e r a r e f a m i l i a r t o all of u s . T h e e a r t h w e live o n is s u r r o u n d e d b y a g r e a t o c e a n of a i r c a l l e d t h e a t m o s p h e r e . T h r e e q u a r t e r s of t h e e a r t h ' s surface is c o v e r e d by the waters of oceans, lakes, rivers, a n d streams. A i r fills a l l t h e o p e n h o l l o w s o n t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h . T h e a i r s u r r o u n d i n g u s is n e c e s s a r y f o r life. A l l a n i m a l s b r e a t h e a i r , a n d if d e p r i v e d of it, t h e y die. B e c a u s e air s u r r o u n d s o u r b o d i e s all t h e time, w e usually a r e n o t a w a r e of h o w i m p o r t a n t it is. B u t whenever m a n travels into space or under water, he realizes air's i m p o r t a n c e because he m u s t t a k e a s u p p l y of i t w i t h h i m .

of

Air

a n d

W a t e r the All up

N e x t t o a i r , w a t e r is p r o b a b l y substance most important t o us.

living things c o n t a i n water. M o r e t h a n t w o t h i r d s of y o u r b o d y is m a d e of w a t e r . T h e w a t e r i n y o u r b o d y h e l p s d i s s o l v e t h e f o o d y o u e a t , w h i c h is t h e n c a r r i e d i n t h e b l o o d t o y o u r l i v i n g cells. W a t e r a l s o h e l p s c a r r y a w a y t h e diss o l v e d w a s t e m a t e r i a l s f r o m t h e cells. A n d water helps to keep your body at the right temperature. W a t e r is i m p o r t a n t n o t o n l y i n s i d e y o u r b o d y , b u t in y o u r d a i l y life a s w e l l . I t is u s e d f o r c o o k i n g , b a t h i n g , w a s h ing clothes a n d dishes, a n d cleaning. A n d water provides recreation such as s w i m m i n g , sailing, or water-skiing. Plants, too, must grow have water. water. depends No This on

Whenever man travels under water he has to take his supply of air with him. Scuba divers carry theirs in tanks strapped to their backs.

plant

can

without

m e a n s t h a t all o u r f o o d

has shaped continents.

the coastlines

of

all

the

A i r , too, causes c h a n g e s in t h e e a r t h ' s surface. A strong wind may pick up long p a r t i c l e s of soil a n d m o v e t h e m

distances. W h e n the wind quiets down, t h e p a r t i c l e s of soil fall t o e a r t h . I n t h i s w a y , t h e w i n d m o v e s p o r t i o n s of earth's About surface 200,000 River from place are to square basin miles of the the place. covered

Mississippi the wind.

w i t h r i c h soil t h a t w a s c a r r i e d t h e r e b y M u c h of o u r w e a t h e r is d u e t o t h e a m o u n t of w a t e r i n t h e a i r . C l o u d s , f o g , d e w , r a i n , s n o w , a n d s l e e t a r e f o r m s of w a t e r in t h e air. M o v i n g air c a u s e s m o s t of t h e c h a n g e s i n w e a t h e r . weather changes. W h e n p l a y i n g o u t d o o r s , y o u feel What is air? w i n d o n y o u r face. a very windy day, the On you As wind blows w a r m or cold, d a m p or dry, the

have to lean forward a n d p u s h h a r d in Solid rock is carved into beautiful and strange shapes when sand, carried by the force of the wind, scrapes against it. The rock spires in Colorado's Garden of the Gods are examples of such formations. order to walk against the wind. W i n d is m o v i n g a i r , s o it is m o v i n g a i r t h a t y o u feel, a n d it is m o v i n g a i r a g a i n s t w h i c h y o u h a v e to p u s h so h a r d to w a l k on a windy day. w a t e r b e c a u s e all f o o d mals comes from plants. Water is an important source of p o w e r . M a n u s e s t h e f o r c e of r u n n i n g w a t e r t o t u r n t h e w h e e l s of m i l l s a n d t o m a k e electricity. Water shapes the surface of the even meat, aniY o u c a n ' t see air, b u t y o u h a v e often seen w h a t m o v i n g air can do. It m o v e s l e a v e s o n t r e e s , a n d it b l o w s p i e c e s of paper along the ground. Y o u know that in s t o r m s t h e w i n d b l o w s t r e e s A strong wind blowing from over, a n d m a y e v e n b l o w t h e r o o f s off h o u s e s . the sea shore t o w a r d shore c a n p u s h so m u c h w a t e r before it t h a t t o w n s a l o n g t h e m a y b e f l o o d e d . B e c a u s e a i r c a n d o all t h e s e t h i n g s , w e k n o w t h a t it m u s t b e a real material, like w o o d or p a p e r . A i r is a k i n d of m a t t e r , t h e s u b s t a n c e w h i c h is t h e flesh of p l a n t - e a t i n g

e a r t h . T i m e a n d a g a i n , t h e f o r c e of t h e r u n n i n g w a t e r s of s t r e a m s a n d rivers has w o r n d o w n whole m o u n t a i n ranges u n t i l t h e y b e c a m e flat p l a i n s . A n d t h e p o u n d i n g of o c e a n w a v e s o n t h e s h o r e s

t h i n g s a r e m a d e of. M a t t e r is a n y t h i n g that takes u p space and has weight. A s t o n e is m a t t e r . Y o u c a n s e e t h a t a s t o n e t a k e s u p s p a c e , a n d if y o u p i c k it u p , y o u c a n feel t h a t it h a s w e i g h t . A p i e c e of i r o n , y o u r h a t , a b a l l , a n d a g l a s s a n d t h e m i l k it c o n t a i n s a l l a r e e x a m p l e s of m a t t e r b e c a u s e t h e y all t a k e u p s p a c e and have weight. Air, too, takes up s p a c e a n d h a s w e i g h t . T h a t is w h y w e s a y t h a t a i r is a k i n d of m a t t e r . A i r is a m i x t u r e of s e v e r a l g a s e s . T h e s e gases do not have any What is air color, odor, or taste. Y o u made of? k n o w t h a t t h i s is t r u e b e c a u s e y o u c a n n o t see or smell or taste air. A l i t t l e m o r e t h a n o n e fifth of t h e a i r is o x y g e n . T h i s g a s is v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o all l i v i n g t h i n g s . If p l a n t s o r a n i m a l s a r e d e p r i v e d of o x y g e n , t h e y d i e . A l i t t l e less t h a n f o u r fifths of t h e a i r is n i t r o g e n . T h i s g a s is a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o l i v i n g t h i n g s . N i t r o g e n is a p a r t of all living tissues. H o w e v e r , living things the cannot use nitrogen directly from

t o d o t h i s . P l a n t s p r o v i d e f o o d f o r all o t h e r living things. O n e p a r t i n e v e r y h u n d r e d p a r t s of a i r is a m i x t u r e of h a l f a d o z e n o t h e r g a s e s . T w o of t h e s e , h e l i u m a n d h y d r o g e n , a r e v e r y l i g h t g a s e s . B e c a u s e of t h e i r l i g h t n e s s , o n e u s e of t h e s e g a s e s is f o r filling b a l l o o n s ; s m a l l t o y o n e s a n d large weather balloons. T h e other four gases in air are neon, argon, krypton, a n d x e n o n . N e o n gives the bright redo r a n g e g l o w t o t h e g l a s s t u b e s of elect r i c a d v e r t i s i n g s i g n s . A r g o n in these g l a s s t u b e s g i v e s off a p u r p l e l i g h t , a n d k r y p t o n a n d x e n o n g i v e off a b l u e l i g h t . A r g o n , a l o n g w i t h n i t r o g e n , is u s e d t o fill t h e e l e c t r i c l i g h t b u l b s i n y o u r h o m e . T h e argon makes the bulbs glow more brightly a n d last longer. T h e p r o p o r t i o n s of t h e m i x t u r e of gases in t h e a t m o s p h e r e a r e n o t a l w a y s t h e s a m e . If y o u c o u l d t a k e a p a r t another one from a hundred a s a m p l e of a i r f r o m n e a r t h e g r o u n d a n d miles that a b o v e t h e e a r t h , y o u w o u l d find

t h e a m o u n t s of t h e g a s e s w o u l d b e different in the t w o samples. T h e sample taken near the ground would have carbon dioxide, argon, krypton a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of t h e h e a v i e r g a s e s : and hexenon. T h e upper sample would have a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of h y d r o g e n , lium, nitrogen, oxygen, a n d neon.

air, as they d o oxygen. P l a n t s get nitrog e n f r o m b a c t e r i a i n t h e soil, a n d a n i m a l s g e t it b y e a t i n g p l a n t s . Humans aniobtain their nitrogen supply from

m a l s i n t h e f o r m of m e a t a n d fish a n d , m o r e directly, f r o m p l a n t s in fruits a n d vegetables. T h e t h i r d i m p o r t a n t g a s i n t h e a i r is c a r b o n dioxide. A l t h o u g h air contains very little c a r b o n d i o x i d e c o m p a r e d t o oxygen a n d nitrogen, the c a r b o n dioxi d e is v e r y i m p o r t a n t . P l a n t s a r e the only living things t h a t c a n m a k e their own food and they need carbon dioxide

W e h a v e s a i d t h a t a i r is a k i n d of m a t t e r a n d t h a t m a t t e r is H o w can you s o m e t h i n g t h a t t a k e s show that air T, , . 0 u p space. It m a y seem J takes up space? r r h a r d to believe that air t a k e s u p space, b u t y o u c a n easily s h o w t h a t t h i s is t r u e . A l l y o u n e e d is

Air takes up space. a n o r d i n a r y d r i n k i n g g l a s s a n d a p a i l of w a t e r . T h e g l a s s l o o k s e m p t y . If y o u were to show t h e glass to a friend a n d a s k h i m w h a t is i n t h e g l a s s , h e w o u l d probably say, "Nothing," or, "It's glass. e m p t y . " P u t y o u r h a n d in the will s e e t h a t o n l y a s m a l l a m o u n t of

w a t e r h a s risen i n t o t h e glass. T h e rest of t h e g l a s s is filled w i t h a i r . T h e a i r is t a k i n g u p t h e s p a c e inside t h e glass, a n d t h e w a t e r c a n n o t fill it. N o w s l o w l y tilt t h e g l a s s t o o n e s i d e u n t i l s o m e of t h e a i r e s c a p e s . Y o u w i l l s e e a l a r g e b u b b l e of a i r r i s e t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e w a t e r w i t h a p o p p i n g s o u n d . L o o k at t h e glass again. T h i s time, y o u will see t h a t t h e w a t e r h a s risen h i g h e r i n t h e g l a s s . N o w t h a t t h e b u b b l e of a i r is n o l o n g e r t a k i n g u p s p a c e i n t h e g l a s s , s o m e w a t e r c a n get in. E a c h t i m e y o u tip t h e glass a n d let air escape, w a t e r w i l l r i s e i n t o it. Using this s a m e equipment, you c a n perform a trick to fool y o u r friends. Bet them that you can put a handkerchief u n d e r w a t e r w i t h o u t g e t t i n g it w e t . C r u m p l e t h e h a n d k e r c h i e f a n d p a c k it firmly i n t o t h e b o t t o m of t h e g l a s s . N o w The t u r n t h e glass u p s i d e d o w n a n d l o w e r it into t h e w a t e r as you did before. you h o l d the glass straight. h a n d k e r c h i e f will stay d r y as l o n g as more

There seems to be nothing there; the g l a s s c e r t a i n l y feels e m p t y . B u t w e h a v e s a i d t h a t a i r fills all t h e h o l l o w p l a c e s o n t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h . S u r e l y , t h e r e m u s t b e air inside t h e glass. P o u r w a t e r i n t o t h e g l a s s u n t i l it is filled t o t h e b r i m . T h e w a t e r t h a t fills suppose the air were t h e g l a s s h a s p u s h e d a l l t h e a i r o u t of t h e glass. B u t t r a p p e d inside the glass a n d the w a t e r c o u l d n o t p u s h it o u t . If a i r r e a l l y t a k e s u p s p a c e , h o w c a n y o u fill t h e g l a s s w i t h water? P o u r a l l t h e w a t e r o u t of t h e g l a s s . N o w t u r n t h e glass upside d o w n p u s h it d o w n i n t o t h e p a i l of B e sure y o u h o l d t h e glass and water.

perfectly

s t r a i g h t . D o n o t tilt it t o o n e s i d e . P u s h t h e g l a s s d o w n i n t o t h e w a t e r u n t i l all of it is u n d e r w a t e r . N o w l o o k c l o s e l y . Y o u

AIR H O S E

must work under water. Perhaps

the

m e n m u s t dig holes for the f o u n d a t i o n of a b r i d g e o r a d a m , o r p e r h a p s t h e y m u s t repair a s u n k e n ship. T h e y can d o t h i s a n d still r e m a i n d r y b y w o r k i n g inside a diving bell. A diving bell looks l i k e a l a r g e i r o n b e l l . I t is l o w e r e d beneath the water open end down u n t i l it r e s t s o n t h e b o t t o m . B e c a u s e t h e d i v i n g b e l l is filled w i t h a i r , w a t e r d o e s n o t r i s e i n t o it, j u s t a s w a t e r d i d n o t r i s e i n t o t h e g l a s s . A i r is t a k i n g u p s p a c e inside the diving bell a n d w a t e r take u p the same space. Y o u remember that when you pushed t h e g l a s s all t h e w a y d o w n i n t o t h e p a i l , a s m a l l a m o u n t of w a t e r d i d r i s e i n t o t h e g l a s s . If y o u h a d p u s h e d t h e g l a s s m a n y feet u n d e r w a t e r , t h e w a t e r w o u l d h a v e r i s e n i n t o it e v e n f u r t h e r . T o p r e v e n t w a t e r f r o m rising i n t o a diving bell, a i r is p u m p e d i n t o it f r o m t h e s u r f a c e . cannot

T h e p r o b l e m of s h o w i n g t h a t a i r h a s How can we prove that air has weight? Very little water will enter the diving bell, or underwater caisson, because the air in it takes up space and prevents the water from rising. But if the men working at the bottom of the bell are to stay dry, no water at all should enter. To accomplish this compressed air is forced into the diving bell. Weighted in this way, it sinks. The workmen go in and out through airlocks which allow them gradually to get used to the high pressure. by a young Galilei. It would b e nice to repeat cause we need equipment exactly bew h a t Galileo did, b u t we c a n n o t w e i g h t is a v e r y old o n e . I t w a s first s o l v e d i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f of the sixteenth Italian scientist, century Galileo

especially

m a d e f o r t h i s e x p e r i m e n t . I n s t e a d , let u s r e a d w h a t G a l i l e o d i d , a n d w e will l e a r n t h e interesting w a y in w h i c h h e

The

experiment

you

just

performed

p r o v e d that air h a s weight. Galileo obtained a sturdy bottle with a narrow neck. T h e n he had a craftsman m a k e a leather sack both airtight and watertight, and with a narrow neck. T h e s a c k w a s s h a p e d p r e t t y m u c h like

A#L W h a t is a diving bell?

with the glass a n d the ail of w a t e r P showed you t h a t w a t e r could not get

into the glass as long as there was air i n s i d e it. T h i s f a c t is u s e d b y m e n w h o 8

the bottle but h a d only three quarters as m u c h s p a c e i n s i d e . G a l i l e o filled t h e s a c k w i t h w a t e r . H e then wet the neck of the sack fitted and so s l i p p e d it o v e r t h e n e c k of t h e b o t t l e . T h e wet leather shrank and t i g h t l y a r o u n d t h e n e c k of t h e bottle

s q u e e z e d i n t o a smaller space, h a d bec o m e compressed air. reasoned same U s i n g these facts, G a l i l e o

t h i s w a y : a s p a c e filled w i t h c o m p r e s s e d air contains m o r e air t h a n the is n o t c o m p r e s s e d . If a i r h a s s p a c e filled w i t h o r d i n a r y a i r a i r t h a t weight, t h e n a v o l u m e of c o m p r e s s e d a i r s h o u l d w e i g h m o r e t h a n t h e s a m e v o l u m e of o r d i n a r y air. T o p r o v e his reasoning, G a l i l e o carefully w e i g h e d t h e b o t t l e w i t h t h e s a c k w r a p p e d a r o u n d it a n d t h e w a t e r a n d compressed air inside. Having made this weighing, Galileo untied the sack a n d p u l l e d it f r o m t h e b o t t l e . T h e c o m pressed air expanded causing three of orthe q u a r t e r s of a b o t t l e f u l t o e s c a p e . T h i s left o n l y o n e - q u a r t e r b o t t l e f u l d i n a r y air in t h e bottle. K n o t t i n g

that n o t even air c o u l d m o v e in o r out-of where the sack and bottle joined. Squeezing and twisting the sack, Galileo forced water from the sack into the bottle. T h e n he w r a p p e d the twisted e m p t y s a c k a r o u n d t h e n e c k of t h e b o t tle a n d t i e d it i n p l a c e . Galileo n o w h a d these facts bottle contained water; the before the had now upper h i m : t h e b o t t o m t h r e e f o u r t h s of f o u r t h c o n t a i n e d all t h e air t h a t water was forced in. T h a t air,

c o m p l e t e l y filled t h e b o t t l e b e f o r e t h e

To prove that air has weight you can perform an experiment much like Galileo's. For the step by step description see page 10.

e m p t y s a c k a r o u n d t h e n e c k of t h e b o t tle, G a l i l e o a g a i n w e i g h e d b o t t l e , s a c k , water, a n d air. H e c o m p a r e d the results of t h e t w o w e i g h i n g s a n d f o u n d t h e first w a s h e a v i e r . In b o t h weighings, nothing h a p p e n e d to the bottle, sack, and water to m a k e them change weight. T h e only thing t h a t c h a n g e d w a s t h e a m o u n t of a i r i n t h e bottle. T h e r e w a s m o r e air in t h e b o t t l e d u r i n g t h e first w e i g h i n g , a n d t h i s weighing was heavier. T h e extra m a d e it h e a v i e r , a n d t h i s p r o v e d air has weight. Y o u m a y wonder why Galileo did n o t c o m p r e s s a i r s i m p l y b y p u m p i n g it into a bottle, s o m e w h a t as w e compress air in a bicycle or a u t o m o b i l e tire. T h e a n s w e r is t h a t t h e first a i r p u m p w a s n o t i n v e n t e d until m o r e t h a n half a c e n t u r y after G a l i l e o p e r f o r m e d his e x p e r i m e n t to show that air has weight. Although you cannot repeat Galil e o ' s e x p e r i m e n t e x a c t l y a s h e d i d it, y o u c a n p e r f o r m a n e x p e r i m e n t t h a t is m u c h like the o n e h e devised. F o r G a l i l e o ' s b o t t l e , y o u will u s e a basketball, for t h e leather sack, substit u t e t h e k i n d of p u m p u s e d t o i n f l a t e basketballs or footballs. Y o u have to m a k e a weighing appar a t u s . F o r this y o u will n e e d a y a r d s t i c k , s e v e r a l f e e t of t h i n , y e t s t r o n g , s t r i n g ( f i s h i n g l i n e is g o o d ) , a c o a t h a n g e r , a c a r p e n t e r ' s level, a D - c l a m p , a n d shopping bags. T h e tools y o u will n e e d a r e a penk n i f e , a s m a l l s a w , a n d a p a i r of p l i e r s . C u t two square notches, each notch wide. should be about half an one inch i n c h f r o m a n e n d of t h e y a r d s t i c k . E a c h two air that that

Using the pliers, cut a n d b e n d

the

coat hanger to m a k e a wire cradle as s h o w n in t h e illustration o n p a g e 9. T i e t h e c a r p e n t e r ' s level to t h e yardstick as shown. T h e center hairline on t h e g l a s s t u b e of t h e l e v e l s h o u l d b e a t the 18-inch m a r k on the yardstick. Att a c h t h e D - c l a m p t o t h e t o p of a d o o r w a y . P l a c e t h e y a r d s t i c k a n d level in the wire cradle and h a n g them from the c l a m p . B e s u r e t h a t t h e d o o r w a y is n o t drafty, because wind blowing on your e x p e r i m e n t will m a k e y o u r results c o m e out wrong. H a n g the two shopping bags on the y a r d s t i c k b y p l a c i n g t h e h a n d l e s of a b a g i n o n e of t h e n o t c h e s . L e t t h e a i r o u t of t h e basketball. the ball T h e n p u m p air i n t o it just until creases have smoothed out. T h e w i t h y o u r finger. C a r e f u l l y p u t t h e b a l l i n t o o n e of t h e shopping bags. Put weights such as pebbles, nails, or s a n d into the other

n o w s h o u l d b e soft w h e n y o u p o k e it

b a g u n t i l t h e b u b b l e i n t h e level s h o w s t h e y a r d s t i c k t o b e h a n g i n g level. T h i s s h o w s t h a t t h e t w o b a g s a r e in b a l a n c e , that they weigh the same. R e m o v e the ball from the bag, being careful that the bag containing the weights does n o t lower so fast a n d h a r d as to t h r o w y o u r w h o l e weighing appar a t u s o u t of k i l t e r . N o w p u m p a i r i n t o t h e b a l l u n t i l it is a s h a r d a s w h e n it is r e a d y t o b e u s e d in a b a s k e t b a l l g a m e . P u m p i n g the additional air into the ball compresses all t h e air in t h e ball. M o r e air t a k e s u p t h e s a m e s p a c e as t h e air t h a t w a s in t h e b a l l w h e n y o u w e i g h e d it. Gently put the ball back into the

10

shopping bag and examine the bubble in t h e level. Y o u will see t h a t t h e b u b ble has moved toward bag the is side on which more ball the than before weighted the the hanging. weighs other the was

the same instant. W h y ? Something must h a v e s l o w e d t h e f a l l of t h e p a p e r s t r i p t h e first t i m e w e m a d e it fall; a n d w h a t e v e r s l o w e d t h e p a p e r t h e first t i m e d i d n o t d o so the second time. T h e only c h a n g e w e m a d e in t h e glass t u b e a n d its c o n t e n t s w a s t o r e m o v e t h e a i r . S o , it m u s t h a v e b e e n t h e a i r i n t h e t u b e t h a t s l o w e d t h e fall of t h e p a p e r . A i r is a k i n d of m a t t e r a n d t h e r e f o r e takes u p space. W h e n air, the the tube which was is filled with penny,

This means that the ball n o w pebbles additional (or weights) that

h a d just balanced air

p u m p e d in. T h e additional weight m u s t h a v e c o m e from the a d d e d air. H o l d a p e n n y in one h a n d a n d a small s t r i p of p a p e r i n Why does a penny fall faster than a _ piece of paper? tance above the floor.
Q t h e r TT h a n d

h e a v i e r t h a n t h e s m a l l s t r i p of p a p e r , c o u l d m o r e e a s i l y p u s h its w a y t h r o u g h t h e air. down

, lt , , , H o l d both hands same disthe

the

L e t g o of

W e have demonstrated that air

0

takes

penny and the paper at the same instant. W h i c h s t r i k e s t h e f l o o r first? T h e p e n n y d o e s . N o w let u s s e e w h y . L e t us suppose that we h a v e a wide g l a s s t u b e t h a t is five f e e t l o n g . W e p l a c e a p e n n y a n d a s m a l l s t r i p of p a p e r inside t h e t u b e , c o v e r b o t h e n d s tightly, and hold the tube upright. T h e penny and the p a p e r are n o w resting at the bottom of t h e t u b e . We turn the tube the a r o u n d , s o t h a t t h e b o t t o m is n o w t h e top. W e do this so quickly t h a t p e n n y a n d t h e p i e c e of p a p e r b e g i n t o fall f r o m t h e t o p a t t h e s a m e i n s t a n t . T h e p e n n y falls r a p i d l y t o t h e b o t t o m , w h i l e t h e s t r i p of p a p e r g l i d e s s l o w l y downward. L e t us n o w connect the glass t u b e to a n e x h a u s t p u m p t h a t p u m p s a l m o s t all t h e a i r o u t of t h e t u b e . ( W e w o u l d l i k e t o t a k e a l l t h e a i r o u t of t h e t u b e , b u t t h e r e is n o p u m p t h a t c a n d o this.) Again we quickly turn the tube around. T h i s t i m e t h e s t r i p of p a p e r falls a s f a s t as t h e p e n n y a n d s t r i k e s t h e b o t t o m a t

u p space; air also has " ^ . T . / " weight. These are charshow that air a c t e r i s t i c s of a l l m a t is elastic? ter. A i r h a s a n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t is s h a r e d b y all g a s e s : I t is elastic. This means that air is s p r i n g y . I t w i l l s p r i n g b a c k t o its o r i g inal v o l u m e after being compressed or squeezed. Y o u c a n p r o v e t h a t a i r is e l a s t i c b y m e a n s of a b i c y c l e p u m p o r a pump u s e d t o inflate footballs o r b a s k e t b a l l s . T o d o t h i s , p u l l t h e p u m p h a n d l e all t h e w a y o u t so t h a t air will e n t e r t h e p u m p . Now hold a finger tightly over the n o z z l e of t h e p u m p a n d p u s h t h e h a n d l e into t h e p u m p as far as y o u can. Sudd e n l y l e t g o of t h e h a n d l e . I t w i l l s p r i n g outward. W h e n y o u p u s h e d t h e h a n d l e in, y o u c o m p r e s s e d the air in the p u m p . W h e n y o u l e t g o of t h e h a n d l e , it s p r a n g o u t w a r d b e c a u s e t h e a i r b e h i n d it i n t h e pump was springing outward. This springiness proves that the air inside the

11

p u m p is e l a s t i c . S i n c e t h e a i r i n s i d e t h e p u m p w a s d r a w n in f r o m t h e o u t s i d e , it w a s n o t d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e a i r o u t s i d e . T h u s , the outside air m u s t be springy, o r e l a s t i c , t o o . A l l a i r is e l a s t i c . T h i s is the reason water rose a short way into t h e g l a s s w h e n y o u d i d t h e first e x p e r i m e n t in this b o o k . T h e air w a s comp r e s s e d b y t h e w a t e r p r e s s i n g a g a i n s t it.

hydrogen

or

oxygen

left.

The

water

f o r m e d c o n t a i n s t w o v o l u m e s of h y d r o g e n f o r e v e r y o n e v o l u m e of o x y g e n . I n f a c t , all w a t e r e v e r y w h e r e c o n t a i n s t w o v o l u m e s of h y d r o g e n f o r e v e r y o n e volu m e of o x y g e n . S a m p l e s of w a t e r t a k e n from a raindrop, from a faucet, or from t h e b o t t o m of t h e o c e a n will all h a v e t h e s a m e a m o u n t s of t h e s e t w o g a s e s . B e c a u s e w a t e r is a l w a y s t h e s a m e , scient i s t s c a n w r i t e a forWhat is the m u l a f o r it T o t h e scientific s c i e n t i s t , w a t e r is name for water? H . O . This simply m e a n s t h a t w a t e r h a s t w o v o l u m e s of h y d r o g e n ( H ) f o r e v e r y o n e of o x y g e n ( O ) . T h e n e x t t i m e y o u r f r i e n d s visit y o u , offer t h e m a g l a s s of H 2 0 t o d r i n k . They'll probably be surprised when you c o m e b a c k from the kitchen with a glass of p l a i n w a t e r .

You can easily prove that air is elastic springy by compressing it within a bicycletire-pump.

W e t h i n k of w a t e r a s a l i q u i d , b u t w a t e r W a t e r is m a d e of h y d r o g e n a n d o x y g e n , What is water? t w o of t h e g a s e s t h a t , , , a r e f o u n d in t h e air. liquid, in the c a n a l s o b e a solid o r When is water a gas. Solid, liquid, not wet? and gas are the three states of matter. W a t e r in t h e solid state is c a l l e d ice. I c e is n o t w e t . T h i s m a y s u r p r i s e y o u , b u t t h e r e a s o n ice feels wet when you touch it is t h a t the ice, the warmth gaseous of y o u r h a n d state water is melts the called

I t is a w o n d e r f u l f a c t of n a t u r e t h a t t w o gases can c o m b i n e to m a k e a and hydrogen are combined a n d t h i s is w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n o x y g e n proper way. T o combine hydrogen and oxygen, a scientist p u t s t w o v o l u m e s ( a v o l u m e of a g a s , l i q u i d , o r s o l i d is t h e a m o u n t of s p a c e it t a k e s u p ) of h y d r o g e n a n d o n e v o l u m e of o x y g e n i n t o a s t u r d y c o n t a i n e r , p e r h a p s a flask of v e r y t h i c k g l a s s . T h e n h e s e t s off a n e l e c t r i c spark within the container to produce an explosion. After the explosion, drops of w a t e r will a p p e a r o n t h e i n s i d e of t h e c o n t a i n e r a n d t h e r e will b e n o 12 more

c h a n g i n g s o m e of it t o w a t e r . I n

water when

v a p o r . Y o u c a n n o t see w a t e r v a p o r bec a u s e it is a n i n v i s i b l e g a s , b u t w a t e r v a p o r cools y o u c a n see a c l o u d of s t e a m . S t e a m is m a d e of t i n y d r o p l e t s of w a t e r i n t h e a i r . Y o u c a n easily c h a n g e ice to water, water to water vapor, and water vapor t o s t e a m . T a k e f o u r o r five i c e c u b e s

a n d p u t t h e m i n t h e b o t t o m of a t e a kettle. N o w p u t the tea kettle on the s t o v e . L e a v e t h e c o v e r of t h e t e a k e t t l e off s o y o u c a n s e e w h a t h a p p e n s . S o o n all t h e i c e h a s m e l t e d a n d t u r n e d i n t o water. N o w p u t the cover on the tea k e t t l e . I n a s h o r t t i m e t h e w a t e r will begin t o boil a n d t h e r e will b e a c l o u d of s t e a m near the spout. Now look c l o s e l y a t t h e e n d of t h e s p o u t . B e t w e e n t h e c l o u d of s t e a m a n d t h e s p o u t is a small space that seems to b e e m p t y . B u t it is n o t e m p t y . I t is filled w i t h water vapor. Y o u c a n p r o v e t h a t this invisible s u b s t a n c e is a f o r m of w a t e r b y t u r n i n g s o m e of it b a c k i n t o a l i q u i d . W r a p a towel or pot holder a r o u n d the handle of a m e t a l s p o o n a n d h o l d t h e b o w l of the s p o o n in front of t h e t e a kettle When you cool water vapor, you can turn it back into water. s p o u t . D r o p s of w a t e r w i l l f o r m o n t h e s p o o n . Y o u c a n c h a n g e t h e d r o p s of water b a c k into ice b y p u t t i n g the s p o o n in t h e f r e e z e r of a r e f r i g e r a t o r . L a t e r w e will s e e t h a t a p r o c e s s v e r y m u c h l i k e this is g o i n g o n a l l t h e t i m e i n n a t u r e . the ice y o u w o u l d b e w r o n g . A b u c k e t of i c e is l i g h t e r t h a n a b u c k e t of w a t e r . If s o m e o n e w e r e t o a s k y o u w h i c h is h e a v i e r , a b u c k e t of i c e W h y is ice Q r fl ^uc]^Qt Q f w a t e r > y o u lighter than . , ^ , , m i g h t very well c h o o s e t h e b u c k e t of i c e b e c a u s e y o u p r o b a b l y t h i n k of s o l i d s a s b e i n g h e a v i e r t h a n l i q u i d s . B u t if y o u c h o s e Water comes is different from most lighter other than l i q u i d s b e c a u s e w h e n it f r e e z e s a n d b e s o l i d , it b e c o m e s w h e n it is a l i q u i d . Y o u c a n d e m o n s t r a t e this very easily. T a k e t w o m e t a l m e a s u r i n g cups like the ones your m o t h e r uses to m e a s u r e A cup of ice, when melted, does not make a cup of water. flour. When you boil water, it turns into water vapor and steam. When you melt ice, it turns into water.

The water reaches the "1 cup" mark.

Water expands when it freezes.

13

Fill t h e m with water to the m a r k that s a y s " o n e c u p . " N o w p u t o n e c u p of w a t e r i n t h e f r e e z e r of y o u r r e f r i g e r a t o r a n d l e a v e it t h e r e u n t i l t h e w a t e r h a s t u r n e d t o s o l i d ice. W h e n a l l t h e w a t e r h a s frozen, y o u will see t h a t t h e sticks u p a b o v e the " o n e c u p " T h i s is b e c a u s e w a t e r expands as ice it mark.

malsfish, snakes, and

frogs,

salamanders, the

water plants

othersand

living t h e r e w o u l d freeze a n d die. F u r t h e r m o r e , in t h e spring, t h e w a r m sunlight w o u l d n o t b e a b l e t o m e l t all t h e i c e a s i t c a n b e c a u s e t h e i c e is o n l y a t the surface. Y o u k n o w t h a t s t e e l is m u c h How can you float a piece of steel?
float

f r e e z e s . N o w c h i p a w a y all t h e i c e a b o v e the "one cup" mark. N o w you have one c u p of i c e . L e t it s t a n d u n t i l a l l t h e i c e has melted. When t h e ice h a s comp l e t e l y m e l t e d , l o o k a t t h e l e v e l of t h e water. It n o longer reaches to the "one c u p " m a r k . A p a r t l y filled c u p of w a t e r w e i g h s less t h a n a full c u p . T h e r e f o r e a c u p of i c e m u s t w e i g h l e s s t h a n a c u p of w a t e r . If y o u h a v e a s c a l e y o u c a n m e a s u r e the difference. B e c a u s e i c e is l i g h t e r t h a n floats. water, it

heavier
o n

t h a n water, yet you can

iece of s t e d

water!

It

sounds

imfloat.

p o s s i b l e , y e t it is r e a l l y

very easy t o m a k e a steel needle

A l l y o u n e e d is a g l a s s of w a t e r , a f o r k , a n d a needle from your mother's sewing basket. W a s h the fork and needle with soap. B e s u r e t o r i n s e off all t h e s o a p . P l a c e the needle on the fork and lower the f o r k s l o w l y i n t o t h e g l a s s of w a t e r . T h e n e e d l e w i l l float. W h y d o e s t h i s h a p p e n ? W a t e r is m a d e u p of v e r y s m a l l p a r ticles called molecules. E a c h m o l e c u l e is m a d e u p of t w o a t o m s of h y d r o g e n a n d o n e a t o m of o x y g e n . A m o l e c u l e of w a t e r is s o s m a l l t h a t it is i m p o s s i b l e t o

When you put

Why aren't fish ice cubes in a glass frozen into the of w a t e r , t h e i c e b o b s ice of lakes u p a n d d o w n for a and rivers? second or two, and t h e n floats a t t h e t o p of t h e w a t e r . I c e o n f r o z e n l a k e s a n d r i v e r s a l s o floats a t t h e t o p of w a t e r . T h i s f a c t is v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s t h a t live i n t h e w a t e r . B e l o w t h e ice, t h e l i v i n g t h i n g s c a n c o n t i n u e t o live. T h e i c e a c t s as a shield, protecting t h e w a t e r ben e a t h it f r o m t h e c o l d a i r a b o v e . If t h e ice w e r e heavier t h a n w a t e r , t h e b o t t o m of t h e l a k e w o u l d fill w i t h i c e . E v e n t u ally, t h e w h o l e l a k e w o u l d b e frozen from b o t t o m t o surface a n d all t h e ani-

As ice is lighter than water, it floats. This permits life to go on in frozen lakes and rivers. 14

Surface tension allows the steel needle to float (illustrations at left). Dropping a few grains of soap powder into the glass lessens the surface tension and the needle sinks (illustration below).

see it e v e n

with

the

most

powerful together.

microscope. M o l e c u l e s cling

T h o s e o n t h e surface cling t o g e t h e r so t i g h t l y t h a t t h e y f o r m a film, o r s k i n . I m a g i n e a l a r g e g r o u p of c h i l d r e n i n a schoolyard. E a c h child h a s his a r m s a b o u t t h e w a i s t s of t h e c h i l d r e n n e x t t o h i m . T h e c h i l d r e n o n t h e o u t s i d e of t h e group form an unbroken chain. These c h i l d r e n a r e a l s o h e l d b y s o m e of t h e c h i l d r e n n e x t t o t h e m o n t h e i n s i d e of the g r o u p . A s a result, t h e children o n t h e o u t s i d e will f o r m a s t r o n g r i n g a b o u t t h e o t h e r s . If s o m e o n e t r i e d t o w a l k i n t o the g r o u p , h e w o u l d h a v e a h a r d t i m e p u s h i n g t h r o u g h t h e r i n g of c h i l d r e n o n the outside. T h e y w o u l d p r o b a b l y able to hold h i m out. T h e m o l e c u l e s a t t h e s u r f a c e of t h e water a r e like t h e c h i l d r e n in t h e ring a r o u n d t h e r e s t of t h e g r o u p . T h e s u r face m o l e c u l e s c l i n g t o g e t h e r s o t i g h t l y that they can hold the steel needle the moleafloat. S c i e n t i s t s h a v e a n a m e f o r s t r o n g c l i n g i n g t o g e t h e r of t h e w a t e r . T h e y c a l l it surface If t h e s u r f a c e film is b r o k e n , t h e n e e d l e w i l l i m m e d i a t e l y s i n k t o t h e b o t t o m of the glass. Push the floating needle t h r o u g h t h e s u r f a c e of t h e w a t e r , a n d i t will s i n k t o t h e b o t t o m . If y o u l e s s e n t h e s u r f a c e t e n s i o n , y o u will n o t b e a b l e t o float a needle on w a t e r . L e t us try a n e x p e r i m e n t t h a t will p r o v e t h i s . T a k e t h e n e e d l e o u t of t h e w a t e r a n d d r y it. U s e t h e f o r k t o the needle again. Now, drop a float few 15 be

cules a t t h e s u r f a c e of a l i q u i d , s u c h a s tension. floating film If y o u l o o k c l o s e l y a t t h e needle, y o u will see t h e surface

b e n d i n g u n d e r t h e w e i g h t of t h e n e e d l e .

g r a i n s of s o a p p o w d e r i n t o t h e g l a s s . T h e needle sinks. W h a t h a p p e n e d ? T h e s o a p l e s s e n e d t h e s u r f a c e t e n s i o n so t h a t the molecules at the surface no longer clung together strongly enough to hold t h e n e e d l e a f l o a t . T h i n k of t h e c h i l d r e n in t h e schoolyard. Suppose someone t o l d m o s t of t h e c h i l d r e n m a k i n g u p t h e outside ring to remove their arms from t h e w a i s t s of t h e c h i l d r e n n e x t t o t h e m . T h e outside ring would no longer be strong, a n d a n y o n e wishing to walk into t h e g r o u p c o u l d e a s i l y d o so. A l t h o u g h molecules have no arms, you might t h i n k of t h e a c t i o n of t h e s o a p a s o n e t h a t c a u s e d e a c h m o l e c u l e at t h e surface t o r e m o v e its " a r m s " f r o m t h e m o l e c u l e n e x t t o it. W h e n your mother puts soap into the w a s h i n g m a c h i n e , s h e is r e d u c i n g water can soak into the clothes and a w a y dirt m o r e easily. the float s u r f a c e t e n s i o n of t h e w a t e r so t h a t t h e

Air in

and

W a t e r

Nature

The

earth's ocean
6QQ

of a i r , t h e
mile

atmosabout
t h e

sphere, extends W h a t a r e the layers of the , _ atmosphere?

a b o y e

. , , . r e a r t h s s u r f a c e a n d is divided into layers. Let

us p r e t e n d that we are a b o a r d a rocket t h a t is r i s i n g f r o m t h e e a r t h ' s surface a n d p a s s i n g t h r o u g h all t h e l a y e r s of the atmosphere. W e begin our journey i n t h e l o w e s t l a y e r of a i r . T h i s l a y e r , The earth's ocean of air is divided into layers. c a l l e d t h e troposphere (trop'-uh-sfeer), is a b o u t s e v e n m i l e s t h i c k . N o t e v e n t h e

16

highest m o u n t a i n s rise a b o v e the troposphere. W h e n we leave the troposphere, we enter the layer called the stratosphere Here (strat'-uh-sfeer). This layer extends to about 53 miles above the earth. t h e a i r is v e r y t h i n , c l e a r , a n d c o l d . O u r rocket leaves t h e s t r a t o s p h e r e a n d ent e r s t h e n e x t l a y e r , t h e ionosphere on'-uh-sfeer). This layer extends (eyefrom

O b t a i n a toy balloon at least ten inches in d i a m e t e r w h e n H o w can you s h o w that cool air takes . ,. u p less s p a c e t h a n w r m ,r-> w a r m airr
b ] o w n u p B J o w

. the

, ,, balloon

a n d tie t h e

up , rub-

ber at the mouthp i e c e of t h e b a l l o o n i n t o a double Simply tying the balloon closed knot. with T h i s is t o m a k e s u r e t h a t n o a i r e s c a p e s . s t r i n g will n o t s e a l it t i g h t l y e n o u g h . Place a ruler or yardstick on a table a n d p u t t h e b a l l o o n u p o n it, m e a s u r i n g t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e b a l l o o n . W r i t e d o w n the measurement. T h e n , place the balloon into a freezer o r i n t o t h e f r e e z i n g c o m p a r t m e n t of a refrigerator. overnight. I m m e d i a t e l y u p o n r e m o v i n g the ball o o n f r o m t h e f r e e z e r , m e a s u r e it a g a i n . Y o u w i l l find t h a t it is s m a l l e r . ( A s s o o n a s y o u h a v e m e a s u r e d it, p u t t h e b a l l o o n back into the freezer.) T h e air in t h e b a l l o o n c o n t r a c t e d , o r shrank. W h e n you blew up the balloon, t h e a i r in it w a s a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of your lungs, from where the air came. Leave the balloon there

60 miles to 2 5 0 miles above the earth's s u r f a c e . I t is c a l l e d t h e i o n o s p h e r e b e cause here the sun's rays break u p the a t o m s of a i r i n t o e l e c t r i c a l l y particles called t h i n n e r t h a n in t h e c a l l e d t h e exosphere charged is The ions. H e r e the air stratosphere.

u p p e r m o s t l a y e r of t h e a t m o s p h e r e is (eks'-o-sfeer).The earth's through space. left air c o n t i n u e s t o b e c o m e t h i n n e r until, at a b o u t 6 0 0 miles a b o v e the When our rocket has passed the e x o s p h e r e , w e a r e in o u t e r T h e entire atmosphere behind us. M o r e t h a n 9 9 p e r c e n t of t h e a i r is i n the lowest 2 0 miles. surface, there are n o m o r e air particles.

has been

W e learned that the sun's rays break u p the _ the a u r o r a s ? air in the ionos p h e r e i n t o e l e c t r i c a l lJy \ charged particles parts seen light These

This 98

temperature F. After you

is took

approximately it f r o m the

f r e e z e r , t h e a i r in t h e b a l l o o n w a s s o m e w h e r e n e a r 0 F . S i n c e t h e c o o l e r b a l l o o n is s m a l l e r , t h e a i r filling t h e c o o l b a l l o o n t a k e s u p less s p a c e t h a n the s a m e air w h e n w a r m . Therefore, w h e n a n y a i r is c o o l , it t a k e s u p less s p a c e than when warm.

c a l l e d e l e c t r o n s a n d i o n s . If y o u live i n the far n o r t h e r n or far s o u t h e r n of t h e e a r t h y o u h a v e p r o b a b l y g r e a t c u r t a i n s a n d s t r e a m e r s of moving shifting across the night sky. of lights a r e m a d e

electrons

a n d ions m o v i n g in t h e i o n o s p h e r e . W e call t h e s e t h e N o r t h e r n L i g h t s a n d t h e Southern aurora Lights, australis. 17 but the scientific and n a m e s f o r t h e m a r e aurora borealis

$*

These are the six great wind belts of the world. Within each belt, local winds may temporarily blow backward or forward in any direction.

i it is a s s m a l l a s t h e c o o l b a l l o o n . S i n c e s o m e a i r w a s l e t o u t of t h e w a r m b a l l o o n , it n o w c o n t a i n s less a i r t h a n t h e cool balloon. T h i n k a g a i n . If y o u w e i g h b o t h b a l loons, w h i c h will w e i g h less? T h e w a r m b a l l o o n , of c o u r s e , s i n c e y o u let out s o m e of its a i r . B u t b o t h b a l l o o n s a r e n o w t h e s a m e size ( e v e n t h o u g h o n e h a s m o r e air in i t ) , therefore, t h e h e a v i e r balloon must contain heavier airthe cool air. O b t a i n a n o t h e r b a l l o o n t h e s a m e size as t h e o n e y o u H o w can you p r o v e j u s t u s e d B l o w that cool air is heavier l f . , ,. . o this balloon 4. than w a r m air? up to the same s i z e a s t h e o n e w h o s e size y o u wrote down. Twist a n d hold the r u b b e r at the m o u t h p i e c e so t h a t n o air c a n escape, b u t d o n o t k n o t it t h i s t i m e . T h e balloon y o u just blew u p contains as m u c h w a r m air as did the w a r m b a l l o o n in the p r e v i o u s experiment. Again remove the cool balloon from the freezer. N o w were to weigh think. Suppose balloons, you both which because W e h a v e l e a r n e d t h a t w i n d is m o v i n g a i r . N o w l e t u s find What makes the o u t w h a t m a k e s air wind blow? m o v e in l a r g e a m o u n t s a c r o s s t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h . In the experiment you just performed y o u s h o w e d t h a t w a r m a i r is l i g h t e r t h a n c o o l a i r . W h e n a i r is c o o l , it is h e a v y . H e a v y air sinks to earth, a n d pushes w a r m light air u p w a r d . F o r short, we say t h a t w a r m air rises, b u t w e m u s t k e e p in m i n d t h a t t h e w a r m air rises o n l y b e c a u s e it is p u s h e d u p b y t h e s i n k i n g of h e a v y c o o l a i r . Because the region around the earth's e q u a t o r is t h e w a r m e s t p a r t of t h e e a r t h , t h e a i r a b o v e it is w a r m e r t h a n t h e a i r o v e r o t h e r r e g i o n s . T h i s w a r m a i r is pushed u p w a r d by the cooler, heavier

would weigh more? Neither, both.

y o u b l e w t h e s a m e a m o u n t of a i r i n t o L e t a i r o u t of t h e w a r m b a l l o o n u n t i l 18

air t h a t flows in n o r t h a n d s o u t h of t h e e q u a t o r . A s t h i s c o o l a i r w a r m s , it, i n t u r n , is p u s h e d u p w a r d b y c o o l a i r m o v ing in. T h e rising air a b o v e t h e e q u a t o r flows northward and southward, bec o m i n g c o o l a s it m o v e s . the air flowing Eventually,

O n sunny days land surfaces such

as

beaches and W h y is t h e s e a s h o r e c. , , , ' ,. - fields become cool in the s u m m e r ? warmer than nearby water surfaces such as lakes a n d o c e a n s . T h e air in c o n t a c t w i t h t h e l a n d is h e a t e d , e x p a n d s , a n d b e c o m e s l i g h t e r . Cooler, heavier air from over the w a t e r flows toward the land and pushes the lighter air u p w a r d . T h e rising w a r m air flows t o w a r d t h e w a t e r t a k i n g t h e p l a c e of t h e c o o l a i r . T h e w a r m a i r t h a t r i s e s and moves out over the water becomes cooled and therefore heavier. This cool a i r s i n k s d o w n t o t h e s u r f a c e of the w a t e r w h e r e it is f u r t h e r c o o l e d . T h e n it flows t o w a r d t h e l a n d t o p u s h u p w a r d the air t h a t tact with flowed land. in f r o m t h e w a t e r This process, in wind a n d has since b e c o m e w a r m e d by conthe which air moves from water to land a n d b a c k t o w a t e r a g a i n is c a l l e d t h e cycle. itself o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n . A t n i g h t , d i r e c t i o n s of t h e w i n d c y c l e A c y c l e is a p r o c e s s t h a t r e p e a t s

t h i s c o o l e d a i r s i n k s , t a k i n g t h e p l a c e of in t o w a r d t h e e q u a t o r . the T h e s e b r o a d m o v e m e n t s of a i r a l o n g t h e s u r f a c e of t h e o c e a n t o w a r d equator are called the trade winds.

T h e s e w i n d s d o n o t a c t u a l l y b l o w directly n o r t h or south, b e c a u s e t h e e a r t h is t u r n i n g f r o m e a s t t o w e s t f a s t e r t h a n the air m o v i n g over its s u r f a c e . As the a result, the e a r t h turns b e n e a t h to move from northeast to

southward-moving winds, causing them southwest and the winds are k n o w n as the northeast t r a d e winds. I n t h e e a r t h ' s S o u t h ern H e m i s p h e r e , t h e directions a r e reversed; the t r a d e winds b l o w from the southeast to the northwest. winds. And the winds are k n o w n as the southeast trade

Wind blows toward land during the day and toward water at night.

19

are reversed. T h e l a n d surfaces such as s a n d , soil, a n d r o c k , w h i c h a r e q u i c k l y w a r m e d by the sun also cool quickly w h e n the sun n o longer shines on them. W a t e r surfaces are w a r m e d slowly a n d cool slowly. A f t e r sunset, t h e l a n d surfaces soon become cooler than the the flows over n e a r b y w a t e r surfaces. T h e air over the w a t e r is w a r m e d b y c o n t a c t w i t h water, a n d cool air from the land air u p w a r d . T h i s w a r m air flows

S o o n e r o r l a t e r , s o m e of t h e c h i l d r e n o n t h e i n s i d e of t h e g r o u p w o u l d b u m p into those forming the ring a r o u n d the whole group. If those on the inside b u m p e d hard enough, they would cause o n e of t h e c h i l d r e n f o r m i n g t h e o u t s i d e ring t o loosen his g r a s p o n his neighb o r s ' w a i s t s ; a n d t h e f o r c e of t h e b u m p w o u l d k n o c k h i m r i g h t o u t of t h e g r o u p . A n o t h e r child w o u l d t a k e his place, b u t sooner or later this second child would b e b u m p e d o u t of t h e g r o u p , t o o . A s this w e n t on, the g r o u p w o u l d smaller a n d smaller. A s m o l e c u l e s c o n t i n u e t o fly off t h e s u r f a c e of w a t e r , t h e a m o u n t of w a t e r left b e h i n d b e c o m e s l e s s a n d less. T h i s grow

over the water, pushing the w a r m , light t h e l a n d w h e r e it b e c o m e s c o o l e d , s i n k s , a n d flows b a c k o v e r t h e w a t e r a g a i n . The a sea cool air that or lake flows landward It is and hot

f r o m t h e w a t e r d u r i n g t h e d a y is c a l l e d breeze breeze. during this breeze t h a t m a k e s seashores lakeshores so comfortable weather.

W e l e a r n e d t h a t w a t e r is m a d e of v e r y small particles called How does water molecules. Moleget into the air? cules are constantly moving about and bumping into each o t h e r . S o m e of t h e m o l e c u l e s a t t h e s u r f a c e of t h e w a t e r a r e b u m p e d s o h a r d t h a t t h e y b r e a k a w a y a n d fly off i n t o t h e a i r . M o s t of t h e s e m o l e c u l e s f a l l b a c k , b u t s o m e a r e b u m p e d s o h a r d a n d fly so fast t h a t t h e y a r e c a u g h t a m o n g t h e m o l e c u l e s of w h i c h a i r is m a d e . T h e s e water molecules are bumped along not they a m o n g the air molecules and d o return to the water from which came. L e t u s i m a g i n e a g a i n t h e g r o u p of children in t h e schoolyard. Remember that they h a d their arms a r o u n d each o t h e r s ' waists. N o w s u p p o s e t h a t all t h e children began to j u m p back and forth. If you put a saucer with water in the sunlight and the same size saucer with water in the shade, you will find that water evaporates faster in a warm place (above). If you put the same amount of water in a spoon and in a saucer and put them next to each other, you will find by checking the time that water evaporates faster from a larger surface than a smaller one (below).

20

process in w h i c h a l i q u i d loses molec u l e s t o t h e a i r is c a l l e d evaporation. Y o u h a v e p r o b a b l y s e e n a p u d d l e of w a t e r o n t h e s i d e w a l k o r o n a flat r o o f "dry up." This drying was really evapor a t i o n in w h i c h all t h e m o l e c u l e s Ordinarily, evaporation takes of w a t e r i n t h e p u d d l e flew off i n t o t h e a i r . place so s l o w l y t h a t y o u d o n o t n o t i c e it. If y o u fill a s a u c e r w i t h w a t e r a n d l e a v e it u n c o v e r e d in a r o o m at o r d i n a r y temm a y b e c o m e so dry that indoor plants d i e u n l e s s t h e h u m i d i t y is i n c r e a s e d . You may have heard a weather said, r e p o r t in w h i c h the announcer p e r a t u r e , several d a y s will p a s s b e f o r e all t h e w a t e r h a s e v a p o r a t e d . If y o u p u t the saucer into a w a r m place, such as in bright sunlight, the water m a y evapor a t e i n a f e w h o u r s . If t h e w a t e r w e r e poured into a saucepan and heated on a stove, t h e w a t e r w o u l d e v a p o r a t e in a f e w m i n u t e s . B o i l i n g is a k i n d of v e r y fast e v a p o r a t i o n . F r o m t h e s e facts, y o u c a n see t h a t h e a t m a k e s evaporation take place faster. W h y does this h a p p e n ? B e c a u s e w h e n a l i q u i d is h e a t e d , its m o l e c u l e s m o v e a r o u n d f a s t e r air. and m o r e of t h e m a r e s e n t flying off i n t o t h e Water vapor in the air condenses and forms beads of water on the side of the container filled with ice.

" T h e r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y is 7 0 p e r c e n t . " This m e a n s that the air contains 7 0 percent, or seven tenths, as m u c h water as it c a n h o l d . W h e n a i r c o n t a i n s a l l t h e w a t e r it c a n h o l d , w e s a y t h a t it is saturated. W a r m air c a n h o l d m o r e w a t e r t h a n c o l d a i r . W h e n w a r m , m o i s t a i r is c o o l e d it g i v e s u p s o m e of i t s w a t e r . Y o u c a n see this in t h e s u m m e r t i m e w h e n the dew forms o n the grass after s u n d o w n . T h e g r a s s c o o l s off a f t e r t h e s u n g o e s d o w n . T h e air c o m e s in c o n t a c t with t h e c o o l g r a s s , a n d it, t o o , is c o o l e d . The

O n a hot, muggy summer day, people often say, "It's n o t W h a t is h u m i d i t y ? , . , ' . . the heat, i t s the humidity." W h a t do they mean? midity is a w o r d that describes Huthe

c o o l a i r c a n n o l o n g e r h o l d all t h e m o i s t u r e , a n d s o m e of t h e w a t e r l e a v e s t h e a i r . W e c a n s e e it a s b e a d s of that the water vapor in t h e water say has o n t h e b l a d e s of g r a s s . S c i e n t i s t s air condensed.

a m o u n t of w a t e r v a p o r i n t h e a i r . W h e n t h e r e is a l o t of w a t e r i n t h e a i r w e s a y t h e h u m i d i t y is h i g h . W h e n t h e a i r is v e r y d r y w e s a y t h e h u m i d i t y is l o w . W e feel u n c o m f o r t a b l e if t h e h u m i d i t y is too high. T h e perspiration on o u r bodies does n o t e v a p o r a t e easily b e c a u s e there is a l o t of w a t e r i n t h e a i r . B u t t o o l o w h u m i d i t y is n o t g o o d e i t h e r . I n t h e w i n ter w h e n o u r houses are h e a t e d , t h e air

Y o u c a n c o n d e n s e s o m e of

t h e w a t e r v a p o r i n t h e a i r if y o u fill a d r i n k i n g glass o r tin c a n w i t h ice a n d p l a c e it i n t h e k i t c h e n , o r a f a i r l y w a r m r o o m . S o o n b e a d s of w a t e r w i l l f o r m o n t h e s i d e s of t h e c o n t a i n e r . W h e n t h e air c o m e s into c o n t a c t with t h e ice-cold c o n t a i n e r , t h e a i r is c o o l e d a n d h a s t o g i v e u p s o m e of its m o i s t u r e .

21

Obtain

two household

thermometers.

is n o t a v a i l a b l e , f a n t h e t h e r m o m e t e r s v i g o r o u s l y w i t h a s h e e t of c a r d b o a r d . ) After t h e fan has been blowing air on t h e t h e r m o m e t e r s f o r five m i n u t e s , n o t e t h e r e a d i n g of e a c h t h e r m o m e t e r w r i t e it d o w n . Y o u can use the table on this p a g e ^ no 1001080feO5o*030

C u t a strip one How can you i n c h w i d e a n d five measure humidity? inches long from an old towel or other absorbent cloth. W r a p o n e e n d of t h e s t r i p a r o u n d t h e b u l b of o n e of t h e t h e r m o m e t e r s s t r i n g . T h i s is y o u r wet-bulb eter, t h e o t h e r is y o u r dry-bulb mometer. and t i e t h e c l o t h i n p l a c e w i t h a p i e c e of thermomtherat

and

Hang both thermometers

t h e s a m e l e v e l . P l a c e a g l a s s of w a t e r beneath the thermometer with the piece of c l o t h s o t h a t h a l f t h e l e n g t h of c l o t h is i n t h e w a t e r . W h e n t h e w a t e r h a s r i s e n t o t h e l e v e l of t h e t h e r m o m e t e r ' s b u l b , p l a c e a n e l e c t r i c f a n s o t h a t it w i l l b l o w o n t h e b u l b s of b o t h t h e r m o m e t e r s , a n d then t u r n the fan on. (If an electric fan ' Dry-Bulb Reading I 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100

mf: 30706050< K 5 JO-

~L

1 7 1 11

r^~v i D i f f e r e n c e Between Wet- and Dry-Bulb Readings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 J 95 90 85 80 75 70 66 62 57 53 48 44 40 36 32 28 25 21 17 13 10 7 3 95 90 85 8076 71 66 62 58 53 49 45 41 37 33 29 26 22 18 15 1 1 8 5 1 J 95 90 85 80 76 71 67 62 58 54 50 46 42 38 34 30 37 23 20 16 13 9 6 3 95 90 85 81 76 72 67 63 59 55 51 47 43 39 35 31 28 24 21 17 14 1 1 8 4 1 95 90 86 81 77 72 68 64 59 55 51 47 44 40 36 32 29 25 22 19 15 12 9 6 3 95 90 86 81 77 72 68 64 60 56 52 48 44 40 37 33 30 26 23 20 17 13 10 7 4 1 95 90 86 82 77 73 69 64 60 56 53 49 45 41 38 34 31 27 24 21 18 15 1 1 8 5 3 95 91 86 8278 73 69 65 61 57 53 49 46 42 39 35 32 28 25 22 19 16 13 10 7 4 1 95 91 86 82 78 73 69 65 61 58 54 50 46 43 40 36 33 29 26 23 20 17 14 1 1 8 5 2 95 91 86 82 78 74 70 66 62 58 54 51 47 44 40 37 34 30 27 24 21 18 15 1 2 9 7 4 96 91 87 82 78 74 70 66 63 59 55 51 48 44 41 38 34 31 28 25 22 19 16 1 31 1 8 5 96 91 87 83 78 74 70 67 63 59 55 52 48 45 42 38 35 32 29 26 23 20 17 14 12 9 6 96 91 87 83 79 75 71 67 63 60 56 52 49 46 42 39 36 33 30 27 24 21 18 1 5 13 10 7 96 91 87 83 79 75 71 67 64 60 57 53 50 46 43 40 37 34 31 28 25 22 19 1 6 14 1 1 9 96 91 87 83 79 75 71 68 64 60 57 54 50 47 44 41 37 34 31 29 26 23 20 1 7 15 12 10 96 91 87 83 79 76 72 68 64 61 57 54 51 47 44 42 38 35 32 29 27 24 21 18 16 13 11 96 92 88 84 80 76 72 69 65 62 58 55 52 49 46 43 40 37 34 31 28 25 23 20 18 15 13 10 96 92 88 84 80 77 73 70 66 63 59 56 53 50 47 44 41 38 35 32 30 27 25 22 20 17 15 12 96 92 88 85 81 77 74 70 67 63 60 57 54 51 48 45 42 39 37 34 31 29 26 24 21 19 17 14 96 92 88 85 81 78 74 71 67 64 61 58 55 52 49 46 43 41 38 35 33 30 28 25 23 21 18 16 96 92 89 85 81 78 75 71 68 65 62 59 56 53 50 47 44 42 39 37 34 32 29 27 24 22 20 18 96 92 89 85 82 78 75 72 69 65 62 59 57 54 51 48 45 43 40 38 35 33 30 28 26 24 22 19 96 93 89 86 82 79 75 72 69 66 63 60 57 54 52 49 46 44 41 39 36 34 32 29 27 25 23 21 19 1 7 96 93 89 86 82 79 76 73 70 67 64 61 58 55 53 50 47 45 42 40 37 35 33 31 29 26 24 22 20 1 8 96 93 89 86 83 79 76 73 70 67 64 61 59 56 53 51 48 46 43 41 39 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 96 93 90 86 83 80 77 74 71 68 65 62 59 57 54 5249 47 44 42 40 37 35 33 31 29 27 25 23 2 1 R e l a t i v e Humidity il per c e n t R e l a t i v e Humidity 21 per c e n t R e l a t i v e Humidity 5 . 8 pers e n t

P r a c t i c e examples: Dry Bulb 75 Dry Bulb 71 Dry Bulb 82 22

Wet Bulb 72 Wet Bulb 51 Wet Bulb 71

D i f f e r e n c e 3 D i f f e r e n c e 20 D i f f e r e n c e 1 1

to work out the relative humidity. the column h e a d e d "Dry-Bulb

In

wet b o d y cools rapidly w h e n the wind is b l o w i n g u p o n it. Evaporation controls your body's very the temperature. When you become w a r m , y o u g i v e off w a t e r t h r o u g h

Read-

i n g , " find t h e r e a d i n g of y o u r d r y - b u l b thermometer. Subtract from this n u m b e r t h e r e a d i n g of y o u r w e t - b u l b t h e r m o m e t e r . F i n d this difference in t h e t o p row m a r k e d "Difference B e t w e e n Wetand Dry-Bulb Readings." Run your finger d o w n t h e c o l u m n b e l o w t h a t n u m ber until you c o m e to the n u m b e r that is i n l i n e w i t h y o u r d r y - b u l b T h i s n u m b e r is t h e r e l a t i v e given below the chart. It will b e fun t o d o this e x p e r i m e n t o u t d o o r s . If it is a w i n d y d a y , y o u w o n ' t need a fan. J u s t let t h e w i n d b l o w o n the thermometers. When you have to found t h e relative h u m i d i t y , listen reading. humidity.

p o r e s of y o u r s k i n . T h i s w a t e r is p e r s p i r a t i o n . A s p e r s p i r a t i o n e v a p o r a t e s it uses y o u r b o d y heat a n d thereby m a k e s y o u r s k i n feel c o o l e r . If y o u sit i n a breeze, where perspiration m a y evapor a t e m o r e r a p i d l y , y o u c o o l off faster. Water is c o n s t a n t l y evaporating entering the as water In perspiration from our hot bodies
r

much

L o o k a t t h e e x a m p l e s of t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n and air

How do desert , 0 p l a n t s store w a t e r ?

vapor. weather the evapoMost

w e c a n feel t h i s h a p p e n i n g w h e n

the next radio w e a t h e r report for your a r e a a n d c o m p a r e y o u r m e a s u r e m e n t of relative h u m i d i t y with the o n e given b y the W e a t h e r Bureau. W h e n y o u c l i m b o u t of t h e w a t e r a f t e r a swim on a How d o e s m o v i n g air . , . , , , , windJ y summer h e l p cool your b o d y ? day, the wind on your wet body seems m u c h water. W h y ? W e learned that heat causes water to evaporate. Heat m a k e s the water molecules m o v e faster so that many are d r i v e n off t h e s u r f a c e of t h e w a t e r . I n d r i v i n g off t h e m o l e c u l e s , h e a t is u s e d u p . T h e h e a t of y o u r b o d y is u s e d u p when water evaporates from y o u r skin. M o r e heat passes from y o u r skin into t h e w a t e r , a n d t h e l o s s of t h i s h e a t c o o l s your skin. We have seen that wind your speeds evaporation. Therefore, colder the t h a n it d i d b e f o r e y o u w e n t i n t o

r a t e s a n d m a k e s u s feel c o o l e r . P l a n t s also lose w a t e r by evaporation. of t h e w a t e r e v a p o r a t e s f r o m t i n y o p e n i n g s i n t h e l e a v e s . M o r e w a t e r is t a k e n i n f r o m t h e soil b y t h e p l a n t s ' r o o t s t o r e p l a c e w a t e r lost b y e v a p o r a t i o n . r a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e very fast a n d In hot dry regions, such as deserts, evapothere is v e r y l i t t l e w a t e r i n t h e soil. If d e s e r t plants h a d leaves, they w o u l d lose m o r e water than they could replace from the soil. P l a n t s t h a t live i n d e s e r t s m u s t h a v e special features to enable t h e m to keep water. C a c t u s plants are very well suited to d o this. M o s t c a c t u s p l a n t s h a v e n o leaves from which the water c a n evaporate. Instead, they have thick fleshy s t e m s t h a t c a n s t o r e w a t e r . O n e k i n d of cactus, the barrel cactus, holds several q u a r t s of w a t e r i n its s t e m , a n d it h a s s a v e d t h e lives of m a n y t h i r s t y t r a v e l e r s lost in t h e desert. T h e b a r r e l c a c t u s a n d m a n y other cactuses are covered with 23

s e e n l a y e r s of r i p p l e d w h i t e c l o u d s v e r y h i g h i n t h e s k y t h e k i n d of that Because cactus plants have no leaves, they lose less water by evaporation. are called "a mackerel t h e n y o u h a v e seen ice clouds. Three things are necessary clouds How can scientists make rain? bristles or spines t h a t shield the tiny
w a t e r

clouds sky"

to

make form:
&

vapor>

, dew

point,

, and

openings in t h e stem from w h i c h w a t e r might evaporate. O n e kind, called the o l d m a n c a c t u s , is c o m p l e t e l y c o v e r e d w i t h a m a s s of g r e y " h a i r " t h a t p r o t e c t s it f r o m t h e s u n a n d t h u s h e l p s t o k e e p the water from evaporating. A n d some k i n d s of c a c t u s h a v e a c o a t i n g of w a x over the stem that keeps water evaporating. from

some small particle for the water vapor t o c o n d e n s e u p o n . If t h e temperature a cloud of t h e a i r f a l l s b e l o w t h e d e w p o i n t , t h e d r o p l e t s of w a t e r t h a t f o r m j o i n t o f o r m d r o p s of w a t e r s o l a r g e t h a t t h e y c a n n o l o n g e r float i n t h e a i r . T h e s e d r o p s fall as r a i n . Sometimes, the temperature in a not superc l o u d falls l o w e n o u g h for r a i n d r o p s t o form, but the cloud droplets do p e n s , w e s a y t h a t t h e c l o u d is cooled. join to form raindrops. W h e n this hap-

W h e n a i r is c o o l e d t o t h e d e w p o i n t , water vapor What are clouds? condenses on particles in float

O n e of t h e w a y s t o m a k e r a i n -

d r o p s f o r m i n a s u p e r c o o l e d c l o u d is t o c o o l it e v e n m o r e s u d d e n l y . T h i s c a n b e d o n e b y flying a n a i r p l a n e o v e r t h e c l o u d a n d d r o p p i n g s m a l l p e l l e t s of d r y i c e i n t o t h e c l o u d . ( D r y i c e is f r o z e n c a r b o n dioxide gas. Y o u h a v e seen dry ice u s e d in s o d a fountains a n d by vend o r s of i c e c r e a m t o k e e p t h e i c e c r e a m cold.) T h e t e m p e r a t u r e of d r y i c e is supercooled the -110 Fahrenheit. In the

of d u s t o r s m o k e t h a t a r e floating i n t h e a i r . T h e d r o p l e t s of w a t e r f o r m e d this w a y are very small a n d can

in the air for a long time. C l o u d s are m a d e of t h e s e d r o p l e t s of w a t e r . W h e n c l o u d s f o r m i n a i r t h a t is t o u c h i n g t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h , w e s a y t h a t a f o g has formed. clouds. N o t a l l c l o u d s a r e m a d e of d r o p l e t s of w a t e r . S o m e t i m e s a i r f r o m c l o s e t o t h e e a r t h is s w e p t q u i c k l y u p w a r d to h e i g h t s of five m i l e s o r m o r e . T h e r i s i n g a i r is q u i c k l y c o o l e d b e l o w t h e f r e e z i n g point. A s a result, the condensing water v a p o r is f r o z e n , a n d c l o u d s of t i n y i c e c r y s t a l s a r e f o r m e d . If y o u h a v e e v e r F o g , t h e n , is r e a l l y low

c l o u d , t h e d r o p l e t s of w a t e r n e a r

falling d r y ice pellets are cooled so low t h a t m a n y of t h e d r o p l e t s c o n d e n s e t o form raindrops. Many times, when the these raindrops form, they cause others nearby to form. I n a short time, w h o l e c l o u d c o n d e n s e s a n d falls a s r a i n . O t h e r times, only a few raindrops form

24

d i r e c t l y i n t h e p a t h of t h e f a l l i n g float i n t h e a i r .

dry

c r y s t a l s i n t o c l o u d s is c a l l e d " s e e d i n g " t h e c l o u d . If w e c o u l d l e a r n t h e p r o p e r w a y t o seed clouds so t h a t they w o u l d always fall as rain, this knowledge By w o u l d b e of g r e a t v a l u e t o m a n .

ice p e l l e t s , a n d t h e c l o u d c o n t i n u e s t o T h e r e is a n o t h e r w a y t o m a k e r a i n . W e l e a r n e d t h a t t h e d r o p l e t s of w a t e r v a p o r f o r m a r o u n d p a r t i c l e s of s m o k e and dust. I n m u c h the same way, the c l o u d d r o p l e t s c a n collect a r o u n d cert a i n k i n d s of p a r t i c l e s t o f o r m drops of r a i n . O n e k i n d of p a r t i c l e is m a d e of a c h e m i c a l c a l l e d s i l v e r i o d i d e . S i l v e r i o d i d e is a s o l i d s u b s t a n c e t h a t l o o k s like b r o w n salt. W h e n crystals of silver iodide are placed in a small furnace very and heated, they break u p into

seeding clouds, w e could p u t a n e n d to droughts that every year in some p a r t of t h e w o r l d c a u s e f o o d c r o p s t o d r y u p a n d b e l o s t . E v e n i n t i m e s of severe d r o u g h t , w h e n n o r a i n falls for w e e k s o r m o n t h s , c l o u d s u s u a l l y float o v e r t h e sun-dried land. Successful these clouds could seeding the of rain provide

needed to make the crops grow.

small particles t h a t rise along w i t h h o t air t h r o u g h t h e furnace's c h i m n e y until they enter a cloud. H e r e they provide centers a r o u n d which the water droplets m a y c o l l e c t t o f o r m r a i n d r o p s . P u t t i n g ice pellets or silver iodide

I m a g i n e t h a t y o u are in a spaceship lookWhat is the water cycle? ing d o w n at the earth. You can see many c l o u d s b e l o w . S o m e of t h e c l o u d s d i s a p p e a r a n d n e w o n e s appear where none were before. Y o u are

Water from the earth's land, lakes, rivers, streams and, particularly, its oceans is evaporated by the heat of the sun. As invisible water vapor it rises into the air, cools to form clouds that produce rain or snow that again fill the earth's land, lakes, rivers, streams, and oceans.

s e e i n g p a r t of w h a t s c i e n t i s t s c a l l t h e water cycle. The water c y c l e is the c h a n g e of l i q u i d w a t e r t o w a t e r v a p o r a n d b a c k to liquid water. T h e s e changes o c c u r o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n . A s y o u alr e a d y l e a r n e d , a c y c l e is s o m e t h i n g t h a t c o n t i n u a l l y r e p e a t s itself. E a r l i e r w a t e r t o an invisible v a p o r a n d g o i n g o n all t h e t i m e i n n a t u r e . Let's take a closer look at the w a t e r c y c l e a n d s e e w h a t it h a s t o d o clouds that appear and disappear. a s it g o e s t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r c y c l e . T h e d r o p of w a t e r is o n t h e s u r f a c e of t h e o c e a n , a n d a s t h e s u n l i g h t w a r m s t h e w a t e r , t h e d r o p of w a t e r evapothe a rates. N o w the water has entered with We you then did a n e x p e r i m e n t in w h i c h y o u c h a n g e d b a c k t o a l i q u i d a g a i n . T h i s p r o c e s s is

T h e w a t e r c y c l e h a s t a k e n t h e d r o p of water on a long trip from the ocean to the land and b a c k to the ocean again. S o m e t i m e s t h e r e a r e m a n y l i t t l e detours, or side trips, o n the journey. T h e r a i n m a y s o a k i n t o t h e g r o u n d w h e n it falls. T h e r o o t s of a p l a n t t a k e i n t h e water from the ground, and soon the w a t e r reaches the plant's leaves. T h e r e it e v a p o r a t e s a n d e n t e r s t h e a i r a s w a t e r vapor. O n a cool evening the water v a p o r m a y c o n d e n s e as d e w o n a b l a d e of g r a s s , a n d i n t h e m o r n i n g it m a y o n c e again evaporate when the w a r m f e w e x a m p l e s of t h e c h a n g e s t h a t w a t e r cycle. sunare light strikes t h e grass. T h e s e are b u t a t a k i n g p l a c e a l l t h e t i m e a s p a r t of t h e

w i l l f o l l o w a d r o p of w a t e r i n t h e o c e a n

Water

ordinarily

flows

downhill,

but

a i r a s w a t e r v a p o r . I t is n o l o n g e r in the air, a n d around eventually

l i q u i d . A s w a t e r v a p o r , it m o v e s a b o u t condenses a tiny dust particles to form

How does water get to the tops of trees?

w a t e r c a n also m o v e ^ fd> w i t h . ^ , . . Ut b e m g P u m P e d T r y the following A little i n k or

c l o u d . T h e c l o u d is b l o w n a b o u t b y t h e w i n d s u n t i l it m e e t s c o l d a i r . W h e n t h i s h a p p e n s t h e c l o u d falls as r a i n , c o m p l e t e d t h e w a t e r cycle. O f t e n back the i n t o t h e o c e a n . O u r d r o p of w a t e r h a s w a t e r c y c l e t a k e s a d r o p of w a t e r o n a l o n g j o u r n e y . F o r e x a m p l e , a d r o p of water from the ocean evaporates and, a s w a t e r v a p o r , is c a r r i e d b y a c u r r e n t of a i r o v e r t h e l a n d . I t f o r m s a c l o u d a n d t h e n falls as r a i n o n a m o u n t a i n s i d e . T h e w a t e r flows d o w n t h e m o u n tain in a tiny rivulet t h a t enters a b r o o k , a n d the b r o o k in t u r n enters a stream t h a t flows i n t o a r i v e r . T h e r i v e r m a y travel through hundreds of m i l e s of l a n d b e f o r e it e m p t i e s i n t o t h e o c e a n .

easy experiment. Put a drinking straw in a g l a s s of water. f o o d coloring will m a k e the w a t e r easier t o w a t c h . T h e w a t e r rises in t h e s t r a w a b o v e t h e l e v e l of t h e w a t e r i n t h e g l a s s . S c i e n t i s t s c a l l t h i s r i s i n g of w a t e r i n a s t r a w o r a n y n a r r o w t u b e capillary tion. acC a p i l l a r y a c t i o n is a v e r y i m p o r -

t a n t f e a t u r e of w a t e r . I t is w h a t m a k e s w a t e r r i s e t o t h e t o p of t a l l t r e e s . H o w d o e s t h i s w o r k ? W h e n t h e s t r a w is first p l a c e d i n t h e w a t e r , t h e m o l e c u l e s of w a t e r a r e a t t r a c t e d b y t h e m o l e c u l e s of the straw directly above them. The attraction between the water molecules a n d t h e s t r a w is g r e a t e r t h a n t h e a t t r a c tion between the water molecules them-

26

selves. T h e r e f o r e , t h e w a t e r m o l e c u l e s are pulled upward. Since the water m o l e c u l e s c l i n g t o g e t h e r , w h e n s o m e of them are pulled u p w a r d they pull others with t h e m . T h u s , t h e w a t e r in t h e straw rises u p w a r d . I t c o n t i n u e s t o r i s e u n t i l t h e w e i g h t of t h e w a t e r i n t h e s t r a w is e q u a l t o t h e f o r c e of t h e u p w a r d p u l l . I n t h e s t e m s of p l a n t s a n d t h e t r u n k s of t r e e s t h e r e a r e t h o u s a n d s of t i n y t u b e s . W a t e r i n t h e soil r i s e s t h r o u g h tubes by capillary action. these

F o r this e x p e r i m e n t y o u will n e e d a stalk of c e l e r y , a g l a s s of How can you demonstrate capillary action in plants? water, and some red i n k o r r e d f o o d coloring. Put several d r o p s of t h e i n k o r f o o d c o l o r i n g i n t h e g l a s s of w a t e r . C u t t h e b o t t o m e n d of t h e c e l e r y s t a l k s o t h a t t h e c u t is f r e s h w h e n y o u p u t i t i n the water. N o w leave the celery in the g l a s s f o r t w o o r t h r e e h o u r s . T a k e it o u t a n d e x a m i n e it c a r e f u l l y . Y o u c a n see b y t h e r e d c o l o r h o w h i g h in t h e stalk the w a t e r rose. C u t across the between the fibers act like tiny tubes. red. the stalk n e a r the b o t t o m a n d look at the slice. Y o u w i l l s e e l i t t l e d o t s of f r o m t h e b o t t o m of t h e c e l e r y t o T h e s e a r e t h e e n d s of t i n y t u b e s t h a t g o t o p . If y o u c u t t h e s t a l k l e n g t h w i s e y o u will see t h e s e little t u b e s w i t h r e d w a t e r i n s i d e . F l o r i s t s m a k e u s e of action to color white rises through the flowers St. P a t r i c k ' s D a y . T h e g r e e n stems and capillary green for coloring finally a B e c a u s e a i r h a s w e i g h t , p r e s s u r e is exerted on everything What is within the atmosphere. atmospheric A t sea level t h e prespressure? s u r e is n e a r l y 1 5 p o u n d s o n e v e r y s q u a r e i n c h of t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . S u p p o s e y o u c o u l d w e i g h a colu m n of a i r t h a t c o v e r s o n e s q u a r e i n c h of t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a t s e a l e v e l a n d Capillary action causes the water to rise in the straw above the water level in the glass, and makes the colored water rise through the stalk of celery.

W h e n a b l o t t e r is p l a c e d o n a w e t s u r face t h e liquid rises in t h e tiny spaces of t h e b l o t t e r b y c a p i l l a r y a c t i o n .

reaches the petals, turning t h e m green. Capillary of fibers action is w h a t makes b l o t t e r w o r k . A b l o t t e r is a m a t m a d e pressed together. T h e spaces

27

I r e a c h e s t o t h e t o p of t h e e x o s p h e r e 6 0 0 miles a b o v e sea level. Y o u w o u l d t h a t t h e c o l u m n of a i r w e i g h s 15 p o u n d s . S i n c e t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e a i r is d u e t o its weight, y o u c a n see t h a t t h e h i g h e r y o u g o i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e , t h e less t h e air p r e s s u r e will be. A s y o u g o higher, less a i r w i l l b e a b o v e y o u t o w e i g h d o w n u p o n y o u . Six miles a b o v e t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e a i r is o n l y four p o u n d s on every square inch. A t t e n m i l e s , t h e c o l u m n of a i r a b o v e e v e r y square inch weighs only two pound. T h e air not only presses d o w n w a r d , b u t presses e q u a l l y in all directions. T h e t o t a l a i r p r e s s u r e o n t h e w h o l e b o d y of a h u m a n b e i n g is e q u a l t o s e v e r a l t o n s . W h y doesn't so m u c h air p r e s s u r e c r u s h our bodies? Because the process of breathing creates an air pressure inside t h e b o d y t h a t b a l a n c e s t h a t o u t s i d e it. A s a result, w e feel n o p r e s s u r e at all. What was von Guericke's experiment? I n 1654, a G e r m a n scientist, O t t o v o n Guericke, everyone ing h o w mospheric by amazed showatstrong pounds; b e c a u s e a i r p r e s s u r e is p u s h i n g u p w a r d on the c a r d b o a r d , a n d the air pressure is g r e a t e r t h a n t h e w e i g h t of t h e w a t e r . a t 1 0 0 m i l e s , o n l y t w o b i l l i o n t h s of a Perform this experiment over the kitchen sink. If your glass is not small enough, the weight of the water may be greater than the air pressure, and the water might spill out of the glass. find nearly

pressure

is. H e u s e d t w o h e m i s p h e r e s , e a c h of w h i c h w a s a b o u t twenty-two inches in diameter. smooth Their rims were with ground so and covered grease,

Fill a small drinking glass to the b r i m with water. D o this H o w can you l o w l y & n d carefully? show that air .. _ so t h a t y o u c a n see exerts pressure? ; t h e s u r f a c e of t h e w a t e r b u l g e s l i g h t l y o v e r t h e t o p of t h e g l a s s . P r e s s a flat p i e c e of cardboard o n t o p of t h e g l a s s . P r e s s t h e p a l m of y o u r h a n d o n t o p of t h e c a r d b o a r d a n d grasp t h e glass with the o t h e r hand. T u r n the glass upside d o w n quickly so t h a t n o w a t e r spills. R e m o v e y o u r h a n d from beneath the cardboard. T h e cardb o a r d will r e m a i n in p l a c e , h o l d i n g t h e w a t e r i n t h e g l a s s . T h e w e i g h t of the water cannot push the cardboard down 28

t h a t t h e y w o u l d fit t o g e t h e r t i g h t l y a n d allow n o air to pass between them. V o n Guericke put the rims together and, w i t h a n a i r p u m p h e h a d i n v e n t e d , rem o v e d the air inside the hollow sphere. So great was the air pressure on it t o o k sixteen horses, eight o n the each outside (more than thirteen tons) that side, t o pull t h e h e m i s p h e r e s a p a r t . Y o u c a n p e r f o r m a n e x p e r i m e n t like t h a t of v o n G u e r i c k e . Y o u w i l l n e e d t w o p l u n g e r s of t h e k i n d t h a t a r e u s e d t o f o r c e w a t e r t h r o u g h d r a i n s . Y o u will also need a friend to help you. Thoroughly wet both plungers. Ask f r i e n d t o sit i n a c h a i r a n d h o l d your the

plunger handle b e t w e e n his knees, the r u b b e r c u p u p w a r d . P l a c e t h e c u p of your plunger u p o n the other one, and slowly a n d carefully p u s h d o w n the plunger cups. N o w , e a c h of until you m o s t of t h e a i r h a s b e e n e x p e l l e d f r o m g r a s p a h a n d l e , a n d s e e h o w difficult it is t o p u l l t h e p l u n g e r s a p a r t . If y o u h a v e o n l y o n e p l u n g e r , p l a c e it o n a s m o o t h w e t s u r f a c e a n d push d o w n h a r d . Y o u w i l l s e e h o w h a r d it is t o p u l l it free. A l l t h e f o r c e h o l d i n g t h e p l u n g e r t o t h e s u r f a c e is d u e t o a t m o s pheric pressure. W e l e a r n e d t h a t a c o l u m n of a i r o n e inch square How do we measure a n d 6 0 0 miles atmospheric pressure? h i g h weighs 15 p o u n d s . S u p p o s e w e c o u l d p u t t h i s colu m n of a i r o n o n e s i d e of a s c a l e a n d a c o l u m n of m e r c u r y o n e i n c h s q u a r e o n t h e o t h e r s i d e of t h e s c a l e . T o b a l a n c e t h e air, t h e m e r c u r y w o u l d h a v e t o b e 30 inches high. T h e fact that a 30-inch c o l u m n of m e r c u r y w e i g h s a s m u c h a s

a 6 0 0 - m i l e c o l u m n of a i r c a n b e u s e d to measure atmospheric pressure. If y o u w e r e t o fill a g l a s s t u b e m o r e than 30 inches long with mercury and p l a c e it u p s i d e d o w n i n a d i s h of m e r c u r y , s o m e of t h e m e r c u r y i n t h e t u b e

You can perform an experiment similar to von Guericke's. For the spheres substitute two plungers and for the sixteen horses, yourself and a friend.

Sixteen horses could not pull von Guericke's steel spheres apart.

w o u l d r u n o u t u n t i l t h e w e i g h t of t h e m e r c u r y left i n t h e t u b e is b a l a n c e d b y t h e w e i g h t of t h e a i r p r e s s i n g o n pressing on the m e r c u r y in the because pletely cury the space This above i t is empty. barometer. barometer from sea level arrangement the tube comof merm e r c u r y in t h e dish. N o air w o u l d b e

g l a s s t u b e a n d m e r c u r y is c a l l e d a

Let us suppose that we are carrying a mercury u p a m o u n t a i n . W h e n w e b e g i n o u r ascent, the mercury column measures 30 inches. W h e n w e h a v e c l i m b e d 9 4 0 feet, t h e m e r c u r y c o l u m n is o n l y 2 9 i n c h e s high. W h e n we have climbed to 8,360 feet a little m o r e t h a n o n e a n d a half m i l e s a b o v e s e a l e v e l w e find t h a t t h e c o l u m n of m e r c u r y is o n l y 2 2 high. W h y d o e s t h e c o l u m n of m e r c u r y b e c o m e shorter as we carry the b a r o m e t e r h i g h e r ? B e c a u s e t h e c o l u m n of a i r t h a t balances the mercury becomes that at sea level t h e column shorter aneroid does barometer. T h e word "aneroid" not contain any mercury. The of air a n d lighter as w e go higher. W e k n o w w e i g h s n e a r l y 15 p o u n d s . A t 8 , 3 6 0 f e e t a b o v e s e a l e v e l t h e c o l u m n of a i r w e i g h s a l m o s t 1 1 p o u n d s a n d is b a l a n c e d b y a 2 2 - i n c h c o l u m n of m e r c u r y t h a t w e i g h s a l m o s t 11 p o u n d s . Thus, when we measure the height of a c o l u m n of m e r c u r y i n a g l a s s t u b e , w e a r e a l s o m e a s u r i n g t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e c o l u m n of a i r a b o v e t h e m e r c u r y . W e usually express the pressure in units of h e i g h t of t h e m e r c u r y c o l u m n . We say, for example, t h a t t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e a t t h e t o p of t h e E m p i r e S t a t e B u i l d i n g is " 2 9 i n c h e s of m e r c u r y , " o r simply, " 2 9 inches." Another k i n d of b a r o m e t e r is the also inches

means "without liquid." This barometer m a i n p a r t of a n a n e r o i d b a r o m e t e r is a n airtight c a n from w h i c h as m u c h air as possible has been p u m p e d . A spring a t t a c h e d t o t h e t o p of t h e c a n k e e p s t h e c a n f r o m c o l l a p s i n g u n d e r p r e s s u r e of t h e o u t s i d e a i r . A p o i n t e r is a t t a c h e d b y l e v e r s a n d a c h a i n t o t h e t o p of t h e c a n , a n d is a r r a n g e d s o t h a t i t p o i n t s t o a scale divided into inches. W h e n t h e a i r p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s , it p u s h e s t h e t o p of t h e c a n d o w n a little, a n d t h e p o i n t e r m o v e s t o w a r d t h e higher n u m b e r s o n t h e scale. W h e n the air pressure decreases, the spring pushes t h e t o p of t h e c a n u p , a n d t h i s m o v e -

30

_13L In the middle of the seventeenth century Italian mathematician and physicist Evangelista Torricelli discovered the principle of the barometer, and thereby discovered the force of atmospheric pressure. He calculated that in order to support a column of mercury about thirty inches high, the atmosphere had to press downward with a weight of nearly fifteen pounds per square inch. About the same time Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg began investigating air pressure. Out of his work came the water barometer. A brass tube that was over thirty-four feet long, with a closed glass section at one end, was filled with water. Von Guericke then inverted the tube, placing the open end in a tub of water. As the pressure of the atmosphere changed the water in the tube rose and fell.

ANEROID B A R O M E T E R

a M E R C U R Y B A R O M E T E R m e n t , t o o , is m e a s u r e d o n t h e s c a l e b y the pointer, which moves toward lower numbers. W e learned that a barometer at 8,360 f e e t w i l l m e a s u r e 2 2 i n c h e s of m e r c u r y . T h e r e f o r e , if w e h a v e a b a r o m e t e r t h a t measures 2 2 inches, we k n o w w e use a b a r o m e t e r to m e a s u r e are h o w w e b r e a t h e . L e t u s see h o w this 8 , 3 6 0 feet a b o v e sea level. T h u s w e c a n altitude. M a n y airplanes use special barometers, called altimeters, to m e a s u r e the plane's altitude. very i m p o r t a n t activity takes place. Stretching across t h e entire b o d y cavity b e n e a t h fram). breath, You know that human beings must b r e a t h e in order ,. T ^i t o live. B r e a t h i n g is s o natural just t h e l u n g s is a l a r g e you inhale, or take flat a m u s c l e c a l l e d t h e diaphragm When the diaphragm moves (dy'-uhdownand the

w a r d a n d the ribs m o v e u p w a r d

o u t w a r d . T h i s i n c r e a s e s t h e size of t h e b o d y c a v i t y . A s a r e s u l t t h e r e is l e s s a i r pressure within the b o d y cavity than outside the body. Atmospheric pressure

H o w d o e s air g e t , , into our l u n g s ?

that hardly anyone stops to ask

31

L U N G S

T R A C H E A

outside the b o d y pushes air through the nose or m o u t h a n d d o w n into the lungs. W h e n you exhale, or blow out breath, the diaphragm moves ward. This results in more your upward pressure

a n d t h e r i b s m o v e d o w n w a r d a n d inwithin the body cavity than outside the b o d y . T h i s p r e s s u r e p u s h e s a i r o u t of the lungs t h r o u g h the nose or m o u t h . B R O N C H I A L T U B E S DIAPI R A G M The diagram at left shows you how we breathe.

Air

a n d

W a t e r

at

W o r k

P e r h a p s you have seen y o u r m o t h e r use an egg timer w h e n How did ancient she boils a n egg. man use water T h e s a n d in o n e to measure time? e n d of t h e t u b e runs t h r o u g h a tiny opening into m i n u t e s . W h e n a l l t h e s a n d is i n lower end of t h e t u b e , y o u r the the l o w e r e n d of t h e t u b e i n e x a c t l y t h r e e mother

h a d to e n d his speech w h e n the jar w a s empty. T h e r e w e r e s e v e r a l o t h e r k i n d s of water clocks. O n e was very similar to the one we just described except that t h e j a r w a s m a d e of g l a s s a n d t h e r e w e r e m a r k i n g s o n t h e s i d e of it. T h e m a r k s w e r e a r r a n g e d so t h a t e a c h o n e stood for a n h o u r . A s the water dripped out of t h e j a r , t h e w a t e r l e v e l b e c a m e l o w e r , m a r k i n g the hours as they passed. Some water clocks h a d a floating figure of a w o m a n whose arm pointed to the hour m a r k e d o n t h e s i d e of t h e j a r . I n a n o t h e r k i n d of w a t e r c l o c k , t h e water from the container dripped into a cylinder. In the cylinder was a floati n g p i s t o n w i t h a l o n g s h a f t o n t o p of it. C u t i n t o t h e s h a f t w e r e g e a r t e e t h . T h e s e t e e t h fitted i n t o a c i r c u l a r g e a r .

k n o w s that the egg h a s boiled for three m i n u t e s . A n e g g t i m e r is v e r y m u c h l i k e a device the ancient G r e e k s used measure time. T h e Greeks let to water

drip slowly from a jar with a tiny hole i n it. W h e n a l l t h e w a t e r h a d d r o p p e d out the Greeks knew that a certain clepsydra speaker a m o u n t of t i m e h a d g o n e b y . T h e y u s e d this " w a t e r clock," called a speeches in t h e law courts. A ( k l e p ' - s i - d r a ) , t o m e a s u r e t h e l e n g t h of

32

A s the piston

floated

upward, the teeth gear the Water is supplied continuously from pipe A into reservoir B, from where it slowly drips into tank C. An overflow tube G keeps the level in the reservoir constant. As the level of water in tank C rises, rack E is pushed up by float D. The rack turns geared wheel F, and the hand of the clock moves the dial to indicate the hour.

on the shaft m o v e d t h e circular gear. A pointer attached to the circular m o v e d slowly a r o u n d in a circle, pointing t o n u m b e r s o n a dial o u t s i d e gear. W h e n the piston w a s at the bott o m of t h e c y l i n d e r , t h e p o i n t e r p o i n t e d to 24, w h i c h indicated midnight. water filled floated dripped it little into by the little, cylinder the As and

cylinder piston

slowly u p w a r d . A s the

m o v e d u p w a r d , its g e a r t e e t h t u r n e d t h e circular gear, and the pointer pointed to the h o u r s as they passed, b e g i n n i n g with the numeral one. In 24 hours the c y l i n d e r h a d filled, a n d t h e p o i n t e r h a d t u r n e d once a r o u n d the dial. A t the e n d of 2 4 h o u r s , t h e w a t e r c l o c k h a d t o b e set b y e m p t y i n g t h e c y l i n d e r .

E v e r since ancient times m a n has used t h e f o r c e of m o v i n g How do windmills work? and water to work air for

h i m . W i n d is m a d e t o d o w o r k b y t u r n i n g t h e sails

of w i n d m i l l s . T h e f a m o u s w i n d m i l l s of the Netherlands and Belgium had huge c l o t h sails, s o m e of w h i c h w e r e In the Greek clepsydra, the water dopped out of the vessel. stories high. E a c h windmill h a d s a i l s set i n t h e s h a p e of a c r o s s two four and

a t t a c h e d t o a s h a f t . T h e sails d i d n o t face the wind directly, but were t u r n e d at a slight angle to the direction from which the wind was blowing. W h e n the

In the Chinese and Indian waterclocks a small brass bowl with its bottom pierced was floated on a basin of water. The floating bowl gradually filled with water, and, after a measured interval of time, sank. An attendant then struck a gong and set the bowl afloat again.

33

wind struck

t h e sail, t h e m o v i n g

air was

the w i n d w a s blowing. A s a result, the sail t u r n e d the shaft. The shaft was attached to grindstones or to a pump. W h e n a stiff w i n d b l e w a g a i n s t t h e sails, the windmill ground grain or p u m p e d water. A l m o s t all t h e o l d w i n d m i l l s have been replaced by modern ones that have s t e e l b l a d e s i n s t e a d of c l o t h sails. T w o t o s i x t e e n of t h e s e b l a d e s a r e set o n a shaft at scientifically m e a s u r e d angles, so t h a t t h e b l a d e s spin r a p i d l y even in a slow wind. B e c a u s e these blades w o r k so m u c h better, they need not be l a r g e a s t h e o l d c l o t h sails. V e r y m o d e r n windmills have blades t h a n a m a n is t a l l . Steel windmills are used in many p a r t s of t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e i r m a i n u s e s are to p r o d u c e electricity a n d to p u m p water for irrigating crops. T o p r o d u c e e l e c t r i c i t y , t h e s h a f t of t h e w i n d m i l l is a t t a c h e d t o a d y n a m o . P e o p l e w h o live far from a large electric generating as few

s l i p p e d p a s t it. B e c a u s e t h e s a i l

t u r n e d s l i g h t l y s i d e w i s e , it w a s p u s h e d in a direction crosswise t o t h a t in which

longer

Left, windmill with canvas sails, below, cutaway of a windmill used to pump water out of the fields.

plant m a y have their own windmills on a tall steel t o w e r . T h e w i n d m i l l produces electricity for lighting h o m e s a n d running household appliances. T o p u m p water for irrigation, the electricity m a y r u n t h e m o t o r of a w a t e r p u m p . O r , t h e windmill m a y be connected directly to t h e s h a f t of t h e p u m p .

T h e water pushed against the paddle, m o v i n g it i n t h e d i r e c t i o n t h e was flowing, stream and caused the wheel to

t u r n a little. A s o n e p a d d l e t u r n e d u p a n d o u t of t h e w a t e r , t h e n e x t p a d d l e dipped beneath the water and was shaft pushed forward by the stream. T h u s the wheel kept turning. T h e turning w a s m a d e t o d o w o r k , p e r h a p s b y at-

T o m a k e w a t e r d o w o r k for him, m a n invented the water How do water w h e e l . O n e of t h e wheels work? e a r l i e s t t y p e s of w a t e r w h e e l s c o n s i s t e d of t w o d i s c s of w o o d set a f o o t o r t w o a p a r t a t o n e e n d of a r o u n d shaft. I n the space b e t w e e n t h e d i s c s w e r e s e v e r a l flat p i e c e s of w o o d , called p a d d l e s . T h e s e p a d d l e s w e r e attached to b o t h the shaft a n d the discs a n d were long e n o u g h to stick out past t h e r i m s of t h e d i s c s . T h e wheel was placed on a wooden framework over a stream at just the height to allow the lowermost paddle to r e a c h b e n e a t h t h e s u r f a c e of t h e w a t e r .

t a c h i n g it t o a g r i n d s t o n e t o g r i n d c o r n or wheat. A v e r y c l e v e r k i n d of w a t e r was called Archimedes' a Greek screw, Archimedes, wheel after

mathematician

a n d s c i e n t i s t , w h o l i v e d i n t h e c i t y of S y r a c u s e o n t h e i s l a n d of Sicily a b o u t 2,300 years ago. Archimedes' screw h a d t w o m a i n parts: a large, hollow, w o o d e n cylinder, a n d a water wheel. T h e wheel was built a r o u n d the w o o d e n close to o n e end. Inside the cylinder cylinder

was a w o o d e n spiral that r a n the whole l e n g t h of t h e c y l i n d e r , l i k e t h e g r o o v e s o n a s c r e w . T h e e n d of t h e c y l i n d e r , with the water wheel attached, rested

Left, a water wheel is said to be undershot when water turns the wheel by striking its blades from the bottom. It is called an overshot water wheel, at right, when it is turned by water falling upon the paddles from above.

35 J

Water mill driven by undershot wheel.

u n t i l it r a n o u t of t h e u p p e r e n d of t h e cylinder. This was the way water was transported to irrigate crops. Obtain a straight knitting needle.

H o w can you m a k e . IO a water wheel?

P u s h the needle . , ., t h r o u g h t h e cen t e r of a c o r k .

P u s h half a d o z e n steel p e n p o i n t s into t h e c o r k a t e v e n l y s p a c e d i n t e r v a l s circling a r o u n d the cork. B e n d a heavy p i e c e of w i r e Cutaway view of Archimedes' screw. o n a s u p p o r t s e t o n t h e b o t t o m of t h e river. T h e other e n d r e a c h e d t o t h e river b a n k . T h e cylinder was tilted upward stream toward turned the water slightly the the the shore. W h e n wheel, ( a wire clothes hanger will d o ) i n t o t h e s h a p e s h o w n in t h e illustration. Rest the knitting needle on the wire frame you have just made. U s i n g a p e n c i l p o k e a h o l e in t h e cent e r of o n e s i d e of a m i l k c a r t o n . P l a c e the carton in a sink so that water from a f a u c e t will r u n i n t o t h e h o l e in the t o p of t h e c a r t o n . W h e n a s t r e a m of w a t e r b e g i n s t o p o u r o u t of t h e h o l e in t h e s i d e of t h e c a r t o n , p l a c e t h e w i r e

l o w e r e n d of t h e s p i r a l s c o o p e d u p w a t e r a n d m o v e d it u p w a r d a l o n g t h e s p i r a l

36

frame strikes

b e n e a t h it, s o t h a t t h e the penpoints. Your

stream water

wheel will spin r a p i d l y . M o d e r n w a t e r w h e e l s a r e m a d e of m e t a l and are called How does water water turbines. produce electricity? T h e m a i n u s e of w a t e r t u r b i n e s is t o p r o d u c e ity. I n m o u n t a i n o u s c o u n t r y , electricstreams these the

r u n d o w n t h e s i d e s of m o u n t a i n s v e r y swiftly. S o m e of t h e w a t e r f r o m s t r e a m s is s e n t t h r o u g h p i p e s . A t v e r y r a p i d l y w h e n t h e swiftly w a t e r strikes t h e m . I n flat c o u n t r y , w a t e r m a y b e g i v e n the force needed to turn turbines rapidly by storing the water behind high dams. A b o u t h a l f w a y d o w n f r o m t h e t o p of the d a m are openings that lead to long, wide pipes. T h e s e pipes, called stocks, dam. Water plunging down penWater is put to work to help create electricity. r u n d o w n t o t h e b o t t o m of t h e through The atHow to make your own water wheel. W I R E S U P P O R T

e n d of t h e p i p e s a r e t u r b i n e s t h a t t u r n moving

each penstock strikes a turbine. spinning shaft o r electric electricity. of e a c h t u r b i n e is which tached to a machine called a generator,

dynamo, produces

C E N T E R Xi / X

B L O W 1 S P O O L II

C A R D

T a k e a small card, push a pin through its c e n t e r , a n d p u t t h e p i n

W n

w h e n t h e s p e e d is l o w , t h e p r e s s u r e is high. Remember that a i r is a fluid. W h e n y o u blew t h r o u g h the hole in the s p o o l , y o u r b r e a t h w h i c h is a i r m o v e d swiftly a c r o s s t h e u p p e r surface of t h e c a r d a n d r e d u c e d t h e a t m o s p h e r i c pressure on that surface. T h e pheric pressure on the lower remained unchanged. Since the atmossurface pres-

a t

ls

i n t o t h e h o l e of a s p o o l . H o l d the sp r ool so t h a t the h o l e t h r o u g h it is v e r t i c a l

. . . . Principle?

and hold the card against the

spool.

N o w b l o w t h r o u g h the hole in t h e spool, at the same time releasing your hold on the card. Y o u might expect the card to be blown a w a y from the spool. Howe v e r , y o u w i l l find t h a t a s l o n g a s y o u b l o w t h r o u g h t h e s p o o l t h e c a r d will remain n e a r the spool. A s soon as you s t o p b l o w i n g , t h e c a r d w i l l fall. What h o l d s t h e c a r d u p w h e n y o u r b r e a t h is passing t h r o u g h the hole in t h e spool? Some force stronger than gravity must be holding the card up. L e t us see this s a m e force a t w o r k a g a i n . C u r l o n e e n d of a s h e e t of p a p e r a r o u n d a pencil. H o l d the pencil near y o u r lips a n d b l o w y o u r b r e a t h a c r o s s t h e p a p e r . T h e p a p e r will rise, a n d will r e m a i n e x t e n d e d in the air as long as you continue to blow. B o t h of t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s i l l u s t r a t e a scientific p r i n c i p l e t h a t w a s ered by a Swiss discovand lived fluid

sure pushing u p w a r d on the card was greater than the pressure pushing downward, the card stayed up. Likewise, y o u r b r e a t h m o v i n g swiftly a c r o s s t h e s h e e t of p a p e r l o w e r e d t h e p r e s s u r e o n its u p p e r surface, a n d t h e g r e a t e r pressure on the lower surface pushed paper up. H a v e you ever noticed h o w a shower c u r t a i n m o v e s i n t o w a r d t h e s p r a y of water? from The the water squirting nozzle outward air shower's moves the

a l o n g w i t h it. T h e s w i f t l y m o v i n g a i r dec r e a s e s t h e p r e s s u r e o n t h e i n s i d e of t h e s h o w e r c u r t a i n a n d t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e outside air pushes t h e curtain inward.

A n a i r p l a n e w i n g is flat o n t h e b o t t o m W h a t holds an airplane up? air flowing and curved on top. A s the plane moves t h r o u g h t h e air, the wing along flowing

mathematician

physicist, D a n i e l Bernoulli, w h o c o v e r e d t h a t w h e n t h e s p e e d of a

m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 y e a r s a g o . B e r n o u l l i disis h i g h , t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e fluid is l o w ;

o v e r t h e t o p of t h e

moves faster t h a n the air

38

L E S S AIR P R E S S U R E

be straight. T h e p a p e r has the general s h a p e of a s e c t i o n c u t f r o m a n a i r p l a n e w i n g . T h e r o u n d e d e n d is t h e f o r w a r d end. S u s p e n d t h e p a p e r b y t h r e e p i e c e s of string, t w o passed t h r o u g h the forward e n d a n d o n e t h r o u g h t h e r e a r p a r t of the folded paper. A t t a c h the strings to sticks, as s h o w n in t h e illustration, o r

: : : r r t " 4 " 4 - - " ^ : f : G R E A T E R AIR P R E S S U R E

t h e b o t t o m . T h e a i r t h a t flows o v e r t h e t o p of t h e w i n g m u s t p a s s o v e r beneath the wing passes along the the S H E E TO FP A P E R c u r v e i n t h e s a m e l e n g t h of t i m e a s a i r straight undersurface. tween the same two Since a points, curved the air S H E E TO FC A R D B O A R D

l i n e is l o n g e r t h a n a s t r a i g h t l i n e b e moving the longer distance must move faster t h a n the air m o v i n g the shorter distance. Therefore, air moves faster o v e r t h e u p p e r s u r f a c e of a n cording to Bernoulli's airplane the

wing than over the lower surface. AcPrinciple, p r e s s u r e o n t h e u p p e r s i d e of t h e w i n g is l e s s t h a n t h e p r e s s u r e o n t h e u n d e r s i d e of t h e w i n g . T h u s , t h e h i g h e r p r e s s u r e of t h e a i r b e n e a t h a n w i n g s h o l d s :t u p . airplane's

F o r this e x p e r i m e n t y o u will n e e d a p i e c e of H o w can you s h o w why its wings will ..,/ . . , lift an airplane?
m d

cardboard
& h e e t o f

, paper the same r \ width. C u t the as

Experiment that shows why its wing lifts an airplane. u s e f o u r p i l e s of b o o k s t o h o l d t h e e n d s of t h e s t r i n g s . P l a c e a n e l e c t r i c f a n i n f r o n t of t h e " a i r p l a n e w i n g " a n d t u r n t h e fan o n . T h e w i n g will rise slightly as the m o v i n g air lowers the pressure o n its u p p e r s u r f a c e a n d t h e air p r o v i d e s lift. beneath

c a r d b o a r d s o t h a t i t is a b o u t h a l f

long as t h e p a p e r . N o w staple o r glue t h e c a r d b o a r d t o t h e s h e e t of p a p e r a s s h o w n in t h e illustration. B e n d t h e paper back over the cardboard and staple it a b o u t o n e i n c h f r o m t h e e n d of t h e c a r d b o a r d . T h e u p p e r surface of the p a p e r will b e c u r v e d , t h e l o w e r o n e will

39

This is the grip for a curve ball. As the ball is delivered, the hand is twisted inward from the wrist at the same time as the wrist snaps. The ball rolls off the outside of the first finger, thus developing the spin that makes it change direction on its way to the plate.

A pitcher c a n t h r o w a baseball so that How does a baseball pitcher throw a . 1IO curve b a l l ?
w a r d

t h a t w h e n a i r m o v e s r a p i d l y , its p r e s s u r e is l o w e r e d . T h u s , t h e r a p i d l y m o v i n g a i r o n t o p of t h e b a s e b a l l h a s lower pressure t h a n the air curved path. By spinning the ball from b o t t o m to t o p , left t o r i g h t , o r r i g h t t o left, direction he wishes. A s i p h o n is a t u b e s h a p e d . make a siphon? something "J" a p i t c h e r c a n m a k e it c u r v e i n w h a t e v e r a beneath.

it w i l l c u r v e u p Qr d o w n . , , ward, or to the r i g h t o r left. H e

T h e b a l l , t h e n , is p u s h e d u p w a r d i n a

d o e s this t o m a k e it h a r d for t h e b a t t e r to hit the ball. H o w does he m a k e the ball curve? T h e pitcher wraps his gers a r o u n d the ball in a m a n n e r hand. T h e spinning ball carries finthat along

m a k e s t h e b a l l s p i n w h e n it l e a v e s h i s t h e a i r c l o s e t o it, s o t h a t t h e a i r s p i n s , too. Suppose the ball spins in the s a m e d i r e c t i o n a s it is m o v i n g . T h e a i r o n t o p w i l l m o v e b o t h a s f a s t a s t h e b a l l is s p i n n i n g a n d a s f a s t a s t h e b a l l is m o v i n g . T h e a i r b e n e a t h t h e b a l l is c a r r i e d in the direction opposite the b a l l . T h e r e f o r e , it m o v e s m o r e moving slowly tainer, without

like t h e letter

up r side down. With it lifting you the can make by

w a t e r flow u p o v e r t h e w a l l of a c o n water p u m p i n g . F o r this e x p e r i m e n t y o u will need a rubber or plastic tube about t h r e e f e e t l o n g , a p a i l of w a t e r , a n d a n

t h a n the air on top. W e h a v e learned 40

e m p t y p a i l . P l a c e t h e p a i l of w a t e r o n a table and put the empty pail on the floor next to the table. Fill the tube completely with water. Y o u c a n d o this b y d r o p p i n g it i n t o t h e p a i l of w a t e r o r b y filling i t w i t h w a t e r f r o m t h e f a u c e t . N o w p i n c h b o t h e n d s of t h e t u b e s o t h a t no water can escape, and quickly place o n e e n d of t h e t u b e i n t h e p a i l of w a t e r well b e l o w t h e w a t e r ' s surface. L e t t h e other end hang down into the the same time. The water will empty flow p a i l . L e t g o of b o t h e n d s of t h e t u b e a t t h r o u g h t h e t u b e , u p o v e r t h e s i d e of the pail on the table, a n d d o w n into the l o w e r p a i l . If y o u k e e p t h e u p p e r end of t h e t u b e c l o s e t o t h e b o t t o m of t h e p a i l o n t h e t a b l e , all t h e w a t e r w i l l s o o n b e in t h e pail o n t h e an aquarium floor. taking the a A s i p h o n is v e r y u s e f u l f o r e m p t y i n g or even for water from a wash bowl that has

e m p t i e d the pail. Y o u m a y w o n d e r w h y atmospheric pressure did not keep w a t e r f r o m flowing o u t of t h e l o w e r e n d of t h e t u b e . I t is b e c a u s e t h e w e i g h t of t h e c o l u m n of w a t e r i n t h e t u b e c a u s e d a d o w n w a r d force greater than the upw a r d f o r c e of t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e .

Archimedes

the

Greek
2

scientist lived , 300

who

H o w did A r c h i m e d e s solve the problem of King Hiero's crown?

about years

ago, w a s a kinsman of King

H i e r o , t h e r u l e r of S y r a c u s e . A c c o r d i n g t o legend, o n e d a y in t h e y e a r 2 5 0 B . C . , t h e k i n g b o u g h t a c r o w n t h a t h e susp e c t e d w a s m a d e of g o l d m i x e d with s i l v e r . G o l d is m o r e e x p e n s i v e t h a n silv e r , s o if K i n g H i e r o h a d p a i d f o r a

stopped-up drain. Chemists use siphons in l a b o r a t o r i e s t o t r a n s f e r liquids f r o m o n e bottle to a n o t h e r . L e t us see h o w this simple, but very useful, device works. When you removed your How does a . . ._ siphon w o r k ? finger of from the . _ water

the lower end , tube, some flowed

. out, leaving an remember

e m p t y s p a c e b e h i n d it. Y o u

t h a t t h e a t m o s p h e r e is p r e s s i n g o n a l l t h i n g s o n t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h . T h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e o n t h e s u r f a c e of the w a t e r in the pail p u s h e d w a t e r u p t h e t u b e t o fill t h e e m p t y s p a c e t h e r e . M o r e w a t e r flowed o u t , a n d w a s a g a i n replaced, due to atmospheric pressure. This water process flowed continued through until the all the and 41 How to make your own siphon. tube

Both crowns weighed the same, but since more water spilled from the bowl in which the new crown was immersed, Archimedes concluded that the new crown was larger and, therefore, could not be pure gold. pure gold crown, he h a d been cheated. T h e k i n g a s k e d A r c h i m e d e s t o find a w a y t o tell w h e t h e r t h e c r o w n really did h a v e s i l v e r i n it. A r c h i m e d e s k n e w t h a t s i l v e r w e i g h s less t h a n g o l d , s o it s h o u l d h a v e b e e n easy t o tell w h e t h e r t h e n e w crown had silver m i x e d in t h e gold. Archimedes h a d only to weigh the new c r o w n a n d a n o t h e r c r o w n t h e s a m e size m a d e of p u r e g o l d . If t h e n e w would weigh less t h a n a pure crown gold solve. w e r e m a d e of g o l d m i x e d w i t h s i l v e r , i t c r o w n of t h e s a m e size. B u t t h e k i n g ' s problem was not this easy to Archimedes found that the new crown weighed t h e s a m e as a p u r e gold c r o w n t h a t a p p e a r e d t o b e t h e s a m e size. B u t he couldn't be sure the crowns were really t h e s a m e size b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e b o t h e l a b o r a t e l y c a r v e d a n d it w a s n o t possible to measure t h e m accurately. H e w o u l d h a v e t o find a w a y t o m e a s u r e t h e c r o w n s . If t h e n e w c r o w n h a d s i l v e r i n it, it w o u l d h a v e t o b e l a r g e r weighed the same. than t h e c r o w n of p u r e g o l d , s i n c e t h e y b o t h While Archimedes was thinking

a b o u t this p r o b l e m , h e w e n t to the publ i c b a t h s of S y r a c u s e . A s h e s a t d o w n i n h i s b a t h , h e w a t c h e d t h e w a t e r spill o v e r t h e s i d e s of t h e t u b . T h i s the king's problem. supposedly Archimedes at finding sight was the gave h i m the idea h e n e e d e d to solve so excited

a n s w e r t h a t h e j u m p e d o u t of t h e b a t h a n d r a n n a k e d t h r o u g h t h e streets shouting, "Heureka! Heureka!" which it! I is G r e e k for, " I h a v e f o u n d found it!" Archimedes went to King Hiero and t o l d h i m h e c o u l d s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m of the new crown. H e asked the king to send for t h e c r o w n s a n d for t w o bowls of e q u a l size a n d l a r g e e n o u g h t o c o n tain t h e c r o w n s . H e also a s k e d for t w o larger bowls in which he placed smaller bowls. H e then filled the the two Water have

small bowls to the brim with water, a n d placed a crown in each bowl. the larger bowls. Archimedes measured the amount of s p i l l e d o v e r t h e s i d e s of b o t h b o w l s i n t o carefully that water

42

spilled f r o m e a c h bowl. H e f o u n d t h a t m o r e w a t e r spilled f r o m the bowl in which he had put the new crown. This meant that the new crown was larger t h a n t h e c r o w n of p u r e g o l d . S i n c e t h e crowns weighed the same, Archimedes k n e w that the new crown, being larger, m u s t b e m a d e of a l i g h t e r m e t a l gold. T h e k i n g w a s right; as h e pected, the new crown was not gold. W h e n A r c h i m e d e s w a s sitting in bath,
W h a t is

j e c t , t h e o b j e c t w e i g h s less. B e c a u s e of A r c h i m e d e s ' P r i n c i p l e , w e c a n tell h o w m u c h less t h e object weighs. W e say A r c h i m e d e s ' Principle in w a y : the loss of weight a liquid liquid To test is equal displaced. Archimedes' Principle, will How can you prove Archimedes' Principle? , large pan, funnel, a n d s o m e string. P l a c e t h e b u c k e t i n t o t h e p a n a n d fill the bucket to the brim with water. D o n o t spill a n y i n t o t h e p a n . If y o u a c c i d e n t a l l y spill s o m e w a t e r , m o p i t with a cloth. Tie the string up securely a
b u c k e t

can in the

another of

of an object weight

to the

than suspure you a a need ,

his no-

he

spring scale, a brick, a large bottle, a

Archimedes Principle?

ticed Al . thing

some, else: the

his b o d y w a s lighter t h a n it w o u l d h a v e been h a d there been n o water in bathtub. You probably have noticed that he

the s a m e thing w h e n sitting in a bathtub. Archimedes understood w e i g h e d less w h e n i n t h e w a t e r b e c a u s e s o m e of t h e w a t e r w a s p u s h i n g u p w a r d on his body. T h i s upward-pushing force is c a l l e d a buoyant force. A r c h i m e d e s , being a mathematician, wanted to k n o w h o w strong the buoyant force was. H e f o u n d t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e b u o y a n t force o n his b o d y w a s equal to the over up into w e i g h t of t h e w a t e r t h a t s p i l l e d because Archimedes' body took

a r o u n d the brick so that you can h o o k it o n t o t h e s p r i n g scale. H o l d t h e scale high e n o u g h so that the brick m a r k it d o w n o n paper. Slowly lower the brick into the water i n t h e b u c k e t . W h e n t h e w h o l e b r i c k is hangs f r e e . N o t e t h e w e i g h t of t h e b r i c k a n d

t h e sides of t h e t u b . T h i s w a t e r spilled space in the t u b that h a d b e e n t a k e n u p by water before h e h a d climbed the tub. W h e n an object takes u p space in a liquid in this m a n n e r , w e say t h a t t h e o b j e c t displaces object force in a liquid that is equal the liquid. Archiis buoyed to the weight up by of a the m e d e s ' r u l e o r p r i n c i p l e is t h a t an

displaced liquid. W h e n a b u o y a n t force acts o n a n ob-

The experiment proves Archimedes' Principle. Instead of a spring scale you can use a kitchen scale, as illustrated. Slip the strings holding the brick over the platform of the scale.

43

beneath water, but not touching b o t t o m of t h e b u c k e t , a g a i n n o t e brick will weigh less. Subtract

the the the from

r e m e m b e r , s a y s t h a t t h e l o s s of w e i g h t of a n o b j e c t i n a l i q u i d is e q u a l t o t h e w e i g h t of t h e d i s p l a c e d l i q u i d . A b a t t l e s h i p is m a d e of s t e e l a n d is extremely heavy. T h e Why do Tj s s N e w Jersey battleships float? . , __ n f v A weighs 57,000 tons w h e n it is fully l o a d e d a n d t h e a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r U . S . S . Enterprise weighs 85,000 t o n s . W h e n w e t h i n k of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s t e e l of w h i c h t h e y a r e c o n s t r u c t e d is s o m u c h h e a v i e r t h a n w a t e r , it d o e s n o t seem reasonable that objects as heavy as ships should steel ships the answer. float? P r i n c i p l e will give remember that us the disYou Archimedes' float. Why, then, do

w e i g h t of t h e b r i c k o n t h e s c a l e . T h e w e i g h t of t h e b r i c k i n t h e w a t e r

t h e w e i g h t of t h e b r i c k i n a i r . T h e diff e r e n c e w i l l e q u a l t h e a m o u n t of w e i g h t the brick lost w h e n in water. R e m o v e the brick from the water. T a k e t h e b u c k e t o u t of t h e p a n , b e i n g c a r e f u l n o t t o spill a n y m o r e w a t e r f r o m the bucket into the pan. Weigh the bottle, t h e n , using the funnel, carefully pour the water from the p a n into the bottle. W e i g h t h e bottle a n d the water t o g e t h e r . S u b t r a c t t h e w e i g h t of t h e b o t t l e f r o m t h e w e i g h t of t h e b o t t l e and w a t e r t o g e t h e r . T h i s will give t h e w e i g h t of t h e w a t e r d i s p l a c e d b y t h e b r i c k . If y o u h a v e b e e n careful, this w e i g h t will e q u a l t h e a m o u n t of w e i g h t t h e b r i c k lost w h e n p l a c e d in water. T h i s proves Archimedes' Principle which, as you

b u o y a n t f o r c e o n a n o b j e c t i n w a t e r is e q u a l t o t h e w e i g h t of t h e w a t e r p l a c e d . If t h e w e i g h t of t h e w a t e r disp l a c e d is m o r e t h a n t h e w e i g h t of t h e object, t h e b u o y a n t force will b e g r e a t e r

A steel ship floats because the part of the ship below the surface displaces a volume of water that weighs as much as the whole ship. The ship is buoyed up with a force equal to the weight of this displaced water.

t h a n t h e w e i g h t of t h e o b j e c t , a n d t h e object will float. The Enterprise is n e a r l y one-fifth of a m i l e l o n g , a s w i d e a s a c i t y b l o c k , a n d is n i n e s t o r i e s h i g h . T h e w e i g h t of t h e w a t e r d i s p l a c e d b y t h e v o l u m e of t h i s h u g e s h i p is m o r e than 85,000 tons; therefore, the buoya n t f o r c e a c t i n g o n t h e s h i p is more than 85,000 tons. A s a result, the great m a s s of s t e e l floats. If s o m e g i a n t h a n d w e r e t o c r u s h t h e Enterprise into a solid l u m p of s t e e l , it w o u l d d i s p l a c e a m u c h s m a l l e r v o l u m e of w a t e r . T h e w a t e r disp l a c e d b y t h e s o l i d l u m p of s t e e l w o u l d w e i g h less t h a n 8 5 , 0 0 0 t o n s , therefore t h e b u o y a n t f o r c e w o u l d b e less t h a n 85,000 tons and would not be enough t o h o l d t h e steel u p in t h e w a t e r . O b t a i n a s h e e t of m e t a l foil s u c h a s your m o t h e r uses in the kitchen. F r o m t h e foil, m a k e a b o a t a b o u t five i n c h e s l o n g a n d t w o i n c h e s w i d e . If t h e b o a t d o e s n o t l e a k , it w i l l float i n w a t e r . T h e water the boat displaces weighs the the s a m e as t h e m e t a l foil; t h e r e f o r e ,

t h e b u o y a n t f o r c e is g r e a t e n o u g h k e e p t h e fish a f l o a t n e a r t h e

to

surface,

h o w c a n t h e fish o v e r c o m e t h e b u o y a n t force a n d remain near the b o t t o m ? W h y doesn't the b u o y a n t force always push t h e fish u p n e a r t h e s u r f a c e whenever t h e fish s w i m s d e e p e r ? T h e a n s w e r t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s is t h a t t h e fish h a s a n o r g a n c a l l e d a swim bladder by means elastic the of w h i c h t h e fish c a n c h a n g e i t s size. T h e s w i m b l a d d e r is a s a c of tissue b e t w e e n the stomach and

b a c k b o n e . T h e b l a d d e r is filled w i t h a i r and can be m a d e larger and smaller. W h e n t h e s w i m b l a d d e r is l a r g e s t , t h e size of t h e fish is i n c r e a s e d ; t h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e fish d i s p l a c e s t h e m o s t water on fish fish fish t h a t it c a n , a n d t h e b u o y a n t f o r c e t h e fish is g r e a t e s t ; a s a r e s u l t , t h e floats at the surface. When the m a k e s its s w i m b l a d d e r s m a l l , t h e d i s p l a c e s less w a t e r , a n d t h e

buoyant

f o r c e u p o n it is l e s s ; a s a r e s u l t , t h e fish

b u o y a n t f o r c e is e q u a l t o t h e w e i g h t of t h e foil. R o l l t h e foil i n t o a t i g h t b a l l , s q u e e z e t h e b a l l flat, a n d d r o p it i n t o w a t e r . I t will sink, b e c a u s e n o w t h e b a l l displaces w a t e r t h a t w e i g h s less t h e foil, a n d a s a r e s u l t t h e the water. You h a v e seen fish in an and aquarium up in and at down than buoyant

When the swim bladder is inflated the fish displaces more water. This causes it to rise to the surface.

f o r c e is t o o s m a l l t o h o l d t h e foil u p i n

/'SWIM B L A D D E R I N F L A T E D

swimming How does a fish move up and down in the water? the water floating

w h a t e v e r level they choose. H o w c a n a fish float i n w a t e r n e a r t h e s u r f a c e a n d a l s o n e a r t h e b o t t o m of t h e w a t e r ? If SWIM B L A D D E R D E F L A T E D

Schematic drawing that shows how the diving tanks in a submarine function. By filling or emptying the tanks, the submarine can submerge or surface..

m a r i n e c o m m a n d e r c a n c h o o s e t h e level at w h i c h t h e s u b m a r i n e will float.

sinks t o l o w e r levels. B y c h a n g i n g t h e size of its s w i m b l a d d e r , a fish c a n a t w h a t e v e r l e v e l it c h o o s e s . A s u b m a r i n e c a n n o t c h a n g e i t s size a s a How does a submarine move up and down , .. in the water?
b m

Once a boy took a heavy earthenware j u g t o a well. What is Pascal's Principle? filled He the jug until

float

it o v e r f l o w e d . T h e n sure that the

h e p u t t h e s t o p p e r i n t o t h e m o u t h of the jug and, to m a k e s t o p p e r w o u l d n o t fall o u t , h e s t r u c k it s h a r p l y w i t h t h e p a l m of h i s h a n d . H e was astonished when the whole bottom fell o u t of t h e j u g ! W h y d i d t h e blow that would not ordinarily jug a be

fish ^

can,
ub.

marine

can

m a k e u s e of Archimedes' Principle in another way, s o a s t o c h a n g e t h e l e v e l a t w h i c h it floats. Inside a submarine, there are large t a n k s into w h i c h sea w a t e r c a n b e pumped. W h e n the tanks are the submarine weight of floats the empty, a t t h e s u r f a c e of submarine dis-

b r e a k w h e n its s t o p p e r w a s s t r u c k

s t r o n g e n o u g h t o b r e a k a j u g m a d e of heavy earthenware? In order to unders t a n d w h a t h a p p e n e d , w e will h a v e t o learn something concerning liquids that was discovered by a y o u n g F r e n c h physicist, m a t h e m a t i c i a n , 3 0 0 years ago. W h a t P a s c a l l e a r n e d w a s t h i s : if y o u a p p l y p r e s s u r e a n y w h e r e t o a fluid h e l d in a c o n t a i n e r , t h e p r e s s u r e will p a s s through the fluid in every direction w i t h o u t a n y l o s s of s t r e n g t h . T h i s disc o v e r y is k n o w n a s P a s c a l ' s P r i n c i p l e . Suppose w e h a v e a big iron t a n k in t h e s h a p e of a c y l i n d e r . I t is l y i n g o n i t s side a n d is six feet h i g h a n d t e n feet A l o n g . T h e t a n k is filled w i t h w a t e r . and philosopher some n a m e d Blaise Pascal, w h o lived

t h e s e a . T h i s m e a n s , of c o u r s e , t h a t t h e water p l a c e s is t h e s a m e a s t h e w e i g h t of t h e submarine, and therefore the buoyant f o r c e a c t i n g o n t h e s u b m a r i n e is e q u a l to the submarine's weight. When a submarine commander wishes t o t a k e his craft b e n e a t h t h e surf a c e of t h e s e a , h e p u m p s w a t e r i n t o t h e tanks within the submarine. As the t a n k s fill, t h e w e i g h t of t h e s u b m a r i n e b e c o m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e w e i g h t of t h e w a t e r it displaces; t h e b u o y a n t and the craft sinks. By varying force the a c t i n g o n t h e s u b m a r i n e b e c o m e s less, a m o u n t of w a t e r i n t h e t a n k s , t h e s u b 46

s m a l l p i s t o n is f i t t e d i n t o o n e e n d of t h e

tank a n d a large piston into the other end. T h e pistons are square, and the small one has a surface just one inch across, while the large o n e has a surface t e n i n c h e s a c r o s s . A s q u a r e t h a t is o n e i n c h a c r o s s h a s a n a r e a of o n e s q u a r e i n c h ; a s q u a r e t h a t is t e n i n c h e s a c r o s s h a s a s u r f a c e a r e a of 1 0 0 s q u a r e i n c h e s . N o w suppose a m a n pushes on the small piston. H o w m a n y m e n will b e needed to push against the big piston i n o r d e r t o k e e p it f r o m b e i n g p u s h e d o u t w a r d a t i t s e n d of t h e t a n k ? A h u n dred men! T h e water transmits to each of t h e 1 0 0 s q u a r e i n c h e s o n t h e s u r f a c e of t h e b i g p i s t o n t h e s a m e a m o u n t of pressure that was applied to the one s q u a r e i n c h of t h e s m a l l p i s t o n . If t h e m a n p u s h e d o n t h e o n e - i n c h - s q u a r e pist o n w i t h a p r e s s u r e of 6 0 p o u n d s , t h a t 60 pounds of pressure would have passed through the water to every other s q u a r e i n c h i n t h e t a n k . T h e l a r g e piston h a d 100 square inches, so 6 0 p o u n d s of p r e s s u r e p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e water t o e a c h o n e of t h e 1 0 0 s q u a r e i n c h e s of the large piston. O n e h u n d r e d times 60 is 6 , 0 0 0 , s o 6 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s of p r e s s u r e was pushing against the large piston. N o w o n d e r it w o u l d t a k e 1 0 0 m e n t o hold the large piston against the pressure exerted by one m a n . N o w you can understand earthenware jug broke. why the the one Suppose

t o m , t h e n 1 , 6 0 0 p o u n d s of f o r c e s u d denly pushed on the bottom. N o wonder the jug broke! H a v e y o u e v e r s e e n a m a n fix a flat t i r e o n t h e w h e e l of How does a hydraulic jack work? of a b i g or truck trailer?

F i r s t , h e h a d t o lift t h e w h e e l off t h e g r o u n d . T o d o this h e used a tool called a j a c k . H e p l a c e d t h e u p r i g h t p a r t of t h e j a c k u n d e r a p a r t of t h e truck's frame; then he p u m p e d a handle up and d o w n ; a s a r e s u l t , t h e u p r i g h t p a r t of t h e jack m o v e d slowly u p w a r d , pushing t h e t r u c k ' s h e a v y f r a m e w i t h it. h e a v y a s a t r u c k is a hydraulic "Hydraulic" means "operated by The jack. waj a c k t h a t is n e e d e d t o lift a n o b j e c t a s

t e r . " I n s i d e t h e j a c k is a t h i c k i r o n cyl i n d e r filled w i t h w a t e r . E v e r y t i m e t h e m a n pushed the handle down, a small piston p u s h e d against the w a t e r in t h e cylinder, a n d the p u s h passed t h r o u g h the water to a large piston, where the s t r e n g t h of t h e p u s h w a s s o g r e a t l y i n creased that the heavy truck could be lifted u p w a r d . Many machines have been cons t r u c t e d t o m u l t i p l y f o r c e b y m e a n s of P a s c a l ' s P r i n c i p l e . O n e of t h e s e is t h e h y d r a u l i c p r e s s t h a t is u s e d t o b a l e c o t t o n . Y o u k n o w t h a t c o t t o n is v e r y l i g h t a n d fluffy. I t w o u l d b e v e r y a w k w a r d t o s h i p l a r g e a m o u n t s of c o t t o n j u s t a s it comes from the cotton plant; the cotton would take u p so m u c h S o , c o t t o n is p l a c e d i n l a r g e sacks a n d compressed by a p i s t o n , a l a r g e o n e is m o v e d fluffy room. burlap

s t o p p e r h a d a b o t t o m s u r f a c e of of t h e j u g h a d a n a r e a of 8 0

square inch. L e t us say that the b o t t o m square boy 20 inches. A l s o , let us say t h a t t h e h i t t h e s t o p p e r w i t h a p r e s s u r e of pounds. If a p r e s s u r e of 20

hydraulic upward,

pounds

press. W h e n the baler pushes a small s q u e e z i n g a i r o u t of t h e c o t t o n b y p u s h 47

passed through the water to every one of t h e 8 0 s q u a r e i n c h e s of t h e j u g ' s b o t -

The way in which the jack works to hoist automobiles in a service station, is based on Pascal's Law. Today oil is used instead of water in many hydraulic appliances.

ing the sack against a

flat

square around

of the fluf-

fing o u t a g a i n . T h e h y d r a u l i c lift t h a t raises cars a b o v e t h e g r o u n d in service stations also uses Pascal's Principle.

iron. Wires are w r a p p e d

c o m p r e s s e d c o t t o n t o k e e p it f r o m

Air,

W a t e r ,

a n d lakes

Y o u and rivers. Many people are

Y o u h a v e l e a r n e d t h a t air a n d w a t e r a r e very important How can you help s u b s t a n c e s > W i t h . keep air and ., ., . out them, there water clean? w o u l d b e n o lite at all. S o m e t i m e s a i r a n d w a t e r polluted, become t h a t is, t h e y . b e c o m e d i r t y a n d

needed to w o r k at keeping our air a n d water clean. W e need engineers to build d a m s a n d sewage systems. Chemists are n e e d e d t o t e s t w a t e r a n d a i r t o s e e if t h e y a r e safe, a n d r e s e a r c h e r s a r e n e e d e d to discover new ways to m a k e clean. People are needed to them advise

even d a n g e r o u s to use. W h e n this happ e n s , m a n h a s t o find a w a y of m a k i n g t h e m clean a n d safe again. P e r h a p s y o u have seen a polluted p o n d or stream f r o m w h i c h n o o n e is a l l o w e d t o d r i n k w a t e r o r s w i m in b e c a u s e h e w o u l d get s i c k if h e d i d . I n s o m e c i t i e s t h e a i r , t o o , b e c o m e s v e r y d i r t y . S o m e t i m e s it gets so dirty that people c h o k e a n d their eyes w a t e r . A s t h e p o p u l a t i o n of o u r c o u n t r y increases, m o r e a n d m o r e waste materials will b e e m p t i e d i n t o t h e a i r a n d 48 into cough and

farmers on the best way to plant crops so t h a t soil e r o s i o n will b e p r e v e n t e d . W e n e e d o t h e r p e o p l e t o p l a n cities a n d t o w n s so t h e factories a n d d u m p s that might pollute the air a n d w a t e r are not built near homes. T h e s e t a s k s offer much interesting lifelong

work that can be a rewarding one of these useful and

career. P e r h a p s y o u will o n e d a y enter challenging fields w o r k i n g t o k e e p o u r a i r a n d w a t e r c l e a n a n d safe.

HOW AND WHY WONDER

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Produced and approved by noted authorities, these books answer the questions most often asked about science, nature and history. They are presented in a clear, readable style, and contain many colorful and instructive illustrations. Readers will want to explore each of these fascinating subjects and collect these volumes as an authentic, ready-reference, basic library. 5001 5002 5003 5004 5005 5007 5008 5009 5010 5011 5012 5013 5014 5015 5016 5017 5018 5020 5021 5022 5023 5024 5025 5026 5027 5028 5029 5030 5031 5032 5033 5034 DINOSAURS WEATHER ELECTRICITY ROCKS AND MINERALS ROCKETS AND MISSILES INSECTS REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS BIRDS OUR EARTH BEGINNING SCIENCE MACHINES THE HUMAN BODY SEA SHELLS ATOMIC ENERGY THE MICROSCOPE THE CIVIL W A R MATHEMATICS BALLET CHEMISTRY HORSES EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES PRIMITIVE MAN NORTH AMERICA PLANETS AND INTERPLANETARY TRAVEL WILD ANIMALS SOUND LOST CITIES ANTS AND BEES WILD FLOWERS DOGS PREHISTORIC MAMMALS SCIENCE EXPERIMENTS 5035 5036 5037 5039 5040 5041 5042 5043 5045 5046 5047 5049 5050 5051 5053 5054 5055 5056 5057 5058 5059 5060 5061 5062 5063 5064 5065 5066 5067 5068 5069 WORLD W A R II FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS ROBOTS AND ELECTRONIC BRAINS LIGHT AND COLOR WINNING OF THE WEST THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION CAVES TO SKYSCRAPERS TIME MAGNETS AND MAGNETISM GUNS FAMOUS SCIENTISTS OLD TESTAMENT BUILDING TREES OCEANOGRAPHY NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS MUSHROOMS, FERNS AND MOSSES THE POLAR REGIONS COINS AND CURRENCY BASIC INVENTIONS THE FIRST WORLD W A R ELECTRONICS DESERTS AIR AND WATER STARS AIRPLANES AND THE STORY OF FLIGHT FISH BOATS AND SHIPS THE MOON TRAINS AND RAILROADS

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