Yldz, Islamic Architecture and Art 93 HISTORY OF ART AND ARCHITECTURE I (From Prehistory to the end of Gothic)

Part 11: Islamic Architecture

From its Rise to the end of Medieval Ages

The word Islamic, as applied to art, refers to those people who have grown and lived under rulers who professed the faith of Islam or in cultures and societies which have been strongly influenced by the modes of life and thought characteristic of Islam. But Islamic, unlike Christian, refers not only to a faith but also to a whole culture, since - at least in theory- the separation of the realm of Ceasar from that of God is not applicable to Islam. Also unlike Christianity, Islam did not develop first as the faith of a few, increasing in numbers of its adherents under the shadow of a huge state alien to it. Rather, these developments took place slowly during the 7th and 8th centuries. In 622 A.D., the year of the Hijra (Hijret or Hagira), when Mohamed left Medina (originally Madina al-Nabi), the town of the Prophet, ancient Yathrib the first Islamic state, a handful followers from the mercantile cities of Arabia constituted almost all the Muslims, and the private house of the Prophet was their only centre. But by 750 Arab Muslim armies had penetrated into southern France, crossed the Oxus and the Jazartes, and reached the Indus. The first Islamic dynasty, the Ummayads, had come and gone. New cities had been created in North Africa, Egypt, and Iraq. The Dome of the Rock has been built in Jerusalem, while also in Jerusalem, as well as Damascus, Madina and many other cities of the Near East, great mosques had been erected as gathering places for prayer as well as to strengthen the political and social ties which bound the faithful together. Dozens of splendid palaces had been scattered throughout the lands of the Fertile Crescent. In other words Islamic art did not slowly evolve form the meeting of a new faith and of a new state with whatever older traditions prevailed in the areas in which the state ruled; it came forth as a suddenly as the faith and the state, for, whatever influences may

Yldz, Islamic Architecture and Art 94 have been at work in the building and decoration of early Islamic monuments, their characteristic is that they were built for Muslims, to serve purposes which did not exist in quite the same way before Islam. In order to understand this art and the forms it created as well as the way it went about creating them, it is necessary to investigate first whether the Arabs who conquered so vast an area brought any specific tradition with them; second, whether the new faith imposed certain attitudes or rules which found artistic expression; and finally, what major artistic movements the Muslims encountered in the lands they took over.

Key Of the Kaba, Louvre Museum.

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Early Islamic Period

Mohammads Achievements Born in c. 570 in
c. 622 Muhammad flees from Mecca to Medina (the Hagira or Hijret) He became political and spiritual leader. 622-632 Muslim expansion on the greater part of Arabia peninsula and his spiritual and temporal leadership in Medina. 632: Conquered Mecca. 632: Death of Mohammad. Historical Landmarks c. 622 Muhammad Flees from Mecca to Medina (the Hagira or Hijret) 632 Muhammad led the 1st Islamic pilgrimage (HAJ) to Kaba in Mecca (The ancient shrine associated with Abraham, who is believed to be ancestors of the Arabs). 632 Death of Muhammad In 622 C.E. Muhammad had been forced to leave Mecca and seek refuge in Medina. This departure, or emigration is called the "hejira" and marks the inception of the Muslim calendar. He was accompanied in exile by a large number of Meccan supporters and assited on his arrival in Medina by many of the farming community there, who became known as the "Helpers" or "ansari". Eight years later Muhammad's Medinan helpers assisted him to regain control of Mecca, and many of the Meccans converted to Islam. Shortly before his death in 632, Muhammad undertook a final farewell pilgrimage to Medina and on 16th March, halfway between the two cities, at Qadir Khum, Muhammad is said to have taken his son-in-law and cousin, 'Ali ibn Abi Taleb, by the hand and said in front of all those present "Everyone whose patron I am, also has 'Ali as a patron". However following Muhammad's death in 632 C.E. there appears to have been a general consensus in settling the succession or Caliphate on his uncle, Abu Bekr, who had been one of the original party of emigrants, however, this was not without opposition from the "ansari" who felt that they were being overlooked. After two year Abu Bekr was succeeded by Omar, another of those who had fled with Muhammad who greatly extended the area under Islam, not least by defeating the Persian Army at Nihavand in 642. In 644 C.E. six Companions of Muhammad including his son-in-law, 'Ali, elected the third Caliph, Osman. This marked the start of the ascendancy of the Ummayad clan, because Osman was a member of this Meccan aristocracy which had formerly been responsible for Muhammad's persecution and expulsion. This, and his tendency to appoint members of his clan to the most important positions, led to his assassination by a consortium of discontented fellow exiles and "ansari" in 656, and the appointment in Medina of 'Ali. His appointment was resisted by the Ummayads and in the end led to a pitched battle on the 9th December 656 C.E. outside Basra, known as the Battle of the Camel, in which Muhammad's widow, Ayesha, who had declared herself against her son-in-law, was taken prisoner and sent under armed guard to Medina. The Visual Arts c. 622 He initiated the practice of praying towards Mecca. Early worship places: rather simple with no ornament His house: mud-brick, with palm logs as columns, and palms leaves coated with mud for partitions and roofing, with smaller rooms for poor people opening into the courtyard. Islamic Teaching of Mohammad Islamic teaching is based on the word of God!

Yldz, Islamic Architecture and Art 96 There was no need for aesthetic theory. There was no need for didactic images. Islam is a complete and comprehensive guide for the inner and outer life of an individual. Islam is a direct relation between individual and God, without the intercession of saints in heaven or meditation of priests on the earth. Mohammad is not a divine being. His mission is to save his fellowmen by instructing them to be faithful and true citizens. Mohammad respected other religions but rejected Holy Trinity of the Christians. He considered all believers as equal. He was a social and religious reformer. His teachings dominated by the concept of the last judgment which would determine eternal salvation or damnations: heaven or hell. Five Pillars of Islamic Religion Praying five times a day Feasting during Ramazan month Abstinence from strong drinks (alcohol) and some food (pork) Zekat (almsgiving) Pilgrimage to Mecca once in lifetime Faithful observance of moral code of Koran.

Early Islamic Art & Architecture

The Visual Arts c. 690 Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem c. 730 Qasr al-Hayr al Gharbi

Historical Landmarks
634-64 Muslim expansion through Near East and into India (Punjab) 658 Umayyad dynasty in Damascus 670 Muslim expansion into north Africa

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Caliphate Periods Under the four elected Caliphs who succeeded Mohammad as temporal spiritual leaders the territories of Islamic world enlarged 632-34 Abu Bakr (Ebubekir) 634-44 Omer 644-56 Osman 656-61 Ali Islamic Expansion In 647: Iraq, Palestine, Syria, Egypt, Iran, Cyrenaica and Tripolitania In 649: Indus Valley (Today Pakistan) 670: North West Africa 710: Spain, Pyreneesia as far as Poitiers in France Islam first spread in the Near East and southern shores of the Mediterranean in the 7th century. The earliest dominant culture in the area was Hellenized Orient, Roman and Byzantine. So, from 7th century onwards the patrons of Islamic art will be a new style originating with the existing Asian, Hellenism and Roman traditions and within a short time a new style will be arisen which will be in conflict with this existing styles . Character of Early Islamic Art & Architecture There is a strong desire to find artistic forms to embody their own beliefs. It is a religious art entirely without any holy images Visual symbols are avoided. Inscriptions are the only religious elements in Islamic art. But they are just the art of signs and not of symbols or images. Islamic Calligraphy Calligraphy is more highly cultivated in Islam than anywhere outside China and Japan, and it determined more than just the fluid linearity of Islamic decoration. Early Mosques (Figure 1 and 2) In places where there is no building suitable for congregation, simple mosques were arranged: A space surrounded by a fence with no roof sufficed the need of the praying. Mosque at Kufa in Iraq (638): (Figure 3) A large square two rows of columns set up to form a covered collonade facing towards Mecca and a ditch to mark off its boundary.

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Figure 2

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Figure 4

Mohammads House in Medina. Figure 4 There were 9 small rooms built on the outer side of the east wall. It was a largely open square of some sixty six meters per side. It was essentially large and almost empty enclosed space. The enclosing walls were plain.

Yldz, Islamic Architecture and Art 98 Along the inner wall facing the qibla was the zulla (shaded space: a double row of palm trunks carrying a roof of palm leaves. This was large enough to accommodate 100 people during praying). Three gates were simple little openings in the wall. Although it was a house, in fact it served as a political focus as well as a center for the community. Kaba: The house of God which is located in Mecca. Muslims face the Kaba when they pray and this is the direction to which mihrabs point. It was Ibrahim (Abraham) and his son Ismail who rebuilt the Kaba as ordered by God. The Quran tells us that God ordered Ibrahim to build a sanctuary at a specific spot in Bacca (XXII:26), another name for Mecca. Ibrahim and Ismail were told that it should be a cube and around a celestial stone, which was preserved nearby a hill in Mecca and then given to Ibrahim by an Angel. This black stone was kept at the eastern corner of the Kaba. God then informed Ibrahim to institute the rite of pilgrimage to Mecca.

The Ummayad (Emevis) Architecture and Art

The Umayyads (Emevis): 650-750 The first dynasty of Islam which was founded by Muawiyya ibn Abu Sufyan (r. 661-80 A.D.), who was the governor of Syria after the Syrian conquest. He came to rule the entire Muslim world from his capital Damascus, which became a main cultural center of the Muslim world. Muawiyya used the already existing Byzantium base of shipyards to build a strong Arab navy. The greatest caliphs of the Umayyads were Muawiya, Abd al-Malik (r. 685-705 A.D.), Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (r. 717-20 A.D.) and Hisham (r. 724-744 A.D). Their caliphate fell in 750 A.D. because of the opposition of the Arab tribes in Iraq and others in Medina. They were overthrown by a revolution that began in Khurasan, led by Abu Muslim who gained the caliphate for the Abbasids. Most of the Umayyads were killed during these happenings, one of those who survived was Abd al-Rahman who fled to North Africa and reinstituted the Umayyads in Spain. Their architecture was heavily influenced by Byzantine norms. Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan built the dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, in 691 A.D., the first monument in Islam. Its plan is derived from Byzantine mausolea and its decoration, the mosaic on its inner walls, are classical in inspiration. Umayyad caliphs built several desert palaces, all similar to Roman forts. The bath at Qusayr Amra is the typical Roman bath. The mural paintings adorning its walls are all of Byzantine inspiration. The mosaic floors in Khirbat al-Mafjar are yet another classical influence. Other influences from the east played a role, but not as strong as those of Byzantium. The faade of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi shows Sasanian influences on the sculpted figures. The Umayyads (Emevis) and their Art and Architecture 650-750 The Dome of the Rock Early Congregational Mosques The Mosques of al-Walid Secular Buildings The Decorative Arts Ummayad (Emevis) Architecture and Art The Umayyads (Emevis) and their Art and Architecture 650-750 The Dome of the Rock Early Congregational Mosques The Mosques of al-Walid Secular Buildings The Decorative Arts

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Dome of the Rock: (Figures 1, 2, 3) (built in 685)

Built near the site of the temple of Solomon at the command of caliph Abd al Malik, of the first dynasty of Islam Umayyads. It was conceived as a special sanctuary. Not as a mosque. Jews believe it to be the tomb of Adam and also as the place where Abraham prepared to sacrifice Isaac. According to Moslem tradition it was the place form which Muhammad ascended into heaven on the night journey described in the Koran. An octagon with two concentric ambulatories surrounding a central space covered by a dome. Early seventh decoration included panels of curiously coloured marble cladding piers and walls, sheets of gilded metal worked in relief and mosaics of glass and mother of pearl with flowers and leaf motifs surrounding vases and crowns. Inscriptions from the Koran specifically to the Christians: The Messiah Jesus Son of Mary is only an apostle of God, and His Word which he conveyed into Mary, and a Sprit proceeding from Him! Believe therefore in God and his apostles and say not Three Divinity. It will be better for you. God is only one God. Far be it form his glory that He should have a Son!

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Figure 3

The Great Mosque, Damascus

Built between 706 and 715 by Abd al-Maliks son and successor Caliph al-Walid in Damascus, then the capital of Islam. (Figures 4-10) It had a great influence of the further Islamic architecture. The site was a rectangular walled temenos or precinct of a pagan temple, which had been converted into a Christian church in the late 4th cent. The site was adopted as an early open-air mosque when Damascus was conquered for 70 years. In 705 al-Walid demolished it and started building the largest mosque in Islam. It still retains the original fabric of a Roman wall with its four corner towers.

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Figure 10

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Abbasid Period in Islamic Architecture and Art

This second major Muslim dynasty took their name from their ancestor, al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Mutallib, who was the Prophet's uncle. After succeeding the Umayyads in 749 A.D., they ruled for the next 500 years, although in reality their effective power declined after around 900 A.D. The Abbasids moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, building al-Mansur's famous round city in 762 A.D. It was during the reign of Harun al-Rashid (r. 786-809 A.D.) that the Abbasid caliphate reached its peak, a time of prosperity, peace and communal unity. After that, the decline started, with clashes between the population and troops stimulating the construction of Samarra in 865 A.D. as a city for the troops. In 945 A.D. the Buwayhids replaced Abbasid power in Iran and Iraq, although they continued to be the nominal caliphs. By the time of the Mongol occupation of Baghdad in 1258 A.D. their reign was completely reduced to being a mere figurehead. Abbasid architecture was influenced by Sassanian, Central Asian, and later twelfth and thirteenth century A.D. Saljuk prototypes. Despite the breadth of the Abbasid territories, the majority of remaining monuments are in the Abbasid homeland of Iraq. Abbasid architecture is noted for the vastness of the scale used for their cities, as well as the Samarra stucco decoration that spread and continued to be used elsewhere for a long time. The Abbasid Tradition (750-950): there is a significant production in every field during these periods, mainly in these areas: Architecture and Architectural Decoration The Decorative Arts The Art of the Book Painting

Important Points about the Abbasids Abbasids dynasty of caliphs succeeded the Umayyads. They descend from Abbas, an uncle of the prophet. Abbasid period will be nearly 500 years. It is the classical age of the Islamic culture Arabic is the legal and religious language Revival of sciences, particularly the revival of the Greek culture Literature, science: revival of Greek culture but also under the influence of Greek, India and China. Initiated optics and astronomy studies Power slowly passed to the official of other ethnic origin. Courts of the Caliphs Court of the caliphs is now living an extreme aristocratic life. Rich, huge palaces and mosques were the symbol of their political leadership. Haroun al- Rashid Omer Hayyam: poet and mathematician. Arabic numerals derived from Islam from India. Abbasid Cities Caliphs erected several administrative centers in the vicinity of Kufa, in southern Iraq. They were called al-Hashimiya

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These were royal residences, which included building of the royal families, officers, a garrison for protection, shops, and the royal palace and the mosque in the center of the city. They had the khadre, throne room, on the upper floor. These administrative centers had multistory buildings. The other citizens lived outside the city. Also, the military center was outside the walls. The first one of these was Dar al-Imara ([also called City of Peace], begun in 762) at Mevr built by Abu Muslim. It consisted of a domed chamber 82 feet tall with four doors leading into as many iwans, (each 90 by 40 feet), which in turn led into four square sahns. Such radial symmetry is mirrored in several later Abbasid palaces at Samarra. Nothing remained of al-Mansurs famous circular city of Bagdad. City of Bagdad

Madina al Salam (Bagdad), the round city Abbasid caliph al Mansur begun construction of his new capital Baghdad, in the same circular plan as mentioned above. His intention was to make Bagdad to symbolize the universal rule of the Moslem world. Two sets of mud brick walls and four axial gates protected a ring of residences and government offices. In the open space in the center is the caliphs palace and the adjacent mosque. City founded on a circular grid. Astrologers determined the date of the foundation of the buildings. Circumference: 16,000 cubits* (5 miles/8 kilometers). (*1 cubit:15 inches/ 38 cm. sq. ) Mosque 200 cubits sq. Palace: 400 cubits sq.; Throne room (20 cubits) in the center of the palace. The walls were pierced by gates: Khorosan Gate on the northeast; Basra Gate on the southeast; Kufa Gate on the southwest; Damascus Gate on the northwest From each of these gates are led avenues lined with shops towards the center of the city. There is an outer ring for the residence of the caliphs family, staff and servants. An inner ring housed the arsenal, treasury, and government offices. On the innermost ring is a esplanade on which rest the police station, Friday mosque and caliphs palace. The citizens lived outside the city walls. Other Abbasid Cities and Residences: Samarra (founded in 836) by the Caliph Al-Mutasim. Second Abbasid capital on Tigris. The town was constructed in haste, largely in unbaked brick on a regular plan, being extended northward along the east bank of the river. The city was built at three stages. Thus it shows three distinct styles of architecture and decoration. Mosques at Samarra was the largest ever built Built by one of the sons of Harun al Rashid Decorated with stucco decoration including figurative wall paintings Harem as an embellishment of aristocratic life. Art as vanity Minaret exists Mosque of Samarra: 240x156 meter sq; capable to accommodate 100,000 people; 216 brick piers that supported the roof survived; The ceiling was flat; Minaret, spiral shaped.

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The Mosque of Isfahan from 840 Like all Friday mosques founded throughout the Abbasid empire, the original mosque at Isfahan was a rectangular hypostyle building, with a large central court surrounded by arcades, In the 10th century, the Buyids lined the courtyard with a new row of polylobed columns; in 1086/87 a dome chamber was added in the prayer hall in front of the mihrab, in the early 12th century four iwans were added around the court.

Dar al-Imara and Mosque of Ibn Tulun, Fustat (Cairo) 876-879 Plan of Mosque of Ibn Tulun Cairo Ahmad Ibn Tulun, second semi-independent governor of Egypt.

Rectangular walls enclose a courtyard, surrounded on three sides by a compound in which stands, almost on axis, a minaret enwrapped by a spiral ramp. The plan of the minaret is now, however, square. The arcade of the mosque is double on three sides and is carried on piers, while a similar multiple arcade forms the prayer space on the kibla wall. The building complex has a fountain in the middle of the courtyard. Though it is smaller than the earlier mosque of Samarra, it is a large building, which retains its original form despite several restorations. Construction is in brick, faced with stucco in which friezes are incised. The modification of the basic Corinthian capital to the colonnettes of the arcade piers, the vine-leaf friezes and the intricate geometric window grilles, indicated a high level of architectural development. The admixture of several different styles is an indication of craftsmen form different parts of Near East, particularly form Samarra ot Egypt. Other Significant Mosque:

Kairouan, Great Mosque (836, 862, 873)

Susa, The Great Mosque, (850).

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Tombs

Qubbat al-Salaybihab (plan) Qubbat al-Salaybihab

Qubbat al-Salaybihab: This is the oldest monument tomb in the history of Islamic architecture. The inner and outer octagons are open on all four sides and never had doors. This derived form the Koranic injunction that the tomb of a believer should be open to the sky. This type of tomb is called canopy tomb, which may be square or octagonal provided it has portals on at least three or more sides. The source of design is certainly the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, with an intermediary model being the fountain at Khirbat al-Mafjar. Decoration: In many Abbasid cities, the architectural decoration elements show three phases in the development of the ornamentation style into abstract motifs: The first is consisting of carved and precise, fresh, lively and Hellenistic inspiration. The second is modeled and transitional. And the third is wholly a new style, which had been synthesized in which powerful repetition of abstract mould forms supplemented the previous naturalism. The carved marble dados, carved and gilded timber roofs, was elaborately painted in fresco, all had been diffused since craftsmen and artists from Persia, Byzantine Empire, Africa come together to work in the buildings.