Dr.

Absar Ahmad EXPLORING ISLAMIC THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

In order to lay bare the structure of the Islamic theory of knowledge it is imperative that we turn our attention to the Holy Book 'Al-Quran' the fountain head and bed-rock of Islamic doctrinal belief and faith. In so doing we should also adhere to the most essential rule phrased very aptly by late a!lur "ehman thus# $%hat is re&uired is a willingness to get into the Quran itself rather than to go around it indulging in what must be distortions of the Quran at worst and trivialities at best$.' At the outset( let me say a few things which must be appreciated positively by any scholar studying Islam and its doctrines. About the character of the Quran one thing is abundantly clear. It neither is nor purports to be a book of philosophy or metaphysics. It calls itself $)uidance for mankind$ *hudan-lil-nas+ and demands that people live by its commands. Islam has( as its central task( the construction of a social order on viable ethical basis. It is a practical remedy for the multiple ailments of humanity and a recipe for how man may transcend his banalities to create a positive human brotherhood. In order( therefore( to derive a theory of epistemology from it( a determination of its teachings into a cohesive enough unity is re&uired. Islam is a divinely revealed monotheistic religion# it is a complete way of life-ideology or ,een. As such( its epistemology is deeply enmeshed in its over-all metaphysical view of reality and being. In the present paper I shall mainly concentrate on the concept and nature of knowledge in the Quranic scheme of things and the sources of veridical knowledge. -y interest in the sub.ect grew by reading a paper on this very theme contributed by /rofessor B.H.0iddi&ue which was published by the international institute of Islamic thought at Islamabad.1 /rofessor B. H. 0iddi&ui's seminal writing entitled $knowledge# An Islamic /erspective$ is &uite impressive in its scope and a commendable attempt at putting in bold relief the variegated strands of the authentic Islamic theory of knowledge. 2he first two subsections of his essay dilate on the cultural value of knowledge in Islam and its general intellectual temper. 2he first ayat in the order of the Quranic revelation( '"ead in the name of thy 3ord who createth' *45#'+ with its categorical in.unction to read lays an undeniable emphasis on that capacity of man which the 6reator has endowed him with as pre-eminently human. 2he raison d'etre of man( the 'why' of his being cannot but be to understand and learn( and for that purpose the providence has e&uipped man with *'+ 7ur-i- itrat( i.e an inherent light of nature *1+ senses for observation

*8+ reason for deduction and ratiocination *9+ provided him with guidance revealed through the /rophet. 2he ob.ect of knowledge can only be primarily the world within and the world without and ultimately the "eally "eal( the 6reator of all e:istence. 2he Quran beholds in the knowledge of )od alone the end and telos of life. Among the numerous sources of knowledge .ust mentioned( perhaps the first calls for some elaboration and I think that professor 0iddi&ui did not pay full attention to it when he wrote( $knowledge( as the root of culture( is not given to man at birth$ *p.1+ ;n the contrary( verse <= of 0urah 2a-Ha states# ;ur lord is He who gave into everything its nature and constitution( and then guided it aright$. *1=#<=+ According to this Quranic verse( our 3ord has given everything its inner structure( e&uipped it with its means of attaining perfection( and then guided it towards its real goal. %hile it is an open &uestion whether an e:plicit and systematically worked out Islamic epistemology e:ists( it is undeniable that various epistemological issues have been discussed in the Quran and e:plicated by -uslim philosophers with an orientation different from that of %estern epistemology. 2oday attempts are being made to understand the basic epistemological issues in terms of that orientation. 2his is a valuable effort that deserves our interest and encouragement. However( it can be fruitful only if the practice or rigorous analysis is kept up( with close attention to the precise definitions of the various concepts involved. In the Islamic theory of knowledge( the term used for knowledge in Arabic is 'ilm( which( as "osenthal has .ustifiably pointed out( has a much wider connotation than its synonyms in >nglish and other %estern languages. 'knowledge' falls short of e:pressing all the aspects of 'ilm. knowledge in the %estern world means information about something( divine or corporeal( while 'ilm is an all-embracing term covering theory( action and education. "osenthal( highlighting the importance of this term in -uslim civili!ation and Islam( says that it gives them a distinctive shape. In fact there is no concept that has been operative as a determinant of the -uslim civili!ation in all its aspects to the same e:tent as 'ilm. 2his holds good even for the most powerful among the terms of -uslim religious life such as( for instance( tawhid $recognition of the oneness of )od($ ad-din( $the true religion($ and many others that are used constantly and emphatically. 7one of them e&uals 'ilm in depth of meaning and wide incidence of use. 2here is no branch of -uslim intellectual life( of -uslim religious and political life( and of the daily life of the average -uslim that remains untouched by the all-pervasive attitude toward$ knowledge$ as something of supreme value for -uslim being. 'Ilm is Islam( even if the theologians have been hesitant to accept the technical correctness of this

e&uation. 2he very fact of their passionate discussion of the concept attests to its fundamental importance for Islam.8 It may be said that Islam is the path of $knowledge$. 7o other religion or ideology has so much emphasi!ed the importance of 'ilm. In the Qur'an the word 'alim has occurred in '9= places( while al-'ilm in 1?. In all( the total number of verses in which 'ilm or its derivatives and associated words are used is ?=9. 2he aids of knowledge such as book( pen( ink etc. amount to almost the same number. Qalam occurs in two places( al-kitab in 18= verses( among which al-kitab for alQur'an occurs in @' verses. ;ther words associated with writing occur in 8'4 verses. It is important to note that pen and book are essential to the ac&uisition of knowledge. 2he Islamic revelation started with the word i&ra' *'readA' or 'reciteA'+. According to the Qur'an( the first teaching class for Adam started soon after his creation and Adam was taught 'all the 7ames' *allama Adan al-asmaha kullaha+. Allah is the first teacher and the absolute guide of humanity. 2his knowledge was not imparted to even the Angels. 2he idea of ilm distinguishes the world-view of Islam from all other outlooks nd ideologies# no other world-view makes the pursuit of knowledge an individual and social obligation and gives en&uiry the same moral and religious significance as worship. Ilm( therefore( serves as the hallmark of -uslim culture and civilisation. In the history of -uslim civilisation( the concept of ilm permeated deep into all strata of society and manifested itself in all intellectual endeavours. 7o other civilisation in history has embraced the notion of 'knowledge' with such passion and pursued it with such vigour. 2o translate ilm as 'knowledge' is to do violence( even though it be unintentional( to this sublime and multi-dimensional concept. It certainly contains the elements of what we understand today as knowledge. But it also contains the components of what is traditionally described as 'wisdom'. But this is by no means the end of the story /erhaps( we can best under-stand the notion with reference to other concepts of the Qur'an to which it is intricately linked. 2his ilm also has some connotation of ibadah *worship+B that is( the pursuit of ilm is a form of worship. 0imilarly( ilm incorporates the Qur'anic notion of khilafah *trusteeship of man+# thus( men *and women+ seek ilm as trustees of )od for if ilm is sought outside this framework it will violate the fundamental Islamic notion of tawheed. And( the means by which ilm is ac&uired and the final use to which it is put both by the individual and society are both sub.ect to accountability# the Qur'anic concept of akhrah *the Hereafter+ envelopes ilm to ensure its moral and social relevance. 2hese few of the many( many dimensions of ilm illustrate the comple: and sophisticated nature of the notion. 2he synthesis of a whole array of principles and notions into a single( unified concept of ilm is one of the basic features of the world-view of Islam. It was this

universal synthesis that demolished the artificial boundaries of the so-called religious and secular knowledge. And it was this universal synthesis which ensured that for a -uslim( knowledge was not an isolated( abstract act or thoughtB it was at the very root of hisCher being and world-view. It is not surprising then that ilm had so much significance for early -uslims( that countless -uslim thinkers were so occupied with the e:position of the concept. 2heir conceptualisation of ilm is perhaps best manifested in the attempted definitions of ilm of which there seems to be no dearth. 2he seemingly insatiable &uest of these scholars to define ilm in all its shapes and forms was inspired by the belief that ilm was nothing more than a mainifestation of tawheedB $understanding the signs of )od$( being near Him( as well as building a civilisation re&uired comprehensive pursuit of knowledge. As "osenthal observes# $a -uslim civilisation without it would have been unimaginable to the medieval -uslims themselves( and it is even more so in retrospect. 6hange was not likely to alter its true meaning. 0ince( however( it was so important a concept( a tremendous amount of thought was given to it at all times and all levels of education$ *$-uslim definitions of knowledge$( in# 2he 6onflict of 2raditionalism and -odernism in the -iddle >ast edited by 6arl 3eiden( Dniversity of 2e:as /ress( Austin( '455( p.''?+ 'Enowledge' in the Quranic /erspective Historically speaking( philosophical thinking( including epistemological doctrines( is closely related to religious beliefs and gnostic traditions. It has often culminated in the attempt to do intellectually what religion has done practically and emotionally# to establish human life in some satisfying and meaningful relation to the universe in which man finds himself( and to get some wisdom in the conduct of human affairs. knowledge( according to the Quranic doctrine( is both a gift of ,ivine revelation as well as a creative element or aspect of the human spirit. -ost of recent philosophy threatens our spiritual e:istence and freedom by driving the contemporary mind into irrational and compulsive negation of religious truth. Islam( however is a faith that is reasonable and rational( a faith we can adopt with intellectual integrity and ethical conviction. /hilosophy( with all its variegated disciplines( in the framework of Islam cannot be s&uared with an antiactivist or 'spectator' view of it which aims merely at an enlargement of the understanding. Indeed in an Islamic framework it becomes an essentially practical sub.ect# it seeks to get people to do things. It cannot remain uncommitted to social action. 2he attack on spectatorism which we find in >:istentialism and in the pragmatists is very relevant to the current philosophical scene. -oreover( Anglo-American academic philosophy is presently built around the assumption that its true centre is espistemology. 2his assumption is apparent particularly in the structure and content of university courses. 2he approach to the various areas of philosophy via the problem of knowledge is one possible way of organi!ing one's conception of philosophy. But the outcome has been the

abstraction of 'man as knower' from the rest of human life( and in particular from human practice. 2his has been a distinguishing feature of the empiricist tradition and epistemology is still dominated by that tradition# the so-called 'problems of knowledge' are the problems of the isolated individual knower confined to the world of his own sense-perceptions.9 6onversely( it is essential to see the activity of 'knowing' as arising out of( and part of( man's general attempt to organi!e and cope with the cosmos( in order to vindicate the status of human knowledge as a meaningful totality rather than a series of discrete sense impressions. However( it is reassuring to note that as the last &uarter of this century comes to a close( a new revolutionary mood is placing new pressures on the course of philosophy. 2he wirtings of /aul eyerabend( "ichard "orty and others show the fractured nature of our highly individuali!ed and atomi!ed culture and how very difficult it is for us to get out from under the shadow of positivism. Another critic( Alasdair -acIntyre( focuses on the moral bankruptcy of modern way of life and behaviour calling this a failure of the $enlightenment e:periment$ of %estern culture. 0till other voices of this revolutionary moodFFlargely represented by a group of rench and )erman philosophers who refer to the present culture as a $post-modern$ oneFFpoint a finger at scientific and technocratic communities( blaming them for the current state of human fragmentation and an oppressive rationali!ation of human life. In the Islamic conte:t( the knowledge-seeking mind has not only a conceptualspiritual being( but also a social-material e:istence. Islam has never allowed the speculative and active lives to become totally divorced from each other. 2hought and reflection have always been wedded to action. ;n the one hand( according to a prophetic tradition( an hour of thoughtful reflection is better than si:ty years of acts of worship. But knowledge without action has been described as a tree without fruit. 6ontemplative thought *tafakkur+ and reflection in Islamic spirituality essentially provide a knowledge that relates the knower to higher modes of being. ;nly in this manner do we hope to remove the root-cause of a strong dissatisfaction with the present state of philosophy. ortunately( a great deal of work has recently been done by -uslim thinkers in detecting the subtler mechanisms of widespread false consciousness perpetrated by materialistic philosophies. An enormous amount remains to be done along the same lines. It will be instructive at this .uncture to e:plore at some length "osenthal's analysis of knowledge. An over view of "osenthal's classification of -uslim definition of ilm yeilds that it can be classified as# '. A process of knowing that is identical with the known and the knower. 1. A form of cognition *marifah+.

8. 0gnonymous with comprehension *ihatah+ 9. A process of mental perception. <. A means for clarification( assertion and decision. 5. A concept or percept sub.ect to apperception. ?. An attribute *sifah+ @. A agent of memory or imagination. 4. -otion '=. A relative term. ''. ,efined in relation to action. '1. A product of introspection. And as he states( more definitions could be found and classified accordingly. And( contrary to erstwhile common opinion( these and other definitions were not restricted to the so-called religious knowledge alone. >ven if we follow the above twelve categories( as delineated by "osenthal( we find that these definitions of ilm encompass a very wide spectrum of philosophical thinking. 2here is a clear awareness of both the sub.ective and ob.ective dimensions of knowledgeB even of the fact that from one particular perspective a branch of knowledge may be classified as 'ob.ective'( while from another perspective the same branch may be considered to be rather 'sub.ective'. However( attempts at the delineation of ilm were not confined to mere definition of the concept. %hile the practice of internal criticism was faithfully followed by -uslim scholars in defining ilm( they consistently moved far beyond this fundamental e:ercise. 2his is apparent from the fact that the continuing debate on the definitions of ilm did not end in blind alleysB operational definitions were emphasised and continually sought. 2he impetus for operationalisation of knowledge was provided by the moral imperative that was ine:tricably meshed into the fabric of ilm. Here again( it was at once a moral obligation to ac&uire and disseminate ilm. or eight classical scholars( it was at once a moral obligation to ac&uire and disseminate ilm and operationalise it as a moral discriminant. 2he classical division of knowledge as praiseworthy and blameworthy( and the role of knowledge as individual and collective obligation is too well known to be e:plained here. 0uffice it to say that amal *action+ was declared part and parcel of ilm and ilm without amal was inconceivable. 2his was indeed the operationalisation strategy for ilm and it was guided( in spirit and letter( by the central Islamic concept of tawheed and the

moral dictates which this implies. Indeed( the moral imperative( the function that knowledge performed( whether it was 'ob.ective' or 'sub.ective'( 'praiseworthy' or 'blameworthy' was determined on the sole criteria of its moral worth. 6lassical -uslim scholars were well aware that while a branch of knowledge( a particular piece of information( may have intrinsic value( it could e&ually have harmful effects for the society as a whole. 2he pursuit of truth re&uired that it should be pursued within moral boundaries and its fruits should be beneficial for all society. 2hey were aware that the pursuit of truth could become perverseB that when the process of pursuit itself becomes an obsession( then 'truth' loses its moral significance. 2hat 'truth' could be manufactured and made to appear 'ob.ective'B that beyond the Absolute 2ruth( .udgements about truth can be relative. Enowledge and Galue /rofessor 0iddi&ui maintains in his paper that knowledge( all types of knowledge( is normative and valueful. -any modern -uslim scholars have &ualms against this thesis( but I think his claim is fully substantiated by the Islamic revelation. If one thinks with and through the Qur'anic premises( the Holy Book considers all things to be $signs$ *ayat+ pointing to the ultimate origin of the world. Besides describing the internal structure of an ob.ect( its history( present state( and future course of development( it also discusses its place in perspective or origination and ultimate endB that is( it makes a vertical movement that cuts across the hori!ontal physical plane. 2hus the systems of $efficient cause$ and $final cause$ act as two wings attached to the body of the e:perimental science *study of internal structure+ helping it to break out of static( earth-bound state and enabling it to fly in the infinite skies of the ,ivine world outlook. 2he same sort of approach towards the phenomena of this world can be seen throughout the Quran. In this manner the two wings of origination and ultimate purpose are revived and re.uvenated in all the research being carried out about these phenomena. In this way( the Holy Quran turns knowledge into reason( reason into wisdom( and mental conceptions into verities. 2his is the fashion in which the Quran coordinates the findings of theoretical reason with the effort of practical reason. 2his means that the Quran turns a specialist into man of religion( a scientific researcher into a practical investigator( a scientific $authority$ into a devotee of the 2ruth( a technical inventor into a committed believer( an industrial entrepreneur into a man of faith( thus transforming raw mind into a seasoned intellect. In the past -uslim philosophers did not consider any field of learning to be truly independent science. 2hey believed that( without the science of ethics and spiritual purification( mastery over any science was not only devoid of any value( but it would in fact lead to the befogging of insight and ultimate destruction of those who pursue it. 2hat is why it has been said that $al-ilmu' huwa al-hi.ab alakbar$ which means that knowledge itself is the thickest of veils( which prevents man from seeing the real nature of things. -oral virtues in man gain him eternal

happiness and vision of the truth( while moral corruption leads him to everlasting wretchedness and ignorance. It is( therefore( necessary for man to purge and purify himself of all evil traits of character and adorn his soul with all forms of ethical and moral virtues. 2he human soul can be compared to a mirror in this regard. If we wish to see something beautiful reflected in a mirror( we must first clean the mirror( so that dust and dirt do not disfigure the reflection. Any attempt to attain true veridical knowledge would be fruitful and successful only when one has purified himself of evil habits and tendencies. In the words of the Quran those who have a sound heart *i.e.( &alb-e-saleem+ can be granted true knowledge of the "eal. In order to attain ultimate and final perfection in knowledge and action( is it necessary to traverse the path of struggle against the selfish lusts and immoral tendencies which may e:ist within the soul and thus to prepare the soul to receiver the grace of )od. If man sets foot on the path of self-purification and actively engages in performing religious obligations )od comes to his aid and guides him along the right path. 2he Quranic verse 54 of 0urah Al-Ankabut asserts# $As for those who strive hard in ;ur causeFF%e shall most certainly guide them onto paths that lead unto Ds.$ Indeed this Quranic thesis of( so to say( 'knowledge-in-action' has subtle affinities with ideas of some contemporary philosophers of education and theorists of teaching practice and skill( notably 0chon and -ichael >rut.< rom amongst the classical thinkers( Ibn Ha!m *d. 9<?C'=59+ made significant contribution to epistemology. I shall briefly pause here to present the salient features of his thoughts. ibn ha!m on knowledge /rior to Ibn Ha!m( the -uslim thinker al-Amiri *d.8=4C411+ had felt the heat generated by the alleged secularisation of ilm and attempted to argue in favour of the 'secular' sciences by stating that these fields of knowledge conformed to pure reason and did not contradict the principles of the 'religious' sciences. However( it remained to the genius of Ibn Ha!m to e:pound a theory of knowledge that revived the spirit of early -uslim epistemology. 0everal of Ibn Ha!m's works( such as -aratib al-Dlum( Ihkam( al- isal fil--ilal wa al-Ahwa wa an-7ihal( and at-2a&rib li-Hudud al--anti&( are devoted to an e:tensive discussion on the concept of knowledge. According to Ibn Ha!m( there are four cardinal virtues of knowledge( namely( adl *.ustice+( na.dah *courage+( fahm *understanding+ and .ud *generosity+. Enowledge( a multi-faceted concept( is a vehicle for the attainment of virtues in this world and the hereafter. He recogni!es the differences in the nature of faith and reason but argues that the both are aimed at same ob.ective# ac&uisition of fadail *virtues+. 2hus( at the outset he establishes the moral imperative implicit in the pursuit of knowledgeFFas e:pounded by early -uslim thinkers. In this case( his vision( unlike some of his predecessors as well as contemporaries( is not blurred by the

operational divisions of ilm into praiseworthy and blameworthy sciences. or instance( in his classification of sciences( he e:cluded occult( alchemy and astrology( not because of religious considerations but due to the fact that they do not fit any logical or moral criteria. In so doing( he displays his remarkable felicity in retaining the unified conceptuali!ation of ilm and avoids the dangerous pitfalls of disciplinary orthodo:y. Ibn Ha!m declared knowledge as an indispensable entity# its pursuit an obligation( and its moral imperative as an ob.ective. 2hus( according to him( knowledge should be pursued in accordance with one's fullest potential but it must not become a tool of material and moral e:ploitation. $In essence( knowledge consists of comprehending )od's revelations( practising moral virtues( and knowing the realities of things in this world. 2he ob.ect of knowledge is to please and be close to the Almighty and to attain a world order encompassing humanity at large$( *&uoted in Ibn Ha!m by A. ). 6he.ne( 6hicago( Ea!i /ublications( '4@1( p.5?+ In his classification( Ibn Ha!m designates a superior status to 'religious' sciences( but makes his point abundantly clear that the so-called 'philosophical' or 'secular' sciences are also indispensable. 2hus( he places iman *faith and a&l *intellect+ almost at par with each other. He vigorously argues that not everyone is e&uipped to deal with the philosophical intricacies( and hence( such an individual may find solace in faith. ;n the other hand( he defends the reliance on a&l by stating that faith alone may not provide workable answers to immediate problems of humankind and it is the role of a&l to remove skepticism and uncertainties so that a confusion about the faith itself may be put to an end. In such a pragmatic approach( Ibn Ha!m does not appear to be making iman subservient to a&l( nor does he propose that the affirmation of iman is contingent upon the agency of a&l. He e:plains this delicate balance between iman and a&l in these words# $2he intellectual faculty *&uwat al-a&l+ is that which helps the discerning soul to make .ustice triumph( to choose what sound understanding dictates and to be convinced of it( and to make it manifest with the aid of the tongue and other bodily movements in action$( *6he.ne( op. cit.( p.54+. In assigning such a pre-eminent status to a&l( he re.ected the claims of those who professed introspection *0ufi methodology+( or blind and uncritical following *ta&lid+ for the ac&uisition of ilm. Ibn Ha!m then moves on to a detailed description of physical basis of integrating of the sensory data and how a&l manifests itself as the final evolved stage of the cognitive apparatus. or Ibn Ha!m( iman and ilm originate from the same source and he considers both as a mawhibah *gift+ from Allah. %hat he does not forget to emphasis is that a discernment is what is re&uired to maintain a balance between the two. 2hat discernment lies in the recognition of imam. ;nce again( his argument derives

strength from the fact that both are aimed at the same ob.ective. 3et us now try to analyse and understand some of the terms used in the Quran which will help us in comprehending its cognitive scheme in greater depth. '2a!akkur' "ecalling the undamental 2ruths Intuitively '2a!akkur' is a very significant Quranic term which means recalling to mind the fundamental truths intuitively recogni!ed by human nature. or understanding the significance of this term we have to note that the Quran fre&uently calls itself 'Hikr'( Hikra'( derivatives of the same root from which '2a!akkur'( stems. In essence( '2a!akkur' pertains to the first stage in the comprehension of divine realities and meanings. It also alludes to the truth that the Quranic teaching is not e:traneous or heterogeneous to human nature. It actually reflects the e:perience of man's inner self and it is meant to awaken reminiscences of something already apprehended rather than to import anything altogether new. 2he Holy Quran appeals to all thoughtful persons whom it addresses as 'Dlul albab' *men of discernment+ and 'Qaum-ya'&ilun' *people who have comprehension and insight+ to think and ponder over the outer universe of matter as well as the inner universe of the spirit( as both are replete with the unmistakable signs of the Almighty 6reator. 0imultaneously( it invites them to deliberate over its own signs( i.e.( its divinely inspired verses.5 2hus the Quran( in addition to its own verses( regards both 'anfus' *self+ and $afa&$ *world+ as sources of knowledge. By pondering over the three categories of signs( a man will be able to perceive a perfect concord between themB and( with the reali!ation of this concord( he will grasp certain fundamental truths which are borne out by the internal testimony of his own nature. 2he truths cherished by his inner self will emerge from its depths and shine in all their brilliance on the screen of his consciousness. In other words( full and intense awareness of the Absolute "eality will spring up to his consciousness like the memory of a forgotten thing shooting up from the dark depths of the psyche to the surface of mind with the aid of a pertinent suggestion. 2he Qur'an thus declares in une&uivocal terms that every man can derive the benefit of 'ta!akkur' from it. It does not matter if a person's intelligence is limited( and his knowledge of logic and philosophy is poor. It also does not matter much if he has no fine sense of language and classical Arabic literature. In spite of these drawbacks( he can develop an inkling and appreciation of ultimate truths if he has a noble heart( a sound mind( and an untainted natureFFa nature not perverted by any kind of crookedness. 2he central themes and basic sub.ects of the ,ivine Book are nothing new or unfamiliar to the true human nature. %hile reading it a man often feels as if he were listening to the echoes of his own inner self. In this sense( the Quranic theory of knowledge subtly resembles the /latonic theory in which true knowledge is also attained through recollecting forgotten memories of eternal forms.

'2adabbur' Intellection and "eflection 2he Holy Quran urges us again and again to study it intelligently and with deliberation( bringing our thought to bear upon it( and e:ercising our reasoning faculty in following its arguments and comprehending its meaning. or this purpose it uses the locution '2adabbur' and its cognates 'fahm' 'a&l' 'fi&h' 'fikr' '2adabbur' generally mean pondering and reflecting over the meaning and significance of ultimate &uestions. 0pecifically in the Quranic conte:t( it connotes diving deep into the fathomless ocean of ,ivine wisdom. %e learn from authentic traditions that the companions of the Holy /rophet *peace be upon him+ used to reflect and ponder over the different surahs of the Quran for years on end. 2his brings us to the &uestion as to what reason( reflection and ratiocination mean in the Islamic perspective. ;f course( one must distinguish between the use of reason and rational faculty( and rationalism which makes reason the sole source of gaining knowledge and the only criterion for .udging the truth. ;ne does sometime speak of Aristotelian rationalism. Although in the philosophy of Aristotle there are metaphysical intuitions which cannot be reduced to simple product of human reason or logical understanding. -ost regrettably( the meanings of many words like thought( reason( reflection and others have shrunken tremendously in contemporary philosophy( with the result that suggested association of ideas have become &uite restrictive. In the human microcosm( intellect is the deep spiritual centre of being( and not merely any limited or specifiable mental faculty. It is necessary to distinguish between rational thought and intellective thought. or whereas rational thought is discursive and proceeds from the mental faculty alone( intellective thought proceeds from intuition and pure intellect. 2he Arabic counterpart of reason or intellectFF'a&l'FFsignifies etymologically both that which binds or limits the Absolute in the direction of creation and also that which binds man to the truth( to )od Himself. In this sense( the word 'a&l' is at once intellectus or nous and ratio or reason. In the Islamic perspective it is precisely 'a&l' which keeps man on the straight path and prevents him from going astray. 2he sense of the numinous cannot be e:cluded from the world of empiricism. >:perience is not e:clusively what comes through science and scientific method. In other words( a distinction has to be made between terrestrial thought( aroused by the environment and celestial thought aroused by that which is our true being and finding its term beyond ourselves and( in the final analysis( in )od.? "eason( in the present day limited sense( is something like a profane intelligenceB essentially the profane point of view springs from there. It is necessary for reason to be determined( transfigured or enriched both by faith and gnosis which is the &uintessence of faith. )nosis( in the Islamic theory of knowledge keeps its original meaning of wisdom made up of knowledge and spiritual sanctity. It is the higher type of knowledge which comes of intuition by the intellect( the term intellect having the same sense as in /lotinus or >ckhart. If human intellect i. e.( 'a&l' is obscured by

the passions( by the nafs( then it can become the evil that hides man from the ,ivine. %ere it not so there would be no need of revelation at all. In the Islamic world( gnosis *ma'rifah+ is differentiated form knowledge in the sense of ac&uisition of information through a logical processes. In the non-Islamic world dominated by the )reek tradition( hikmah *wisdom+ is considered higher than knowledge. But in Islam 'ilm is not mere knowledge. It is synonymous with gnosis *ma'rifah+. knowledge is considered to be derived from two sources# 'a&l and 'ilm huduri *in the sense of unmediated and direct knowledge ac&uired through mystic e:perience+. 2here was made a distinction between wisdom *hikmah+ and knowledge in the pre-Islamic philosophy developed under the influence of )reek thought. In Islam there is no such distinction. 2hose who made such a distinction led -uslim thought towards un-Islamic thinking. 2he philosophers such as al-Eindi( al- arabi and Ibn 0ina are considered to be hakims *philosophers+ and in this capacity superior to 'ulama'( and fu&aha'. 2his misconception resulted in al-)ha!ali's attack on the philosophers. Islam is a religion that invites its followers to e:ercise their intellect and make use of their knowledge to attain the ultimate truth *ha&&+. -uslim thinkers adopted different paths to attain this goal. 2hose who are called philosophers devoted themselves to logic and scientific method and they were derogated by the sufis( though some of them( such as Ibn 0ina( al- arabi and al)ha!ali( took recourse to the mystic path in their &uest of the truth at some state. As I said earlier( 'ilm may not be translated as mere knowledgeB it should be emphasi!ed that it is also gnosis or ma'rifah. ;ne may find elements of mystic e:perience in the writings of -uslim philosophers. In Eashf al-mah.ub of alHu.wiri a distinction is made between khabr *information+ and na!ar *analytic thought+. 2his applies not only to -uslim sufis but also to most of the -uslim philosophers who sought to attain the ultimate knowledge which could embrace all things( corporeal or divine. In the %estern philosophical tradition there is a distinction between the knowledge of the ,ivine Being and knowledge pertaining to the physical world. But in Islam there is no such distinction. -a'rifah is ultimate knowledge and it springs from the knowledge of the self *-an'arafah nafsahu fa &ad 'arafa "abbahu( ';ne who reali!es one's own self reali!es his *3ord'+. 2his process also includes the knowledge of the phenomenal world. 2herefore( wisdom and knowledge which are regarded as two different things in the non--uslim world are one and the same in the Islamic perspective. 'ilm is referred to in many Qur'anic verses as 'light' *nur+( and Allah is also described as the ultimate nur. It means that 'ilm in the general sense is synonymous with the 'light' of Allah. 2his light does not shine for ever for all the believers. If is hidden sometimes by the clouds of doubt arising from the human mind. ,oubt is sometimes interpreted in the Qur'an as darkness( and ignorance also is depicted as darkness in a number of its verses. Allah is depicted as nur( and

knowledge is also symboli!ed as nur. Ignorance is darkness and ma'rifah is light. '3ove' -ystic Dnitive Apprehension 2here is intellectually nothing more depressing than to read the trivial writings of the linguistic philosophers and the e:istentially barren te:ts of the social theorists. Islamically-oriented epistemological theory on the contrary( represents a deepknowledge process which transforms the seeker. Here the idea of knowledge as being merely an ideational process is not assigned much worth. 2he foundations of knowledge are only accessible to one who is prepared to undergo a profound e:istential transformation. 2he Islamic approach to knowledge involves an operational !one taking in the whole life-pattern of the seeker. According to Islamic epistemic theory( the sole element that can unite the soul to )od is love( for love alone is desire of possession or of union( while discursive knowledge appears as a static element having no operative or unitive virtue. or securing a complete vision of "eality( therefore( sense perception must be supplemented by the function of what the Quran describes as 'fuad' or '&alb' i.e.( heart. '3ove' is held to include all modes of spiritual union( an eminently concrete participation in the transcendent realities. Intellect( divorced from 3ove( is a rebel *like 0atan+ while intellect wedded to 3ove has divine attributes. But surely 'loving' )od presupposes being conscious of )od. 2o be conscious of Him is fi: to the heart in the "eal( in permanent remembering of the ,ivine. '"emembering' or 'dhikr' must be understood as referring essentially to an aspiration of the contingent being towards the universal with the ob.ect of obtaining an inner illumination. Heart( in Quranic epistemology( is symbolically the seat of the true self or the repository of soul of which we may be conscious or ignorant( but which is our true e:istential( intellectual and hence universal centre. 2he heart is( as it were( immersed in the immutability of Being. 6ontemplativity is here stressed more than the sharpness of intelligence. In contemplation of the heart things appear in their metaphysical transparency. 2he role of love in knowledge is also emphasised in 6hristian philosophy. or e:ample( /aul 2illich writes( 'full knowledge does not admit a difference between itself and love( or between theory and practice'.@ 2hus knowledge infused with intuition and love gives celestical and divine knowledge. 3ove acts as the purgative that effects the perfection of soul by purging it of all spurious matter accumulated by intellect. 2he practical e:planation of love is also contained in Allam I&bal's philosophy of self. In a systemati!ed e:position of it in the letter sent by I&bal to ,r. 7icholson and incorporated in his Introduction to the 0ecrets of the 0elf( the >nglish translation of I&bal's Asrar-i-Ehudi( he says about love# the word is used in a very wide sense and means the desire to assimilate( to absorb. Its highest form is the creation of values and ideals( and the endeavour to reali!e them. 3ove individuali!es the lover as well as the beloved. 2he reason why in Islamic epistemological

framework so much emphasis is laid on love or intuition is that intuition catches the glimpses of the Dltimate "eality while intellect fails to achieve that goal on account of its inherent imperfection. 3ove( in short( is able to know the unknowable.4 2o conclude# the various components of Islamic epistemology I have outlined are mutually supporting and interdependent. Islamic theory of knowledge updated in idiom( sweeps away the contemporary western state of confused affairs in no uncertain manner. It recomposes man's divided self and restores his sanity because it restores the unity of knowledge and wisdom on the one hand( and of knowledge and action on the other. It infuses in us the reali!ation that the state of our knowledge is an important characteristic of the state our being. It teaches one to be logical( rational and scientific without losing sight of the spiritual verities known through prophetic revelation( love and intuition. I have not loaded the essay with much technical detail but nevertheless tried to give a fairly intelligible account of the Quranic epistemology in the conte:t of present philosophical scene. Quite significantly( in the post-modern %estern sensitivity the search for unitary claims has been abandoned altogether. Instead there is pastiche( cultural and methodological recombination Anything can be .u:taposed to anything else. 2his trend in contemporary thought provides tremendous philosophical support to sapiential Islamic epistemology. "> >">76>0 I >7,7;2>0 '. 6f. his contribution to 3evi ,ella Gida 6onference /roceedings entitled 'Islamic 0tudies# A 2radition and Its /roblems$ edited by -alcolm H. Eerr( -alibu( 6alifornia( '44=. 1. 2his article has been published in ';ccasional /aper 0eries' by the International Institute of Islamic 2hought( Islamabad *'441+ 8. "osenthal. .( knowledge triumphant( Brille( 3eiden( '4?=. It presents a detailed discussion of ilm and its various definitions. 9. 2his contention is borne out by a study of contemporary philosophical treatises of "ussell( Ayer( "yle( Hamlyne( 6hisholm( 6astaneda( 3ehrer and many others. <. 0chon.,.( 2he "eflective practitioner( 7ew Jork( Basic Books *'4@8+ 5. It is noteworthy here that the Quran calls its verses 'ayat' i.e.( signs *of )od+. 2hese verses are considered as signs or portents of )odFFFas important as any other of His signs in the universe or in the heart of man. It is because the Quranic verses are parts of Ealamullah *)od's speech+ and also because( like other signs of )od( they( too( turn man's mind to the Almighty.

?. I owe this very relevant and illuminating distinction to . 0chuon. 6f. his book )nosisB 2he ,ivine %isdom( 3ondon( pp. ?@-4= and 0piritual /erspectives and Human act( 3ondon( '4<8( p. <9 @. /aul 2illich( 2he 0haking of the oundations. /enguin Books( '455( p. ''<. 4. ,r. 7icholson( 2he 0ecrets of the 0elf *>ng. trans. Allama I&bal's Asrar-iEhudi+ Intro( p. 5