MATH264/EMTH204 Lecture notes (Term 1, 2009)

Review of vector geometry (and some calculus)

The calculus of single functions of a single real variable can be understood without much geometry: graphs
are written as y = f (x) on a pair of axes (xy-plane) and differentiation and integration is usually done
with respect to x, the independent variable. In higher dimensions, things are not so simple: the same basic
operations of differentiation and integration are used, but there can be many variables to consider. It is
really important to know which operations should be done with which variables. Calculus is fundamentally
about linearisation (the limiting operation of differentiation and integration essentially throw away local
nonlinear terms), so it makes sense to let our insight in multi-dimensions by guided by linear geometry. A
good place to start is by recalling some facts about vectors.

(0.1) Euclidean space and vectors

We will work in Euclidean space, usually denoted Rn for nd–space. You will already be really familiar
with R2 —the xy-plane in which single variable functions can be graphed in Cartesian coordinates. In
higher dimensions, different kinds of graphs are possible. For example, in R3 we may get a curve, or a
surface, and even in R2 there are nice graphs which can’t be represented via a single real valued function.
Example 1. Consider the circle of radius 1, centred on (0, 0). Write down a formula for the points on the
circle (in terms of (x, y)). Why can’t you write it as y = f (x) for a single function f ? 
A dominant theme in this review is that geometric objects in Rn are solutions of equations. The equations
may be explicit (ie already solved in terms of parameters) or implicit (still need to be solved).
To organise your ideas: The xy–plane in R3 can be written as {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : z = 0} and is thought of as
the set of points satisfying g(x, y, z) = 0 where g(x, y, z) = z. 

What is Rn ?
• R × R × · · · × R (n times)
• points represented as “ordered n-tuples” (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) where each xi is a real number

Vectors
Vectors are oriented line segments. It is convenient to think of them as arrows connnecting pairs of points in
Rn . Consequently, they have a length and a direction. If u and v are two vectors they can be added together
by concatenating them “nose to tail”. That is, slide the vector v so that its tail (the end without the arrow)
is located at the same point as the head of u (the end with the arrow). Arranged like this, u and v appear to
form two sides of a triangle. The “third side” (the vector connecting the tail of u to the head of v) is u + v.
To do calculus, this needs to be made more concrete. For reference, we’ll slide v so that its tail sits at the
origin (0, 0, 0). If v connects the origin to a point (x, y, z) in 3d-space (for example), we’ll write
v = (x, y, z).
That is, a vector is written down in terms of its coordinates. General vector addition is done by coordinates:
u + v = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) + (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , . . . , un + vn ).

Note: Vectors v are written in boldface. By hand, distinguish vector quantities by writing v or ~v .

i
In R3 , the special vectors

i = (1, 0, 0)
j = (0, 1, 0)
k = (0, 0, 1)

are coordinate vectors and all other vectors in R3 can be built from them.
Example 2. Suppose that v = (1, 1, 2). Then

v = (1, 1, 2) = (1, 0, 0) + (0, 1, 0) + (0, 0, 2)

= (1, 0, 0) + (0, 1, 0) + 2 (0, 0, 1)
= i + j + 2 k.

(0.2) Dot product, length and angle

The dot product of two vectors produces a number: for this reason it is sometimes called the scalar
product (because the answer is a scalar—a number), or inner product.
Definitions

• If u = (u1 , u2 , · · · , un ) and v = (v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ) then

u · v := u1 v1 + u2 v2 + · · · + un vn .

• The length, norm or magnitude of a vector v is

√ p
kvk := v·v (= v1 2 + v2 2 + v3 2 in R3 ).

• A vector with length 1 is called a unit vector.

• If v 6= 0 then
v
v̂ :=
kvk
is a unit vector, and v = kvk v̂.

• The angle θ between vectors u and v satisfies

u · v = kuk kvk cos θ.

• If u · v = 0 then u and v are orthogonal (or perpendicular) and write: u ⊥ v (the symbol ⊥ is called
“perp”).
√
Example 1. Let v = (2, 1, −2). Then v · v = 22 + 12 + (−2)2 = 9 so that kvk = 9 = 3 and
   
v 2 1 −2 v 2 1 −2
= , , so that v = kvk =3 , , .
kvk 3 3 3 kvk 3 3 3

Exercise: Verify that 32 , 13 , −2

= 1. 
3

ii
Remarks
π
• u ⊥ v ⇐⇒ cos θ = 0 ⇐⇒ θ = 2

• if u = v then the angle between them in 0, and since cos 0 = 1,

u · v = kuk kvk 1 = kvk2 (since u = v ⇒ kuk = kvk). This is
consistent with our definition of length.

• The formula for length can be understood as a “generalised Pythago-

ras Theorem”.

• u and v are (anti-)parallel if û = ±v̂.

Exercise: Prove that non-zero vectors u and v are parallel if and only if au + bv = 0 for non-zero a, b ∈ R.

(0.3) Vector cross product

In R3 there is a useful vector product. If u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) then

u × v = (u2 v3 − u3 v2 , u3 v1 − u1 v3 , u1 v2 − u2 v1 ).

Remarks

Recall cofactor
 expansion

+ − +
1. A useful trick for remembering the formula is that in 1st row  · · · 
  · · ·
i j k
det  u1 u2 u3  = u × v.
v1 v2 v3

2. For every u, v ∈ R3 we have

u×v = −v × u (0.1)
u×u = 0 (0.2)
(u × v) ⊥ u (0.3)
(u × v) ⊥ v. (0.4)

(Proved via the scalar triple below: see “More vector geometry”.)
3. Let θ be the angle between u and v. Then

ku × vk = kuk kvk | sin θ|.

We can think of the vector u × v as an “oriented area” of the parallelogram with sides u and v.

Explanation: First,

Area = kuk kvk | sin θ| = ku × vk.

Secondly, since u × v is orthogonal to both u & v it defines a normal

vector to the plane containing the parallelogram, and thus describes
an “oriented area”.

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(0.4) Lines and planes
In multivariable calculus, we frequently make linear approximations to nonlinear objects like curves and
surfaces; these linearisations are lines and planes, and we review them now. Throughout, points are repre-
sented by position vectors: r = (x, y, z).
Lines in the plane or in space: these are defined by a point, and a direction. In parametric form:

L = {r0 + t · v : t ∈ R}
where

- r0 is a point on line

- t is a parameter of how far along the line

- v is the direction vector.

Advantages of parametric form

• doesn’t give preference to either x or y.

• independent of dimension

• Example: The “vertical” line x = 2 can be written as r = (2, 0) + t(0, 1), t ∈ R, but not with y as a
function of x.

Example 1. The line y = 2x + 3 can be written as

{(0, 3) + t(1, 2) : t ∈ R}
| {z }
ordered pairs (x, y)
We can use vector notation to elaborate the parametric form. Then,
     
x 0 1
= +t
y 3 2
| {z } | {z }
= r v
 0 
0+t
= .
3 + 2t
We write this as

x = t
y = 3 + 2t

Note that by substituting the first equation into the second one we can recover y = 3 + 2t = 3 + 2x. 
Note: The parametric form of a line in Rn is obtained by solving a system of equations: usually Ax = b
where A is a (n − 1) × n matrix. The solution will have the parametric form r0 + t v where r0 is a particular
solution and v is a homogeneous solution. It is easy to check that Av = 0, so the “direction vector” of the
line lives in the null space of A. (The null space of a matrix is null(A) = {x : Ax = 0}. Sometimes this is
called the homogeneous solution space — does this sound familiar from differential equations?)

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Planes in R3
To build our intuition we start with the parametric form. Then

P = {r0 + su + tv | s, t ∈ R},

where

- r0 is a point in the plane,

- u, v are two vectors parallel to plane,

- s, t are two parameters.

Implicit form of a plane. We will describe a plane P (elegantly) as the solution set to a single equation
involving a normal vector n for P . That is, n ⊥ w when w is any vector which is parallel to P .
Let a vector r = (x, y, z) ∈ P be written as

r = r0 + su + tv

where s, t are parameters and u, v are parallel to P . Then if n is any normal vector to P ,

r · n = (r0 + su + tv) · n
= r0 · n + s(u · n) + t(v · n)
= r0 · n + s(0) + t(0)

since u · n = 0 = v · n (u ⊥ n and v ⊥ n). Thus, r · n = r0 · n, giving the implicit equation for P :

(r − r0 ) · n = 0 for all r = (x, y, z) ∈ P .

Note: If we let r = x the the plane equation can be made to look like Ax = b where A = nT and b = r0 · n.
It is therefore no surprise that one can move from the implicit to parametric form of a plane by solving a
suitable equation. To pass from the parametric to implicit form, you need to find a normal vector (n = u×v
is a good choice) and proceed as above.

Example 2. The xy–plane has a normal vector parallel to z–axis.

Then n = (0, 0, 1) and r0 = (0, 0, 0) is a point on the plane. Thus

0 = (r − r0 ) · n = (x−0, y−0, z−0)·(0, 0, 1) = z

is an implicit formula for the xy–plane. 

Remark: We can think of R3 as being made from a
stack of copies of the xy–plane.

Family of planes: z=c ← constant

This idea of space being “foliated” is useful for under-

standing the visualization of “non-flat” surfaces via
contours. 

v
Summary
Vectors are a convenient notation for describing objects in nd-space. The dot and cross products are impor-
tant for defining length, angle and orthogonality. These concepts will recur on many occasions in our study
of nd-calculus. The simplest objects of study in nd-space are the “flat” ones: lines and planes. It is essential
to gain a proper understanding of these objects via parametric descriptionsa and implicit desciptionsb . In
particular, you should learn to recognise the parametric and implicit representations of lines and planes in
R3 , and be familiar with how to obtain the various forms. You can review your first year notes, or continue
reading. Think about this: to what extent are lines and planes the “graph of a function”?
a
Explicit formulae for all the points on the object, swept out by parameters.
b
Equations that all the points on the object satisfy.

(0.5) More vector geometry

This section contains worked examples to help you revise vector geometry.

Dot product and length examples

√
1. kik = k(1, 0, 0)k = 12 + 02 + 02 = 1.
√ √
2. k(1, 1, 2)k = 12 + 12 + 22 = 6.
3. Let u = (1, 1, 2) and v = (1, −1, 3). Then

u · v = (1, 1, 2) · (1, −1, 3)

= 1 · 1 + 1 · (−1) + 2 · 3
= 6.

We can also work out the angle between u and v. On the one hand, u · v = 6, on the other

u · v = kuk kvk cos θ

√ p
= 12 + 12 + 22 · 12 + (−1)2 + 32 · cos θ
√ √
= 6 · 11 · cos θ.

Thus, r
u·v 6 6
cos θ = √ √ = √ √ =
6 11 6 11 11
so

θ = 0.739 . . . (radians)
= 42.39 . . . (degrees).

Exercises: (a) Evaluate k(3, 4, 12)k. (b) Show that i · j = 0. What is θ?

More on the cross product

Examples
 
 i j k       
  0 0
 i− 1 0  j+ 1 0
     
4. i × j =  1 0 0 =
  1 0   0 0   0 1
 k = 0 i − 0 j + 1 k = (0, 0, 1).

 0 1 0 

vi
 5. Let u = (1, 1, 2), v = (1, −1, 3). Then
 
 i j k       
 1 2   1 2   1 1 
• u×v =  1  1 2 =
  i− 
  j+  k = 5 i−j−2 k = (5, −1, −2).
 1 −1 3  −1 3  1 3  1 −1 
p √ √
• ku × vk = k(5, −1, −2)} = 52 + (−1)2 + (−2)2 = 25 + 1 + 4 = 30.
 
 i j k       
 1 2   1 2   1 1 
• u×(u×v) =  1 1 2  =   i−   j+ 
 5 −1  k = 0 i+12 j−6 k =

 5 −1 −2  −1 −2   5 −2 

(0, 12, −6).

• u · (u × v) = (1, 1, 2) · (5, −1, −2) = 5 − 1 − 4 = 0.
• v · (u × v) = (1, −1, 3) · (5, −1, −2) = 5 + 1 − 6 = 0.
√ √
• kuk = 12 + 12 + 22 = 6.
p √
• kvk = 12 + (−1)2 + 32 = 11.
√ √
ku×vk
√ 5 so θ = sin−1
30
p
• sin θ = kuk kvk
= √ √
6 11
= 11
5/11 = 0.739 · · · rad.

Exercises Let u = (1, 1, 0), v = (0, 1, 1), w = (1, 0, 1).

1. Compute u × v , v × w.
2. Compute w × u , u × w , v × u.
3. Sketch u, v and u × v on the same axes.

Scalar triple product

A useful fact is that

u · (v × w) = (u × v) · w

for all u, v, w ∈ R3 . This defines the volume of parallelepiped made

of u, v, w.
Proof of parallelepiped volume: A parallelepiped generated by vectors u, v and w can be thought of as a
parallelogram generated by u and v which is extended into a third direction by w.
The parallelogram has area ku × vk and the parallelepiped has volume
vol = ku × vk h (0.5)
where h is the “height” of the parallelepiped (length of w projected onto a line normal to the parallelogram
defined by u and v).

If the vector n is orthogonal to the parallelogram de-

fined by u and v, then

h = kwk cos φ

where φ is the angle between n and w.

vii
But n · w = knk kwk cos φ, so
h = kwk cos φ = n · w/knk. (0.6)
Finally, since n = u × v is a suitable normal vector, we can put together (0.5) and (0.6) to get:
(u × v) · w
vol = ku × vk = (u × v) · w.
ku × vk

Proving vector identities

An easy way to prove vector product identities is to recall that
 
 i j k 
 
v × w =  v1 v2 v3 

 w1 w2 w3 
     
 v2 v3   v1 v3   v v2 
=    i−   j +  1 k
w2 w3  w1 w3  w1 w2 
     
 v2 v3   v1 v3   v1 v2 
=  w2 w3  , −  w1 w3  ,  w1 .
    
w2 

Thus
     
 v2 v3   v1 v3   v1 v2 
u · (v × w) = u1   − u2 
 w1 w3  + u3  w1 w2 
  
w2 w3 
 
 u1 u2 u3 
 
=  v1 v2 v3  .
 w1 w2 w3 

Proof of scalar triple product identity: Every time a row is exchanged in a matrix, the determinant changes
sign. Thus  

 u1 u2 u3 
u · (v × w) = 
 v1 v2 v3  [Exchange rows 1 and 3]
 w1 w2 w3 
 
 w1 w2 w3 
 
= −  v1 v2 v3  [Exchange rows 2 and 3]
 u1 u2 u3 
 
 w1 w2 w3 
 
= +  u1 u2 u3  = w · (u × v) = (u × v) · w.
 v1 v2 v3 

Proof of (0.2): u × u = 0. It follows directly from the definition of × that

u × v = −v × u
for any two vectors u, v ∈ R3 . (Alternatively, this follows from the alternating sign property of row swaps
in the determinant.) In particular,
u × u = −u × u.
This is only possible if u × u is the 0 vector.

viii
Proof of (0.3): (u × v) ⊥ u. We calculate

u · (u × v) = (u × u) · v [triple product rule]

= (0) · v [by above]
= 0.

Thus, u is orthogonal to u × v. 

(0.6) Additional examples of lines and planes

1. Above we parametrised the line y = 2 x + 3 in R2 as (x, y) = (0, 2) + t (3, 1), t ∈ R. There are many
other possibilities. We can make an alternative parametric representation of the above line by starting
with y = s. Then
y = s = 2x + 3
so
y−3 s−3 1 3
x== = s− .
2 2 2 2
Thus we have    3   1 
x −2 [x equation]
= +s 2 .
y 0 1 [y equation]
Thus, the parametric representation is not unique.

2. Find a parametric representation of the line L which is the solution set of the equations:

x + y + z = 2
x + y − z = 0.

Solution: L is the set of (x, y, z) which satisfy both equations. We must solve
 
  x  
1 1 1  y = 2 .
1 1 −1 0
z

The augmented matrix is  

1 1 1 2
1 1 −1 0
which after row operations becomes
  
1 1 0  1

0 0 1  1
.
↑ ↑ ↑
x y z

The 2nd row immediately yields z = 1, the lack of a leading 1 in the y column lets us put y = t so
the 1st row reads x + t = 1. Thus
     
x 1 −1
 y  =  0  + t  1 .
z 1 0

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3. Sketch the three vectors (1, 1, 0) , (0, 1, 1) and (1, 0, −1). Do these three vectors lie in a plane through
(0, 0, 0)?
Solution: Write the vectors as

a = (1, 1, 0) = i + j
b = (0, 1, 1) = j + k
c = (1, 0, −1) = i − k

and sketch on axes by adding basis vectors. (There is space to

the right for this.)
To check for defining a plane, need to be either (i) able to be written as
r · n = r0 · n = (0, 0, 0) · n = 0
for a certain vector n; or (ii) able to be written as r0 + su + tv for some r0 , u, v; or (iii) linearly
dependent. We’ll check for (i). We need a vector n such that a · n = b · n = c · n = 0.
Write in matrix form:
    
a·n=0 ⇒ 1 1 0 n1 0
b·n=0 ⇒  0 1 1   n2 = 0  .
 
c·n=0 ⇒ 1 0 −1 n3 0
Row operations reduce the matrix to  
1 0 −1
 0 1 1 
0 0 0
so the solution n = (1, −1, 1) can be read off. Thus, they do lie in a plane.
4. Find an implicit formula for the plane
P = {(0, 0, 1) + s(1, 0, 1) + t(0, 1, 0)}.

Solution: We can write the parametric form as

P = {r0 + s u + t v}.
Then we already have an r0 for the equation (r − r0 ) · n = 0 and need to find an n. Use
n = u × v = (1, 0, 1) × (0, 1, 0) · · · = (−1, 0, 1)
so that
0 = (r − r0 ) · n = (x, y, z − 1) · (−1, 0, 1) = −x + z − 1
and the required implicit form is
z − x = 1.
5. Find an implicit formula for the plane through the three points (0, 0, 1) , (0, 1, 0) , (1, 0, 0).
Solution: Set a = (0, 0, 1), b = (0, 1, 0), c = (1, 0, 0) and use r0 = a. A parametric representation
can be obtained using u = b − a and v = c − a (draw a diagram). Then
n = u × v = · · · = (−1, −1, −1)
so that
0 = (r − r0 ) · n = (x, y, z − 1) · (−1, −1, −1) = −x − y − z + 1
and the required implicit form is x + y + z = 1.

x
 6. Find a parametric form of the plane x + 2 z = 3.
Solution: What one has to do is find the general solution to the matrix equation
 
  x  
1 0 2  y =3 which has augmented matrix 1 0 2 3 .
z

Since the matrix is in echelon form, we can see immediately that there are free parameters corre-
sponding to the second and third columns of the augmented matrix; namely, the variables y and z.
We thus set y = s, z = t and solve x = 3 − 0 y − 2 z = 3 − 2 t. Writing out in matrix notation:
       
x 3 0 −2
 y  =  0  + s  1  + t  0 , s, t ∈ R.
z 0 0 1

(0.7) Parametrised curves

The first nonlinear multidimensional functions we will consider are parametrised curves. We’ll usually
rely on a convenient and general explicit representation by thinking of the curve as the locus of points swept
out by a vector which moves with “time” t—t plays the role of a parameter for describing a curve.
Points (x, y) on a planar curve evolve with the parameter, so we think of (x, y) as a function of t. In fact,
both x and y depend on t, so we write r = r(t).

Draw yourself a picture:

• label points on the curve by a sequence t1 , t2 , . . .

• let ri be the vector connecting the origin to the point labelled ti

• interpret ri = r(ti ) as a “vector function of t”

Example 1. Lines are a prototype for parametrised curves. Define L:

(x, y) = 12 t, t + 3 t ∈ R


1
= (0, 3) + t · ,1
2
| {z }
parametric form of a line

Each t gives you a point on L. Note: the role of the point (0, 3), and
(tangent/direction) vector (1/2, 1) on adjacent diagram. 

xi
Example 2. Let r(t) = (t, t2 ) for t ∈ R.
| {z }
vector in R2
So “(x, y) is a function of t”.

t (x, y)
-2 (-2,4)
-1 (-1,1)
0 (0,0)
1 (1,1)
2 (2,4)
3 (3,9)
This describes a parabola as a parametrised curve. 
Example 3. Let (x, y) = (2 cos t, 2 sin t) for −π2
≤ t ≤ π2 . We could make up a table of t values and sketch
the points on some axes, but it is faster to use M APLE.
plot([2*cos(t),2*sin(t),t=-Pi/2..Pi/2]);
You can even animate in real time:
with(plots): animatecurve([2*cos(t),2*sin(t),t=-Pi/2..Pi/2]);
Because the axes are a bit skewed, close inspection is needed to see that this is really a semi-circle. In fact,
a bit of algebra confirms: Since x = 2 cos t and y = 2 sin t,
x2 + y 2 = 4 cos2 t + 4 sin2 t
= 4(cos2 t + sin2 t) = 4.
Thus, this parametrised curve is part of the circle of radius 2. 

Definition. A planar curve C can be described in para-

metric form by a pair of single variable functions f, g:

(x, y) = (f (t), g(t)) t ∈ R.

A space curve lives in R3 and has three components:

(x, y, z) = (f (t), g(t), h(t)). Sometimes we use r =
(f, g) (or (f, g, h)) to denote the vector parametric form.
Then r : R → R2 or 3 . 

Remarks

1. “Planar curve” means “curve in the plane”.

2. Here t is a parameter; we could also have a parameter interval t ∈ [a, b] rather than all of R.
3. Parametric descriptions are more convenient than simply
y = f (x)

xii
 since a curve needn’t be the graph of a function. (Eg. a circle requires two functions—one for the top
and one for the bottom). We will also see below that parametric descriptions do not give preference
to any variables when differentiating or integrating.

Example 4. Consider the curve

 
 f (t) = cos t 
g(t) = sin t : t ∈ [0, ∞] .
h(t) = t
 

We’d like to visualise, and compute the tangent line at the point (0, 1, π/2). The first is easily accomplished
in M APLE:
with(plots): spacecurve([cos(t),sin(t),t],t=0..100);
(obviously we need to specify a finite parameter range). A more dynamic version is:
with(plots): animate(spacecurve,[[cos(t),sin(t),t],t=0..T],T=0..100);
This is an appealling approach. To figure out the tangent line, we are going to have think a bit more about
the direction of a curve. 

(0.8) Differentiation of curves; tangent vectors

Differentiating parametrised curves is easy. Since a curve C is described as a vector of functions (f (t), g(t), h(t)),
we simply differentiate each of the functions:
 
d df dg dh
(f (t), g(t), h(t)) = , ,
dt dt dt dt
| {z }
vector of derivatives
The meaning is best explored by example.
Example 1. Consider the curve from r(t) = (t, t2 ), t ∈ [0, 2].
The derivative vector is
 
dr d d 2
= t, t = (1, 2 t) .
dt dt dt

This vector depends on t:

dr
t r(t) dt
0
0.5
1
1.5
2

Fill in the table, sketch each point in the r column as a dot. Use
each r point as the tail point of the corresponding drdt
. Join the
dots to form a curve. Observe apparent tangents. 

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Interpretation as tangent vectors
If {r(t) : t ∈ [a, b]} is a parametrised curve, then
dr
v(t) =
dt
is the tangent vector to the curve at t. The tangent line
to the curve at t = t0 is

L0 (s) = r(t0 ) + s v(t0 ), s ∈ R.

Sketch justification: Let r(t) = (f (t), g(t)); the extension to space curves is obvious.

• Differentiating gives a vector of derivatives: dtd r(t) = dtd (f (t), g(t)) = df dg

,
dt dt

• Recall from one–dimensional calculus:

df f (t0 + ∆t) − f (t0 )
= lim
dt ∆t→0 ∆t
f (t0 + ∆t) − f (t0 )
≈ for small ∆ t.
∆t
df
• Rearrange: f (t0 + ∆t) ≈ f (t0 ) + ∆t · dt
.
dg
• Since also g(t0 + ∆t) ≈ g(t0 ) + ∆t · dt
, we obtain

df dg

dr
r(t0 + ∆t) = (f (t0 + ∆t), g(t0 + ∆t)) ≈ (f (t0 ), g(t0 )) + ∆t ,
dt dt
= r(t0 ) + ∆t (t0 ). (0.7)
dt
The right-hand side of (0.7) is the parametric form of a line, with parameter ∆t. The line proceeds “tangen-
tially” for all values of the parameter: we replace ∆t with s and v = drdt
. 
Note: The key estimate in the above is
dr
∆r = r(t0 + ∆t) − r(t0 ) ≈ ∆t.
dt
The ≈ means when ∆t is small, the error is very small! This is non-rigorous, but we can fix that later when
we’ve got a proper a definition of differentiability!
Example 1 revisited. To compute the tangent line at (0, 1, π/2) requires several steps:
Step 1: Check that the point is on the curve! We need to find a value of t0 such that
   
cos t0 0
 sin t0  =  1  . Clearly, t0 = π/2 .
π
t0 2

Step 2: Compute the tangent vector to the curve:

   
cos t − sin t
d 
sin t  =  cos t 
dt
t 1

xiv
To get the tangent vector, evaluate at t = t0 :

− sin π2
     
− sin t0 −1
v =  cos t0  =  cos π2  =  0 
1 1 1

Step 3: Tangent line:

point on line + s · direction vector

↑
parameter

    
 0 −1 
L =  1  + s.  0  : s ∈ R .
 π
1

2

Mechanical importance of parametrised curves

Parametrised curves are of profound importance in mechanics. A particle moving in space has a posi-
tion r(t) ∈ R3 at any given time t. The study of mechanics concerns the motion of such particles, including
the specification of the effects of external forces. Usually, the mathematical expression of the effect of a
physical force on a particle is a differential equation involving r(t) and its derivatives.
Let
r(t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t))
be the parameterization of a curve describing the motion of a particle in space, and let t be interpreted as
time. The tangent vector consists of the derivatives of the x, y and z components of r, and just like in single
variable calculus, these derivatives can be interpreted as velocities. The tangent vector is thus the velocity
vector, and the 2nd derivative vector corresponds to acceleration:
d
v(t) = r(t) velocity
dt
d d2
a(t) = v(t) = r(t) acceleration
dt dt2
Differentiation with respect to the parameter of the curve—usually d
dt
—can be denoted by a ˙ or a ·0 . Then

d
v = r = ṙ = r0
dt
d
a = v = r̈ = r00 .
dt

Exercises
1. Prove that if a ∈ R and v ∈ Rn then ka vk = |a| kvk. Deduce that kv̂k = 1.

2. Use the cosine rule of trigonmetry to prove the angle formula in R2 .

xv
 3. Derive a formula for decomposing a vector v into a component parallel to u and a component orthog-
onal to u: v = vk + v⊥ .

4. Let v = (1, 2, 3) and u = (2, 1, 1). Find v⊥ and vk .

5. If u, v, w are vectors and a ∈ R, prove that

(a) u · v = v · u;
(b) (u + v) · w = u · w + v · w
(c) a(u · v) = (au) · v

6. Check that if u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) then u · i = u1 , u · j = u2 , u · k = u3 .

7. Compute (1, 3, 0) × (0, −1, 2) and as many similar ones as necessary to get the right answer!

8. Prove that if u, v ∈ R3 then (u × v) ⊥ v.

9. Let u, v ∈ R3 . Prove that

(u × v) · (u × v) + (u · v)2 = kuk2 kvk2 .

10. Show that (except in degenerate cases), (u × v) × w lies in the plane of u and v, whereas u × (v × w)
lies in the plane of v and w. What are the degenerate cases?

11. Prove that if a, b, c ∈ R3 then (a × b) × c = −(b · c)a + (a · c)b.

12. Forensic example. A car window was broken after being hit by a bullet. Measurements of the
bullet reveal that it struck the window with an angle θ, measured from the normal to the car window.
Assume that the car window is a plane, aligned parallel to the y–axis and making an angle φ with
the z–axis. The forensic problem is to find the line along which the shot was fired. It is known that
the shot was fired in the xy–plane, at an unknown angle α from the x–axis. Show that α obeys the
formula  
−1 sin(π/2 − θ)
α = π/2 − sin .
sin(π/2 − φ)
[Hint: work out formulae for the normal vector to the window and the tangent vector to the bullet’s
path, then compute the angle between them.]

13. A water main is to be constructed with a 20% grade in the north direction and a 10% grade in the east
direction. Determine the angle θ in the pipe as it turns from north to east.

14. The paths of two colliding particles are given by

r1 (t) = (t − 3, (t − 3)2 ) and r2 (t) = (3t/2 − 4, 3t/2 − 2).

Find the exact time(s) where the particles collide, and the directions of their motion at collision.

15. Two helicopters set off from Hamilton airport at time t = 0. They follow the paths r1 (t) =
(−140 t, −140 t, 5t) and r2 (t) = (200 t, 0, 4 t) – t is measured in hours, and distances in kilome-
tres. After a short flight, the first helicopter encounters problems and lands immediately on Pirongia
at coordinates (−28, −28, 1). Three minutes later, the second helicopter alters its course to rescue the
occupants of the first helicopter. It flies in a straight line towards the landing site at 250km/hr. How
long does it take for the second helicopter to get there?

xvi
16. Circular motion. The parameterisation

r(t) = (r cos t, r sin t)

describes motion along a circle of radius r. Use differentiation to compute the velocity v = dr dt
and
acceleration a = dv
dt
. Try using M APLE to make a plot of the paramtrised curve (you’ll need to specify
a radius r for the circle). Add a few vectors v and a (at appropriate points on the curve). What do
you notice about the direction of a? Calculate v · a and interpret your answer.

17. Write the line x = y = 3 + z in parametric form.

18. Write the plane 2 x + 3 y + z = 4 in parametric form. That is, (x, y, z) as functions of real parameters
s, t.

19. Let r0 ∈ R3 , and let n1 , n2 be two non-zero vectors. Let two planes be described by:

P1 = r ∈ R3 : (r − r0 ) · n1 = 0 ,


P2 = r ∈ R3 : (r − r0 ) · n2 = 0 .


(a) If n1 × n2 6= 0 let L be the parametrised line:

L = {r0 + s(n1 × n2 ) : s ∈ R}.

Explain why L = P1 ∩ P2 .
(b) If n1 × n2 = 0, describe the set P1 ∩ P2 .

20. Rearrange the following implicit equations to get y as a function of x:

(a) x + 5 y = 6
(b) x2 + 2 x + 4 y − y 2 = 2
(c) x + x y = 2
(d) x + x y + y 2 = 3
dy
21. For each of the formulae in the previous question calculate dx at the indicated point by (i) differenti-
ating the formula for y as a function of x; (ii) implicit differentiation

(a) (x, y) = (1, 1);

(b) (x, y) = (−1, 1);
(c) (x, y) = (2, 0);
(d) (x, y) = (1, 1).