SERIAL COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL: Need for Communication Interfaces: The need for providing communication interfaces arises due

to the following reasons: The embedded systems to send data to a host.The host will analyse the data and represent the data using Graphical User Interface. A number of embedded sytems may need to be networkes to share data.Network interfaces need to be provided in such a case. For some embedded systems,the software may need upgradation after it is installed in the field.The software can be upgraded through communication interfaces. In brief embedded systems are provided with communication interfaces for monitoring and control by a host system or a node on a network. serial communication is the process of sending data one bit at a time, sequentially, over a communication channel or computer bus. This is in contrast to parallel communication, where several bits are sent as a whole, on a link with several parallel channels.It is used to interface with a pc during development in field. Serial interfaces allow processors to communicate without the need for shared memory and semaphores, and the problems they can create.The operation in serial can be done in one I/O pin compared to eight or more for parallel communications.Many embedded system peripherals like A2D and D2A converters ,LCDs and temperature sensors support serial interfaces. The communication interfaces are: RS 232/UART RS 422,RS 485 Universal serial bus Infrared IEEE 1394 Firewire Ethernet IEEE 802.11 wireless interface Bluetooth

RS232/UART: RS232 is a standard developed by Electronic Industry Association(EIA).The pc will have 2 RS232 ports designated as COM1 and COM2. RS-232 is the traditional name for a series of standards for serial binary singleand DCE (data circuit[1]

ended data and control signals connecting between DTE (data terminal equipment)

terminating equipment, originally defined as data communication equipment ). A DTE can be a pc ,serial printer or

plotter,DCE can be a modem,mouse,scanner. It is commonly used in computer serial ports. The standard defines the electrical characteristics and timing of signals, the meaning of signals, and the physical size and pinout of connectors.RS232 is a standard for serial communication i.e., the bits are transmitted derially.The communication between the two devices is full duplex. RS232 Communication Parameters: When two devices are transmitting through RS232 the sending device sends the device character by character,which are known as data bits.The data bits prefixed with a bit are called start bits and suffixed with one or more bits called stop bits. The individual signals on a serial port are unidirectional and when connecting two devices the outputs of one device must be connected to the inputs of the other. Devices are divided into two categories "data terminal equipment" (DTE) and "data circuit-terminating equipment" (DCE). A line that is an output on a DTE device is an input on a DCE device and vice-versa so a DCE device can be connected to a DTE device with a straight wired cable. If it is necessary to connect two DTE devices (or two DCE devices but that is more unusual) a cross-over null modem, in the form of either an adapter or a cable, must be used. For two devices to communicate with each other using RS232,the communication parameters to be set on both systems.And for a meaningful transmission these parameters have to be same.The various communication parameters are: Data bits: The number of data bits in each character can be 5 (for Baudot code), 6 (rarely used), 7 (for true ASCII), 8 (for most kinds of data, as this size matches the size of a byte), or 9 (rarely used). 8 data bits are almost universally used in newer applications. 5 or 7 bits generally only make sense with older equipment such as teleprinters. Parity: Parity is a method of detecting errors in transmission. When parity is used with a serial port, an extra data bit is sent with each data character, arranged so that the number of 1 bits in each character, including the parity bit, is always odd or always even. If a byte is received with the wrong number of 1s, then it must have been corrupted. However, an even number of errors can pass the parity check. Stop bits: Stop bits sent at the end of every character allow the receiving signal hardware to detect the end of a character and to resynchronise with the character stream. Electronic devices usually use one stop bit. If slow

electromechanical teleprinters are used, one-and-one half or two stop bits are required.

Flow control: A serial port may use signals in the interface to pause and resume the transmission of data. For example, a slow printer might need to handshake with the serial port to indicate that data should be paused while the mechanism advances a line. Common hardware handshake signals (hardware flow control) use the RS-232 RTS/CTS or DTR/DSR signal circuits. Generally, the RTS and CTS are turned off and on from alternate ends to control data flow, for instance when a buffer is almost full. DTR and DSR are usually on all the time and, per the RS-232 standard and its successors, are used to signal from each end that the other equipment is actually present and powered-up. However, manufacturers have over the years built many devices that implemented non-standard variations on the standard, for example, printers that use DTR as flow control. DataRate: Bit rates commonly supported include 75, 110, 300, 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, 38400, 57600 and 115200 bit/s.[11] Crystal oscillators with a frequency of 1.843200 MHz are sold specifically for this purpose. This is 16 times the fastest bit rate and the serial port circuit can easily divide this down to lower frequencies as required. StartBit: The bit that is prefixed to the data bits to identify the beginning of the characters. RS232 Connector Configurations: The 25-pin connector make use of only few pins.The description of the pins are: Signal Name Data Ready Terminal Typical purpose Indicates presence of DTE to DCE. Origin DB-

Abbreviation DTE DCE 25 pin DTR DCD DSR RI RTS CTS TxD 20 8 6 22 4 5 2

Data Carrier Detect DCE is connected to the telephone line. Data Set Ready Ring Indicator Request To Send Clear To Send Transmitted Data DCE is ready to receive commands or data. DCE has detected an incoming ring signal on the telephone line. DTE requests the DCE prepare to receive data. Indicates DCE is ready to accept data. Carries data from DTE to DCE.

Received Data Common Ground Protective Ground

Carries data from DCE to DTE.

RxD GND PG

common common

3 7 1

Voltage levels: The RS-232 standard defines the voltage levels that correspond to logical one and logical zero levels for the data transmission and the control signal lines. Valid signals are either in the range of +3 to +15 volts or the range 3 to 15 volts with respect to the ground/common pin; consequently, the range between 3 t o +3 volts is not a valid RS232 level. For data transmission lines (TxD, RxD and their secondary channel equivalents) logic one is defined as a negative voltage, the signal condition is called "mark". Logic zero is positive and the signal condition is termed "space". Control signals have the opposite polarity: the asserted or active state is positive voltage and the deasserted or inactive state is negative voltage. Examples of control lines include request to send (RTS), clear to send (CTS), data terminal ready (DTR), and data set ready (DSR). Because the voltage levels are higher than logic levels typically used by integrated circuits, special intervening driver circuits are required to translate logic levels. These also protect the device's internal circuitry from short circuits or transients that may appear on the RS-232 interface, and provide sufficient current to comply with the slew rate requirements for data transmission. Because both ends of the RS-232 circuit depend on the ground pin being zero volts, problems will occur when connecting machinery and computers where the voltage between the ground pin on one end, and the ground pin on the other is not zero. This may also cause a hazardous ground loop. Use of a common ground limits RS-232 to applications with relatively short cables UART(Universal Asynchronous Transmitter and Receiver): The processor process the data in Parallel format,not in serial format.To bridge the processor and the RS232 ports,UART chip is used. The Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) takes bytes of data and transmits the individual bits in a sequential fashion.[1] At the destination, a second UART re-assembles the bits into complete bytes. Each UART contains a shift register, which is the fundamental method of conversion between serial and parallel forms. Serial transmission of digital information (bits) through a single wire or other medium is less costly than parallel transmission through multiple wires. The UART usually does not directly generate or receive the external signals used between different items of equipment. Separate interface devices are used to convert the logic level signals of the UART to and from the external signalling levels. Communication may be simplex (in one direction only, with no provision for the receiving device to send information back to the transmitting device), full duplex (both devices send and receive at the same time) or half duplex (devices take turns transmitting and receiving).

Character framing:

Bit number

10

11

Start bit 58 data bits

Stop bit(s)

Start

Data 0

Data 1

Data 2

Data 3

Data 4

Data 5

Data 6

Data 7

Stop

The right-most (least significant) data bit is always transmitted first. If parity is present, the parity bit comes after the data bits but before the stop bit(s). The start bit signals the receiver that a new character is coming. The next five to nine bits, depending on the code set employed, represent the character. If a parity bit is used, it would be placed after all of the data bits. The next one or two bits are always in the mark (logic high, i.e., '1') condition and called the stop bit(s). They signal the receiver that the character is completed. Since the start bit is logic low (0) and the stop bit is logic high (1) there are always at least two guaranteed signal changes between characters. Recceiver: All operations of the UART hardware are controlled by a clock signal which runs at a multiple of the data rate, typically 8 times the bit rate. The receiver tests the state of the incoming signal on each clock pulse, looking for the beginning of the start bit. If the apparent start bit lasts at least one-half of the bit time, it is valid and signals the start of a new character. Transmitter: Transmission operation is simpler since it is under the control of the transmitting system. As soon as data is deposited in the shift register after completion of the previous character, the UART hardware generates a start bit, shifts the required number of data bits out to the line, generates and appends the parity bit (if used), and appends the stop bits.If transmission of a single bit takes long time compared to relative speeds of cpu then the UART will show the busy flag so the host will not transmit the new bit. Application: Transmitting and receiving UARTs must be set for the same bit speed, character length, parity, and stop bits for proper operation. The receiving UART may detect some mismatched settings and set a "framing error" flag bit for

the host system; in exceptional cases the receiving UART will produce an erratic stream of mutilated characters and transfer them to the host system. Typical serial ports used with personal computers connected to modems use eight data bits, no parity, and one stop bit; for this configuration the number of ASCII characters per second equals the bit rate divided by 10. Null Modem Cable Connection: Null modem is a communication method to connect two DTEs (computer, terminal, printer etc.) directly using an RS-232 serial cable. The name stems from the historical use of the RS-232 cable to connect two teleprinter devices to modems in order to communicate with one another; null modemcommunication was possible by instead using RS-232 to connect the teleprinters directly to one another. Null modem is a communication method to connect two DTEs (computer, terminal, printer etc.) directly using an RS-232 serial cable. The name stems from the historical use of the RS-232 cable to connect two teleprinter devices to modems in order to communicate with one another; null modemcommunication was possible by instead using RS-232 to connect the teleprinters directly to one another. Below is a very common wiring diagram for a null model cable providing full handshaking, which works with software relying on proper assertion of theData Carrier Detect (CD) signal

"Left" Side Signal Signal Abbreviation Name and DB25 Pin DE9 Pin Direction

"Right" Side

DE-9 Pin

DB-25 Pin

Signal Abbreviation

Name

Frame Ground (chassis)

FG

N/A

N/A

N/A

FG

Transmitted Data (TD)

TxD 2

RxD

Received Data (RD)

RxD 3

TxD

Request To Send

RTS 4

CTS

Clear To Send

CTS 5

RTS

Signal Ground

SG

common 5

SG

Data Set Ready

DSR 6

6 4 20 DTR

Data Carrier Detect (CD) DCD 8

1 Data Terminal Ready DTR 20 4 6

DCD

DSR

Serial Communciation Programming: The following sample program in C, shows how you can read these locations to obtain the addresses of your communications ports. #include <stdio.h> #include <dos.h> void main(void) { unsigned int far *ptraddr; /* Pointer to location of Port Addresses */ unsigned int address; /* Address of Port */ int a; ptraddr=(unsigned int far *)0x00000400; for (a = 0; a < 4; a++) { address = *ptraddr; if (address == 0) printf("No port found for COM%d \n",a+1); else printf("Address assigned to COM%d is %Xh\n",a+1,address); *ptraddr++; } }

RS422/RS485: RS-422 (also EIA-422) is a technical standard that specifies electrical characteristics of a digital signaling circuit. Differential signaling can transmit data at rates as high as 10 million bits per second, or may be sent on

cables as long as 1500 meters. Some systems directly interconnect using RS-422 signals, or RS-422 converters may be used to extend the range of RS-232 connections. The standard only defines signal levels; other properties of a serial interface are set by other standards. RS-422 is the common short form title of American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard ANSI/TIA/EIA422-B Electrical Characteristics of Balanced Voltage Differential Interface Circuits and its international equivalent ITU-T Recommendation T-REC-V.11,[1] also known as X.27. RS-422 provides for data transmission, usingbalanced, or differential, signaling, with unidirectional/nonreversible, terminated or non-terminated transmission lines, point to point, or multi-drop. RS-422 only specifies the electrical signaling characteristics of a single balanced signal. Protocols and pin assignments are defined in other specifications. The mechanical connections for this interface are specified by EIA530 (DB-25 connector) or EIA-449 (DC-37 connector), however devices exist which have 4 screw-posts to implement the transmit and receive pair only. The maximum cable length is 1500 m. Maximum data rates are 10 Mbit/s at 12 m or 100 kbit/s at 1200 m. RS-422 cannot implement a truly multi-point communications network such as with EIA-485, however one driver can be connected to up to ten receivers. RS485 TIA-485-A, also known as ANSI/TIA/EIA-485, TIA/EIA-485, EIA-485 or RS-485, is a standard defining the electrical characteristics of drivers and receivers for use in balanced digital multipoint systems. The standard is published by the Telecommunications Industry Association/Electronic Industries Alliance (TIA/EIA). Digital communications networks implementing the EIA-485 standard can be used effectively over long distances and in electrically noisy environments. Multiple receivers may be connected to such a network in a linear, multidrop configuration. These characteristics make such networks useful in industrial environments and similar applications. RS-485, like RS-422, can be made full-duplex by using four wires. Since RS-485 is a multi-point specification, however, this is not necessary in many cases. RS-485 and RS-422 can interoperate with certain restrictions. Converters between RS-485 and other formats are available to allow a personal computer to communicate with remote devices. By using "Repeaters" and "Multi-Repeaters" very large RS-485 networks can be formed. TSB-89A, The Application Guidelines for TIA/EIA-485-A has one diagram called "Star Configuration. Not recommended." USB: Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry standard developed in the mid-1990s that defines the cables, connectors and communications protocolsused in
[2]

a bus for

connection,

communication,

and

power

supply

between computers and electronic devices.

USB was designed to standardize the connection of computer peripherals (including keyboards, pointing devices, digital cameras, printers, portable media players, disk drives and network adapters) to personal computers, both to communicate and to supply electric power. It has become commonplace on other devices, such as smartphones, PDAs and video game consoles.[3] USB has effectively replaced a variety of earlier interfaces, such as serial and parallel ports, as well as separate power chargers for portable devices.

The physical bus topology defines how USB devices are connected to the host. The following figure shows a USB host with several common peripherals connected as it is seen by the user. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. USB host with host controller 2-port root hub integrated into the host controller 4-port hub integrated into the keyboard (part of the compound device) USB keyboard (part of the compound device) USB keypad (part of the compound device) 4-port hub (part of the 7-port hub) 4-port hub (part of the 7-port hub) USB mouse USB flash drive

10. 4-port hub 11. 4-port hub 12. USB bluetooth adapter

Example of the USB logical topology Physical interface Electrical specification A cable connnects: A "master" device (a hub), using an "A" type connector. A "slave" device, using a "B" type connector. The device may be another hub, allowing a tree structure of connected devices, which are all controlled by the root hub. The cable contains four wires: VBUS and GND (+5V power from the hub to the device, up to 500mA). D+ and D (bidirectional half-duplex data; in Full Speed cables the wires are shielded, and form a twisted pair, with 90ohm impedance). Data is transmitted asynchronously, using differential signalling, at either 12 Mbaud (Full Speed) or 1.5 Mbaud (Low Speed). States: Differential '1': D+ at nominal +5V, D at nominal 0V. Differential '0': D+ at nominal 0V, D at nominal +5V. SE0 (Single Ended 0): both D+ and D at nominal 0V.

Signalling The data states depend upon the connection speed:

Full Speed: 'J' state = logic 1, 'K' state = logic 0. Low Speed: 'J' state = logic 0, 'K' state = logic 1.

When nothing is plugged into the hub connector, the data lines float to the SE0 state. When a device is plugged into the hub connector, and the data lines are idle (all drivers high impedance), they float to the 'J' state. SOP (Start Of Packet) is indicated by a transition to the 'K' state. A packet always starts with a SYNC sequence, of KJKJKJKK (equivalent to a data byte of 80 hex). Each data byte is transmitted least significant bit first. The bit stream is subjected to bit stuffing, where a '0' bit is inserted after every six consecutive '1' bits. The bit stuffed bit stream is then transmitted using NRZI (Non Return to Zero Inverted) encoding, where: '1' is transmitted as no state change. '0' is transmitted as a state change ('J' / 'K').

EOP (End Of Packet) is indicated by two bit periods at the SE0 state, followed by one bit at the 'J' state. A reset is indicated by an extended period at the SE0 state; a hub must maintain this state for at least 10ms to ensure the device sees the reset. A suspend is indicated by more then 3.0ms at the idle state.

A resume is indicated by any data traffic. Transmission rates The theoretical maximum data rate in USB 2.0 is 480 Mbit/s (60 MB/s) per controller and is shared amongst all attached devices. Some chipset manufacturers overcome this bottleneck by providing multiple USB 2.0 controllers within the southbridge. Typical hi-speed USB hard drives can be written to at rates around 25 30 MB/s, and read from at rates of 30 42 MB/s, according to routine testing done by CNet.[93] This is 70% of the total bandwidth available. Mask Tests, also known as Eye Diagram Tests, are used to determine the quality of a signal in the time domain. They are defined in the referenced document as part of the electrical test description for the high-speed (HS) mode at 480 Mbit/s

Infrared: Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than those of visible light, extending from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers (nm) to 1 mm. This range of wavelengths corresponds to a frequency range of approximately 430 THz down to 300 GHz.[1]Most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared. The onl;y drawback with infrared is that it operates in line of sight communication mode and cannot permit through walls.It supports only data. Infrared Interfaces are now common place fo a large number of devices such as palmtops,cell,digitalcamera etc.They providea low cost,short range,point to point communication between two devices.

Applications

IrCOMM LM-IAS TinyTP System Specific Services

IrLMP (LM-MUX)

IrLAP

Physical Layer - Serial Infrared

IrDA Physical Layer

There are actually three different physical layers associated with the IrDA protocol. The original specification (Rev. 1.0), which supports rates from 9600 to 115.2 kbits/s, uses a standard UART (8 bits, no parity, 1 start, 1 stop) to drive a simple IR encoder/decoder which in turn drives the IR transceiver. Considering that most microcontrollers have built in UARTs, this can be a very low cost configuration The encoding of the data for the Rev 1.0 spec. (up to 115Kbps) uses Return to Zero Inverted (RZI) modulation. It calls for a logic 0 to consist of a light pulse that is a minimum of 1.6 usec and a maximum of 3/16 of a bit time,

and a logic 1 to consist of no pulse occurring in the requisite time frame. Figure 2 shows an example of an IrDA Rev 1.0 physical layer frame transmission. Each byte is transmitted using a start bit of a logic 0 and a sto p bit of a logic 1. The IrDA Link Access Protocol (IrLAP)

The Data Link Layer (Layer 2) is referred to as the Link Access Protocol (IrLAP). As mentioned previously, the IrLAP specification defines services that must be provided by the data link layer to the upper layer of the protocol. The specification does not provide an implementation or API.

As with many protocols, the IrLAP supports both connectionless and connection-oriented services. There are four generic types of service primitives defined in the IrLAP. They are as follows:

Request - passed from the upper layer to invoke a service.

Indication - passed to the upper layer to indicate an event or to notify the upper layer of an IrLAP initiated action.

Response - passed from an upper layer to acknowledge some procedure invoked by an indication primitive.

Confirm - passes to the upper layer to convey the results of the previous request.

The IrDA Link Management Protocol (IrLMP)

The IrLMP actually consists of two parts, the Link Management Information Access Service (LM-IAS) and the Link Management Multiplexer (LM-MUX). The Information Access Service (LM-IAS)

The LM-IAS maintains an information base of what services this particular device has to offer to other devices. The LM-IAS also provides a mechanism to discover the services provided by the other devices. This mechanism is similar to how an SNMP capable device would go about obtaining object information from a devices Management Information Base (MIB) on an Ethernet network. The IrCOMM

The IrCOMM is an optional portion of the IrDA specification that provides for emulation of the standard serial and parallel ports for legacy applications. Using the IrCOMM does not provide the most efficient use of the IrDA protocol, but in cases where there are older applications that used existing serial or parallel ports it may be the quickest way to get the application up and running. The IrCOMM provides four classes of services:

3-Wire Raw (IrLPT) - cannot be multiplexed, uses the IrLAP flow control mechanism.

3-Wire - emulates simple RS232, uses TinyTP for flow control.

9-Wire - emulates a full RS-232 interface, uses TinyTP.

Centronics -emulates a standard Centronics interface, uses TinyTP.

The IrLAN IrLAN is a recently approved extension to the IrDA specification. It is designed to provide transparent attachment to networks for portable devices. The IrLAN specification defines two LSAPs, a control LSAP and a data LSAP. The control LSAP is used for configuration purposes, while the data LSAP is used to pass the actual network traffic. There are three modes for IrLAN. An Access point mode allows several IrDA devices to connect to a LAN through a device, while each IrDA device retains a unique network (IP) address. The Hosted mode is similar to the Access point mode except that the bridging device presents a single IP address to the network, which all attached IrDA devices must share. This complicates the software in the bridging device because it must act a a router for all the connected IrDA devices. Finally there is the Peer to Peer mode, which allows devices to communicate using the network protocol, but not necessarily be connected to any other wired LAN. Figure 23 shows a simple Access point mode connection.

BlueTooth: Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances (using short-wavelength microwave transmissions in theISM band from 24002480 MHz[2]) from fixed and mobile devices, building personal area networks (PANs). Invented by telecom vendor Ericsson in 1994,[3] it was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables. It can connect several devices, overcoming problems of synchronization. Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group, which has more than 19,000 member companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer electronics. [4] Bluetooth was standardized as IEEE 802.15.1, but the standard is no longer maintained. The SIG oversees the development of the specification, manages the qualification program, and protects the trademarks. [5] To be marketed as a Bluetooth device, it must be qualified to standards defined by the SIG.[6] A network of patents is required to implement the technology, which is licensed only for that qualifying device. A typical office cabin or a home or even a car I equipped with anumber of electronic gadgets such as desktop,laptop,printer,modem,etc.These devices are interconnected through web for using a service .When we bring two devices say laptop and a mobile close to each other,these two can automatically form a network and exchange

data.These networks are PAN(Personal Area Network),and they are needed every where.Bluetooth is a wireless low cost technology to develop personal area networks. Sailent features of Bluetooth technology are: It can transfer information wirelessly form one enabled device to another It can transfer information heedless of blockages or obstructions that may be in the way in form of walls, people, cars, etc. It is relatively safer than It caters to short ranges.The range of bluetooth device is typically 10m through which the high power,the range can be increased to 100m Bluetooth System Specifications In the following text the specifications operating frequency, operating range, services supported, data rates and network topology are discussed. Operating frequency. The frequency band 2400 2483.5 MHz is used. The band consists of 79 channels, each of 1 MHz. Every packet has its own transmission frequency, i.e., frequency hopping is used. A hop sequence is performed where the transmitting device changes the frequency, and the receiving device has to automatically tune to the changed frequency to receive the data. This gives a secure link. Operating range. The operating range of Bluetooth is dependent on the power of the radio transmitter. Three classes of devices are defined. Class 1 devices transmit a maximum of 100 mW, and they can have a range of 100 m. Class 2 devices transmit 10 mW and the range is 50 m. Class 3 devices transmit 1 mW and have a range of 10 m. This class is the most common among commercially devices. Services supported. Both data and voice services are supported. This implies that both packet (data) and circuit (voice) switching connections are supported. The link established between devices for voice communication is an Synchronous Connection Oriented (SCO) link, and the link established for data communication is an Asynchronous Connection Less (ACL) link. Data rates. One asynchronous channel and up to three synchronous voice channels are supported. For voice communication (synchronous channel) the data rate is 64 kbs in both directions. For asymmetric data communication (synchronous channel) the data rate is 723.2 kbps in one direction and 57.6 kbps in the other direction. In a symmetric, asynchronous channel the data rate is 433.9 kbps. Network topology. In a PAN, a set of devices form a small network called a piconet. In each of these nets, there is one master, and the other devices are slaves. The hop-frequency is chosen by the master, and the slaves synchronize with the master to establish links. Any device can become a master. A piconet supports two types of communication, point-to-point (one master and one slave) and point-tomultipoint (one master and a number of slaves) communication. In a piconet one or more devices share the same channel. When a single device is a master of one piconet, and slave of another simultaneously, this is by definition a scatternet, see Figure bluetooth1.

Up to seven slaves can be active within a picocell, and many more can be in parked mode. Slaves in parked mode are locked (synchronized) to the master but they cannot be active on the channel. A node can also be in a so called hold mode for a specified time when there is no data to transmit. The aim is to save power. The masters and slaves frequency and time must be synchronized. The slave must know the frequency of transmission (by the master) and tune to that frequency. The slave is also synchronized to the sent packets

Figure bluetooth1. Bluetooth scatternet

Protocol Architecture

The Bluetooth Profiles give guidelines on howapplications should use the Bluetooth protocol stack TCS (TelephonyControlProtocol Specifications) provides telephony services SDP (Service Discovery Protocol) lets Bluetooth devices dicover what services other Bluetooth devices support WAP and OBEX provide interfaces to higher layer parts of other Communication Protocols RFCOMM provides an RS232 like serial interface Logical Link Control and Adaption multiplexes data from higher layers, and converts between different packet sizes The Host Controller Interface handels communications between a separate host and a Bluetooth module The Link Manager controls and configures links to other devices

The Baseband and Link Controller controls the physical links via the radio, assembeling packets and controlling frequency hopping The Radio modulates and demodulates data for transmission and reception on air

L2CAP (Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol) The L2CAP layer is only for ACL links. The functions of L2CAP are the following: Protocol multiplexing. A number of protocols can be running above L2CAP. A packet received by L2CAP indicates which protocol is to be identified. Segmentation and reassembly. Large L2CAP packets are segmented into small baseband packets and sent to the baseband. Similarly, the small packets received from the baseband are reassembled and sent to higher levels. L2CAP layer handles requests and messages concerning connection and disconnection. 3.1 SDP (SERVICE DISCOVERY PROTOCOL)

The SDP is used for location of services provided by or available through a Bluetooth device and it facilitates the following: The clients ability to search for the services in the piconet Services to be discovered based on class of services (such as print service) The capability to browse services To find out when a service becomes unavailable (device goes out of range) The discovery of new services (within range) The details of services such as classes and attributes

When a device wants to discover a service the client and the server exchange SDP messages. The attributes can be a service class ID list, a service ID, a protocol description, a provider name, an icon URL, a service name, and a service description. 3.2 RFCOMM RFCOMM is a transport protocol to emulate serial communication (RS232 serial ports) over L2CAP. Two devices can communicate through RFCOMM over Bluetooth radio. RFCOMM emulates the nine connections of RS232 such as Request to Send, Transmit Data and Clear to Send. It supports two types of devices. Type 1 is communication end points (computers, printers) and type 2 devices are part of a communication segment such as a modem. 3.3 TCS (TELEPHONY CONTROL PROTOCOL SPECIFICATION) To establish voice communication SCO links are needed. SCO links are not handled by the L2CAP protocol but L2CAP handles the signaling required for establishing connections through TCS. The protocol is based on the ITU standard Q.931 (ISDN). 3.4 HCI (HOST CONTROL INTERFACE) A Bluetooth device can have two parts: a module implementing the lower layers (LMP and under) and a software module (L2CAP and over) in the host. The HCI provides an interface so that the two modules can be from different vendors. The functions of HCI are: Setting up disconnecting, and configuring the links Control of baseband features such as timeouts Retrieving status information Local testing of the hardware module

The HCI commands can be categorized as: Link control commands to establish piconets and scatternets Link policy commands to put devices in hold/sniff/park-mode (hold = link is deactivated for a short period, sniff = low power mode where a device is only active during periodic slots, listening to the traffic, park = gives up its AM address and listens to traffic only occasionally, the device stays synchronized to the Master) Commands to get information about the local hardware Commands to get status parameters Commands to test the local Bluetooth module

IEEE 1394 Firewire

The IEEE 1394 interface is a serial bus interface standard for high-speed communications and isochronous realtime data transfer. It was developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s by Apple, who called it FireWire. The 1394 interface is comparable to USB . IEEE 1394 replaced parallel SCSI in many applications, because of

lower implementation costs and a simplified, more adaptable cabling system. The 1394 standard also defines a backplane interface, though this is not as widely used. IEEE 1394 is the High-Definition Audio-Video Network Alliance (HANA) standard connection interface for A/V (audio/visual) component communication and control.[3] FireWire is also available in wireless, fiber optic, and coaxial versions using the isochronous protocols. FireWire is Apple's name for the IEEE 1394 High Speed Serial Bus. It was initiated by Apple (in 1986 [4]) and developed by the IEEE P1394 Working Group, largely driven by contributions from Apple, although major contributions were also made by engineers from Texas Instruments, Sony, Digital Equipment Corporation, IBM, and INMOS/SGS Thomson (now STMicroelectronics). IEEE 1394 is a serial bus architecture for high-speed data transfer. FireWire is a serial bus, meaning that information is transferred one bit at a time.Parallel buses utilize a number of different physical connections, and as such are usually more costly and typically heavier.[5] IEEE 1394 fully supports

both isochronous and asynchronous applications. Encoding scheme[edit] FireWire uses Data strobe encoding (D/S encoding).[23] In D/S encoding, two non-return-to-zero (NRZ) signals are used to transmit the data with high reliability. The NRZ signal sent is fed with the clock signal through an XOR gate, creating a strobe signal. [23] This strobe is then put through another XOR gate along with the data signal to reconstruct the clock.[23] This in turn acts as the bus's Phase-locked loop for synchronization purposes.

Each device is given 6-bit identification number and hence maximum of 63 devices can be interconnected on a single bus.Using bridges,multiple buses can be connected.The standard specifie copper wire or optical fiber as the transmission medium with data rates 100,200,400,800,1600 and 3200 Mbps. The functionality of various layers is as follows: Physical layer:This layer specifies the electrical and mechanical connections.But the initializations and arbitration are the functions of this layr.They ensure that data transmit at a time. Data link Layer:The layer takes care of packet delivery,acknowledgments and addressing of the devices. Transaction layer:This layer handles the writing and reading of the data from the devices Management protocols:these protocols are used to manage the bus and they run on each of the devices.These protocols do the necessary resource management and control the nodes. IEEE 802.11 IEEE 802.11 is a set of media area access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) in specifications the 2.4, 3.6, for 5

implementing wireless

local

network (WLAN)

computer

communication

and60 GHz frequency bands. They are created and maintained by the IEEE LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802). The base version of the standard was released in 1997 and has had subsequent amendments. The 802.11 family consists of a series of half-duplex over-the-air modulation techniques that use the same basic protocol. The most popular are those defined by the 802.11b and 802.11g protocols [citation
needed]

, which are

amendments to the original standard. 802.11-1997 was the first wireless networking standard in the family, but 802.11b was the first widely accepted one, followed by 802.11a and 802.11g. 802.11n is a new multi-streaming modulation technique. Other standards in the family (cf, h, j) are service amendments and extensions or corrections to the previous specifications. 802.11b and 802.11g use the 2.4 GHz ISM band, operating in the United States under Part 15 of the U.S. Federal Communications Commission Rules and Regulations. Because of this choice of frequency band, 802.11b and g equipment may occasionally suffer interference from microwave ovens, cordless telephones and Bluetooth devices. 802.11b and 802.11g control their interference and susceptibility to interference by using direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) and orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) signaling methods, respectively. 802.11a uses the 5 GHz U-NII band, which, for much of the world, offers at least 23 non-overlapping channels rather than the 2.4 GHz ISM frequency band, where adjacent channels overlap - see list of WLAN channels. Better or worse performance with higher or lower frequencies (channels) may be realized, depending on the environment.

The segment of the radio frequency spectrum used by 802.11 varies between countries. In the US, 802.11a and 802.11g devices may be operated without a license, as allowed in Part 15 of the FCC Rules and Regulations. Frequencies used by channels one through six of 802.11b and 802.11g fall within the 2.4 GHz amateur radio band. Licensed amateur radio operators may operate 802.11b/g devices under Part 97 of the FCC Rules and Regulations, allowing increased power output but not commercial content or encryption. Ethernet Protocol: Ethernet LAN topology is currently the most common network architecture. Ethernet topologies are generally bus and/or bus-star topologies. Ethernet networks are passive, which means Ethernet hubs do not reprocess or alter the signal sent by the attached devices. Ethernet technology uses broadcast topology with baseband signaling and a control method called Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) to transmit data. The IEEE 802.3 standard defines Ethernet protocols for (Open Systems Interconnect) OSIs Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer and physical layer network characteristics. The IEEE 802.2 standard defines protocols for the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer. A solid understanding of Ethernet basics is necessary for all network personnel. Ethernet Technology Fundamentals: Physical Layer 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, and 1 Gbps Ethernet The physical layer for Ethernet is defined by certain electrical and bit rate specifications. The electrical specifications are based on the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard. Line Coding 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, and 1 Gbps Ethernet technologies utilize a specific type of line coding referred to as 8B/10B. 8B/10B conversion is a simple algorithm that converts 8 bits into 10 bits, producing a 25% overhead. This effectively increases the line rate without increasing the actual throughput. Duplex Options Another important physical layer characteristic of Ethernet is its full-duplex or half-duplex operation. A full-duplex circuit is able to transmit and receive at the same time, similar to a telephone where a person can speak and hear at the same time. A half-duplex circuit is either speaking or listening; it is incapable of both operations simultaneously. Since it can only operate in one direction, a half-duplex circuit only offers the user about half of its actual bandwidth. In other words, a 100 Mbps circuit running in a half-duplex environment offers the user only about 50 Mbps worth of actual data throughput.

Data Link Layer:

Destination Address Source Address Frame Type Information (Data)

FCS

Destination and Source Address Fields: The destination and source address fields, as their names suggest, are the fields in the data frame that identify the destination and source MAC addresses for the frame. The source address is the device that transmitted the frame, and the destination address is the device destined to receive the frame. Frame Type: This field contains information that determines the format of the frame, either and Ethertype field for Ethernet, Version 2 or a length field for IEEE 802.3. Data Field: This field contains the bulk of the frame. This is where the upper layer information is encapsulated. FCS Field: This is the frame check sequence. The FCS is a calculation performed by the equipment generating the frame on the total bits in the frame. If any of the bits change while the packet traverses the network, the FCS value will no longer be valid. The device receiving the frame at the far end will see that the frame has been corrupted during transmission, and it will discard the frame. All of the previous information applies to 10 BASE-X, 100 BASE-X, and 1000 BASE-X (GigE) services. There is, however, one specification of the Ethernet standard that is more applicable for GigE services than for 10 BASE-X and 100 BASE-X services Pause Control. Pause control frames allow Ethernet elements to throttle the actual throughput of the link in real time. Most elements can support full 10 BASE-X and 100 BASE-X rates.When GigE was first released, many elements could not support long durations of full bandwidth routing. Because of this, the pause control specification allowed a local element to tell the far end element to slow down until the local element caught up. Although not as prevalent as a few years ago, this is still part of the Ethernet standard and can be seen in deployed networks.