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Galilei (1564-1642),-an Italianasrronomer, philosopher, andprofessor 9l*marhemarics of at rheuniversities of pisa."J p;;;,;la9 became the first manto pointa telescope to the sky.He wrotetn" nrrii."utir" on modem dynam_ ics in 1590. His workson the oscillations rirpi" p"Juton,. undthe vibration o_f strings "t " areof fundamental significance i" ,f," ir,'"r.i (Photocourtesyof Dirk J. st ui[, a Concise "ilibrations. niiiirj ' ii -' turatiiiittrs fznd rev.ed.),Doverpublications, Inc., New york, l94g)

CHAPTER

Fundamentals of Vibration

1.1 Preliminary Remarks

The subjectof vibrationsis introducedherein a relatively simple manner.The chapterbegins with a brief history of the subjectand continues with an exarninationof its importance.The variousstepsinvolved in vibration analysisofan engineeringsystemare outlined, and essential definitions and conceptsof vibration are introducea. ni"o rolors a fr"sentation of the concept of harmonic analysis,which can be used for the analysis of generi periodic motions. No attempt at exhaustivetreatmentis made in chapter l; subsequent chapterswill develop many of the ideas in more detail.

I.2

BriefHistory of Vibration
People becameinterestedin vibration when the first musical instruments, probably whistles or drums, were discovered. since then, people have applied ingenuity and critical investigation to study the phenomenonof uiuration. Although certain very definite rules were observedin connection with the art of music even in aicient times, they can hardry be called a science. Music was highly developed was much appreciated by the -and Chinese, Hindus, Japanese, and, perhais, the Egyptians as long ago as 4000 a.c. [r.1].

t.2.1 Origins of Vibration

CHAPTERI

FI.JNDA}IENTALS OFVIBRATION From about 3000 n.c., stringed instruments such as harps appeared on the walls of Egyptian tombs I I .2]. In fact, the British Museum exhibits a harp with bull-headedsoundbox found on an inlaid panel of a royal tomb at Ur from 2600 s.c. Stringed musical instruments probably originated with the hunter's bow, a weapon favored by the armies of ancient Egypt. One of the most primitive stringed instruments, called the nanga, dating back to 1500n.c., can be seenin the British Museum. Our presentsystemof music is based in ancientGreek civilization. Since ancienttimes, both musicians and philosopherssought out the rules and laws of sound production, used them in improving musical instruments, and passedthem on from generationto generation. The Greek philosopherand mathematicianPythagoras(582-507 n.c.) is consideredto be the first personto investigatemusical soundson a scientific basis (Fig. 1.1). Among other things, Pythagorasconducted experimentson a vibrating string by using a simple apparatuscalled a monochord. In the monochord shown in Fig. 1.2 the wooden bridges labeled I and 3 are fixed. Bridge 2 is made movable while the tension in the string is held constantby the hanging weight. Pythagorasobservedthat if two like strings of different lengths are subject to the sametension, the shorter one emits a higher note; in addition, if the length of the shorter string is half the longer one, the shorter one will emit a note an octaveabovethe other. However, Pythagorasleft no written account of his work (Fig. 1.3). Although the concept of pitch was developedby the time of Pythagoras,its relation with the frequency of vibration of the sounding body was not understood.In fact the relation between the pitch and the frequency was not understooduntil the time of Galileo in the sixteenthcentury. Around 350 n.c., Aristotle wrote treatiseson music and sound, making observations such as "the voice is sweeterthan the sound of instruments,"and "the sound of the flute is sweeterthan that of the lyre." In 320 s.c., Aristoxenus,a pupil of Aristotle and a musician, wrote a three-volume work entitled Elements of Harmony. These books are perhaps the

FIGURE 1.1

(Reprinted Pythagoras.

with permission from L. E. Navia, fo thago ras: An Annotated B ib lio g raphy, Garland Publishing, Inc., New York, 1990).

1.2 BRIEFHISTORY OFVIBRATION

FIGURE 1.2

Monochord.

PITACOTTAS

PFN'LOLAVS T
FIGURE l'3 Pythagoras-as a.musician. (Reprinted with permission from D. E. smith, Flsrory of Mathematics, Vol. I, Doverpublications, fn.., N", yort, fSSS). oldest ones available on the subject of music written directly by the

author. Euclid, in about 300 s'c'' wrotebriefly aboutmusicwitlout any reference i" itr" ptryti"al nature of sound in a treatisecalled' Introductionto Harmonics. No further scientincadditionsto sound weremadeby the Greeks. It appears that the Romans derivedtheir knowledge of music completely from the Greeks, exceptthat vitruvius, a famousRomanarcnitect, wrote in about20 B'c' on the acoustic propirtiesof theaters. His treatise, entitledDe Architectura Libri Decem'waslost for severai centuries, to be rediscou"r"o oniyin the fifteenthcentury' Thereappears to havebeenno development in thetheorie,or rounaandvibrationfor nearly16centuries followingthe worksof Vitruvius. china experienced manyearthquakes in ancienttimes.ZhangHeng,who served as a historian andastronomer in the-second century, perceived a need io aevltopan instrument to measure earthquakes precisely. In a.o. r32-heinvented the world,sfirst seismograph to measure earthquakes Thisseismograph I1.3,1.41. wasmadeof finecastbronze, hada diam_ eterof eightchi (a chi is-equal to 0.237*"t"r), andwasshaped like a winejar (Fig. r.a). Insidethejar wasa mechanism consisting of pendulums surrounded by a groupof eight levermechanisms pointingin eightairecti-ons. bight dragonfigures,with a bronze ball in

CHAPTERI

FUNDAI{ENTALSOFVIBRATION

FIGURE 1.4 Theworld'sfirst seismograph,invented in Chinain e.o. 132.(Reprinted (Ed.), withpermission History of fromR.Taton York, 1957). Basic Books, Inc., New Science,

There were toads with the mouth of each,were arrangedon the outsideof the seismograph. mouths open upward underneatheachdragon.A strong earthquakein any direction would tilt the pendulum in that direction, triggering the lever in the dragon head.This openedthe mouth of the dragon, thereby releasingits bronze ball, which fell in the mouth of the toad with a clanging sound. Thus the seismographenabled the monitoring personnel to know both the time and direction of occunence of the earthquake.

r.2.2
From Galileoto Rayleigh

to be the founder of modern experimentalsciGalileo Galilei (1564-1642) is considered century is often consideredthe "century of genius" since the ence. In fact, the seventeenth foundations of modern philosophy and sciencewere laid during that period. Galileo was inspired to study the behavior of a simple pendulum by observing the pendulum movements of a lamp in a church in Pisa. One day, while feeling bored during a sermon, Galileo was staringat the ceiling of the church.A swinging lamp caughthis attention.He started measuringthe period of the pendulum movements of the lamp with his pulse and found to his amazementthat the time period was independentof the amplitude of swings. This led him to conduct more experiments on the simple pendulum. ln Discourses publishedin 1638,Galileo discussed vibrating bodies.He ConcerningTwoNew Sciences, described the dependenceof the frequency of vibration on the length of a simple penduof sympatheticvibrations (resonance). Galileo's writlum, along with the phenomenon ings also indicate that he had a clear understanding of the relationship between the frequency,length, tension, and density of a vibrating stretched string [1.5]. However, the first correct published account of the vibration of strings was given by the French mathematician and theologian,Marin Mersenne(1588-1@8) in his book Harmonicorum Liber, published in 1636. Mersenne also measured,for the first time, the frequency of vibration of a long string and from that predicted the frequency of a shorter string having the same density and tension. Mersenne is consideredby many the father of acoustics.He is often

1.2 BRIEFHISTORYOFITBRATION 5 credited with the discovery of the laws of vibrating strings because he published the resultsin 1636'two yearsbeforeGalileo. However,the credit belongsto Galileo since the laws were written many years earlier but their publication was prohibited by the orders of the Inquisitor of Rome unril 163g. Inspired by the work of Galileo, the Academia del cimento was fbunded in Florence in 1657; this was followed by the formations or tn" Royal Society of London in 1662 and the Paris Academiedes Sciences in 1666. Larer, Robert Hooke (1635_1703) arso con_ ducted experimentsto frnd a relation uetween the pitch and frequency of vibration of a string' However,it was Josephsauveur(1653-1716) *il;;;A;".,t"r" experimenrs thoroughlyand coined the word "u"ourilrl'for the scienceoii"""o [1.6]. sauveur in Franceand John wallis (1616-^1703) in Enslandobserved,independentry, rhe phenome_ non of mode shapes,and they found that a iibrating ,o"r"ir"a ,-,"rinf t uu" no motion at certain points and violent motion "un at intermediate points. suuuJu. -uii.uiton, called the former points nodes and the latter ones loops. rt was found tt ut ,u"t had higher frequenciescompared ro the one associated with the ,i*pr; ;i;;Jn or rn" string with no nodes.In fact, the higher frequencies were 6i*.," be integrar ,nuirifr", of the frequency of simple vibration' and Sauveur called the higher frequencies hannonics and the frequencyof simple vibration the fundamental frequency.Sauveuralso found that a string can vibrate with severalof its-harmonicspresent at the sametime. ln aJaiiion, he observed the phenomenonof beats when. two organ pip", of slightly different pitches are sounded together' In 1700 Sauveurcalculated]by a somewhataubiou, methoi, the frequency of a stretchedstring from the measured ,ug of it, middle point. Sir Isaac Newto-n (1642-1727; pubrished his monumenrar work, ph,osophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. in't686, describing the law oiuniu"rrut gravitation as well as the three raws of motion and other discoveries.Newton,s ,""ono law of motion is routinely used in modern books on vibrations to derive the equations of motion of a vibrating body' The theoretical (dynamical) sotution or tn" p.oul=m or"the vibrating srring was found by rhe English mathematician'Brook rhyror (16g5_1731)in 1713, who also presentedthe famous Thylor's theorem on infinite series.The natural'frequency of vibration obtained from the equation of motion derived bv Thylor ug."J*irt the experimen_ tal values observed by Garileo and Mersenne. The procedure adopted by Thyror was

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perfected through *t"l1tr9gy9tir" ;; ;;;;i derivatives in ,rr" of motionby DanielBernoulli (1700-1782). "q"i.i"". Jean^o'ei"ru".t (1717-17g3), ' r '-r ' oJ)' \r ''tl and Leonard Euler (1707-1783)
The possibility of a string vibrating with severalof its harmonicspresentat the same time (with dispracement of any point ut'uny inrtunt being equal to the algebraicsum of dis_ placements for each harmonic) *u, p.o*a through the dynamic equations of Daniel Bernoulli in his memoir,publishedoy tit" n"rrin Academy in 1755 This tl.7l. characreristic was referred'toas the principle of the coexistenceofsmall oscillations,-*t i.r,, in present-day terminology, is the principle of superposition. This principle ;";;;;;;; to be mosr valuable in the developmentof the theory of vibrations and led to ttre possiuility of expressing any arbitrary function (t:":,.ury initial shapeof the string) using an infinire series of sines and cosines.Becauseof this implication,'D'Alembert and Eul-erdoubted the validity of this principle. However, jh: t ortrris type orexpansion was proved by J. B. J. Fourier (1768-1830) inhis Anatyticat "{tii Thiory of Uioii" \SZZ.

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CH,APTER I FT]NDAMENTALS OF VIBMTION

The analytical solution of the vibrating string was presented by Joseph Lagrange (1736-1813) in his memoir published by the Turin Academy in 1759. In his study, Lagrange assumedthat the string was made up of a finite number of equally spacedidentical mass particles,and he establishedthe existenceof a number of independentfrequencies equal to the number of mass particles. When the number of particles was allowed to be infinite, the resulting frequencieswere found to be the same as the harmonic frequencies of the stretchedstring. The method of setting up the differential equation of the motion of a string (called the wave equation), presentedin most modern books on vibration theory, was first developedby D'Alembert in his memoir published by the Berlin Academy in 1750. The vibration of thin beams supported and clamped in different ways was first studied by Euler in 1744 and Daniel Bernoulli in 175I . Their approachhas become known as the Euler-Bernoulli or thin beam theory. CharlesCoulomb did both theoreticaland experimentalstudiesin 1784 on the torsional oscillations of a metal cylinder suspended by a wire (Fig. 1.5). By assumingthat the resisting torque of the twisted wire is proportional to the angle of twist, he derived the equation of motion for the torsional vibration of the suspended cylinder. By integrating the equation of motion, he found that the period of oscillation is independentof the angle of twist. There is an interesting story related to the developmentof the theory of vibration of plates [1.8]. In 1802 the German scientist,E. F. F. Chladni (1756-1824) developedthe method of placing sand on a vibrating plate to find its mode shapesand observed the

FIGURE 1.5 Coulomb's device for torsional vibration tests.(Reprinted with permissionfrom S. P.Timoshenko, Historyof Strength of Materials,McGraw-HillBookCompany, Inc., NewYork,1953).

1.2 BRIEFHISTORYOFWBMTION 7

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beauty and intricary of the modal patterns of the vibrating plates. In lg0g the French Academy invited chladni to give a demonstration of his experiments. Napoldon Bonaparte, who attended the meeting,was very impressed and presented a sum of 3,000 francs to the academy,to be awardeJ to the first peison to give u ,uiirru",o.y mathematical theory of the vibration of plates. By the cloiing date Jf the comperition in october l8ll, only one candidate, Sophie Germain,had enteredthe contest. But Lagrange,who was one of the judges, noticed an elror in the derivation of her differential equation of motion' The academyopenedthe competition again, with a new closing date of october l8 13' Sophie Germain again enteredthe contest, presentingthe correct form of the differential equation. However, the academydid not award the prize to her becausethe judges wanted physical justification of the assumptions made in her derivation. The competition was openedonce more. In her third attempt, Sophie Germain was finally awardedthe prize in 1815,althoughthejudges were not completely satisfiedwith her theory.In fact, it was later found that her differential equation was correct but the boundary conditions were elroneous' The correct boundary conditions for the vibration orput"s were given in lg50 by G. R. Kirchhoff(1824-1887). In the meantime,the problem of vibration of a rectangurarflexible membrane,which is important for the understanding of the sound emitted by drums, was solved for the first time by simeon Poisson(1781-1840).The vibration of a circularun"rurun" was studied by R' F A' clebsch (1833-1872) in 1862. After this, vibration studieswere done on a number of practical mechanicaland structural systems.rn rgiT Lord Baron Rayleigh pub_ lished his book on the theory ofsound [1.9]; it is considered a classicon the subject of sound and vibration even today. Notable u*ong the many contributions of Rayleigh is the method of finding the fundamental frequency of vibration of a conservative system by making useof the principle of conservation of known as Rayleigh,s method. This method proved to.be a helpful technique"n"rgy-now for the solution of difficult vibration problems'An extension of the method,which can be usedto find multiple naturalfrequencies, is known as the Rayleigh-Ritz method.

t.2.3 Recent Contributions

In 1902 Frahm investigatedthe importanceoftorsional vibration study in the design ofthe propeller shafts of steamships. The dynamic vibration absorber,which involves the addition of a secondaryspring-masssystem to eliminate the vibrations oi u ,,'uin system, was also proposed by Frahm in 1909.Among the modern contributers to the theory of vibrations, the names of Stodola, De Lavall Timoshenko, and Mindlin are notable. Aurel Stodola (1859-1943) contributedro the srudy of vibration of beams,plates, and mem_ branes'He developeda method for analyzing vibrating beamsthat is atso appricableto turbine blades.Noting that ev_ery majo. typ" of"prime mover gives rise to vibration problems, c' G' P' De Laval (1s45-1913) preseniea a practicalsoluion to the proulem of.-vibrarion of an unbalancedrotaring disk. After noticing failures of steer shafl in high_speedtur_ bines, he used a bamboo fishing rod as a shalt to mount the rotor. He observed that this system not only eliminated the vibration of the unbalancedrotor but also survived up to speeds as high as 100,000 rpm tl.l0l. stephenTimoshenko(rg7g-rg7z) presented an improved theory of vibration of beams, which hasbecomeknown as the Timoshenkoor thick beamtheory,by consideringthe effects of rotary inertia and sheardeformation.A similar theory was p*r""[a C/ n. D. Mindlin for

CT1APTER 1 FUNDAMENTATS OFVIBRATION

the vibration analysis of thick plates by including the effects of rotary inertia and shear deformation. It has long been recognizedthat many basic problems of mechanics,including those of vibrations, are nonlinear.Although the linear treatmentscommonly adopted are quite satisfactory for most purposes,they are not adequatein all cases.In nonlinear systems, phenonmenamay occur that are theoretically impossible in linear systems. The mathematical theory of nonlinear vibrations began to develop in the works of Poincard and Lyapunov at the end of the nineteenth century. Poincard developed the perturbation method in 1892 in connection with the approximate solution of nonlinear celestial mechanicsproblems. Lyapunov laid the foundations of modem stability theory in 1892, which is applicable to all types of dynamical systems. After L920,the studies undertaken by Duffing and van der Pol brought the fust definite solutions into the theory of nonlinear vibrations and drew attention to its importancein engineering.In the last 30 years, authors like Minorsky and Stoker haveendeavored to collect in monographsthe main results concerning nonlinear vibrations. Most practical applications of nonlinear vibration involved the use of some type of a perturbationtheory approach.The modern methods of perturbation theory were surveyedby Nayfeh t l. I 11. Random characteristics are presentin diverse phenomenasuch as earthquakes,winds, transportationof goods on wheeled vehicles, and rocket and jet engine noise. It became necessaryto devise conceptsand methods of vibration analysis for these random effects. Although Einstein consideredBrownian movement,a particular type of random vibration, as long ago as 1905,no applicationswere investigateduntil 1930.The introduction ofthe conelation function by Taylor in 1920and of the spectraldensity by Wiener and Khinchin in the early 1930sopenednew prospectsfor progressin the theory of random vibrations. Papersby Lin and Rice, published between 1943 and 1945, paved rhe way for the application of random vibrations to practical engineering problems. The monographs of Crandall and Mark, and Robsonsystematized the existing knowledge in the theory of random vibrations [1.12, 1.13]. Until about 30 years ago, vibration studies,even those dealing with complex engineering systems,were done by using gross models, with only a few degreesof freedom. However, the advent of high-speed digital computers in the 1950s made it possible to treat moderately complex systems and to generateapproximate solutions in semidefinite form, relying on classical solution methods but using numerical evaluation of certain terms that cannot be expressedin closed form. The simultaneous developmentof the finite element method enabled engineersto use digital computers to conduct numerically detailed vibration analysis of complex mechanical,vehicular, and structural systemsdisplaying thousandsof degreesof freedom [1.14]. Although the finite element method was not so named until recently, the concept was used several centuries back. For.example,ancient mathematiciansfound the circumference of a circle by approximating it as a polygon, where each side of the polygon, in presentday notation, can be called a finite element.The finite element method as known today was presentedby Turner, Clough, Martin, and Topp in connection with the analysis of aircraft structurest1.151.Figure 1.6 shows the finite element idealization of the body o f a b u st 1 . 1 6 1 .