One goal of evolutionary biology: reconstruct history of life on Earth Phylogeny = evolutionary history of a group of organisms Systematics = analytical

approach to understanding diversity and relationships of living and extinct organisms Fossil record, morphological data, biochemical similarities, nucleotide sequencing Goal is to construct universal tree of life Concept 25.1 Phylogenics are based on common ancestries inferred from fossil, morphological, and molecular evidence. Sedimentary rocks are the richest source of fossils. Sedimentary rocks from are from eroding sand/silt that pile up and then compress (sometimes with dead organism) Strata = layers of sedimentary rock Fossil record biased toward species that existed for a long time, abundant and widespread, and had hard shells/skeletons Morphological and molecular similarities may provide clues to phylogeny. Homologies = similarities due to shared ancestry Morphological divergences can occur due to relatively few genetic differences Typically revealed by similar nucleotide sequence Difficult to make nucleic acid comparisons b/c difficult to align Now done with computer programs Insertions and deletions accumulate, shifts make things even harder Analogies = similarities due to convergent evolution (different lineages experience similar environmental pressures) Homoplasies = analogous structure that evolved independently Molecular homoplasies considerably less abundant

Concept 25.2 Phylogenic systematics connects classification with evolutionary history. Taxonomy = ordered division of organisms into categories based on similarities and differences Taxonomy employs a hierarchical system of classification . Each species has a two-part name (binomial nomenclature) - Genus. epithet Genus = group of related species Species are organized hierarchically into broader and broader groups of organisms (each called a taxon) Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain (Kinky People Can Often Find Good Sex)

Classification and phylogeny are linked. Phylogenic trees = branching diagrams to depict hypotheses about evolutionary relationships

25.3 Phylogenetic systematics informs the construction of phylogenetic trees based on shared characteristics Cladogram = shows relations among organisms but does not show how ancestors are related Clade = group of species that include an ancestral species and all descendants Cladistics = study of resemblances The principles of maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood help systematists reconstruct phylogeny. Maximum parsimony = find simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts Morphology: one that requires fewest evolutionary events DNA sequence: one that requires fewest base changes in DNA Maximum likelihood = tree should reflect most likely sequence of evolutionary events Phylogenetic trees are hypotheses

25.4 Much of an organism's evolutionary history is documented in its genome Molecular systematics seeks to understand phylogenic relationships that cannot be compared by anatomy Enables scientists to compare genetic diverge within a species Gene duplication has provided opportunities for evolutionary change. Increases number of genes in genome Results in gene families (groups of related genes); have common genetic "ancestor" Types of Homologous Genes Orthologous genes = genes found in different gene pools because of speciation (widespread and prevalent) Paralogous genes = result from gene duplication and are found in more than one copy in same genome

25.5 Molecular clocks help track evolutionary time