AFWL-TR-79-86,

A.FWl-TR79-86

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HANDBOOK OF MODELING FOR CIRCUIT ANALYSiS INCLUDING RADIATION EFFECTS

~
R. Simon

f)J)ODO 1~8 O~e

5
May 1979

,
~,
.

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Final Report

A'PROVED FO~ FUSLIC R~~~.l DISTRIIUT:':'", ':W.:MITEO. ,

-_._---

, Th~s researc.;1 was :,:":r< ,,~"r~t D) the Defen$e Nuclear Agency under, Subtask Z99QAXiB037. ;~~r!c :;.dt 03. Ch~raCterfzatfol"l and ModelfnQ

.of "'fcrosys~em Techn\:lo~1es.

, .

Prepared for Director DEFENSE NUCLEAR AGENCY Washington:. DC 20305

Reproduced From Best Available Copy

~.

. AIR FORCE WEAPONS LABORATORY Air .Force Systems Command Kirtland Air ~orce Base. NM 87117

79
,
'

01'1

..
AFWl- TR-79-86

This final report was prepared by the BOM Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico, ",'der Contract F29601. 77C.0026, Job Order WON3104 wi th the Air Force Weapons laborotory', Project Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico. Mr Robert Simon (ElP) was the laboratory Officer-fn-(.harge. When US Government drawings, specifications, or other data are used for any PUrDose other than a definitely related Government procUrement operation, the Government thereby incurs no reSpons i bi 1f ty nor any ob 1i 9ati on whatsoever, and . the fact that the Government ll1Qy have formulated, furnished, or ill any supplied the said drawin9S, specifications, or other dat. is not to be regarded by implication or otherwise as in any manner licenSing the orany other person or corporation or Conveying any rights or permisSion to manufacture, use, or sell any patented inVention that may in any way be relat~d thereto.

~older

~ay

Th i s repcrt ba s . been authored by aeon t rae to r a f the US' Government. Accord. in91y, the US retains a noneXClusive royalty.free license to publish or reproduce the material Contained herein, 0' allow others US Government purposes. .. to . do so, for the This technical report has beell reviewed and is apProved for Publication.

Govern~e"t

k/~4'~.\,,-ROBERT SIMON Project Orrrcer

~-tf~

FOR THE COMMANDER

Major, USAF, ' Chief, Transient Radiation Effects Br

Colonel, USAF , Chief, Electro"~gnetfcs Dfvisfon

~(~ DONALD A. DOWLER

DO NOT RETURN THIS COPY.

RETAIN OR DfSTROY.

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The L3LJ~l Corp~~~l Albuquerque NM, 87106 lJirector' Defense Nuclear Agency Washington, D.C. 203US Air force
~e~pons Laboratory ~irtland ArB. ~M d7117

WDNE3104, Z99QAXTBU37 --- ..-~~

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""'MarR 0F PAG[S

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(ELP)

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distribution unlilllited.

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SUPPt_E\lE,..!AJ1Y' !::f,;o:t"s.

Thi s resear'th was sponsored by the Defense Nuc lear Agency under Subtask 199~AXT3037, Work Unit 03, Characterization and Modeling of Microsy~telll Tt?C,lOoloyies.
~(-q'~~-E-.-.-()-Rn-~-t(-,,-"'-'''u-~-n-"-'r-''r~'.-.-.,,-fr-"~"-.< -._-y-_-d-'-.'.-"'~"-yh~v~h~,"r-~.-".-_7 br-"----~--~---------------

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SeLIl coriduc to r COll1puter. AiJed Design Radiation Effects Integrated Circuit Modeling "

Simplified Modeling

~ :;n;;~T;a~~~~~'~"';s" ~~~;tI~~'l ~ ~~'~~'.::~of ~~~'~n~zh~,~~~(;h~'~ pre~ ious

"1 puter modeling of seltd,cof1ductor devices.

resea rch in COI11Ilis designed to serve as a refercllce for the analyst' WhCl' must analyze the effects of nuclear radiation on electronic circuits. it uses' a lIlodular J~~roach wherein the analyst uses the simplest lIK>del w,ilich l'Ii11 yield the desirt?d accuracy. The latest technoloq,v in r~pre5entin~ seCond order effects is includ~d in the ,handbook. The oruanizc1tion of, tne handbook proceeds from diodes to transistors, MOSFETs, IF~Ts,-.....,., U:KLASS I FI ED

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At3STRACT. (ContjnueJ)
The final chuptf'I' presents

Sl:Rs, UJTs, trJllsfor!:ler:sanJ inte'.!r,1ted circuits. e.\dlllples of cOlllputer clideJ Jfialyses.

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fnr the I\il' force Wt;,lPOIlS [,lborc1tory (lL'I') , lIl1dt,'!" cUlltr.lct f.!blllI1-77-C-llLl:li, llle

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W,IS till' 1\1 i'lL Projl'ct Unicel',

1\1 thouqh ,the hJlldbulll.. is J resul t

d'lll fUlldl'd by The lJefell5t' Nuc!l',lI'

,or dll ,,\il' Iun:e Llllltl'dct, it WJS

l'eCO'lIIll~llded

,'\,Wlle y , llle ell lpthl':>i5 llll l'"di.lt iUIl l'ftl'cl'> illClusivl~ 1I1Odl'\s I'eflt'ets the IUlllj-tl'I'llI ~UppUI't llt TIll' llelt'll,>e Nll~h'Lir Aljt'llcy ill pl'ovidi'llJ JlldlyticJI dlld desiljll tuols tOl' IlUCle,ll' thll'llL'lled DUll systellls. The lIipo\.lI' Tl'dllSistol' clldpter Wd5 lhl5l'J IJrljt:ly 011 1. (;dl'eU's The

Mode.1,in~,
C. l3ower:;

,lli!,~ldl'"TI'''nsistol':

file U,lT Jllll ,JILT IlIode:s,were

tdl..l~n,ft'OIIl ,l~

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d~l~J, _)y''>,t~~llli!I~I.l Y,s.i s',

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h'ss e'(te!l',ively used sour-n's Jl'l' listed dS l't.,terences ,It ttll' t'nd

01 ,lpprllpriJte Ch,lptl'!'''.

ltris hJlldbuol.. is the cul!llindtiun of sevl'rLlI ,yeJI'S' etfLl)'t by 11I<IIlY pel'suns ,1Ild lll'lI dn i'.:,It!ons ill Illudelinq llf Sl'lIl1conductor' circuits for COlilplItel'-,lideJ .1IlJlysi<. of 1',ldi,Ition effects. It IhlS been prL!h\l'ed JS " l'l'sult of confe"encl's' with IIklny,lIl,lIysts which' reve,llt'd the need for d rt'ference in the terhniqul's for lIIodelinll

sin~ll'

Juthol'itdtive

bllO~

is !lot" listinq uf 1I1Odels by

Vdl'iou~ (it'cuit elelllt'nts. TillS hd"ddevice type~ rJthcJ' it illustl'dtes the pJth

tu bt' lol !pwl'd i,nql"ll'r,ltilllJ l:lOdels of the' !ll'ceSS.lry cOlllpl'exity for the pdl'tieu,lJl' ,lIl,\lysis Jt 1I,1I1d. the IId'llltloo~ is pllblistw..t iil IllOSc-leJf binder forllklt to fJcilitJte ddJlnq new

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Lls'it bl'CllllleS 'dvJilJble.

The Ihlndbool..

cOlllplillle'~ts

d!ld should be

used III conjunct\un wHh the mL[ (Trdllsient I{Jdi,ltion Ufects on Llectronies)

IIJnJboo~. lIN/\ 14<'llH. ,1Ild the fl~U, i'refelTed Proc\.~dures. IJNA LO~HII.

.. ,.:&..:.

.
;

TABLE OF CONTlNTS
.

INTRCDUCTJON A. 8.
II
,
'

1- 1

OVERVIEW ,\PPLICATION RECOMMENDATIONS

1- 1 1-6
; 1-1 I 1-1

LlIODES
A. 8. INTRODUCTION DIODE MODE~lNG

11-;'

1.

Diode Equation a. b. c. d.
E.

f.

9 h. i.
'-

Description Advantages Cautions Characteristics Defining Equation Parameter List Parameterization" Implementation Notes Conputer Example Bias Effects

II-I

11< 11-3
1 1- ; I 1-3

11-3
11-3

li-10 11- 10
,11-11 11- 11

..,

Re~erse

a. b c d 3".

Description Multiplication Factor Oi~ect Simulation Appr~ac~ COl1PU ter Examp 1es
I

11-14
I 1-19
11-22

N nideal Diode Equation

a b

11-28
11-28

c
d

e
f

[Iescr i pt ion Advdntages Cdutions Characteristics Defining Equation Parameterization (M)

11-28
11,..?B I 1-28 '

11-28
1-I-30

4.

H gh Injection Effects
a b

II -33

c
d

Descrlption 'Adv an tages Cautions

Characteri~tics

11.,.33
11-33 11-33 11 -3 OJ.'

T t'\llL [ OF CONTlNTS (Continut'd)

L:~~l"l't t'l~
P-,l~Le

t' .
f.
r

lJefininlJ Equatiun 1'<}I',lme ter' i l at ion

~tfects

11-34 11-34 11-35 ' 11-35 11-36 11-36 11-36 11-37 11-38 11-38 11-41 11-41 11-41' 11-41 11-41 11-42 11-42 11-4;' 11-4,8 11-4H li-4H 11-48 11-4H 11-49 11-49 11-49 II-52 II-55 11,-'55 II-56 II -56 1I 57 II-57 II -5H II-59 II-65 . II -65

:>.

Ohll1 i c

6.

Oescript i,on Advantd(jes c. C,lI.Itions d. Chdl'acteristis e. r,H',l/neter i zat ion (R ) 8 f. lXdlllples - lN914 \I. COfllputer Example Depletion Region Capacitance
a. b.
(.

a. b.

d.

e.
f.

, lj. h. 7.

Description Advantaqes Ldutions Characteristics Def i n i n~l Equation Parameter' List Parameterilation {C O. 1l1lplel1len~ation Note~

'f'

111)

Uiffusion Ca pac i tance Effects a.

b. c. d.

Description I\dvdn tl~l)eS

Caution~

e. f.
9

Char,lcteristics Defining Equation l'ar'tll11etprization ,t ) cs COI1lPU ter' [xdmp les Effects

H.

Photocu~rent

'a.
b.

c. , d. e. f. l).
h.
,j,

Dt'scr i ~lt i on Advantaqes Llll ti OilS Characteristics [)ef i n i nl) Equations Par,llt1eter List Parameterization Implel1lent,ltion Notes Computer Example

"

TABLE Of CONTE~TS (Continued)

9.

Neu tron Effects a.

b.

f.a~

11,-67 11-67 11-71 I 1-71 '11-72 II-72

II -74

c. d. e. 10.

Descri::>tion Advantages Cautions Characteristics Defining Equations

Burnout a. Description b. Adva'ntages c. Caut ions d. Cha~acteristics e. Defining Equations f.' Pat'arneterization (K\-:) g. Implementation Notes h. Computer EXdmple 11. Total Dose Effects )2. Code Implementation 13. L i nv ill Lumped Mpde 1 of The Diode a. Introducti6n tL Bas i c Concepts c. Diode Model i"g d. Inclusion of Radiation Effects e. Example Linvi11 Diode Model' f. Example Cqmput~r Simulations REFERENCES

11-71 11-75 11-77 I 1-77 11-77 11-79

II -/9

II-RO 11-80 11-85 11-85 11-85 11-87 11-9J 11-92 11-97 11-97 111-1
,I 11-2

C.

III'

BiPOLAR TRANSIStORS A. B.
INTRUDUCTIO~

TRANSISTOR MODELING 1. Basic Transist6r Model a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Description Advar tages Cautions Characteristics Defining Equations Parameter List Parameters to be Found

II 1-1

, I I 1-2

II 1-2 111-2 111-2 111-2 111-4 I 11.-5 I II-5

.. ]

I',

TAGLE OF CONTENTS (Continupd)

h.

p~rJrneteriLat~on

111-5 111-19 Ili-l9 111-('1

111,2 1

2.

Modeling DreakdGwn a. b.
c.

d. e.
g.
3.

f:

Oescr i pt i 011 Advantages Cautions Characteristics Oefining Equations Parameterization (OV ' DV " N ' N , EDO C E Examp 1~ CCIlIPU ter Run CDO

11l-2l Ii 1-22 ill-22

111-23 111-29 111-29 111-29 111-29 111-29

1 11-31 111-31

Addition t:f Charge S'tor'age Elellleilts'anJ Ohmic Resistance a.

b.

c.

d. e. f.
g.

Description Advantages Cau t ions Characteristics Definin~J Equations Parameterization COIllPU ter Examp 1e

111-64 111-70 111-7.0 111-70 111-70

II 1-71
l\

4.

Mod~ling Variable Beta

a.
b.

'c. J. e.
f. '

'Description Advantages Cautions Characteristics Parameterization C , N " Compu ter Examp 1e 2 El

,

111-74
1II -1l8

5.

Modeling Other Second Order Effects

,

1II -88
O!I_S8

a. b. c. d. e. f.
6.

Description AdVantages Caut.ions Characteristics Defin~ng Equations Parameterization,'

111-94 111-94 111:'94 111-95

Ilt-95
111-97

Photocurrent Effects a.
b.

c.

Descr i p't i on Advantages Cautions

5

IIl-:97 111'- 100

III -JOO

. ' ",'

"

....

TABLE OF CONTENTS ('Continued) Chapter d. e.

f.

Page Characteristics Defining Equations Parameterization Example - 2N2222A I II - ~ 00 111-101 rr~ 101 II 1-104 III-lOS IlI-110 111-110 111-111 III-lll III-1l4 111-124 III-124 IV-l IV-l IV-6 IV-6 IV-7 IV-7 IV-7
--'-_l~L~

g. 7. , 8. 9. .10.

Neutron Effects Total Dose Effects Burnout Linvill Lumped Model of the Transistor a. b. Introduction Exan,lp 1e of Two Lump Trans is tor Mode 1
Implementatio~

11. C. IV

Code

REFERENCES

MOS MODELING A. B. INTRODUCTION FIRST ORDER DRAIN CURRENT MODEL 1. 2. 3. 4. Description Advantages Cautions Characteristics a. b. 5. 6. 7. Topology' . Typical Electrical Response

IV-7 IV-l1 IV-l1 IV-12 IV-12 IV-14 IV-19 IV-19 IV-26 IV-26 IV-26 IV-26

Defini~q Equations Parameter Lis t . Parameterization, a.Threshol~

b. c. 8. 9. C.

Voltage (V ) Transconductance Factor (s) Pinchoff Voltage

Code Implementation and Notes Computer Example INCLUSIVE MOS MODELS

PARA~ITIC

1. 2.

Des'cti pti on' Advantages

.---------~

....

...

..

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Parameterizatio~

Cautions Characteristics Defining Equations Parameter List Gate Capacitances (COX' CGSO, CGDO, CGBO) Diode Capacitances ,Diode Current Parameters Drain and Source Resistance P-Well Resist~nce Substrate Reisistance

IV-37 IV-37 IV-42 IV-44 IV-45' IV-45 IV-47 IV-48 IV-49 IV-50 IV-51 IV-51 IV-61 IV-61 IV-61
I'J- 68

a. b. c. d. e. f. 8. 9. D.'

Code Implementation Compu, ter Example

RADIATION EFFECT INCL~SIVE MaS MODELS 1. 3. 4.

2.

Description Advantages Cautions' Characteristics a. b. Topology Typical Effects

IV-68 IV-69 IV-69 IV-69 IV-69 IV-69 IV-73, IV-73 , lV.;74 IV-74 IV-74 IV-75 IV-75 IV-75 IV-77 IV-78

5.

Defining Equations a. b. c,' Total Dose Effects Photocurrent Effects Electrical Overstress Effects'

6.

Parameter List a. b. c. Total bose Effects Photocurrent Response Electrical ~ver~tress

'.

7.

Parameterization a. b. c. Total D05e Effects - 4V Photocurrent Effects T Electrical Overstress

. It SM

"

,.

;;

TABLE OF CONTENTS

(Contin~ed)

8., 9.
E.

Code II!1;J1ementation Computer Examples

'IV-79 iV-81 IV-8? IV-87 IV-88 IV-88 IV-89 IV-89 IIJ-89 IV-96 rV-96 IV-97 IV-97 IV-98 IV-102 IV-lO:; IV-103 IV-,104 IV-106 IV-110 IV -111 IV -112 IV - 114 IV-122 IV-123 IV-128 IV-128 IV-128 . IV-128 IV-128 IV-128
",

MOS mDELS INCLUDING SECOND ORDER EFFECTS 1. 2.

3.
4.

Description Advantages Caut ions Characteri st i cs a. b. Topology Typical Effects

5.

Defining Equations a.
b.

c. d. e. f. 6.
7.

Substrate Bias (SCEPTRE and SPICE2) Two Dimensional 'Effects on Threshold 'Voltage (SPICE2 cn1y) Weak Inversion Effects (SPICE2 only) Channel Length Modu1at;0~ Effects (SCEPTRE, SPICE2, NET-2) Variable Mobility Effects' Temperature Effects, (SPICE2 only)

Parameter List
Par~meterization

a.
b.

c. d. e. ,f. 8. 9.

Substrate Bias Effects Twd-Dimensiona1.Effects ,on Threshold Voltage ' Weak Inversion Effects Channe) Length Modulation Effects Vari able Mobil tty Effects ' Temperature E~fects

tode Implementation and Notes Computer Examples a. b. c. d. e. Substrate Bias Effects Two Dimensional Effects on Threshold Voltag~ . Weak Inversion Effects 'Cha~neJ Length Modulation Effect~ Vari ab l'e MobHity Effects

't:

.-"

TABLE OF CONTCNTS (Continued) Chapter f. F. RlFERt:NCES Temrerature

Effect~

Page IV-152 IV-152 V-1 V-1 V-1 V-2 V-2 V-2 V-2 V-2 V-3
V-4

MISCELLANEOUS DEVICES A. JFET MODELING ,1. 2. Introduction Basic JFET Model a.

b.

I i
~

r .

i,

c. d. eo f.
q.

Descriotion Advan tages Cautions Characteristics Defining Equations Parameter List

Par~meteriLation

t ,

t.

V-5
V-9 V-9 , V-9 V-9 V':'9

3.
'

Addition of Par~sitic :dP~citance a.

b.

l f

I t .I

c. d. e. f. g.
4.

Description Advan tages Caut i on5 Characteristics Defining Equations Pdrameteriz~tion (C nO) Example - 2N:J462 G CD nG
~eve10pment

V.-10 V-10 \'-12 V-16

V-16 V-16

Qata Sheet 'urET Mode 1 a.

b.

Vp G C eGO

c.
d.

V-:16 V-20 V-20 V-70

~GS
RO

e. f.

IDS~.liT VDSSAT --_. __._----

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

5.

Radiation [fiects
a. b.

V-20

Photocurrents Neutron D;lfuage

V-21J V-21 V-22 V-26

V-,[6 V-27 V-27 V-27

6. B.

Computer Example

UJT MODELING 1. 2. Introduction General Purpose UJJ Model a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

3.

Description Advantages Cautions Chdi'ac ter 1 s tic:; Defininq Equations Parameter List Parameterization

V-21
V-iS V-iCl
V-~<j

V-30

Radiation Effects a.. b. Photocurrent Effects Neu~ron Effects

IJ.-S1

V-51 V-S1

4.

Computer Example

V-52

C.

SCR MODELING
1.

2.

Introduction SCR. Model (Hybrid ApprO(lch) a. b. c.

d~

V-5S V-58

Description Advantages Cautions Characteristics

Definin~ E~uJtions P.w,Jmett~riiat.ion

v-sr.
'v-SH

V-'58

t-

e. f.

V-5H V-Sq
V-60

3.

Rauiation Effects' a. b.
Photocurr~nt [ff~cts

.V-64

Neutron lffects

,I_______. I
:I

10

A--_ .

, '.

"

, ..

.....
ii"

.,

TilBLE OF CONTENTS (C0ntinued)

4.

(ornpu te r b<1:np 1e

V-69 V-69 V-69 V-71

o.

iRANSFORMER MODELING 1. 2. In t r ad u c t i on Transformer Model a.

'b.

c.
d. e. f.
'g.

Description Advantages Caut ions Characteristics Defining Equations Parameter li s t Parameterization

V-74
V-74

V-75 V-75
V-7j

V-7S V-,76

3.

Higher Crder Effects a. b. Mu 1t i p1e Port Trans f'Y"'mers Saturation and Hyst~resis

V-79
V-79 V-81 .
V-81

4. 5. 6.
E

Mode 1 Oeve 1opment ,From D-1 ta. Sheets Radiation Effects Computer Example

V-84
V-84

RE FERENCE S

V-8S
VI-l
VI-~

VI

SIMPLIFIED MODELING'

A. B.

~YSTEMS

~IMPUFIEU ~DELING, OF LINEf.R CIRCUITS AND

tNTRODUCTION TO SIMPLIFIED MODELING

VI-3 VI-J

1. 2. 3.

IAtroduction Modeling r;'equency Ch"1racteristics Example of Simplified Modeling

il.

VI-6 VI-6
VI -8

VI-4

Definitions
Op0rdt~ona1

t:.
c. 4, .' 5.

rar,'rnf'ter~zath!n of IIA741DC

Amrlifier

'

Oevelopn~nt ofM~,~el of IIA741DC

VI-27
VI-33

Computer Example Radiation Effects

VI -JB

a.

Photoresponse

VI-3A

11,

T.\LLE OF tm/TE;HS (Continued)

b.

Gurnout
:~eutl'Oi1 and ~otlll ;1ose Effects

c. C.

SIMPLIFIED ~ODEll~G OF OIGITA( CIRCUITS AND SYSTEi-IS

1. 2

VI -43 VI -4S VI -46

Introductioll to Si lplified Diqital Modelinq Techniques for SimplifieJ :,Iodelinq of Digital Circuits
r1

VI-46 , VI -4B VI -4:~

VI-~5

d.

b.

c.

Te~linal Mqdels lOljic tlodels Radiation Effects

VI-60 VI'-62 VI -62 VI-67 VI -116

I
!
D.

3.

[XJlIlple Di<jital Simp1 ified r10cels

<, . D.
RSil~4l00

C"4051

RUIHENCE5 VII-l

VI I

EXAMPLES A.

n.

lLLU~TRrUI0N or THE Err ECTS or rJEUTRON DEGRA8ATrnN. [JOSE RATE INDUCED UPSET. Mm PIP IN:1lJCEO BURNOUT 0:1 DISCRT[ Arm INTEGRAnD LOGIC cr~ClJITS , EFFECTS or rIEUT~\ONS. (~,iMMI\ nOSE RI\TE. AND [~'r UPSET ON A POWER ~EGUlATOR
1.
Modf' 1 Development
d.

VI'-1 VII-3J VII-33, V!I-3J VII-J3 VII -35 V I 1-35 VI I -46' VII-46
V11-47

b.

c.
d. e. f.

Bridqe Diodes. 7ener Diodes Tr,lnS fonn('r 2N3053 ZrtJ773 7410per(ltfOI1Jl Amp 1 Hi C!r 2115061

2.

S ililu 1J tf ~ns

~.
D'.

EFF[CT OF IO~IZING RADIATION ON ELECTRONIC INTEGRATOR , , COMPUTER I\(oEO MAL YSIS AS, A TOOL FOR I/I\ROENING ELECTRONICSYSTfMS '

VII-61

VII -btl

12

.\

~. ,J

,.'

lA8LE OF CONTENTS (Concluded)

E.

~NALYSIS OF A LARGE SUBSYSTEM USING SIMPLIFIED AND COMPLETE M08ELS

VII-76 VII-89

r.

REFERENCES

13
"

,
,
"

...........
"

-~,..

--------_ ............_-_ ...

,',

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure

I 1-1 I 1-2 11-3

II-4 II-5

Sym~olic

Representation of the Diode Equation

11-4 11-5
I 1-7 .
. 11""8
I 1-11

Diode Characteristics lN94 Forward and Reverse CharaCteri.stics lN914 Manufacturer Specification'Sheet
Diod~

Test Circuit

1!-6
II-7

Diode Equation Test Circuit Forward

R~gion

11-12
I 1-13

of Diode Characteristic

II,..8
II-9

Topology for Mu1tipl ication racto'r Model I-V Characteristics of Multiplication Factor Model Determining Breakdown Voltage Topology for Direct Simulati0n Model
I-V.Characteri~ttcs

Il-14

II-14
11-16

11-10 11-11 II-12

I 1-13
'11-14

11-19 11-20
11-22

for Direct Simulation Medel Analog Model

A'I~l~g

Topology for

Electr~cal

I-V Charact.eristic 9f Elt::<.:t.rical Breakdown Test Circuit listing for Breakdown Test
areakdown"Characte~isti~

Model

I I'" 23

II-15
II -16 II-V

Cir~uit

Ii - 24

Tabular Approach

as'Predicted by

11-25
I 1-26

II-18 II -19
11-20

Reverse Breakdvwn Simulation Breakdown Simulation by use of Multiplication Factor Nonideal Diode Behavior

11-27

11-29

, . t

14
---- ..

. 'i.,--_""",~

_-"--

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)

t i glJl~
11 - 21 11-22 11-23 11-24 11- 25 11-26 11-27
I ['- 28

Page I-V
(har~cteristics

Using

a~

Emission Constant

11-29 11-32 11-34

li~36

IN914 I-V Data

Inclus~on

of High Injection
Bul~

Modeling

Resistance

Inclusion of Bulk Resistance Wide Current Range Model Test Circuit Diode Fo.'ward Ch3racteristic Test Circuit FOl'':-i,:H'd Characteristics Diude
To~olngy

11-37 11-38 11-39 Il-40 11-41, 11-42 Il-45 11-46 11-47 11-49
P-51 II - 51 II-52

11-29 II - 30 II - 31 11- 32 11- 33 11-34 11-35 11-36

II -37

for Inclusion of Depletion Capacitance

Capacitance Versus Bias

I ,/C2 V erslls VQ
l/C 3

Verslls Vo

Reduced C-V Plot Complete Charge Storage Diod! Model Diode Storage Time Test Circuit Diode Storage Time Waveform' Diode
Storag~

Time Test Circuit

Lis~ing

11-38 il-39, 11-40 11-41

~

St~rage

Time Test
?torag~

II-53 II-54
II-57

SimlJ1ated

Time Waveform Diode

Photocurrent

Inclu~ive

. Photocurrent Waveform

II-61

.'

!5 '

. '.
,'.,

.'

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Ccntinued) ,

Figur~

Page SUbi'Ol!t ~ ne PPC Ionizing

~aveform

11-42

11-66 II-67
~isting

11-43 11-44 11-45 iI-46 11-47 11-48 11-49 II-50 II-51 II-52 II-53 11,-54 II-55 II-56 II-57 II-58 II-59 , 11-60 11-61 11-62

Photocurrent Prediction Predicted Photocurrent

11-68 II-69 11-70 11-73 11-73 11-76 II-78 11-80 11-81 11-83 11-86 11-88 11-90 II-90 11-92 11-98 11-99 II -100 II-IO,l

Experimental Photocurrent Topology for Neutron Susceptible O;cde Pre-and Postirradiation Diod~ Characteristics One Dimensional Lumped Element ~odel of Heat Flow Device Failure Waveforms Burnout Simulation CIrcuit
Bur~out

Test Listing

FBURN

~lag

Diode Structure Linvill Lumped Elemen~s 'for Nand P Material

Li nv ill Lump

Representation of Junction Region ,One Lump, Mode 1 Linvill Djode Test 'Circuit NET-2 Listing for Linvill Diode Test Linvill Mod~l Results and Experimental Data NET-2 Listing for Storage Time Test

l~
.,iI!W

"

''0

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued) Figure II-63 . III-l 111-2

II 1-3

Page Storage Time Waveform Produced by One Lump Diode Model Injection Versioll Transport Version Model Characteristic 2N2222A Forward Characteristics 2N2222A Manufacturer Specification Sheets 2N2222A Inverse Characteristics Ie Versus V CE Inclusion of Breakdown
I II-9

II -102 II 1-3 II I-~ 1II-4

II 1-4

1II-5 1II-6 III-7

II 1-8.

111-18 1II-20' III-21 111-21

Co; III-ll III-12 III-13

III-l~

~~ur-ease

Reverse Characteristics

111-24

~ ..~~ ~_ U;"'-Base

Reverse Characteri s tics

II 1-26

Tes t, Ci rcuit SCEPTRE Input for Basic !ransistor and Breakdown

, EMT
Characte~istics

111- 27 111- 28
I II -29

III -15 111-16 III-17 111-18 . 111-19

I II :"20

Inclusion of P~rasitic Element (NPN) Effect of rl c Effect of rb ahd r~ Vo1tage

B~havior

TTI-30'
1 _ 3(;
Junct~on

of

Capacitance

II 1-32
I II - 32 I II - 33

Minority Charge Distribution in a Biased Transjstor Setup to Measure r~

.17

.....

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued) Figure III-21 1!1-22 1II-23

II 1-24

'DeterrninaUon of

r~

r II - 34
r~

Method of Determining - Obtlining rl

c

I II - 35 lII-37
[ II '-39

Measurement Setup to Determine l'b by ~he Pulse Metr~l" Determining rb Reduced C-V Data Reduced C-V Data from Specification Sheet
Red~ced

II 1-25
I II - 26

III-,l6

1II-27 I II - 28
II 1-29

I II -4S

:-V Data for Collector Junction

II I-53 II I-54 II I-56 .IlI-57
~

Reduced Collector C-V D~ta Cbtained from Specification Sheet Reduced C-V Data with New $ Small Signal Measurement Determination of
~F

111-30. 111-31
II 1-32
111-33 ______Jl I - 34

Frequency Depender.ce of

I II-58

Measuring Saturation Time Inve'rse ~ as a FunctionQf Frequency' Transient Ana1ysi5 Circuit Transient Test Listing
2N222~A Transient Response

II 1-61 I II-63
II 1-65 III -66
111-67 111-72
I II -73

I II - 35 II 1-36
I II - 37

II 1-38

II 1-39
III -40

Definition of ~FMAX' I CMAX ' ~FLOW' I CLOW ' B eEC ' And VCr: Gummp.1-Poon Model Descriptiun

18

'

LIST OF Figure 111-41 111-42 111-43 111-44 111-45 1II-46 111-47 ,III-48 111-49 III-50 III-51 III-52 Ill-53 III-54 III-55
III-~6
ILLU~TRATION~

(Continued) Page

Inclusion of Variable ~ in the Ebers~Moil Model Example Data Plot' Voltage

Correcti~ns

1II-73 II 1-75 II 1-76 Ili-76 II I -78 1II-81 III-82 III-84 III-84 III-86
I II -87

Test Configuration IC and IS ~s a Function of V BE IE and ,IB as a Function of V in the Inversl:! Mode BC Definition of Early Voltage Definition of gOA Definition of gOB' 2N2222A IC Versus V CE 'Determination of Inverse Early Voltage Test Simulation ; isting for Variable Model Results SPICE Test Circuit S?ICE
~nput

III-88
~

Tesi

.1

III-89 III-90 III91

II 1-92

III-57 '111-58 Ill-59 , 111-60 III-61

Simulated '''Curve Tri;.'ce"

/
Di~tributed
'

III-93 III-94
J II -96

Base Capacitance

Dependence of IF on Coll(ctor Current Tctal Transit Time Versus Collector Current Transistor Geometry (NPN)
'-' .

111-92
I II -99

19 .
;t

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Ccntinued) Figure 111-62 111-63 Placement of Photocurrent Generators Predicted Versus M~asured Primary Photocurrents' in Silicon Switchinq, and Amplifier Transistors (Aft,r Notthoff. Reference 111-2) Photocurrent Test Circuit Secondary Photo response of 2N2222A SPICE Simulation Listing Predicted Secondary Photoresponse Two Lump Transistor Models Linvill Transistor Test Circuit 10-S A NET-2 Listing for Linvill Transistor Characteristic ofLinvill Tr~nsistor N-Channe 1 MOS Trans i stor Di.ag'ram Topol'ogy Conventions' for N-Channel and P-Chanhel Transistors First Order Model Characteristics of Drain Current Versus Drain Voltage wit~ Ga"e Voltage as 'a Paran~ter, for a~ ,N-Channel Enhanceme~t Mode Transistor IV-4 IV':S IV-6
P-C~annel

111-101

111-103 111-104 111-106 111-107 111-108 111-112 111-121 111-122 111-123 IV-2 IV-8

111-64 III ~6S 111-66 111-67 111-68 111-6<1 111-70 11I-71 IV-l IV-2

. IV-8 IV-9 IV-10

Transistor Urdin Current Characteristics

First Order Model Characteristic fer Dl'ain Current for ~n. N-Channel Enhancement Mode Transistor

Fir~l Order, Model Characteristic fo~ brain Current Versus Gate Voltage for a P-Channel Enhancelilent Mode Transistor,' 'IV-10
Triode Region Measurement for

IV-7

YT

IV-13

, 20
,
" ,'I'

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued) Figure IV-8 IV-9 IV-10 IV-ll IV-12 IV-13 Saturated Region Measurement for V T Threshold Voltage Determination from Triode Regior. Data for an N-Channel Enhancement Mode Transistor , , Threshold Voltage Determination from Triode ~egion Data for P-Channel Enhancement Mode Transis~or Threshold Voltage Determiration from Saturation Region Data for an N-Channel Enhancement Mode Transistor Threshold Voltage Determination from Saturated Region Data for P-Channel Enhancement Mode Transistor FORTRAN Subroutine Implementation of the First Order Drain Current Model for Incorporation into SCEPTRE, CIRCUS2, and.T~AC SCEPTRE Listing of Curve Tracer Circuit for Displaying N-Channel Characteristics for the First Order ~odel SCEPTRE Listing of Curve Tracer Cir~uit for.Displaying P-Channel Drain Characteristic for First Order Model
N-Ch~nnel

Page IV-13 IV-15 IV-16 IV-17 IV-18

IV-22 IV-27

IV-14 IV-1S IV-16 IV-17 IV-18

SCEPTRE First ,Order Model Drain haracteristics for an MOS Transistor SCEPTRE First Order Model Drain P-Channel Transistor
har~cteristics

IV-3l IV-32

for

.NET-2 (isting for Curve T~acer C'rcuit Displaying N-Channel Turn on Charact~ristic for the First Order Model NET-2 Listing for Gurve Tracer C'rcuit Displaying P-Channel Turn on Characteristic for thp. First Order . Model NET-2 First Order Model Turn on haracteristics for an N-Channel MaS Transistor

IV~33

IV-19

IV-34 IV-35

IV-20

..
21
..

-....-..... -.,----------~-

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued) figure I V- 21 IV-22 IV-23 IV-24 IV-25 IV-26 IV-27 IV-28 IV-29 IV-30 IV-31 . NET72 First Order Model Turn on Characteristics for a P-Channel MOS Transis~or CMOS Inverter tross Section Parasitic Inclusive Schematic 0f CMOS Inverter Model Topology for CMOS Pair Typical CMOS Topology Gate Capacit~nces as a Function of Gate Voltage as Modeled by SPICE2 Inverter Example
~;vde 1

1\'-36 IV-38 IV-39 IV-40 IV-46 IV-60 IV-62 IV-63 . IV-q4 IV-66

SPICE2 Coding for Parasiti;: Inclusive CMOS Inverte'r

Pulse Response of CMOS In~erter Model With Full Parasitics as Exercised on SPICE2 Illustration of the 'Effects of C0 60 Irradiati.~n on Threshold Voltages CMOS r"nverter wi th PhotoclJrrent Generators Model, Topolbgy Required for a Photores~onse Analysis of the Inverter

IV-70

IV-32 IV-33 IV-34 IV-35 IV-36

Model Topology fer CMOS Inverter Photoresponse 'Analysis, 1':-71' The Square Root of Drain Current Ve~sus Gate Voltage for N-Channels Biased bFF During Irr~diation Primary Photocurrent Waveform Determination of Threshold Voltage Shifts from Postirradiation Saturated Drain Current Measurements' SPICE2 Listing of Inverter Circuit with Photocurrent Generators IV-72 IV-75 IV-76
~V-82

,22

','

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued) Figure IV-37 IV- 38 ' IV-39 IV-40 IV-4l IV-42 IV-43 IV-44 IV"45 IV-46 IV-47 IV-48 IV-49 IV-50
I'I-5~

Inverter .Propagation Delay for Different Values of Threshold ~oltage Shift SP!CE2 Analysis of Inverter Low State Photoresponse SCEPTRt Listing for Input Protection Network Electrical Overstress Analysis SPICE2 MOSFET Model Vo It 3ge
Su~strate

IV-B3 IV-84 IV-85 IV-90 IV-9l IV-92 IV-93 IV-94 IV-94 IV-95 IV-Q6 IV-116 IV-117 IV-120
IV~12l

Bias Effects on Drain Current at a Fixed Gate

Two Dimer.sional Effects on Threshold Voltage

~eak Inversion Effects on Turn on Characteristic

Schematic Representatic~ of Crannel Length Modulation Finite Saturation Conductance Due to Channel Length Modulation Variable Mobility ~ffects Temperature Effects on MOS lurn-On Characteristics N-Channel Data for Variable Mobility Modeling P-Channel D~ta 'for Variable Mobility Modeling P-Channel Data for Parameterizing the Mobil i ty Mode I
~PICE2 Va~ia~le

N-Channel Data for'Parampterizing the SPICE2 Variable Mobi.lity Model i-MaS Subroutine Incorporating Se~o;'d Order Effer:ts for use with SCEPTRE
O~der Eff~cts Mod~l

IV-52 IV-53

TV-129 IV-130',

SCEPTRE

Cur~e

tracpr Program for Exercising Second

23

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued) Figure

IV-54
IV-55

SPICE2 Curve Tracer Program for ExerCising Second Order Effects Mod~l IV-134 NET-2 Curve Tracer Program for Exerc,ising'Second Order Effects Mo~~l IV-136 SCEPTRE N-Channel Model Demonstratillg Substrate Blas Effects IV-138 SCEPTRE P-Channel Model Demonstrating Substr3te Bias Effects SPICE2 N-Channel Model Demonstrating Two Dimen~ional Effects Oil. Threshold Voltage SPICEi P-Cha:1nel Model Demonstrating Two Dimensional Effects on Threshold Voltage SPICE2 N-Channel Model Demonstrating Wea~ Inversion Effects
Ef fects

IV-56 IV-57 , IV- 58 IV-59 IV-60

IV-61

IV-139 1'/-140 IV-i4i IV-142 IV-143 IV-144 IV-146 IV-148

SPICE2 P-Channel Model Di'11I0nstr,lting Weak Inv~rsion

IV-62 IV-63 IV-64 IV-65

IV-66

NET-2 N-Channel Model Demon~trating Incomplete Saturation Effects NET-2 P-Channel Model Demonstrating IncompJ~te Saturation Effects 5CEPTR N-Channel ModeJ Effects SCEPTRE Effects
Eff~cts

DeMon~trating Varia~!e Mobility

P-Ch~nnel

Model

DeMo.n~trating Varia~le

Mobility IV-150 IV-153

SPICE2 N-Channel Model Demon~trating Temperature

IV-67

SPICE2 P-ChaOllel Model Demonstrating Tempf'rature Effects IV-154

-_

24
.. _ .....

__

".

-. '-'-'~---'-' . ..

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued) Page

V-I
V-2 V-3

JFET Geometry JHT Topology JFET Characteristics 2N5462 Charac~eristic , JFET p'arasitic Capacitance Capacitance
Meas~re~ent

V-j

V-2 V-3 V-7 V-9

V-ll

V-4
V-5 V-6
v'-7

V-9

C GO as a Function of V GD C GS as a Function of VGS 2NS460 - 2N5665 Manufacturer Specification Sheets Photocurrent Generators JFEr Test Circuit JFET Characteristic Input JFET Medel CHaracteristics ,UJT Topology UJT EGuivalent Circuit UJT Model .lJJT Characteristics Ul'T Diode Test Circuit
" Test Ci rc ui t
D~ta

V-14
V-15 V-17 V-21 , V-22 V-23 V-25 V-26
V-27

V-IO
V-ll

V-12

v-13
V,-14

V-15
V-16 V-17

V-28 V-28
~-30

V-18
V-19

V-33
V~B
She~ts

V-?O
V-21'

Intrinsic Standoff Ratio as a Function of 2N4891-2N4894 Manufacturer SpecificJtion

V-34 V-36

...--,

'

. ..

,','

LIST OF II LUSTRATIONS (Continued)

F i ULJr~e

v-n
V-Z3
V-24

RSB lest Cil'cuit

, V-4,:'
,15 a

, Inter'base Resist,l'~CP

Function

of

VSS

1,'-43

Saturation Region Test Circuit Switchinq Transient of Emitter-B()<;f' UJT Test Circuit SchE'matic UJT Test Circuit UJT Oscillator Two Transistor E4uivalent Model cif the Thyristor SCR
Charactt'ris~ics
0111

V-25
,V-26 V-27

Oio!fe-

V-.Z8 V-Z9 V-30 V-31

V-J2 V- ]3

V-5b

$CR Modl" I 111ustration of Brrakover SCR Model Test Set for SCR
V-fiO
,'p I nt of SCI( Me,tsurem('nts

V-34

"'-.35 '

V-J6
V-31
V-3~

V-6) V-65

2N5061 Manufacturer Specific~tion Sheets

SCR Tes.t Circuit;

~CEPTREln~ut for SCR Tests

V-70
V-71

V-39 V-40

SCR Characteristics
Transform~r Inclusive Circuit

V-7?
V-lJ.

V-4'1
V-4?

Tran5forml"d Circuit for Analysis Equivalf>nt Circuit fOl' Coupled Coi,ls

V-14
V-l':J

" " 0 . . - _ _ _

_ _ -'"--

, J

lIST OF , Figure V-43 V-44 V-4) V-46 V-47 V-48 V-49 VI-l

ILLUST~ATION

(Continued) Page'

Thrpp Port Transformer Port Model Transformer

Transfor~er
Tr~nsfer

v-SO v-So
V-B3 V-84 V-86 V-87 V-88 VI-4 VI-5 VI-7 Vi-lO VI-1,l Vi-lS '11-20 VI-20 VI.-2l VI-2l VI-23 VI-23
Inp~t

Characteristic

Input Impedance tharacteristic

Transfryrmer Test Circuit SPICE Input , Transformer Data Frequency Characteristlc

Fr~quency

,
\

VI-2 VI-3 , VI-4 VI-5 VI-6 VI-7 , VI-8 ' VI-9 Vi-lO VI-Il, VI-l2 VI-l3 Vl-14

Networks

EXample AmplifiH with Frpquency Response Network DeterminJtion of Offset Voltage Manufacture,r Specificatio!,) Sheets Determination of 141DC Gain, Determination of CMRR , PSRR ' -PSRR +PSRR ' Input Current into Noninverting Input Input Current of Inverting Input " Measurinq Offset Current (Inverting Reprr.sented by Upper Trace) Power Supply Current
~s

is

~I-24

a Function of Supply Voltage

VI-26

21
,",
','

"

-, -.

-- --.,.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued, Figure VI-15 VI-16 VI-17 VI-18 VI-19 VI-2G VI-21 VI-22 VI-23
VI~24

Page Supply Current as a Function of Output Voltage Inclusion of Offset Voltage Ideal Gain Characteristic VI-26 VI-:-27 VI-28 VI-29 VI-29 VI-30 VI-3D VI-31 VI-33 VI-34 VI-35 VI-35 Test
~A741

Op Amp

Wit~

Frequency Shaping Network

Modeling

CM~R

Modeling PSRR Addition of Input Bias Effects Modeling Power Supply Current Conversion of 6
~J

Resistor to Include Slew Limiting

Com~l~ted ~leclrical M0del

~A741 T~st

VI-25 ,VI -26 VI -27. VI-28 VI-29 VI-30 VI-31 VI-32

Circuit,

Input Output,Voltage

VI-36,
VI~37

Unity Gain Ampli~i~r Test 2 Input

~A741

VI-39 VI-40 VI-41 VI-42 VI-44 VI-45 VI-49

Frequency Response Test with Ph'otoresponse Simulation

Mode~ ~A741

Photorespo~se

VI-34 VI-35

Use of POW!r Sensing Element 'TTL Input Characteristics

2B

L
~

'.

I"

$".'

,-

_._'-'---

LIsr OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued) Figure VI-36 VI-37 VI-38 VI-39 VI-40 V!-41 VI-42 VI-43 VI-44 VI-45 Vt-46 .VI-47 VI-48 VI -4'9 VI-50 VI-51 Vi-52 VI-53 VI-54 Measurement of Device Input ,Charact~ristics Typical
TT~

Page VI-50 VI-52 VI-53

VI-~4

Output Characteristics

Implementing Output Characteristics Measurement of Device Output Characteristics . Composite Model Key Letters and Corresponding Logical Elements for SCEPTRE/LOGIC , Logic Elements in NET-2 Diode Table for th~ Simplified EMP Model . RSN54LOO Manufacturer Specification Sheet Simplified Model of RSN54LOO NAND Gate RSN54LOO Test Circuit RSN54LOO SCEPTRE Test Circuit Input Voltage Waveform NAND Gate Output Waveform CD4051 Manufacturer Specification Shp.et
~chematic of"CD4051 Composite MOdel

VI-57 VI-58 VI-59 VI-61 V,I-63 VI-65 VI-66 VI-68 VI-70 VI-71 VI-73 VI";79 VI-80 VI-86 VI-87

CD4051Composite MOdel Listing' Parasitic Transistor Schematic for Simplified Secondary Photocurrent Model Developm~n~ Comp;)site CD4051 Model Output Selection -, Chann~ls 0, 4, and 7

29: . ,
," ,

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued) Figure VI-55 VI-56 VII-l VII-2 VII -3 VII-4
VI 1-5
. VU"'6
Pa~

Composite Model Simulation of CD4051 Photoresponse~ High State Output Composite Model Simulation of CD4051 PhotoresponseLow State Output Interface Latch Circuit Timing Sequence of Model Voltage Signals Behavior
Ccmput~r Verification of Interface Latch Electrical

VI-S8

vI -~9
VII-2 VII-2 VII-3 VII-IO VII-18 VII-25 VIl-32 VII-34 V! 1-36
V.II -42

Interface Latch Behavior Following Neutron Exposure Computer

R:.m

for I'onizir,g Environment Simulation

Computer Results of Overstress Simulation Power Monitori'ng Element Characteristics Power Re'gul ator 2N3053 Manufacturer 'Specification Sheet 2N3773 ~anuf~ctur~r Specification Sheet 741 Operational A~plifier Model Mode 1 2N5061,
Char~cteristics of Transistor 2

VII"7
VP-8

V,II-9 VII-10 VIl-ll VII-12 VII -13 VII-14 VII-15 VII-16

VII -17 VII-18

VII-46 VII-46 , VII-48 VII-49 VI I-52 VII-54 VII-55 VrI-58

Power Supply "Turn On" Power Supply Output Aft~r Neutron ~xposure Overstress Signal and Tabular Representation Response of Power Regulator t~ EMP 2N5061 Radiation Response

30

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Concluded) Figure VII-19 'VII-20 VII-21 VII-22. VII-23 VII-24
VII-2~

. Page SCR Triggering by Ion:zing Radiation Integrator Circuit Model

~A74l

VII-59 VIl-6l . VII-62 VII -63. VII-64 VII-65 VII-67 VII-69 VII-7l VII-72 VlI-73 VII-77 VII-80 VlI-8l VII-82 , VII-84' VII-86 VII-88

with Photoresponse

Op Amp Response Listing for Integrator Response Predicted Integrator,Response Three-Stage Amplifie: Transformer Model for the Three Stage Amplifier Hardened Three Stage Amplifier Frequency Response of the Three Stage Amplifier NET-2 Listing of Three Stage Amplifier Model 6-dit A/D Converter with
32-~ord

VII-26 VII-27 VII-28 VII-29 VII-30 VII-ll VII-32 VII-33' VII-34 VII-35 VII-36

Storage

MCl4024 Composite Model Diagram Abbreviated MC140i4 SCEPTRE/LOGIC Description Simulated input Breakdown Character,istic of MC14024 CMOS'
~-2R

O~tput

IMverter Schematic Showing Parasitics

Network 04tput

Results of Computer Analysis of AD Converter Photoresponse (R-2R Network Outp~t)

..

31
.'"
"

'.
:

. '.

I.

'...

..

~~

32 .

'. -. . .

.. .,.,. ,_.- . .&.--.,.-----------:.

LIST OF TABLES (Concluded) Table IV-2 ' IV-3 IV-4 IV-5 IV-6 IV-7 IV-8 IV-9 V-l
V~2

:'age SCEPTRE, CIRCUS2, TRAC, NEf-2, ANO SPICE2 MODEL PAr.AMETERS REQURED FOR THE F~RST ORDER MOS MODEL ANALYTICAL SWITCH DEFINITIONS SCEPTRE, CIRCUS2, TRAC, NET-2, AND SPICE2 MODEL PAPAMETERS REQUIRED FOR PARASITIC INCLUSIVE MOS MODEL THRESHOLD VOLTAGE SHIFTS INDUCED BY TOTAL IONIZING DOSE NET-2 MOS MODEL PHOTOCURRENT IMPLEMENTATION SCEPTRE ELECTRICAL OVERSTRESS ANALYSIS OF CMOS,INPUT PROTECTION NETWORK MOS MODEL PARAMETER VALUES SCEPTRE, r.IRCUS2,'TRAC, NET-2, AND SPICE2 MODEL ' PARAMETERS REQUIRED FOR SECOND ORDER EFFECTS MODEL* PARAMETER DETERMINATION DRAIN CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENTS GATE CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENTS ' " DETER'MINATIO'N RBB MEASUREMENTS
RBB,F~OM

IV-20 IV-24 IV-52 IV-77 IV-80 IV-86 IV-lOS IV-124 V-6 V-13 V-13 V-35 V-44 ,V-44 V-62 V-62 VII-70 VII-70

, V-3' V-4 V-5 V-6 1/-7 V"8 VII-l VII-2

'

DATA SHEETS,

MEASURED SCR PARAMETERS DETERMINATION OF a

2

COMPARISON OF SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE 2N1054 AND THE 2N5427 TRANSISTORS' COMPARISON OF SPECIFICATIONS FOR Tt;~ 2N5038 AND THE 2N5038 TRANSISTORS

. ..

33/34

-..
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'.

CHAPltK 1 INTRODUCTION

A.

OVERVIEW

The purpos e 0 f th is mode ling :landboo k is to prov i de an organ i zed ' approach to the application of radiation effect i~clusive semicon~uctor models to probl~ms requiring co~puter aided circuit analysis and design. Over the past 10 to 15 years, several investigators have made significant progress in developing computer oriented models for the different semi~ eonductor technologies. These models incorporate improved representaiions of both electri~al effects and radiation effects. T~ey are documented in s~veral excellent technical reports which give detailed discussion of der~vation and application procedures. Unfortunately, many of these reports are not readily available to analysts who wish to a~ply th~ models to a specific problem. Even if th~ ,nalyst has access to the reports, he is oiten cbnfronted with the rather formidable task df wading througr: the derivation in ,order tb sift out the application information for the mod~l. This is especially distres.sing to the 'inexperienced analyst who may waste valuable time struggling with materi~l,wh;ch 1S not g~rmane to ~is problem. Th.? intent <;>f this handbook is to alleviate the two problems identified above.' First, it presents the results of several model d~velopment' programs in a single volume. Hopefully, this will be'effective i~-disp~rs ;ng the results of these programs to a much broader community of users than has previously been possible. No new or or~ginal materiai is presented in this doc'ument. Therefore, t'lt> af'alyst who feels that additional inf6rmatio~ is required ~an check the references i~Qicated throughout \ the handbook. I n general. the, a'lthors of these references have expende'd constd~(abl~ effort in giving the details of the m~del develupment. Th~ omiss~o'n'-of these derivations from thi~ handbook simply reflects, the limitations 1nheren~ in such:a document, and does not imply ~hat they are not impol'tant. Investigators wishing to extend the capabilities of any,'.
_':,' , ,I

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....
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modEl are encouraged to consult the original documentation rather than relying or tnE abbr~viated material presented in the handbook. The seco~d intent of this ~odeling handbook is ~o provide an organized str~cture for th@ appl~cation of the various model~. This structure is t~e only origin~l contribution of the handbook's authors.' The reader should note that this document is not 'designed to be read sequentially. Only chapter I, the introduction, will be of general interest to all read~rs. ihe rpmainder of tne chapters 3re meant to be $tanrl-alone sections whicti J're oriented toward 'specific technologies and their models. A brief examinatiu~ of the table of contents wil~ de~onstrate the b~sic structyre of the handbook organization. Note th8t the first few chapters are Qrganlzed by techno:oy. These include ch~pters on bipolar diode' models, bipolar transistor models, MaS mode~s, and mi$cellaneous device technolcgies (SeR, trc:nsformer, UJT, JFET). Ihey are follcw~d by a chapter on simplified modeling of analog and digital integrated~ircuits. Th~ simplified Ie mo(~!i~g lechniques are applicable to either hipo13r or MaS terhnologies. The fin~l chapter pre~ents specific example problems ana the modeling t"'c;")ni~..?s used i.n their solution. Th~ general trend of thE ~odeli~~ ha~dbook is from specific device ~odels toward more gerie~al fC ar.d subsystem modpl~. Within each ir~~:,dua1 chapter the organization proceeds from the ~'s~c, first order electrical ~ndel toward the more extensive models incJrporating radiation ~ffect~ and second order electrical effects. O,'.. ision wlthin t:le chapters is r'adeaccording to physical phenomena when(,lIer po;sible. Thl! d"-31yst who requirfOs only a gross electrical representation of a ~arti'~t~r device t~ solve a problem need only con'~ult the fi"rst, secti(\nof-t-h~ ap;>ropriatp chdpter. If gr.:ater sophistic~tibn in the .ojel is requ:red, subseq~ent sections mu~t be consulted. An aaemJJt has bl'er: mode to arplya parallel structure in e:tct'r chapter section. ,This is accomplished ty developing eight major sub, ~ec~ion ~eadinQS. These incJude: (1) Description
(2)
~dvantaqes

(3)

(4)
(5)

Cautions Characteristics
Defining'Equ~tions

Parameter list (7) Parameterization (a) Definition (b) Typical Value (c) Measureme,t (d) Example (me~surement & sppcification shpet) (8) Computer ExarTIpie The description subs~ction provides a qualitative discussion of the electrical or: radiation effect to be discussed. The modeling handbook is not meant to be a tr~atise (m seniconductor physics. However, the variat~i)ns in model charact~rist'ics must be under,stood in terms of the physical proper~ies they are attempting to represent. The descriptitn subsection is inte~ded to crovide the physical context of the model without a detailed d~rivation. Appropriate references are given to technical publications d~aling with the underlying physical phenompna. The advantages subsect i on presents the pri:nary rea~'hIS for app I i cation of the model to be discussed. For som~ physical phenomena such as reverse breakdown, there are mUltiple modeling techniques which may be implemente1. In s~ch cas~s, the merits of the differp~t approaches ere discussed' in terms of their effect on desir'ed results. There should always be some reason for the analyst's choice of a specific modeling approach. Hopefully. a clear statement ~f advantages will help to dir~ct that choice. Every model has a definite ra~ge,oJ applicaoility which th'e anal;st must be ~ar~ful not to exceed. ,Knowledge of model, limitations is especi.ally il1'portant in computer a:ded design. In general. the computer can be rp.lied on to ,perfo~ calculations accurately; h~wever. the analyst has total responsibil1t~ for thinking. The cautions stibsection has been in'cilJdt:'d to rf'lIIind the analyst of,the limitations of each model and to encoura~e hi~ to think about how these limitations may affect the results.
(6)

!3

I;"

,,,'

The characteristics subsection includes a scnematic of the model topology and a qualitative representation of the electrical response of the model. The topology includes ~lements and polarities required for proper implementatio~ of the model. The electrical representation may take the form of an IIV plot, a voltagr versus time plot, or a current versus ~im~ plot. The unique qualities of the model response are highlighted for emphasis. These diagrams are useful in orienting the analyst to the mathematica~ description of the model elements in the following subsection. The definin~ eqtiations subsection presents the mathematical description of the effect being m0deled. The equatio~s are presented without proof or derivation. Their purpose is to demonstrate the relationship of the varl?us mqdel parameters in a format which 'is familiar to engineers., Implementation of t~e equations in a computer cede often obscures the parameteric relationship due to the necessity for eliminating singularities and other numerical difficulties. The parameter list inwnediately follows the defining equatio'ns. It pro'wides a definition fOJ' all key parameters and gives the nOlnenclature to be used in subsequent references. Care has been ta~en to insure that a clear, cons i s tE'nt nomenc 1.1ture has been used throuqi.out the handbook. Whenever possible, th:s nomerclature is consistent with the nomenclature in the technical literature. The parameterization SUbsection presents techniques for assigning numerical values to each parameter used in the model. The predictions or simulations based on a model will never be more accurate than the data used to parameterize the ~odel. Th~s, there is no ,reason to sel~ct an elegant model if there is insufficient data avatlable for the selec~ion of parameter valLes. 'Ed,ch parameter included in the parameterization 1ist is precisely d~fin,ed and a typical value is given. Th~typkal value serves the purpose of alll)wing~t.he analyst to gE't a mo~el running on the c~~uter'w,ith parameters,that bear some relationship to red!ity.' It also gives hi. a fra~~ of refer~nce for judging the numerical values which he de~ives from measured or 'specification s~eel data. Specific

"

1-4

----...... .............
~,

r
measurement schemes and data reduct i on procedurc?s are recommended' for each p~rameter and schpmatic diagrams are given for equipment arrangement. Numerical examples are provided for determining the parameter value from measure~ents and from sp~cification sheet data. Actual photograpti~ of dev~ce response or labularized data fl'om the measurem~nt scheme ar'e provided and reduced t~) the final pa,'ameter quantity. Specification sheets are included and appropriate entries are selected for parameter estimates. A compari!>on of the numerical values derived from measurement and from the specificatioh she~t gives the analyst an indicatio~ of the relative accuracy of the different parameterization sources .. A code implementation sUbsection is included in ea~h chapter to provide th~ analyst with lnformation on how the basic mathematical formulation of thE', model' must be modified for incorporation in a computer aided circuit analysis and d~sign (CAD) code. Five different CAD codes have been consid~red in this subs~ctiQn, including SCEPTRE, NET-Z, SPICE2, TRAC. and CIRCUS. ThE' last four of these codes have "built-in" models \oI~;,-~ may bf! parameterized in val'ious ways to yield d~fferent levels of model complexity. Unfortunately. the same no~enclature has not been u~~d in pach of the codes. This tends to dbsc~re the basic similarities In' ttle model capabilitie~. To key the 'different code models to the nomf'ncl~ture and model levels addrE'ssed in the handbook, a table is provided, which gives the entire parameter list for each model f~OM the ffve,(0des and whi ch i nd icatps 'those parameters to be parameteri zed ,ard thos'e to ,be defaulted. ,Thus, if the analyst wish~s to use the first orderMOS elec'tl'ical model described in this handbook with the NET-2 code, table IV-2 will dE'monstratl" how hl" should encode the NEt.:-2 paramete,r list. Tne code implementation sUbsection also provides notes on the effect of code implempntation on ttll" modl"l char-acteri'stics. The necessity for avoiding singularities and other numerical problems has been noted earlier. Eliminating these problE'ms isofte-n done by altering their functional forms. These a,ltl"red functions may give results which are slightly'
, I

1- 5
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I.,
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'

different from those expected by the anaiyst in certai~operating regions. These modifications and their implications are called out as notes in this subsection. The computer example is the f!nal subsection in each of the modeling sections. Its purpo~e is to demonstrate the mode! characteristics developed in the precedJng material. Emphasis is placed on using very simple circuits which exercise an individual component model. Often "curve tracer" programs are used to demonstrate that the mo~eled performance is indeed similar to that desired ar.d anticipated from the parameterization procedure. This feedback fr~m the computer to th~ analyst is an essential verification of m~del operation which should always be required before incorporating the mvdel in oJ mor'e complex,circuit. The organization of the modeling sections discussed above i~ quite modular. ,Hopefully, this approach will facilltate the use of the handbook by both the oo!Jice and the expert. The novice should be able tu identlfy the type of effect he wis~es to represent and follow an orderly procedure for selecting, parameterizing, and implementing an a~propriate model ,on the code av~ilab~e to him. 'he expert should be able to use the handbook as a quick reference to refresh hi's memory on I imitations, of various models or to review model conversion proced~res frem one code, to anoth~r. The intent ~f the handbook authors was to accurately reproduce the developments made by several inve~tigators in tht' field of se",iconductor modeling in a~ organizational format which will facilitate the application of their results.

B.

APPL!C~TION

RECOMMENDATIONS

Modern c~mputer aided circuit analysis and design codes and the ~~del~ which h~v! bee~ developed for use ~ith them Cdn be extremely powerful and ver~atile tools for the investigation ,of radiation effec',s on devices, circ.uits, and subsystems. However, their proper application requir~s attention to' some general guidelinps if their results are to be valid and economically justifiable .. A I ist of such guidelines undoubtedly

1-6
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would vary considerably if compiled by different authors., but hopefully thp. list of statements and discussion offered below incorporates the most important aspects of computer model usage. (1) (2) Determine why you are making a computer aided circuit analysis. Select an appropriate model.

(3) Know the difference between si~ulation and prediction. (4) Know the limitations of parameterization ,data. (5) Verify the models. (6) Understand the results.
,' Computer aided circuit analysis is expensive in terms of model parameterizaticn measurements, analyst's time, and ~omputer rental. It should be viewed as one of several alternative tools available for examination of radiation effects on devicp.s, circuits, or sUbsystems. Often, sound engineering ~nalysis procedures can be applied with justifiable, simplifying assumptions to yield results which are as valid as any computer generated solution. A healthy initial response to, any analysis requirement is to exa.ine ways to avoid computer aided analysis. However, there is a significant cl'ass of problems which defy, reasonable manual analysis' techniques. In these problems, the variables of elements may be closely respr,lses must ~e' considered simultaneously. coupled such that several ' In'such cases, the expanded recordkeeping ability of the computer is essential to the analysis. 'Also included in the class of problem' requiring CAD tools are those which contain, highly nonljnear elem nts or elements which are dri~en into nonlinear modes by radiation expos reo Certainly, an ~xhausUve list of pl'oblemsrequiring CAD and model ng tools woull.l c:onsume more space than is available here. T~e point to be 'made is that, although such a list is extensive, it is a definite subset of all radiation eff~ct problems.' An an~lysis should never be pe . "just to se~ how the circuit works." The results of such an' anal sis are almost certain to UP misleading and will undoubtedly,~e expensive. 'Closely as~ociated with the determination of the rationale for cOnipute~ aided a~alys'is is the requirement for selecting an approp iate mod.~1. Never select a sophisticated model when a simple, model wil
,

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1-7

" I

I ",-

suffice. To assist in selecting an appropriate model, the analyst should force himself to makp quantitative answers to questions such as: (1) What is the range of operating characteristics which the model must l'epresent? (2) What accuracy is acceptable? (3) Are the time constants of the model' comparablp to those of the circuit? (4) Is the device a switch or an amplifier in this application? Numerous other questions might be added to the list, but th~ point is that the analyst must make a definite series of decisions in selecting d model. Good sciertific,procedure suggests that these decisions be as quantitative as possible and that they be doc Imented. Selecting a model which covers several decades of current chara:teristics, when only a single point on'the operating c~aracteristic is required, is wastefcl df paramterization time, analys'is effort, and computer time. Furthermore, it is likely to in~roduce errors which could have been avoided with a less sophisticated model. The analyst is cautioned to consider that th~ model may be driven over a wider range of operating characteristics in a radiation simulation than that experienced under normal operating conditions. Once the decision has been reached that a computer aided an~lysi5 is required and a model ,has Leen selected, the analyst should know whether, he is making a simulation or a prediction. The distinction between the two is vital for the interpretatioh of the re~ults. All models represent simulations at some level of response~ For example, if a transis~or model ~s parameterized from cur~e tracer~easuremenis,then it c?n only be expected ,to s j.mu 1ate ,those measurements when exerc i sed by the computer analysis code. This model can never be co~rectly said to "predict" , transistor performance. A nurriber of simulation type transistor models can be combi~~d to predict a circuit response. However, that prediction will only be valid so long as the simulations of the transistors are' appro'priate for their operating conditions. One of the most frequent and potentially disasterous mistakes made in computer aided circuit analysis.

1-8

is the inadvertent extrapolation of !nodels beyond their'range of simulation validity. Thes~ mist2kes are insidious because th~ computer code will continue to generate r',e5ults despite tt,eir lack of validity; only the continued attention of the analyst can prevent ,this error. As noted earlier, m,odels can only be as accurate as the ,data which go into their parameterizatiori. However, the analyst is Jdv~sed to ' consider the validity of the data with respect to the goals of his analysis. Specification sheet data represent the minimum guaranteed elect~i cal specifications w~ich the manuiactur~rwill attribute to a given ~roduct line; A few manufacturers assign those data values based on 30 points of measured parameter distributions. Unfortunately, most do not have a quantifiable procedure for setting specifications. In either event. the values may not be consistent when applied to any given device. The specification sheet data a~e important frOm the standpoint of represent~ ing the data which the d~sign engineer utilized in designing the circuit. On the other hand, measured data reflect the a~tual characteristics of a device and all the data are consistent. However, they represent only a single device/characteristics set in a distri~ution of devices, of th'at type. Depending on where that device lies in the distribution, an~lysis results based on its model ;:arameters may be conservative or noncon~erva tive. for analyses which are supposed to reflect the perf~~mance of a statistically significant set of circuits, the analyst should make some effort to establish the sensitivity of the results to variations in ke'y model parameters. ,This should be done prior to ,the interpretation of the results. 'Probably m'ore time is wasted in ,attempting to debug models ir. the analysis circuit than in any other aspect of computer aided analysis. No model shou1d ever be incl~ded i~ the circuit,to be an~lyzed befbre its operation has been verified. In thi~ handbook, several examples are given'for curve trac~r and simple pulse circuits which can be used to verify the anticipated operation of individual models. These simple'

..
,"

programs pt'ovide inexpensive vehicles fot i-dentifying model problems outside of the circuit to be analyzed. Time or expense spent in model verification is never wasted. The final check on the results of all computer aided analysis should be, "Does the result make sen:;e?" There is no foreseeable substitute for human understand~ng in the application af CAD.resu1ts. The.ana1yst's final responsibiiity is to ex::rcise his o\lwn reasoni,lg ability. Computer codes can produce errors as a result 0f numeric~l difficulties or they can simply "step over" an important part of the t'esponse (e.g., a photocurrent pulse) through an inappropriate selection of a time step. The analyst who understands the circuit is the last 1 ine of defense against such errors.

I-10

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CHAPTER 11
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C.HAPTER II
l'ABLE Of CONTENTS
Chapt~r

?a9.~

II

DIODES

lI-l lI-l tIel

B.

A.

OIaOE MODELING
1. Z.
3.

INTRODUCTION

8. 9. 10.

4. S. 6. 1.

12. 13,
C.

n.

DfGd~ Equation Rev~rse Bias Eff~cts Nor-ideal Diode Equation High Injection ~ifects OhMic Effects llep1etion Region Capacitanc!' Oiffusion Ca;>acitance Effec~.s Pl)otocurrent Effects:' . Neutron' EHect$ . Burnout . Total Dose Effects Cude lmplemP.ntation . L1.nvill Lumped Mod,l of the Di-ode

tI-2 lI-ll
1I-33 1!-41 U-48 n-55
II~61

11"28

II-3S

11-74 {I-80 It-SS

II-eO

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REFERENCES

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CHAPTER II DIODES A. INTRODUC. nON

I.

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An understanding of diode modeling is fundamental to the task of modeling any semiconductor device. This is particularly true in the context of the modeling handbook since techniques for modeling radiation effects and otner phenomnon are described in the greatest detail in chapter I I . An "expandable moder ' format is appl ied in t"is chapter. This format supports a basic rule in modeling which is, "use the simplest model posiible. " The expandable model format allows a range of complexit) from the diode equation produced from a data sheet to diode models which simulate I-V behavior over many decades of current. Techniques fo~' obtaining model parameters from both termin<:l measurements and specificatio~ sheets are included. Termjnal measurements , ' wi 11 produce accurate parameter va I ues for spec ifi c devi ces but indi cate nothing about the distribution of device parameters unless numerous d~vice5 are tested. The manufacturer's specification sheets yield parameter va lues whi ch are 'often very inaccurate, yet they place bounds on parameter variations which may be used for best or worst case analysis. Some terminal measurements suggestec by the modeling handbook must be regarded as useful only' in the absence of better information. One example of this is the terininal estimation technique used to obtain backg~ound doping. The assumptions made were a planar, one-sided, abrupt junction. Because no junction is truly planar, the electric field at the curved portions of th~ junction will cause the junction to avalanche at a lower voltage than predicted. No' diffused junction is truly abrupt, whi ch imp lies that the term "background dopi ng" loses some or a 11 of its meaning in many devices. The point to be made is that the analyst should try to b~ aware of how the model attempts to simulate the physical processes of the device, the simplifications and assumptions made, and the

II-I

atcuracy and liiilit.ations of the model chosen.

It is for this reason tt"lat

process.

discuss ions of the phys i ca I processes a re often inc Iuded.. An understand i ng of device physics is de,irable but certainly not required for the modeling

When working with differ~ni computer codes, one often finds different sets of units being applied by the code. For example, resistance may normally be specified in ohms for one code and kilohms for another code. As a general rule, any self-consist?nt set of units may (Ie used. A problem OCcurs with the default values and built-in models of circuit each computer code.

analysis codes.

Therefore, it is safer to work in the units specified by

Because cf the overwhelming scope of semiconductor device modeling, many concepts, approaches, and models could not be addressed. It is for this

reaso~

that a' bibliography is included at the end of this handbook.

References which proved I'seful in the development of chapters are included at the end of each chapter.
B.

DIODE MODELING
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1.

Diode Equation a. Description

The foundation of all diode models is the diode equation which relates the diode current to diode vo'tage and may be written in its simplest form as:

b.'

Advantages

. The diode equation is implem~nted in al~ost all network simulation c01es and is the simplest method for implementing a diode characteristic with a minimum number of elements. Specification sheet

data may be used to parameterize the diode equation.

The diode equation

II-2

one measured parameter and the pdI'ameters" c. Cautions

requi:'~'s O:11y

drl

assumed

""ature to define

Ttle basic diode equation gives the gross, first ordpr I1V characteristic. I~ circuits where the details of the diode response are important to p,cper operation, additional model e]. :::iltS must be includrd to simulate second ordE:r and r~diatiol1 effects. The nature of tr.ese additional elements is discu~sec! in the following' sections. d. C~.::!"~cte: i 5t i cs The symbolic representation of the diode equation is shown
ill

figu,e II-I.

The diode (qila:ion will produce the electr~.:al characteristic shown in figure 11-2. e. Defining Eguaticn The diode equation is implemented as CJrrent source defined by:
d

voltage control~ed

f.

Parameter List 10 = the diode current IS :: "the diode saturation currer.t q= the magriitude of electronic charge (1.6 ~ 10- 19 coulomb) Vo = the voltage aCfv::.5 element 10 K = 801 tzmann I 's constant (8.62 .. x 10 -5 eV/oK) T = the junction temperature in oK Parameterization.

g.

a) diode.

Definition

IS is the reverse saturation ~urrent of the 1n an ideal diode, the reverse current ofa diode under several

II-3

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(a) Model Representation

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. (b) Component Representation

Figure 11-1.

Symbolic Representation of the Diode Equation.'

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Diode Characteristics

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For r2al diodes, however, lpakdQ~

t~e

reverse current so IS m,'IY not

be obta i ned from reverse current mcasureme"ts. ' lSi <; obta i fled from the behavior of the diode in the fOI'Wal'd operating re,gion. Typical Values . t yplea. . 1 A va 1 ue 0 f 10 -12 ~mperes 15 directly proportional to the active junction ar~a and may vary siqni r i-5 -I" cantly between device types. A range of 10 to 10 ',~mf\"flr., i~ com:non,
b)

c)

Measure~pnt

IS,can be computed f"om : ,p V~ 1ue of \" 1 ,1 at a forward b;ased operating point. I~. <;~oult! be noted that \'11 t;. I-V ,point will be accurately simulat~d, therefc.re, the I-V poil1~' ,_! ", should be made near the operating point of the diode in the circuit. can then be found from the relationship:

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qVo) , (KI -1
d) Example - IN914 1 From Measurement The point chosen in forward bidS to be
se~n

modeled ~as SmA.'

From th~ photoQraphs shown in fjgur~ I1-3~ the diode to be 690 mV.
IS was thf'n computeci at 300 0 K

volt.\qe,at S mA can be to tle:

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2

!> mA

-1

= 1.35

)( '10- 14 amperE's

From Data Sheets

A~ estimate of IS can be made from specifica-

tion sheet data. The specification she~t shown in fiq~re 11-4 lists a diode voltaQe of' 0.12 V at a forward current of 5 mAo

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HI914 For'tlilrd it":! R('v'rsp Ch.)racteristics

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'.13 l
l
1

l.S

, pi

" ... ....., ...... ,$1 ...... '- _,

.11* ,... ....... _ _ . ., iii .. ", ...... ...

., ., ". ., "" ". ".

''''41
II

.. ..
II

'''IS , ,It' ... , ,

II

....
lS

. .. ., ". . ".
11
IS

, .. II

.,

.....

IS

- ... ,"_1,."'. __ '"

1_'...........'_., ..

Figure 11-4.

lN914 Manufacturer SPcification Sheet (ref. 11-1)

1 __. . ___.___ _
,'t
I

_~

11-8
"

TYPfS 1N914, lN914A, 1N9141, lN91S, lN916,lN916A, lN~168 and lN917 DIffUSED $IKON swnOtING DIODES

_heRkel . . .

,...,

----- ..... ..

..... .-.- ,- ,< ................ . . - . .

CATHOCII 1Il10 .. DllIOTlD .'I'COLOII ....D

.....
I"

-',

. L'" J~ l_~-'

=.~.''''.-''' ;f:J L~ I _.. ::= -;~:.:=- J

J"

CATHOCII 1Il10'1 OIl11OflD nCOlOll ....D

....,. _ .......
'.
'.

.. ue -we .........,.,.... (.............1.. ~,

1-;"
11 It I4t

'.............. ,...
t,

'1,.-1, ..,..
11 IS

..._ ....... -u ''",.,

(-

. .............. ,.. (....... 'st'

.......... ,.-(.....

'm .us
lit

'I

,..,.. ,.." ,.." ,..,'" ,..,.. '"'' ... st st ,t tt tt " 'I ,st us m m m
11

11
IS

IS

15

31

IS

11

71 II

II HI

,. r-r .........

"'_ w,.(...... , ..

.\01

\01

I0Il

I0Il

101

''... ......... '......... .... s...,'.............. .

1st

see'
2st

UI . 1st -61" .
101

1st
111

2st.

c 'Tc

.. .. .. ..
y

Figure JI-4.

lN9l4 Munufacturer SpeCification Sheet (Concluded)

.-..-- .. ..... -' -.........,

,

.'

p.

.' )

exp
2) T

- ,1

4.23 x 10 -15 amperes

a),

Oefinition

T is the temperature of the junction in degrees Kl;'lvin. ~odel paremeters should be obtain~d at the model simulation temperature. '

D)

Typical Vaiue

T is often assumed to be room temperature, which is about 300~K. This assumption is valid :for devices opera~ed under low power conditions. If power conditions within the devic~ make this assumption 'invalid i knowledge of t~e junction temperature or a higher ,order model may be desired to yield,better results, c) Measurement When making low power measurements in climatecontrolled areas, assume T to be 300 o K. h. Implem~ntation Notes Some difficulty may be encountered in the direct implementation of the diode equation in some circuit analysis codes. This problem is usually r~Jated to the topology req~irements of the individual code. For SCEPTRE, a capacitor placed 'across the diode will eliminate topology problems The capacitor must be chosen small enough so as not to ,interfere with the diode action;' picofarad has been found to be adequate.
i.

Computer Example

The diode equation was exer'cised by use of the network analysis code SCEPTRE. The forward characteristic was obtained by use of the simulation circ~it of figure 11-5.

11-10

. bt-"

,-,,:-."',;,-"'~'.w.....i

100

]0 rnA
(l-

JD

()

Figure 11-5.

Diode Test Circuit

The computer input listing for this run is given in figure 11-6 and the simulated characteristic is Shown in figure 11-7. As expected, the 5 rnA, 690 mV point used to develop the model lies on the curve produced by the simulation. 2. Reverse Bias Effects a. Description The diode equation doe~ not inherently contain provisions. for reverse breakdown. However. the reverse breakdown'eff~ct may be impol'tant to the analyst who is modeling reference diodes or analyzing any circuit where transients due to radiation effects or other sources mclY dl'i've the circvit i,nto an oper<'ltional mode outside the original dps.iqn boundari~s. Electrical overstress produces device breakdown and possible catastroph,ic fai IUl'e. Reverse breakdown may tak.e place by two mechanisms, avalanche and tunneling. p-~ juncti~ns which break dbwnat 8 volts or higher are considered to do so by ava.lanching mechanisms .. Since the upper limit .for tunneling is about 5 volts, both phenomena are cons i dered to occur in dev i r.es with breakdown between' 5 V and 8 V. Thel'e are thl'ee approaclJes to mode l1'ng l'everse bi as effects .

II-ll

0'

.....

,~".,,:,:~.'

....

~~ ..

---:

..

~~

.\..

,.

seE P T ~ E ~ET.)~K SI~ULATION p~03RAM '1~ roRCE .E~PON~ _A30R~T~~Y - KAF3 NM ~E~SI0N CDC _.5.~ 5/76
02/21/78

10.18.0~.

:'O~ A LIS'TING or u;;E~' FEATURES UN1::!UE TO T... IS Su~~LY A CARD Co~T'I~lNG IME ~ORO "Oo:u~E~T"
~F

VE=l510:ll OF AS

Sc~?T::;'E T~E rl~Sl Cl=lO

THE I~PJT TExT

:O~PUTER Tl~E ENTE=ll~G S~TUP PHASECFA P? 10

.J88 Stc. O.JOO S~C. 0.~00 SEC:

:IQCUl'T OESCR!PTI0~
~LE~EN'S

Jl~.O-I=TABLE IITI1EI
~eI.t.S'

1-2=,00 Jo.2-0~0100E EUU~TlO~'ll.HE-I"'38.!I11

~\J'IICTIUNS

:.2-0.:1.(-12 TAaLE 1 O,().I.E-3.10.E-3 JUTPUTS ,;O.PLOTtVJOI =lU~ CONTROLS SlOP'T1I 1E=I.E-3

~N:>

\I

. :O"l .. uTER 1114E A1 ER04JNATlON.OF SETUP CPA .?12 ~~C,. PP 0.)~0 S~C.

~HAS::-

10

0.)00 SEC.

Figure Il-6.

Diode Equation

Te~t

Circuit

11-12

i'

~--------.-

----- ----- .... --_ .. _----_ .... __ .:..._--------------

. .
co

;
i
~.

'" "

..

t
~

!
~

t' ~

If'

"
,
i

..
"
;

" '"

'''-

ItO

co

.,

.. '"... - .
0
~

o
C'

c::

QJ

"0 L '/0

!----!----!----!----!----!----!----!----!----!----!

-.

~ o u.

...

. I

" .... ....

QJ

'..,;

en

u.

'"

..
"

..

...

.. .. .. .. .

...
'"

';",

.. .. ...
C-

.. ..
0
O

...

..

,;

",
"

11-13

....

--~,__----~-~......-.;;"..".;w ~~:-:.rr-""'":P

,i

"'"
\~

.-

Multiplication Fa~tor 1), Advantages The advantage of the multiplication factor approach is that it relates better to the physical processes occurring in lhe diode. 2) Cautions The multiplication factor 'is s("lewh~t difficult to 'parameterize; therefore, care must be taken to in,ul'e the well behaved. 3) Characteristics The topology requi red for the mode 1 is show" i , figure 11-8. The expected I-V characteristics are shown i'n figUl': .1-9.
+

b.

'

RC

Figure 11-8.

Topology for Multiplicatiori Fact6r Model

I,

, 1
SLOPE :: --RC

+V -

Figure- 11-9.

I-V Characteristics of Multiplication Faitor Model

,11-14

.11

4)

Oefinina Equation

M(V) = _ _ 1_ _

)- C~D)"
5)

Parameter List

V BO = the breakdown voltage of the diode "M(V) = th~ avalanche multiplication factor n = empirical constant 6) Parameterization
'a)

V
'1

BO Oef.inition

'~BO is defined as that voltage at which the reverse current 1ncreases at an almost tnfinite rate when voltage is increased.

Typical Value

V BO ranges from about 5 volts for a referen~e diode to over 1000 volts for a high voltage rectifier. 3 Measurement

~lot of the reverse I-V characteri~tic. 'The value of V can be deterBO mined by extrapolating the straight line p~rtion of the b;--eakdown curve
to.the voltage axis as illustrated in .figure 11-10.

' VSO can be obtained from,a photograph or

11-15

"".----_. ,., ,
--~ -r.7~--7

- -'~. _____ ~,-'-- ___.__, ~~

.'

~iUL IT PLI-

CI\TION
REGIOi~

"

Figure 11-10. 4

Determining Breakdown Voltage

Example - lN914 a From Measurements V BD may be determined from the photograph shown in figuce 11-3. By extra~olating along the straight line portion of the breakdown region to the,voltage axis. V BD was found to be 150 volts. b From Data Sheets The manufacturer specification ~heets , shown in figu~e II-4-li-sts--aminimum breakdown voltage at 100 ~A fO,r ,the lN91". The breakdown voltage listed is' 100 volts.' b) RC Definition RC models the 'leakage current observed when a diode is reverse biased. RC is actual~y voltage dependent. but assuming a constant value is a reasonable approximation. 2 Typical Value Values ofRC vary from several kilohms to several hundred megohms. 1

7~
C
"

.,

, ,

,,

Measurement RC may b~ determined by obtaining several I-V points on the diode's reverse biased craracteristlc. The points should be measured at least several volts away from reverse breakdown. RC is calculated as:

Example - 1N914 a ' From Measurement Reverse 1eaxage current was measured by a sensitive cur-ent meter in series with the diode and then rev~rse biasing the diode with a power supply. Data obtained were:
V D

-10 V -50 V RC RC -10 V - (-50 V) = --"';5":;'. "?"4.:. .n..... A--~(..;;.-...,19~n"?"A..... )

-5.4 nA ,-19.0 nA

= 2.94

x 10~ ohms b

From 'Data Sheets The manufacturer specification sheet ,shown' in figure II-4 1ists maximum reverse current for the 1N914 at a reverse voltage of 20 volts. ~ince leakage current is usually much greater than s'aturation' current, the following approximation will be app1 i,ed:

. ,

Il-17
~,,--

RC =

Vo
r-

ID

RC

;:

-0.025 pA
l(

-2Jl V

R, - 8.0
~

10

ohms

c)

t~e ~ultiplication

Definition ~ is an' experimental constant which models region of the reverse diode chara(teristic. 2 !lP.ical Value The value of n is typically between 2 and 4

for silicon diodes. n can be determined from a point on'the rever'se chrtracteristic in the multiplicationr~gion. n can he coniputed as:

.~

Example - IN914 A point takpnat ct,ardcteristic (figure I1-J)' yield<;:

10 ;: -0.5 IlA

t~pknee

of thl:' bt'eakdown

Vo ;: -140 V

lI-lU

.
,
"

.
.....- " - ' - ill', -...-. ............~
, . : , . , p ............

~_

, ....., _

......

~_
,'.'

--_ r
,M!'
rt .

tt

...... b-:
'

IS ('lid RCare 1.35 x 10 may now be computed as:

-i4

amperes 1nd 2.94 x 10

9. ohms, respect,ively.

(1.35 x 10-

14

A ; 140/2.94

10 9 )].

n = n

0.5 I1A log (140 V/150 V)

= 1.45
Direct Simulation Approach
1)

c.

~dvanta9!-2

c;dvantages of the c1irett simulation app,roach are that para",eterization is straightforward and better sfmu1aLofl lIf resistance in breakdown is permitted.

Th~

2)
muHiplication.
3)

Cautions Photocurrent and leakage current Characteristics The topoloqy required for t.he model is shown in

wi~l not undergr

,figure 11-11.'

------~~~~-.------Figure 11-11. ' TQPology for (jire,ct Simulation Model

'f

II-l9

.,

",t .' ,. cst

.....

The expected
II-12.

I~V

characteristics are shown

i~

Figure

/
+'1
S'

Figure 11-12.
4)

I-V Characteristics for Oirect Simulation Model Oefining Equations

f(V O) = piecewise linear table or: A(VO-V BO ) = I e . S 5)

Param~ter lisi

VSO = tne Dreakdown voltag~ of the diode A . = empirical constant . IS = diodeleakaye current

1---
h;'tt ..
f
'"
;,

Q-20
"

*ss'. _

...

..

.. ,..,"1' ; ."'.?~.. .. . , ..... *'>... ,., .."'... '

fe

'
','
.

1_"

,;s,t h?O,:

.:

:.

6)

ParamF'terizatiol' a) Bre~:down rable

The breakdown table was octain~d from selected points on the reverse character:'tic. The points choser are sho\o~ ill tab Ie II-1.
0 IOD( BREAKDOW~

TABLE 11 -1.

"dO

10 -60 rnA -30 -200 ~A -100 -50 -25 -10 -5

-152 V -151 -148 -147 -144 -140 -120 -100

b)

EI~ctrical Analog ApprJdch I Advantages

I

The advantage of the ele trieal analog approach fs that no Jnalyti~al func~ions or tables are requi~ed. 2 Cautions

behav,ior.

i~tic is not accurately mOdeled.

3

The multiplication ~Pgjo There ,is no correspo

of ,the characterto physical

'Characteri s~ The topology requir~d for the model is

~hown in 'i~ure 11-13.

II -21

-_.
, ,

'$

5,

,.

Figure 11-13.

Topology for Electrical Analog ModpJ

The shunt diode is c:amppd "oTf" by lht' voltage source. Wh~n a reverse voltag~ is applied t6 the model which exceeds the volt~qe sourc~, the shunt diode will conduct, simulating the breakdown characteristic. The multiplication ,'egion of the characteristic is simulated by the forwcird I-V behavior of thp shunt dledp. lhp characteristic produced will be similar, as sh6wn ill fiqur~II-14. d. Computer Exar;p les

computer simulations of reverse breakdown were made, one by direct simulation and ol')e b~r usc of thf' mUltiplication factor. The test circuit applied for thes~ simuldtions is shown in figure 11-15. The com~uter listing for the direct simu!ation te~t usinq a piecewise linear table is gtven .in figure 11-16. The brpakd0wn.chardcter is tic produced is sh.owll in: figure 11-17 .. The input listing for the multiplication factor simulation is given in figure 11-18. The output for this run is given in figure 11;..19. Three features of figure 11-19 are notew0rthy. First. the rurvature of the avalanche region is much more a~rupt thari indicated by th@ actual dat.a. Second, the feature included in the mUltiplication

T~o

11-22
I

Ii

L.

S rt'

....

ire

. II

+V

Figure 11-14.

i-V Characteristir of Electrical Analog Model

o-

O.5mA

o
Breakdown Test Circuit

Figure 11:.. 15.

11-23

.
'

..

"'0

..

rd n

, .

.... ,. f

...

h"'~bifd

~ [ ,[T_);~ 51.JcA'I~~ .. (A?:";' _A;2~~r~~\ .- AI 'W::';SlO\ CC:.: ".:'.~ ~/;~. C?122/78 11.11.4~.

c (

~PO~~~~

~l"

~C'~C

"' ..

A LIc;.II'.l- ~~ J;(~ ~t41.;~~c;. ll\;!i,, T(; 111", Vl~~lJ" J~ ~<~~It ;" .. ;:.~y ~ C~~() :O~r41~1 ... c. T1.E .. lJ~D "DO:J-~~T" A;; T... ~ fl,,~T C~,i) JF l-E I\?J' T~.I

:o~

:O"","TE:< TI"( [ ... It.~I'\:; S:l..1" "11",,~(C"~ .)~O

;:C.
~:C.

p~'

0.)00 ~:C.

10

0.)00

: : ~ ( c' I' r. E ~ C~ 1 Pt 1 0 '4 ,. l t "':: '; 1",

JI'4.~-i=T~~LE

1111-[)

~"I~c;..I-c=IOO J~.2-~=~10JE

...' ~ 2 - (" ='I' t ~ ... E :.('-0::1.[-12

:U"ClJ:;'N~

c","" J C" )

~~~~110~(1.3~E-I~.3d.~I)

I A,jl ~

~.O.I~[-J.-~.[-~

T A~L E 2
-1~t.-!-O.(-3

-1:,) .-JO.-3

-1'''.-iO(j.f-b -1.7.-IOO.-!>
-I .... -~O.[-b -lot'.-25.E-I>

-1<'U.-IO.f.-b
-IOO.-~.E-!>

JI""l,lTIVJDI
1U'4
:~)

cn"""o~s
-j'

.,IJ" TJ .. (= I.t

:0.:. ... ..1 1 (;.

1 !~r CPA

AT

I >"10... I i:'II C,,'

~
~.~~CJ

p" JJ

..

~~C.'
~~C. ~::C.

J. ) 0 L'

Figure 1.1-16. ,l i s t i n9 for Breakdown Test Circuit

.

t,stit.

U-24

,~
h

.....C'

c,.......". r:~.0"':t~: .

)1 'It

j ........................ "'.- ..........................................................................

.,

-".-""-,

,-:--

-I .. ~O"!t -.'.

-1 .... ';').-"''''

1,-

, ,
... ; ..
')~.

'.' .. 0-.

...
I
(It

,--

--,
--,, --,
_ .. :

I
-,1."'- ...... ;,.

1--

- l ..

,,:..,';t

,
_f'l",

, ,

I-I

.. 1.-, "". -'l ..

,-,-

""."

.,.-(,.

,-:--

I I

-- , ,
.... ;

."'

.........
" f, . . . . .

..

~.
.....

j ................................................... __ .................................................................................................................................................... ..

",~ ~II

-1.")0.-';1"

"I

""I "'''lI."Jf''

,'~ ')..
-

,.-,r. ,.1'" -I. 'l~,C,. _".")"'.1)1 -, l/lj,ll.fll - CtrJ~"

_(,.1",".

'~I

r"

Figure 11-17.

Breakdown Characteristic as Predicted by Tabular Approach

5 C ~

p T 4 E ~~r.:~4 51~U~~110~ ~~0~~~~ AI':' ~C~(E .E:~PJ"; _6<)"tr)~y - .~F~ '''' ~ E;; 5 Ill'; C ". ~. ) ';-I;!>

'02/,?11~

I!>."~.}~

SL'="fl..Y
~F T~[

~o~ A l1~r,l!~G ;;~ l':'~' n:~i.J"~~ l,~I)J~ TO TlI:' :. ... t.;"'G C(l"Te.l'ltP.b T'"1 ... 0""".) "OO:u~'~"l"
I~~JT

",,-~Sl~'\" AS T"~

~t"

S::E.JT"t
C6~lJ

F 1.;:-,1

ltAI

:O~PL'T~1'l

ll"f.

",r~~h:;

S~r~;) ~::~.

PI'<~!)E

("''' ;>;
I::

.31]
~. '00

o. ) 0,1

;,:: c.

,::C.

:1-IeJ! T LJE~l"i';T lu~

~L"E:~~TS JI~.C-l=H3U:.
!~

'''P5ol':?=IL~

Iln-tt

2 - :> =8 I .J .:, E l 0,1, T I (\ , I I 3:;:: - I ~

J".i;_f':(3(O'wII'C-I.3"'~-I"11
:.2-0=1."-1~ ~c.2-n=2.'1"L" )l"l",fD PA~A~ETE~5

,.:!. "I I

~ ~ .; = ~ i' I I I I I _ A ,. 1 "II I ... a c ~ ; ~ : .~. I 4 b S I ~ J D1 I ~ a I I < " I ... , I

T A:lL t I
..'-J.-~.i:..-

I 1

.lP'( T I o~:>

D.

a.!

=,uT;>..,TS
Ji'l'"L,T IV",';' ;'''I~ cr: ... T "/(I~ S
;TO~

::

..

TI"t=I.-3

:O'l"urti> T 1"'( AT T :01.1' AT 1 ~'I Of" ~E IU" :>,.. o.~COl,

.. ;>

I.~O

SC.

~.)O

5C

I:J

J.)O

EC.

Figure 11-18.

Reverse Breakdown Simulation

11-26

-- __ .4-; ....... ___ ._ ..

+-'

s...

LL

ro

:;

..
............
. .......... :

'

....
I

C'I

!_'---!_--_!
;::

en .,...
LL

:::II

s...

cu

.'

II-27 '
,

............ ~,.. ............. b .. :iM..:.,................ _. _ .."

formula to prevent a singularity when V BD = Vo has also limited breakdown current to less than 0.5 mAo Such limiting can occu~ if the'proper selection of -limiting constants is not made. Finally. the slope of the bre~kdown tharacteristic is negative. This result may arise if a bulk res i 5 tance term is not i IlC 1uded. ' 3. Nonideal Diode Equatio~ a. Description The analyst who wishes to correctly simulate diod~ performance over several decades of current quickly notes that t"~ ideal diode equation is not sufficient, because most diodes do not have an ideal' characte~istic. The reason for this deviation from the ideal is a reflection of the efficiency of the diode as an emitter of minority carriers. A semilog plot of Vo over"a wide range of 10 will identify t~e region of nonideal behavior. Such a plot is demonstrated in figure II-20. The nonideal region can be modeled as an emission constant in the diode equation. b. Advantages The inclusion of an emission constant permits accur.ate simulation of diode I-V characteristics over several decades of current. c. Ca\,Jtions The inc 1uS i on of an 'emi ss i on c:onstant genera lly requi res some source 9f experimental data to determi ne the v'a 1u~ of the emi ss i on constant. Distinctions must be 'made betwee" variat.ions in M and the c~ange in I-V 'characteristics due to low and high injection effects. d. Charact~ristics The 'inclusion' of an emlssion,constant will produce an I-V ctiaracteristic which deviates from the ideal ,as illustrated in f~gur-e II-2l. Defining Equation e.

10

= IS

[exp (qVo) MKT - 1]

I1-28
,.-

t
f
~-~

..

"

OHmc REGION

_I.:=! _D _ _ _

qV 12KT

HIGH ItIJECTION REtilON NON IDEAL REG ION

ILle

qD /KT .

LOW INJECTIOU

Figure 11-20.

Nonidea1 Diode Behavior

IDEAL CHARACTERISTIC

/'

........

/' /'

/'

;/ NONIDEAL DIODE /' SLOPE = q/14KT

;/

/' /'
, i
! ,

Figure 11-21.

I-V Characteristics Using an Emission Const~nt

11-29
,', ,

,I

, .f'.

f.

Parameter i Zilt ion (M) 1) Definition

T~e constant Mis the factor by which the junctiun voltage and dynamic resistance are lJrger than the ideal values given. us i I1g qVO/KT.
2)
b~twee-n

Typical Value M equals 1 for the idt!al case, but typic~illy li'es Measurement

1 and 2. 3)

M can be found by identifying the nonideal linp. segment from a plot of 2n(I O) as a function of VO. A best fit to several poi~ts will yield'the most acceptable value of M. Two p~ints on the non idea 1 1i ne segment will i dent ify M as: .

A ~ew corresponding value for the 1i ne as:

is ~ust

now be computed from one point on

IS=

exp ~J-1 4)

(~
Example - 1N914
,

The I-V data assembled for determination of the dc parameter's are listed in table 11-2. A plot of the~c data on a semi log plot produces figure 11-22. Region 1 appears to be the nonidea1 region, reg~on 2 is the.highinjettion'region, and region 3 is the ohmic region .

.!
. I

I .I
;.
,','

I I-30,

rABLE 11-2.
10

rlEASURED I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF

1N01 L~

Vo
wA
0.304 volts 0.373 0.116 0.481 0.521 0.585 0.628 0.694 0.74? 0.843 0.902 0.929 0.999 1. 13 1. 16 1. 27 1. 33 1.36

4 10 40 100 400 1 rnA 4 10 40 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

II-31

.\

Ar-------,------,r------.r------,-,r----.~~---T------~

10 nA

E
0.

I "\

leo

l).

I .i

1.'1

11-32

-,'

'

Choosing 10 ~A and I rnA as reprEsertative of the nonideal line segme~t yields:

M= (0.628 V - fl,~ V) V l:'n (I mAiT~ 178

,0.0259

= .

A new value of IS must now be computed as:

exp
4.

.(0.0259)(1. 78) -

= 1.21

x 10- 9 amperes'

HifC Injection fffects a. Descriptio~,

lightly dop~d sid~ of the junction. This leads to the buildup of a ' retarding potential and is manifested as a change in the I-V characteristic. High, inj~ction may he modeled as a modification Lo t~e diod~ equation.
b.

carrier~ become approximately equal to the carrier concentration of the

As the current through a diode increases, the injected

Ad ... ant'!!Le s

Modeling of diode characteristics is permitted over an even larger ~umber of current decades than is possible with th~ nonideal di ode morle J,.
c.

f.aut io~

Additional reiiance on experimental data is required. Addilional parameterizatior. eff~rt is also needed. d. Characteristics Addition o'f .the high, inject'ion moditicdti~ns to the diode will pro~uce th~ characteristic shown in figur~ 11-23.

II-i3

-----

;_.

HIGf !N,JECTION R[GIOli

NON iDEAL REGHnt

Figure 11-23. e.

Inclusion of High Injection

Oefining Equation

! ,

Parametpr i zat i on 1) Opfinition Th~ parameter ,$ models the deviation from the ideal diode I-V characteristic due to high injection. High injection effects are s~metimes difficult to observ~ and may be obscured by the effe(ts of ohmic resistJnce. 2) Typical Value A typical vllue of is 10- 6. 3) Measurement f. log(lO) ve',us Vo \s plotted over a wide rclllge of' diJde current values. Hig~ ~njection OCCJrs at the p~int where 10 ~hange5 from being proportional.\) exp (qVo/MKr) to approxilnately proportional to rxp (qV o/2MKT). The ~arameter ~ describes the high current asymptote of the 10q(I O) ver~u~ Vo yr~ph as:

II -34 .
j', ,

--. . . . . .,,.u

exp [

qVOClligh level . 2 MKT

>] .

Choosing iHl operating point in hiqh injection will yield an IO(high I~vel) anrl d VO(hiqh level). 4) lxdinple - IN914 To determine if high injection or bulk resistance effect" ,KCOUllt fur the slope of line 2. the two constants will 'be detel'milled. If injPction t'ffect~ pl'obdbly account for line 2. eJch 1 ine,

~Iope 2 (fjqul'E~

11-22> is apPl'oximately aV I2MKT, then

D Choosing two points from

hi~lh

slone I

7.

'In 1 rnA - ~ n 1 ~ = 21.3 0.628 V - 0.3U4 V

slope 2
~I.:~

II. 7
::: 1.82

slupe 2

which is close enollqh to 2 to justify the assumption that above 0.78 V, hiqh inje~tion effects occur. ~ Cdn now be calculated.
9 1.21 x 1080 rnA :: ---:~. _ __ A til .=

. [ 0.902 V ] exp 2( 1. 78)(-0. 0259 V)

,2. 68 x

10- 4

5.

Ohmic Effects' a .. O""2P'iption

At thphiqhest injPcti'on levels,the ohmic pl'opel'ties of the sf'miconductClI' rnatf'rial may contl'ihute signif'icilntly ,to the I:-V chal'actel'isLics of the diode.

Thi~, I'esistive tel'm could theol'eticillly be

I 1-35

,
I.

.' I

calculated from knowledge of the material resistivity. the devic~ arpa, and the width of the $emiconductor material between the junction and the ohmic contact as:
R=

fi.
A

However, the resistive term may be more easily and r~liablv calculated from the I-V characte~istic if appropriate caToe is tdken i i i ,.i<,tinq~Ji~-h ing ohmic and high injection effects. b. Advantages The additioil of bulk re~istan~f1 yields t.he most conlplf'tE' and accurate, model over' ~ll regions of forward biased diode Op~:'dt if I .. c. Caut ions Requires an additional electrical element and acces~ to experimental data to determine value. d. Characteri st ics Bulk resistance is modeled by inclusion of a discrete series resistor-as shown by figure 11-24.

00

--+-'-18 " vo /

~B

V\A.,.---oOo

Figure 11-24 .. Modeling Bulk ResistahceInclusion of bulk resistance to the complete nonideal !iiode model will yiellj the characteristic of figure II-25.

LJ

i
,

11-36
-,

OHMIC REGION HIGH IrIJECTltlrI, REGrurl

---NON IDEAL REGION

vo
Figure 11-25. e. Inclusion of Bulk Resistance
(Ra)

Pararr,eterization
1)

Definition
.

2)

RB is the series ohmic resistance of the diode. Typical Va I ue A typical value for RB is ohm.
~easurement

3)

RB may be determined from two p6ints in.the ohmic region of the ~iode as:
- ,~XMKT IqT~:enn2/I 1)

12
where:

11

X = I, if the diode is not in high injection X = 2, if the diode is in high i nj~ct io,;

II -37
~

.,

f. are:

Examples - lN9l4 The two points in the ohmic region chosen fer analysis

1. 13 V 1. 27 1. 27 V - 1. 13 V)

300 mA 500

RB g.

0.464 ohms

Computer Example The simulated I-V charact~ristic of ~he lN9l4 diode model was produced to allow comparison with experimental data. The simulated 'test circuit applied is i 1illstrated i,n figure 11-26. Nonideal, high injection, and ohmic effects were included in the model.
A

Amp

t
Figure 11-26: Wide Current Range Model Te5t Circuit The input listing for this run 1s shown 'in 'fig,ure '11-27. The results of this' run were plotted in fig~re 11-28. Satisfactory simulation results w~re obtain~d o~er 5 decades of curren~.

11-38
i

,
I

(
~

l'Hl::i I'.4GE: IS Hl!;:j! ~UALI" PRlOn~ rR~ ..'OJr 'i 'iooIIUU..:iH~ 1'0 LlDC
,

-, C ~ P T .. t IItl.) ....... ~l'40LAT:u~ r>~OJ"'A'4 AI ~ ~ (h.Ct 001: Af>lI~ .. _A 'J~A I J~v - "AF"'I ~M \lt~~ln~ C:)L ... ::1.'" ~II:J Oc/"3/7'i U.:JI.CI.

:,-H A LhTI/.l, UF lh~~ FtlllJ~t':> t,lI'iUUF lu 1"1h ::>l,:J~L't' A CAWI) Cll'JTAII/I~\:.l 1"1~ ".)UU "!)O:U>4t.>4T" J~ TN~ I ..... JT

\I~~';.llH
A,

nu

r'1t Fr"(~r CA ../fj

OF

~C!:"'T.-I!:

:O'4PuTt~

T 1 loll:
C">A

ft,j'~"J.\jl>

t>'"

Ic)

:':'1..;", "''111::,1 j':ll :;:.C. O. ) u U ~:.C. [J J IJ !J ..,:.L.

'40JtL Of-,C-<I"'TI0\j
'40)tL
~~

111/'11 ..
.) 10

11-11

:'L~"~~JTS

1- "'I "

:>

~r.l-">:I"'.-.j

.. t

..I0.1-?=AI (1.t'lt-~"(f :.I-c=l.f-l'> :HC'uIT \Jt';.l"PJTl')\j

:L:Mt"'T~

'j.t'l~"'''''\IJ')-1

)/(i

C.t>l1t- .. <>t ....

(t!I.t>~/t!O\lJU))

)l.t,-C':"lItl~_l 1'11'-"" )'If. ... C-A=J;\ ... l~1 ITI":)

T I ~JI\;<' r Ai Lt.' 1 O.tJtl.l JlITI-'UT':>

J~il~.PLIlT
.(1/
I

:'u'~C

J'>I,d

'II

C () 'II T h lJ;, ....

::> T J'"

T l""t

=1

:.'0

"AXI~U~

P~I~T .unl~I~:lu~

~(\I''''''J

n ....

T I"~
Cj~

AT

..... '
IJ

T : "< <! 1 "" J ~ IJ ~,'

':

'J. J

IJ"I

u~

.,~

r '. ,~,

:J ..

~;,:._

::':.L.
:' t. ('

)(,,)
'oJ

::>:. L

Figure 11-27.

Diode Forward Characteristic Test Circuit

H-39

-1

x x

x. x.

l(

x
x

x -

-3

Experimental Data Computer Slmulation

. o

-4
x
x

-5

'.
x

.1

.3

.5

.7
VD,v olts

1.9

1.1

1.3

figure 11-28.

Forward Characteristics 11-40

..

".

.
'.

":,

6.

Depletion Region Capacitance a. Description

The existence of a Llepletion region in the vici.lity of the metalurgical junctfon of the diode gives rise to an effective parallel plate tapacitance. This capacitance is usually refer~ed to as the junction capacitance. Increasing the reverse bias across the junction has the eff.ect of providing a greater separation between the "plates:' of the capacitor and l~wering the capacitance. This phenomena is modeled as a voltage v~riable capacitance in parallel with the dioqe current ~enerator. b. Advantages The addition of the depletion (or transition) capacito~ will 'improve the mod~l accuracy in any dnalysis where the transient ,characteristics are important. As no~ed earlier, many codes require a c~pacitive element in paral i~l with the d~cde current generator in order. to make the voltage across, the diode a state variable. A small constant capacitance will satisfy this requirement, but a voltage variable capacitance requires no additional elements and very little additional mathe;' , matical co~plexitY. c. Cautions Time-consuming capacitance mea'surements m'Jst be made with a capacitance bridge to develop the capacitance models. d. Characteristics The diode topology required for the addition of depletion capacitance is given in figure II-29.

. 'Figure II-29.

C T Diode Topology for Inclusion of Depletion Capacitance

-'
,

~ .....

.' .
,

11-41

",

A typical plot of depletion capacitance a,s a function of diode bias is shown in figure 11-3P,

C ... I

REVERSE BIAS

FORI'IARD BIIi'S
+'1

'n

Figure II-3D. e. Defining Equad on C T= (1 _ f. C TO

Capacitance Versus Bias

..
m

V~)

Parameter list

of depletion capacitance -_Jro-= the value, of the diode junction capacitance at VD = 0 ~ = th~ junctinn barrier potential .m = the junction capacitance gradient factor g. Parameterization (C ' ~, m) TO 1) Definition

C T,

= ~a1ue

'/
" I
I

C TO ' ~, and m are the thr pdrameters that describe this junction capacitance d~e to the fixed charge in the junction: depletion region. C TO is the value of C T at Vu= O~ ~ is the bui'lt-in barrier potential, and m is the capacitance gradient factor.

11-42

'., r "

2)

Typical Value

is typically on the order of 0.3 pF/mi1 2 of junction area. The barrier potential ~ is usually about b.~ V. The constant m will usually be between 0.333 (graded junction) and 0.5 (step junction) but may be much less for gold doped junctions. 3) Measurement

eTO

The junction capacitance can be obtained as a function of'voltag~ by means of a bridge such as the Boonton model 75 or the Hewlett-Packard 4271. A method of reducing the data by graphical techniques is to make an in~tial guess for ~ and then plot the resultant value of C T as a function of (~ '- V O) on log-log graph paper~ If a straight line results, the chosen values are assumed to ~e correct. If the line is not straight, a new guess is made for ~ and a new plot is made. If the curve is concave in a downward direction, decrease ~.

Another technique is to p~ot (CT)-l/m as a function 3 2 of VO' Plotting l/C and l/C are good starting points since a straight line result will establish the junction as linearly graded or abruptly disconti,luoUS, respectively. When a straight line is obtained, ~ is determined by extrapolating the l,ine to the Vo axis: 4) Example - lN914 C-V data obtained in the reverse biased region are shown in table 11-3 . . TABLE II.-'3 .. ,JUNCTION ~APACITANCE VERSUS REVERSE BIAS

C T
1.365 pF '1. 350 1.354 1.342 1.336 1.325
;

Vo 0 volts -0.5 -0.8 -1.0 -1. 5 -2.5

-... .,

t
~

11-43

~.

.. . . . .-".----:o---___ _
~

" , ........._ _ _ _. , . . ._ _ _ _ __

Plotting l/C 2 and l/C 3 as a functi0n of Vo yields the plots shown in f~gures II-31 and 11-32, respedively. The similar CtirVE:<; indicate that the junction grading coefficiellt does not lie between 0.5 dnd 0.333 a~ predicted by simple theory. HO,"Iever, this result is not su~prising since the lN914 is gold doped. To find the grading coefficient, a different graph:cal technique will be applied for exampie purpose~.

The first ~uess for the plot is ~= 0.6 V. Toe resulting 'values for the Plot are shown in t2b1e 1I-4. The resultant plot is illustrated in figure II-33. Since this plot forms a'rea:;onab1y stl',aight line, is, assumed to be 0.6 V and no other values 0f need be trieU. The value of -m is the inverse,slope of th! l~~e p1~tted in figu~e ~I-~1 and is: -m
F,: log 1.3~~ = -0.0181 = log 1.365 6 log 0.6 - lcrJ 3.1
OJ

TABLE II-4. C T 1.365 pF 1.350 1.345 1.342 1.3,36 1. 325 '

ALTERNATE

~APAC~TANCE

UETERMINAflON
\)I-V 0,

0.6 volts 1.1 ;1.4 1,.6 2. 1 3. 1

C TO ca(l be cal~ulated fro~ the capacita,nce formula and a sing12 raw data point as:

il-44
,
"

,','

5.,8
5.7

5.6' ,5.5
M N

, Cl
'>(

5.4

........

5 3 5.2
5. ,

-,'

I,
0

-v 0

. I, ;
,

'1

1I-45

" : 'j
,.
I

4.3

4.2
....

LO C"')

....
0\

l,.

.....
X

4.1

1 4.01
3.9
-1

/
-.8 -.6 -.4 -.2

.2

.4

J--...+
.6.8 '1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.2

2.4

I 2.6

-Vo j/C 3 Versus Vo

Figure 11-32.

t. - ;. ._
./
~:,".

I .
.....
,

//

..

'!

:2<.. ~L

.',

r~

>I

", ,.
c.'
--'

'0
Q)

U ::I

'"

..:\.~

c-

.
)

"0 <lJ
0:::

M M

",

," "

Q)
~

....
~

::I 0\

,n

.0

..,

,"

I J I)

"

11-47
."!

\.f~

~l

..-

1 .,

...

Wttt.sry

,
"

,.t.

, CTa

-1 V = '1.342 pF

[ 1 ~.~-~ V)J

O.OI81

:..: 1.37 ~F,'

The experimental value of C Ta (V J = a V) was 1.365 pF. h. Implementation N'Jtes Direct ir:J~lementation . . f the deplet.ion capdcitance equation will result in a singul~rity if Va =~. To avoid this singularity. ~ typical capacitancp equation wiTl limit the term VD/~ to some valu~ less than unity throucih Jpplication of the AMINI function. ' Limiting the capacit~nce by,this means will haJe little affect on simulation results for the following reasons: ( 1) Di ffus i'pn capac i tance, in the forward reg i on wi 11 domi nate over depletion capacitance. (2) 7. The depl~tion approximation us~d to develo~ the capacitance equation looses its validity as Vo approaches ~. D'iffusion Capacitance Effects Descripti<?!! a.

,When the diod~ is forward biased, excess rrinority c!1drge carriers are in ~ransit throughout the semiccnduct~r material. These carriers c~n be thought of a; a ch~rge storeJ in the volume of semiconductor material and modeled as, a charge stored in a capacitive ele~ent. This capacitance i~'u~ually referred to as the diffusion capacitan~e and ~s pruportional io the di6de current. b. Advantages
F~r transient analysis, the diff~sion ~apacitance is essential' i~ modeling diode stor~ge ti~e. c. Cautions

Parameterization of the diffJs{on capacitance generally requires access to sophisticated pulsed ~easurement facilities or specification sheet d~ta f9( storage ,time.

II-4G

d.

Chdrd(tpY'istics . ---.---.'--~--~-.-~

Ihe topol04Y I'equired tor the modeling eff('cts i-; given in fil]ure 11-34.

of

chay'qe stol'agp

P.

Fi4ure 11-34. Complete Charge Stor3rie Diode Mod~l Dpfining Equation

f.

Parameterization (t I) Definition

cs

. t cs ,the charg~ . storage flctor, is related to the ti,me req'uir'ed tor all char'ges s~orE'd in the spmiconductor voltll'1e to be dissipated. Thi~ const~n~ ~ill be a function of minority ~arrier life' tjme, diffu~ion vplocity, and' other par.(>metprs w~ich dec;cribe chargf:\ storage .. 2) ns.
J~pical

Val'le

A typical value of the char~e c;torage factor is 10 Values from 0.1 ns tb I ~s are common.

11-49

. ' .. _ ......... '+. ____ ....... ,...

3)

Measlll'ement t t s can be found by applicati0n of the expression

where F is the intrinsic diode cutoff fl'equency. Knowin;J li,t' storage time, tOot' fn'quency pal'dl'let.er F (requir'ed in the pre,,;olls equJticor) is calculated from:
I:'

r,

:::

( I + IF/IR)

271 "s

whel'e:
IF = the diode i orward current JR ::: the diode reverse current ts = the diode storage time

Specificatiori sheet~ often contain the necessary inro~mdtion to calc!l1ate F. 'A test configuration sj,j>iJ~r to the one 'shown in figure 11-35 can be used tCl obtain diode storage ~ime eX,nerimt'ntaJly. The power supplY'is adjusted tu obtain the desired forward test current. The pulse generator is then adjust~d ~o obtain the desired revt'rse recovery .:urrent. The storage time is the time from the beginning of the rev~rse current tr~nsition to the ~jme when the reverse '. current begins to decay toward its dc value. An example of a typical measurement waveform is shown ~n figur~ 11-36. 4) Examp:e - IN914
.. , , I

The rev(>rse recovery time information given by ll:matrorr (figure 11-4) is in a for~ that can be applied directly. Assuming that the rever'se recovery time is approximately equal to storage time,

i'

11-50
,

t,

:w

AMmiFR

-1,.,

r-NV'
1 1
b~
k~l

1
oV

~-

39 f-LF

lJFigure 11-35.

r-A""-f~
+

I-

.47 f-LF

OUT
50 u

scorE

TO SArfP' rNG

-Diode Storage Time Test Cir'cuit

- -

t
I

S TORAGl TWE+

~--_/ o
lODE CURRENT

-----..:.....J!

11__ ". ___---...If

SIGNAL VOl.TAGE
Figurf' 11-36.
t)iode Storage Time ,Ilavefonn

II -51

. . L ~~--'~.-----:-;--..:.-~---. -~ ~~.
.
-

F - ~ n (1 + 10 [,All 0 inA1
-

~I\

\.8 n<;)

= 1.38

lC.

10

Ilt~rtz

'

tcs can now be tound as' tcs :.

--~ :::
2n' (1..lB
lC.

1.15

lC.

1)-8

seconds

10

Hz)'

Compute!' hamples To verify the charge storage f~aturps of the 'diode model, a simulated sto'rc'ge time cit-cuit w~s encoded The d:ode frequency pa!'amIter May be comouted f,'om thp simulat~d storage time. ,Th~s fr~qu~ncy parametpr may be compared to thp frequpncy paraffieter us~d to d~velop the mode' . ThestO!'age tin,, test circuit was simulated by use of the SPT~E computer code. T~e storage time test circuit is illustrated in fi9ure 11-37. The input'listing f(1~ this run is giver1 i,n fi~iure 11-38. The test circuit out.putis listed in figure '11-39. The output par~mpter, is the voltage at node 6 which is designated by asterisks. 'This vo~tage ii acro~s 50 ohms; therefore, the d~ode curr~nt i; known.

g.

..

Rl

3
~,,,

2...-_1VVv--......--..... --""l,~~
0'" (

..

Vl

4
,l~Cl14

In
V2

o
Figure,II-37. Diode Storage Time lest Circuit

4'

_~itO.

u21-;!,./7';'

2000IH~"O

::..;.J

I~

E.

~,....::>

i ~ h -) t. ;)

7.., 1

~w_~OOO~

Ij.U~.;~.2~D"~

-Lt:'EL ::> DIODE

_qA~~E"4T

r.::c,f

I~PlJfLISTI\jG

a"""::"'AT0 k = -::

~7.II~O

0:(, l

_ .OOOOOOO.~.OO.~OOOO~OO.OOO~"OOitO~O"O.OO>"OOOOOWD"O"OOoO ...... OOOJODDOOOO ..

---I

:(1
~::>

U"I
(.oJ

n
~4

:1 :2 vI

2 3 10<) 4 I.e 6 0 50. 1 .:; II< 5-:. .. 39E-I) 3 0 .41E-b .? a 20.~

IJ.::-~

.;2 1 0 P-.LlO 0

11.f-~

-~2

?O.:-~

-2(1

)IJDE

x
L'lS~1~1:-1
"'=O.~ldl)

.~1DEL

~~=1.46~ ~=1.7~ fT=l~l~t-d CJO=1.A7E-12 J~=O.b

~ A ~ 1 'I 5 -; 0 .... 5 .1oJ\..OT TPAN '4(7) .1: ",D

"( ~ I

Figure I I -38.

Storage n,ne lest Listing

"

..

,;

Figure

11~39.

S;mulated Storage Tilllp. Waveform

! , i

'

II-54
,

"

The diode forward current, IF' is about:

IF
0.5 V =~ = 10

mA

The diode transient reverse cur: pnt, Iq , is about:

'R =

~O~2V

= 10 mA

Thp storage time cap bF.? seen to be about 8 ns.

F, can now be :alcula~ed as:

lhe freque~cy parameter,

F =
F

en~ .~9 mA/lO mA) ~3 ns)

13.8 MHz

3150

The experlmental frequency parameter used to devlop the diode model is 13.8 MHz. 8. r'hotocurrent Effects a. Description

A P-N diode junction exposed to a pulse of ionizingradiation ,:"ill produce a photocurrent due to the interaction, between ~he junction and'tl1~ hole-electIon pairs produced by_thl!_Ndiation. The. amplitude of the phoi0cLrrent isproportio~al to th~ dose rate of the radiation eXDosure and t6 the volume of the semiconductor contributing hole-electron ~airs' to the conduction process., A cohvenient ,unit of ionizing radiation is th~ rad. One rad deposits 100 ergs of energ} in 1 g'ram of the irradiated material. ' In 13 silicon, 1 rad produces 4 x 10 hJle-electron pairs/cm 3 ThlS constant r is the generation rat~ for silicon. T.he diode photocurr-ent consists of two components. rhe prompt Co~ponent consists of elect~on-hole pairs generated within the dcpleti~n volL.ne at the metallurgical junction. Carri'!rs produced in

II-S5
.1

this volume Jre immediately swept (U~ by the high electric field which 'exists in this region. None4uilibrium minority carriprs produced in the qua~in~utlal region bordel'ing the depletion region may be swept across ~he junction it the Ldlriers can reach the depletion reJion edge before recolT'bining. The average distance minority c.]rr.iers travel before recombination is called the diffusion length. The delayed ph~tocurre~t component will consist of generated minority carriers produced within one 0iffl..,ion length of the depletion regiu.l edge.' A time delay occurs due to the finite tin1e required for the mino,'ity carriers to reach the depletion region. A complication arises in that the beha~ior of minority c~rrier electrons differs ~rom minority carrip~ holes~ The photocurrent pxpressions . presented make the simplifying assumption th~t only one type , . of minority carrler dominates the photoresponse. ' The physical p.'irameters r~quired to predict r.hoto'::Ill't~llt are best deter'mined from knowledge of the device material and geomet~y. Since such infor~ation is not normally available, methods for esti~ating phys i cal parameter s from termi 'la 1 measurements are gi ven. Such tech, niques mu-;t be regur'ded as only "h~st guesses" to be rr.ade in the absence
~

of

of information, b. Ad'.antages E\Jluationof the photocurrent expressions allows the detailed predictioll of photoresponse for cO,mplex electronic circuits, Experiment~~.photocurrent inclusion allo~s a qui~k and simpl~ method of

oth~r sou~ces

transient,response analysis. c, Ca'!tions ---For dose rates greater than 1 x 109 rad (Si)i;ec; photocUI"ent amplitudes do not necessarily scale linearly with increasi!1q c1o<:e r~e. Theretore, experimental data are usually ne,cessary to accurateiy .'model photo response in this 'reCJion. Also, the diffusion component of' phot'ocurrellt' is hi~hly'depende"nt on minority carner lifetirre. Since lifetime i~ difficult to determine, purely theoretical predictions of' photocurrent amplitude and decay times ar~ rot 'reliable at any dose rate .

...

'

PU4h

d.

Chalacteri~tics

The placement uf 'the pholocurl'ent generator in the diode model is illustratec in figure 11-40.
V

lpp Figure 11-40. e, sidered: (1) P,iecewise linpar tahle describing photocurrent from experimental data. Tllis method has the advantage of 'accuracy and ease of im'plementation. The main disadvantage is the lack of flexibility. Wirth and Rogers (ref.' li-2) have performed an eV'cl'luation of photocur~enl ior a r~ctangular pulse widl~ with the following res-ul t. Phctocurrent Inclusive Diode

Defi~~ations

Four descriptions of the photocurrent gene?ator are con-

(2)
,/

'';

.,

Jr..

1\,57
);
'"

~,

:-

, ",

(3)

For nonrectanqular radiation puls~s, the photocurrent can be predicted mOre ~ccurately if a convolution integral is used to relate the time dependent rate of ~adiation exposure to the photocurrent pro~uction.

[ W PPyp

= Cyp

('~) +

yp

Fr

It
o

exp(-A) A- 1/2 y(t-A)dAl

t ,

J
,
'

(4)

Examination of the plots of the Wirth and Rogers equation revec"l s that the photocurrent waveshapes can often be estimated as a double exponential. This expression is:

JP

= I pp

(I
exp
'

-AMAXl [(t-t02) -tF

,0]

I I
-exp

-A MAX1 [(t-tol),oJ
t'R

I)

f.

Parameter List the diode photocurrent Ipp = W = effective depletion region width , L diffusion length t .minority carri~r lifetime yet) = , time dependent radiation pulse yp = peak value ot radiation pu~se c = 'an 'empirically determined,scalin~ factor material ~ndgeometric consta~ts g = gene rat i of'! rate ins il i cori ' :=' radiation pulse width tp , U(t) = unit step radiation pulse termination time t02 = time constant ,for waveform fa~ ling edge, tF = radiation pulse.init~ation time tOl = 't R = time constant for waveform rising edge

reflecti~g

'A
t

= =

dummy variable for integration time

11-53

":--

.l!....

-<',

.',

. . . ~.

:.\...

..

"',.

iI

-".

.;

Parameterization 1) W a) Oefi nit i en W is the width of the depletion region at the metallurgical ,junction. The value of W i'5 voltage dependent, but a constant approximation may be used. b) Typical Value A typical value for W isl x 10- 4 em. c) Measurement Wcan be estimated from the values of the breakdown of the junction. By makinq the assumption that the junction is abrupt and ~lar.ar, Wat the breakdown voltage may be estimated as:

g.

VBO ".-~-) -"""""""3/2

q ( 2.72 x 10 12

2 ES VBO

'

The permittivity of,the ~aterial (1.04 x 10- 12 ?/cm for silicon)

The depletion width at zero bias can now be calculated as:

o
Tile
d~~pletion

VBD . ( VBO)m, 1 -til

W'

,width at any bias can now be estimated as:

L~. _ _
l .
~ ~'a:L"

i'

II-59
.
. '

st'

trri*-'1ii?1:i1i~ ;-;',-,6 rnt 1 trf"z' fTjjffSSl'W' <!d ".'

, , ,.
~

.
"

d) is 150 volts.

,Example - lN914

The'breakdown voltage of the lN914 being ~odeled The width of thp dppletion region at this bias is:

wW=

[0.6
,1

2 (1.04 x 10- 12 F/cm) (150 V) , '-3/2 19 x 10- C)(15012.72 . 10 12 )

-4

"

8.94 x 10

cm at VB~ -4

' W

= o

8.94 x 10- 4 cm [_ (-150)J o. 0181

0.6

= 8.09

x 10

cm

2)

a)

Defi nit i on

t is the lifetime,of the predominant minority carrier produced by ionizing radiation. b) Typical Value

of 0.1 ns to 1

~s

A typical value of is common. c) Measurement

is 10 nanoseconds.

A range

An" approximation "for factor, t cs ' discussed ~arljer.~ d) Example - lN914 '

,is the charge storage

, The value of tcs obtained for the lN914 from, S data sheets was 1. 15 ~ 10- seconds. Therefore,: the estimate of t is 1.15 x 10- 8 seconds.

11-60

"

'--"-15$"1""",
'ibM
lUt~Mt ,"_, W'itptnrtftt2,

crttt. "'11(1 " t t j

.,

I' 'eft', b' t et<;r::r'?;'t~' ",fit 'f*td~

3)

a)

Definition
.
"

L is the diffusion length of the predominant minority carrier. It is the averape distance a carrier will d;ffuse before recombining. b)
Typ lea 1 Va lue

A typical value for L is l~ ~m. The maximum value of L is of th~ ordrr of 1 cm in unrloped silicon. Minimum values are less than 1 ~m. c)
L ..

Measurement L can be deter~ined from the expression

..[0;-

where 0 is the carrier diffusion cons tart. At r'oom temperat'Jre, the electron diffusion c.onstant varies fromapproxitl1at~ly 30 cm 2/sec to 35 ~m2/sec. depending on the doping level. The corresponding hole diffusion constants are 12 and 11. Because the variations of 0 and 0 are small n P in the range of int~rest, they m~y be chosen as constants. If it is not known w/;ether elpctrons or holes are the predomir:'lant minority car"ier, several facts may help: (1) The substrate material into which the 'diffusion was made generally determines the pr~d~minant minority carri~r. The dominant carriers will be el~ctrons if the substrate is P-type, or holes if N-type. planar process diodes are g,e,nerally produced using N-tyP~ substrates. d)
~xamp'le - lN914,

(2)

'Si nce no detai l~ 'about the lN914 substrate di'e readily available, an N-type substrate will be asSumed. A diffusion 2 cOllstant of 12 cm /sec will be chosen. L can now be solvpd for as:

II-61
'3')(1 t

,1, o~

)-

'1

tit'idfr? ...

: Wif

e rre n

.=

7 3

' ,

1 ,-4 ,'J

CI~

4)

Definition C is an ernpirical:y detrrmirt'd (on,:,t.i'lnt which scales the value of pred(cted photocurrE.'nt to corrl'spond to Jct::,ll obspr'ved levels. b) Typici'll Value The th~oretical value uf C is 6.46 x 10- 6 timE'S the area (cm 2 ) of the diode. c) Meas:Jrement If radiation data are not available,

a)

If radiation data are available,

c = Ipp (steady state)

(W
+

L) d)

y (steady
Exam~le

state)

- IN914 Experiml!ntal photocurrent data from measu,'ements tor a IN914 are shown in tJble 11-5.

TABLe:

ll-~

M[ASLJR~D

PHOIOCURRENTS fOr.

!N914 '

J
i.

~
100 100 80 120 100 100 W at -60 V is:

Vo

0:

-60 V

1h x 10"

1.59 x 10" 1. P, 7 x 10" . 2. OJ X 1011 2.53'( 1VII 2.50 x 1011

mA mA mA rnA rnA rnA

W ~ 8.09 x 10

- 4[

( - 60 V 0 . 0181 1 - ~~J

)1

w= 8.79
Applying
th~

x 10- 4 em

approximation

C ::. _I...t:pL-r__
'i (W + L)

yields the results shown in table 11-6.

TABLE 11-6.
'1
1. Hi x 10"

DETERMINATION OF C
C
6'. QO

1.59 x 1O~I l.l;7 x 10," 2.03 X 1011

2.53 x 10"

5 OJ x
3.83 4.73 3. 16 3.20
x

2.50

l(

10"

)( )( 1O~ 10

10~ 10 10- 10 10- 10 10- 10 10- 10

'1 1-63

.......,jlll&l,_

. . .w,.,...........-...-.;.. ....... -_ _ _ _ rt ..... ,.;.

_ _""'i<iI' ._-..._.............. _, ..... .1 ...

~..,....

_____ ...

_..,-a, -..v._.......- ....+.__ ....._.~".... L.~

tllle.

Mit .; " ........

!:,tIIoo.ioI. b ...

;,~lIIitl.iili= ... .

The

theor~t

ical value for Cis:

C .- (1. 6 x 10-19 C)( 4 x 10 13 /Tad)(1. 29 x 10- 4 cm)

C = 8.26 x 10- 10

5)

t 02 '

T F'

to l'

TR

Definition t01 and 'T R are, respectively, the rJdiation pulse initiation time and the time constant for the rising eG~e of the ph~tocurrent. Simi1a~ly. t02 and TF are the pulse termination time and the time constant for the rallingedge. b) Measuremrnt of the
phc~ocurrent

a)

t 02 ' TF, t Ol ' dnd TR c~n b~ found by waveform as illustrated by figure II-41.

examin~tion

, 'pp

I I

'" 4

IF
l'

t01 t 02 '

"'" 4
r

~ 1i.Jur~

11-41.

Photocurrent Waveform'

11-64 J,
I' " t ,

','

fb'..~.f;,,,, ~~

The rise- and falltime constants may be estimated by rec~lling that an exponential reaches 98 percent of the steady state value In four time constants. h. Implementation Notes The error function may be approximated by using the following expanSion of erf.
,
'

where: El = 0.27839'4
B2

= 0.2')~388

B3 ,= 0.000973 - B4 = 0.078108

error < 2.5 x 10 -4

A subroutine which implements the convolutio'n integ:-al photocurrent so 1ut i on is very useflJ 1 ,for photocu~rent predi t i o!'Ie;

(ref. 11-3), sho~n in fig~re 11-42, may be sed to compute a photocurrent' waveform for i'nput into a circuit analysis code as'a table.
ppc

Subrout~ne

, i.

Computer Example

The PPC subroutine -was applied to predict t photoresponse of a diode exposed to a peak dos~ rJte of 1.16 x lOlO,rad (~i)/sec (e'Stimated by dosimetry). The test was made C?t lero volts ias and the ionizing wavef~rm was estim&ted to be as in figure 11-43.

11-65
-I

'I

....

1<4,.

":!

\i'

-'. i

..... , . ') I
......,,"

0,)

....

1,' ."

i ...... ,' ( ; ,

...'

..

... l

of.

IIl~ U ........ f ,...

f'

t 1',4 l

,.. l t I

, .....,

:'~

I,:; .. ,

('.~"4

-{t.)I.,,! L'~

I' ,.,',

r .... "

=;.",'
f ,

j
~M
~
>of

...........

I,
!
~

- ."
I~

( : :.. .. i'
. - r , ...' t
.\ - -

.,

.'.j

) '~.",

f.o. ' ....... I -'J' I ~,

" ,/L'"-lr

l.

,,~ -1 "

.I.....

j.} _

T ... ~ , 1 (~:. ,

~~

.... 8

~ ....

-4

r:
(~ ..

.J

J, tIl"..

1 , .' I - ~ ,

'. :

r I.'
_ ." : iJ

.-_ i, .....
"\.)
~

( ... ~ ... _J ,,- l l! ~I):; ! ~'-' I

(. .. j

.. "
(.)
'II1II
\

r~.,.

'.\

T .

! J "
.1:' '''''\A
'''1'"1

I,

\j' f..... ~ j, ......

.I
'.. _

_..,

.....

f fJ.,._

I 1 ... t
)

{'~ ':J t

:. '.A

,'.'

T ' , ........

r ,.....
T .......

'\J. ".' I

,,'t't

..,
ol.

~
.01

~I

tL.-.~
'......

"'r

~.

; _

t"

.t

c.

'\ : '\"...

T'i
,A JI.

),'lrl'4"

1AT HO/'ll ',~ 1 "'''','i~' It'" 4:, -\ J~lllt/\1 JF T I":~ .. ..- \" IIAl J, lit" I . f l .
t
-of

I :.

,.. LJ

I .... t

vI,;:"

r 1t
r

W '\

l .. I t

I.:

1',.:..
f.-4.

<4

-~A' J.,Jt!1 ,. I ... '. ii~. "'.11"1.., .'"1J""~ VA_,~:.c... "r l ..... ~,' f .... r.", " ........ 4' f i l l , \If '~L" ~""l "J ,. .I;: ....
r'
j"

, -' r . ~ ...
~! ',. .

'"

LJ

r , L

J ...... t '4

")0

r I) 04 t

iJ

f',;

"' , I,: t ,,~.

:z:

... ~

....

:J)

T .', ,.

J~

~.

,I '. ,"-: ':' f )'

.J

.!"'

;"

..... .
'.'

i . I" 1 r) ) f .... "f :. J, -) .I I , t 1\ .. ~: " " ' , .. : J _, ~ ~ ~ ;.: ,.~ J r ",.t H''': ~c' . . I!l . !~t.a.Jf .... ( .... ItJ('JuLlJ .., ... .:'\.) . l-~l:... .. '(.J, "~f !tt"4 l )".. ,.,J.,~,

,'I . :"'.

r.

I'

'\

"/'

la'l--",.~,t 1 .. 11 .... ""Al..#~/(~,'\

~'

I ...... -.. ...

~~f)

'1.1';

~"'.1

f'

J ".

, l .... ~ ...... j.', . "" ): , ., .. \ . . i I ( '>',

(' ,'\ l
dO: l
.. '

.J,

I.

~:

I ' ..

f .... ,1 ,",<1} . "

\J

f .... ! ) ) ,

I ' I

' ,

.J

'j:l !

'II.",
....

'l

1 , ,v.# I fo
'f

I.

r : " , " f': I ' -. - _ ,I

'I,'
of

.. .J I I

11
'.Itt

I:

I. ,
"

~ ! ' '. ..

r.
~"

.-.. .,!

'1 - T "
.\ ,t

I':;, ,'V';

.
I
I '" "'

I I _

,"

.,,1"1 : :.~" 1 ( J I

,,' r \- . I" ,.
tI

~ r ( ":. ~ .J.

f "' J

I' .',

! ".

I )

~ I "
I'

'f

, t'

~:
r I

r':'
I

I J
li
I,.. I ./....
f

f..., ... : ..... ... " , , .. : ' ..

l ' I'. a'.' f

r ; .~
I

II

."

l ", , , '

~ (~

, ' I

11

f f

~ I '," ,

'l

.r, ,

IJ

'j" fI

, .... f"

I"-J

ri:.,ure 11-42.

Subrouti'ne

pre

11-66

--..

~-----4"

4 )( 10' raCl (Si )!<;(>~

, I

:>8

Figl/re 11-43.

Ionizing Waveform

The cOlnputer ,listing for th~ p,'ediction is given in figure' 1144, the results of this pr6gra~ are plotted in figure 11-45. ~ comr--lrison with the actual test; fiyure II-46, shows agreement wittdn 50 percent. The predicted pe~k photocurrent was about 8 mAo the ,.xperimental peak photocurrent (at a current probe response of 5 mV/mA) 'was 11.4 mA, 9, Neutron Effects a. Desc...!:.i.2.t_ion

Displacement damage produced by n(outron irradiation dpst,'oys . the crystalline st:uctu~e ~f the semiconductor altering the elrctri~al behavior of the rr.aterial. "here is a tendency for- the cr)':ot:in~W structure to reo~der itself under the i':1f1uence of 'lime, tempprature. 'and bia~. Henc~, the fl~ence depe~dent el@ctrical ~hdratteristics tend t6 re~over (anneal) toward their preirradiation level ~nder the influence of time and ~emperatlJre. T"is pr.ocess terlds to occur more rapidly at short times after exposure (r~pid anrealing) if current densities are high. The analyst should ,determine if shor~ te~m, post exposure predictions or 10nger te!~ problems are to be considered. The neutron flux is the number of particles per second passing through a sphere of unit cros:s-sectional area, For a normal beam, th~ sp~ere would redvce to p1anar area of unity. Fluence is the

11-67

f ..

-i; ....

. . . <I.

... ,~, 01' I JO ....

(

,,'01'".
\

II-

.t.~ ~
!

...... L

r,) ..

r. ; .... .., ! ~ T... ,.

4. ... ?

o-'w: .. )

' " ...... ""

": 1 I

Ii"

L~",

~ 1,

! "'r - " .... ').'.1 ~~ .. a .. ';'OIij _)

- ..

: : tt

~ ~ :~: ~ :.~ ~. ~ ~ ~ ~

; ;

t 1 j . I .1

~~ 40ft -I 1 ~f. ,1

'0

jJ 10'

1 oJ ~

! . '1

.i

J
,;, .. \.1,'\., ...

11.... ;1: ...

"

' : ...

,';',

.t!-~

t, ; . . . ,,'"

...... I",t
,J :

~,

...

'~ ... r r"l4' .. l

i ..... .... ,

latoT:'~"~

.....

:rJ.., , .. "'~. J. 'r- .. ~) .. p-r,~: I . . . . . . . . : .... I!r .... :''''~;t'' . . : e-:'" 1 . . . . . . ;')~\..0 .. J~1 ~ :...l... ': ' .. '~"'.;:'J'" .~r! ... I: .. ;
l
_'w.

%" ... '1 ' .... r t~''4' :." . :Y' .. ; .... ....

....

~.

J)~Ctf1" ..... rt..lf.i... "~t :~':J""'J'" t.J ... ')! .. ..,r

'loiJ" .. t
T.

r ..... ,. ~. \ ') .:..... , j ' ) . "I ., ( .. , , ........ ~! '" .'4a1.'~J"t. .... r"""" f1 ... t
'''t

'''~l

1'(11

.,".'lv-':) .... t

""'III, ",,_~ ... ~ A ~J"'('!j~ ) " ' ' ' : . ~"E"'_P . . . . . . . . ." . ' .'l.J' :~ I.:'. ' .D~.'.~;""1!' #".dJ"t "'-lW'~;<i.f.f .. al.Jt 0_
,,,,. l ....

.... r

I~."

....... l "
,'.!

,., ..... :

n .. ),. : I.~ r ... r Jt: 1_.,( :)

lor;;'), .. !")

;;,

l"'r ".".~.~.",
p' ' - ' .

t 1_)0#

.....

fCrt.')~.

':

.....

) ... : ... " ... (

"'-J' ,)(, J"""t,.f

~"I',. ),. '~t: . ..... " '( ...... ~.~ I.~ 1; i ... ~I r' J:'i: ... .. :r,~ ., ~ ,!,,", ~: ... !: J" ..... .InI'.,;>~ ......... 0'1' ... t.,.
-." .', '. ; .. r ..
..

.", J' . ,.. . . , .. ' ! l

<""'~"'. ~:.:.
~.
.'1, ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

' w;

"......

. ...

,!.

.. '... "

,~...

:10

t' .... t;.,. "

....

r ",,) ., J\t
,.Wt ... L ..
1J ....

.,~ ... ( l J

...... oJ ...) . . . v.

...

( t ... ...... '..,. "'".j. 1 .... ::~ ,It '.,t "",' ".,. r

1 [, j'" ..... l J . ;,..,T .""

,,,,!

..f . . . . . ~"... ..

............
t .. -,

"4' !l~... j ( ~, ~' ..,f ,..".~ ....... c..t=i

~"

-',,-

:L,'_ .... o.! ... ~~I~~ . ~ t!

-':.,

.... " " ".

1",

..~

'.J "'

.~,

,~,.'

l.,J I ... ,

~~. 'J

'

T ~ ") , ....... ,

';

... - .. , . : ..
,.
~

".,

' .. , .. ! ; .... ~ . '

.... .

' . ' . ,

;'

... :

"
fu r .. , : '

. ' .. \ ! ,

""
I

t..

~ .. ,

.
'ott') ,'" ( ' . I , j , . r.

oJ. , , I "',,. u

... -,''''*
. . .'
f

';

.......

I-

",
,

"' . ' ..,

I..;
''"': 1

1.'; ..
I
I'.
....

(i

.".c.~" ," ... U.'1., , "00'1 ' 1.0.o.'r.tg ...... .

I"", , :. I

1ft

"
,,.
:.

,.,~ .... ~'.':".

" I .. , (. , ~ I ...
I

.f.

.! ". '
<

.., , I ,

t .. , 1 ~.

I f ! ..
......

t."..,; ...

. , ..... 1'.l.I'.~.JJf .. , .........

"'1.

I'
....J

'I!' ."' '"

..... , . '.1;.

'''.).1' ' ... ':1 .. .,. ,Jt .. ,., J-t

Figure 11-44,

Plotocurrent Pred.ictior. Listing

11-68

,;

a. a.

20

30

ra1r.
Figure 11-45.

ns,

60

Predicted Photocurrent

11-69
-

------- --._-- .....

'

time Integral of flux and has units ()f neutl'ons/cm 2. .he amount of damag produced by a neutrun exposure is also a function of the energy spectrum of the neutruns. T~e mo. eling procedures discu~se~ here as~ume that the analyst has been provided with the equivalent neutron fluence in terms of neutrons w;th energies 01 I MeV.
Q

The three major effects of neutron damage ~n semicond~ctOr' dev ices dre;
('l)

Incre~sed density of recvmbinati'on ,enters res~lting in a

decrease in currents.
(2)

~inority

carrier lifetime and increased generation

A carrier removdl Eff~c~ which effectively "counter-do~~i" the semlconductor, resulting in mere !ightl~ doped regions. This in turn CJuses the equilibrium majority carrier concentration to decrease a~d the equi'librium minority c-lrrier concentrCltion to increa::;e.

.!

Mobility decreases due to the incre~sed da~age. The effect of this damagp ~il1 be to in~~eas~ the ~i0de leakage, emissiCln. cO'1stant.~ and bulk resistivity. For tilose diodes having extrpmely low breakrluwn voltages, where the breakdown i~ ~he result of b~n~-to-band tunneling, the, introduction of'a~ditional generatiJn-recombination centers can 'lowe,' the b, . . 'ik(jwn vOltage. Diodes with hi,!t. breakdown vol~ages may exhibitcarriel' rp.moval eff,ects 'Ihich result in resistivity inLreases. Minority carrier lifetime degradation" may result in a d~c~ease in' th~'d{ffusion capacitance of diodes which , , ' originally had long 5tcrage timej. To,~odel these effects. variations may b~ requjr~J in values for IS' RC' CO' and M: b. Advantages
(3)

Inclusicll' of neutron damage effp.cts on mO,del parameters permits the analyst to predict circuit degradation as a result'of neutron exposure c. Cautions
E~perjmental data are the most reliable soul~e of neutron

deqradation information.

However, neutron irradiation facilities are not

II-71
.~.,

I,'

......

'--.,0. " _ _ _ _

.~

available to most,ana1ysts. The eRIC data base (ref. 11-4) provides post exposure characteristics of c;"me device types. It should be used as the second most desirable source of data. Neutron d~gradation theory is generally quite sophisticated. However, some knowledge of preirradiation minority carrier 1if2ti~e (1) is generally required in order to apply the theory. Sinc~ t is difficult t.o determine, the results of theoretical predictions shou1r only be considered approximations. d. Char~cteristics The topology required for the neutron susceptible diode is illustrated in
fi~ure 11-47. A typical pre- and postir:--adiation diode character.istic is

illustrated in figure 11-48. e. Defining Equations For recombination rate"per carrier:

R =R .. k41 o

6 There are no exact values of k. However, typica; values lre 4 x 10- to 6 2 6x '10- 6 cm2/n-s for P-type silicon and 6 x 19- 6 to 9 x 10- cm /n-s for N-type s i1 icon. For impurity concentrat~on: N = N _ . ,dN o 41 (ij dN/ d~ i s th~ cdrri er removal rate and uc;'uall y lfes between 1. 5 and 3.0 ~arri ers/n-cm for P-type s i1 icon Md .1. 0 and 4 carri ers/n-cm for N-type silicon. Ot!.~r re1evant expressions are:
1 _ 1 + 41_
t to

.~

II-72

1 ._--.-_.-

t
-~-4,r'

..

. ,ttI'f!tI,:.

rs .

f ( ..~).

I .~ f ('d

--If-

C T
" f (.~)

r---..,,._--, CD .

Figure'II-47.

Topology for Nr-utron Susceptible Diode

rR[IRRl\rIATION

,
I

- --

CIIMI\CTER I STIC
rOSTIRRADIAT ION
I

I I

CHAR',CTflH ST.I C

It.:.. - --(- - HIGH 1l/{[AKDd~!N VOLTAGI: OIOOrs

, I

'I
ZEN[R
['ro~ES

.. '/

_~,

.",,1

Figure Ii-4B.

Pre- and

Postirr~diation

Diode Characieristics

II-7J

: _ '., ; . .

w. -

<

which is obviously related to thp. lecombination rate, an1

Mobility changes are usually insignificant relative to other effects. 10. Burnout -a. Description A nur.lear event produces large amounts of electromagnetic energy which ,may be coupled to an electronic circuit. The l,a~ge tran, sient voltages and currents produced by the EMP (electromagnetic pulse) , may produce catastrophic'faili1re of semiconductor devices by destructive ~eating of the above device. Junctions usually fail while being pulsed in thp. reverse biased mode due to the higher power dissipations possible. Th'is implies that ,reverse breakdown must be included in the model if an E~P assessment of the circuit is to, be made. Electrical overstress may produce a failure of a forward biased junction. Beca'lse of the lower voltage drops associated with a forwad biased junction, much higher current lcveh are required to fail a forward biased junction as opposed tO,a reverse biased junctlon. Because of the ,high current levels, voltage drops along the bulk ~egions of the diode become import;nt. Forward bias failures can be predicted in a similar manner as ,reverse biased fai lures if the general form of the Wunsch e'xpression is applied. It has been obsi!rved that ttle Wunsch c~nstant for the forward region'is ro~ghly 10 times the Wunsch constant for the reverse region. 'Metallization failures may become important for MOS ;'ntegrated ci rcu; ts and other ci rcui ts whi c~ utili ze n'arrow meta 11 i zat i on due to low power requirements. The failure is due ,to the destt'uctive ohmic, hei:t i ng' of the meta 11 i zat i ~n interconnects. Often, ~he fai 1ure wil i occur at afl oxide step on the Circuit because of thin films whfch form at the step. Metallization failure has bep.n observed after device destruc tion when the j~nction shorts due to heating., If overstress test data
'

11-74

1~,r;r'n"7PJ:t7P'T" 'tr'_~'A~ 't" ~f"~" .... ..'

'-

are not available to indicate the nature of the failure mode of a devi'ce, metallization failure should not be considered a likely OCcurren~e unless MOS or low power integrated circuits are being consideored. Two procedures are estdblished ,for mc:;deling junction burnout. One is based on the average power delivered to a junction and is suitable for rectangular o~erstress pulses. The other proc~dure is based on a thermal analogy model and is suitable for any waveshape. The most straightforward procedure for modeling the failure characteristics is to: ( 1 ) Monitor the current and voltage for the device of i nter:est. (2) Compute an averag~ power. (3) Compare the calculated power to the calculated fail ure threshold given by P = K t- 1/2 w where: P = failure power K w = Jevice damage constant (Wunsch con5tant) t = overstress pulse width The thermal analog circuit allows the prediction of burnout from codes which have no subroutine capaLility. The one dimensional lumped element for heat flow is shown in figure 11-49. Since junction power is the know~ thermal quantity, the electrical analogy of the t'!Pd~ source should be a current source. When the temperature (voltag~) of the analog circuit rises above some failure temperatul'e. a 'simulat2d devic~ fai lure occ~rs. The literature sugge~ts several possible failure temperature,criteria. one of which,; the intrinsic t:nperature, is th~t temperatiJr'! at which the intrinsic carrier concentrat.ion becomes !qual to the semiconductor doping density. b. Adllantagp.s A power monitoring 'suoroutine or ,thermal analo!1 allows the analyst to ~xamine the possibility of device failure.

11-75

r~t1

ent m

tOwrr

at

,m1H,"r'xt'U 1
,

tn
,

~':'.t;~'~'-=~~;-;"'W~:-;i(;:<t;l.rir? d' .
\,
.
~

THElt:iAL - .

ELECTRICAL Current \~lIIp5) Voltage (vo!.ts) Cha:&e (coulomb) Resistance (volts/amp or ohm) Capacitance (co. llomb/ v o lt )

power (energy flow) (~att51

Te=~erature ~C referenced to

roo: temperature) Energy (jou",es) ~eslstance (watts/ C)

Heat C~paclty (joules/C)

11. _ 1

11.2

-.I

-,

1-
T"
.. -

I!.II-i

11.;,

l~

-T

.1

(I

~II-I

1, CIt

J.. Cc

RCA
t.-

I
t

Figure 11-49.

-Or.: Dir,lnsional Lunpe-:' ~lt.:-.I-:f\t

:02.

~-. :.:;1t Flm..

"
~"':"'";"

..

-"

~,~

--'-~~-

~-----.

.------~

c.

Caut ions -.-

Knowledge of the damage constant, K, is required for the device to be analyzed. rOT; the th>!'mal analog <;:ircuit, knowledge of the device failure temperature is needed. Inclusion of a power monitoring subroutine or th>rmal analoy wll I Increa~e the complexity of an analysis. d. rharacteristics A typi~al waveform of a device subjected to a destructive step voltage is illustrated in figure II-50. e. Defining Equations

f.

Parameterization (K ) w Definition I)

Kw is the COf.stant which relates the power requirpd to fail a diode to the time the power is appli~d. 2} Typical Value A typical value of K is O. I watt-spc I/2 . The value .of kw depends on devlc~ area and fabrication details. 3) Medsurement K c~n be det~rminpd by applying rectangular voltage pulSeS to re'Je,rse biased diOdes.' The puise I~tlgth should be va~ied bptween IOu os and IOO~s. The pulse amplitude is gradUully'increased unt i I the device does not meet it.s specifications. K is then calculated as;
K

= IV t,
failure current level failure voltage level f d i lure time

where:

= the V = the t = the

I 1-/7

'-----------------"-- - vD '

~---,t

F.l\ILl'RE rOINT

F1(Jure II-50.

Device Failure Wdveforms

11-78

At least six ~evices should be tested at 3 pulse widths to obtain an average value of Kw' 4) Example - lN914 The Wunsch constant for the lN914 was obtained through

were:

p~blishpd experimental results. The experimental valuC'!s of Kw obtained

7.2 x 10- 2 watt-sec; I.; . 2. 1 x 10- 1 wc1tt-sec~ 9.6 x 10- 2 watt-sec~ Kw
g.

= O. 126

watt-sec) Notes

l~plementation

The average power model for detecting semiconductor ~am?ge is co~tdin~d in the FORTRAN subroutine fBU~N. FBURN is included 1n the computer exampl~ of the following section. h: Computer E~ampl~ As an p~aillple of the, implementation of a power moni~oring subroutir.e. FBURN, t~e lN914 diode model was subjected to 0.3 amp3 r~verse. bias as 'shown in figure II-51. Since the breakdown voltage waF 150 v6lls a,nd the K tor' this test was 0.126 watt~E'c\ the.failure time shculd be:

, t:: [ (0.3 AH,bO V)/0.126

t

watt-sec~] ~

= 7.84

~s

I I

.;

i.

"

" II-79

\
"

100 ,;

o
Figure II-51. aurnout Simulation Circuit The listing f~r this test, includin~ FBURN, is given in figure II-52. lhe failure flag produced by FBURN, is shown.in figure II-53. The failure lime indicated by FB~RN is 7 ~s. 11. Total Dose Effects The ~~cumulated ionizing dose damages semiconductor surfaces. The ionizing radiation producE's positive charge within the oxide at the semiconductor s!Jrface~ The number of surface energy states is increc:ased. T~e total dose, effect on planar dioJes is to produce ~ junction leakage term which may ~e l~rge relative to the .initial leakage but usually le~s than lOa nA. 12. Code Implementation , Circuit analysis computer codes differ i~ nomenclature and details of model formulatinn. The purpose of th'is section is ,to present a table which will allow the analyst to ionvert the modeling handbook ~arameters to a for~ acceptable, to several network analys~s , codes. , .The computer programs cho~en' are coJes which h~ve found m~ch' utility as trois to study ~hp radiat~on response of eie~tronic circuit~ and systems Th~se cudes are CI~CUS ? TRAC, SCEPTRE, NET-?, and SPICE. ' Column one of the conversion toole, tJble 11-7, contains the symbols of model p.~rame~ers as olveloped by th~ mod~lin~ handbook and the units'used to form a consistent set. The following columns list the, equivalent pa,rampter for a computer code., Th'e ,symoology 'an.! preferred units of the code are given. The 1.3St coklmn is a l,ist of ,typiral, conservative p~~amet~r values which may be appli~d in the event of an
.
,

lI-RO
,
"

..:.-.1-__ _

iL

.~.'

> (

AI~ 'uweE

~ ~

..

! ~t 1.)110 ,1"ULAI Iv'" f.'IIO"W .. .!APU"'~ _A~Jl/alJ~Y _ ~AF1 "' ..

V~~~,]O~ LUC ~~/11/1~

~.!
1~.,O

~/lb

'.

~O~
J~

A Lhli,..,. OF J'F I HAlulo/f~ .J"'/J,', 10 I"I~ ,U""l Y A Ca .. o r{l~IAI ~/"'., "UloIl' "lll}~I'04t"I" , '" 1"' ... Ii l I

u,

'''f

vt~!>IUIII
A<;

,,,t

\.If

f '''SI

'i(u'r~E lA~lJ

:O'wulf 1/ , Ii"t
(Pi;

l"'lt~"~u
JM,.,

' : ' '!IP

" .... 1U
"'l,ti"'toInlJ~A"

~t

"'''6." -

l.

U. )UO

:=tt.(
~~(.

U.)OO

~O~I'U~., PU.~Q I~ A JU.CIIJ .. AIllO FL'~S fAI_u~~. oAILu"'t 1<; l)"'I"fU:lY ..... I I-J U,>I~{. Avt~A~.t "o.ru. "Avf AVE~A.;t "O.~. P''>IL FAIlJi<~ .... u.t'l. 'tiUo4'/ V"/~fAIL I.V.A ......... Ju.o All HI~ IU .)(lo,( 11.1" VALUI .. .I~ Uwt~'ll. VAL Jt'>. l.v.A.r4 "Ay ~':f .. IJ I 1 I~I ~ .. " .... A.. J ,I" .. t V~ .. '>l Pl' A"I lIES. v. vUlIA~ I_ Cu~~t .. 1

f l''''CI 10'"

I~I" ~U~I/~J'.'"

~ ill ' .. 1 AU., l .. t '''Avl .'>FAle .1." .It .A.~J

= ....

A."I A"t "I ~l 1

(O~"IA~',> I~

I"'t

'''I'''lloil ":J.tW vt""t., "tel IItlAllfhS"p'.

An b '''If:'t ~ l"t .. IHYI"'" JU"CfI)", A.. n "ULAo</ly 10 Ht tVA, J.IO. 1'1,"1""1" .. )L Wlt'GI.Jlnl'lnJ.)IH ,lJJ.Olut I?,UI ...... UO i'J
'0 I"("IA<'~ ~l!.'t IF .. u .... "ul "OJf~" AVAll.t, ... 1"(HtA'>t A_~ I'1 .. t""IU",,, A"''' ...... .Ill t .JlIAllY. '''J5 .. ,Ifill A.,"J ... ., "'AI I-1l1 fO~ C . . lT.' . '.'.li.T .... "on.I-f!

..

,,,'c.
... z
::'

I.v

~~ ~ t.l

I') , .. t

~AII} o~

",tll'ti,

f.".IN"AldIIW

"'J.~~ Ut~I"'lO

A') =AlllJ><t

10 I .. , raJJ 1~1I1,'.,,' ... A... ){1I.J~.IIU.ll.11J JU IJ III P . l f " ; ' ,.0 'J ;>0 l~iT( .. t.l'.tl."IIIDIJ ,;u III JO I~ I" .... t.'. '''AO '0 .. 0 '"A"'~I! .. I .,.~ I~O A~~ POI""'&f TI"~ OlH .A., AC'ltPTL:L~J . .!loI"OH L~IH''''', UlOEIIOJ O~U:Ill>' "".nlUO>IIO".ITlMt-ll~Or'IOI/II ... A V Ol n~' I I 0 1 , , TI 'H - I tJ " F i l l ' A..... A.:''' .. (-rt.Il . '_1JI f ~1I"'" "'wt II I ~ I Ol OF "/"II .." F If) "u r 0 .. I' '~HU~"'.Gr.rlll 11i0.I,O.TI .. ~.~AV ... 'All Ol'lF'ln, t iU~'" '; CO'" I Utili' ()l')o'HUJ I.'v Ul [J T ICn 'I .. : liE Ill"'" HU~"'Ou' M()}t _ lOt"'''' II" nu' Of ~A~u!. 10 "AV[ O.

""f

,.J >, ...

I'':"

""I .. ,

",. A Il F "'UkN

O.

o.

PI; IN' /00.10 11 Tu","

Figure

I1-~2.

Gurnout Test Listing

11-81

------

C L

~O

TMANSIENT ~AS ~OT STAWTED. OR TIME EJCEED~ VA~ID INTE~V'l F~H P~K/SUAT'TI. ~lDP'IJI a O~ OlClT C101 : H OlOE i 101 ., O. PFAIL .. O. PAvE z O. OlOF I !Ol r O.
t ~URN

RlTulotN JO PHINT lOO STOP 100 FORNATCbC/I.iOC._IJ .-.15.SK FAILJ~E TIM~ 1:-.11.1,SK, I -AvERAGE ~O.t~ z,Ell.l.~A.THRES~OLO fAILU~E PO~EA a-,EI1.31 ZOO FORNATCICA.e~U~NOUT .vOEl IDfNTlrlEH OuT or ~ANGE. 10 .,e.ISI lPO FOHMATCIOK.I~~All~ RE~~TlS ~AOM DAMAGE MO~l~.",IOK, I e~u~ TERNI~Al:D'".l~.'.~ESUll~ Jf DAMAGE ~OOEl ~AY~E US!D _, Z ONLY IN T~E ~UTPJTS ~ECTI0~.-' CIMCUIT OESCRIPTIO~ . ELEMENT:. JIN,O-II:O.l
~BUS.I-ZIOO

= o.

C.Z-Oal.E-I? )EF!NfO PARANETE~S ~eDI:TABLE lCYJPNI

~!.TARl[ ZI~IN[1

JPi.0-2:K~{I.l5E-l.-'E.D'JK.bVJPNI_I.I'~dD.PII

i>F 1:0.0

~IRzAI '" .. IN I CJPN.O.II

~YHI:KZ'AMINICV~P~.O.II

I>T.I:O.O
~KI:0.126

;>Y-0.5
FU~CTlONS

~FRZFRURNI~

TI"E.~A.PF.~lw.PVH.PT.PK.Pi) '

TAttLE 2 0.0.1.[-1.0 TAtilE l -ISZ.-bO.E-l -151.-l0.f-l -"8 -ZOO.f-b

-"'.-IOO.l-~

- .... -50.t-b -"0 .-Z5 .[-6 -IZO,-lO.E-b -IOO.-S.E-et 0.0 OUTPUTS Pf W.PlOT ... PN .... LOTIVJPNI
~UN C(\Ni~OlS

STOP TIMf-IO.t.-ft
~1~INu" ~TEP Sll~:I.~-l~

END

Figure fI-S2.

Rurn~ut

Test Listing (Concluded),

11-82
'.
,

,
.~

'. ,J

'"
C>

'

, ,

,.
,0 Il

'"

...
"
r

" ~

....
!

...I 0

... '" ..

.. '" ... :
0

.... .....
Z

0'1 ttl

Il

~
c
c

c:::: .....
M

:::l

,',

... '"
~

LO
I

Q)

~.
w'
0
~

:!:

,'"

r::ro

::I

.....

I
'I

;'
~

I p

...
!

I
I

.... .... .., .. -"""' .. ... i _"':',": '" ..

';
_''''iUU
~

!:

'"

... ,
;! ..
~

...

,..'

.!

...
=~I~
c.

... ,
;
~

11':83
,
"

incllm~lete

data

s~t.

IoIhen utilizinq a det(;LJlt

ma~n~a~~

~]lue,

a "units" conver-

sion may oe required to give" code. 1,3. a.

a,consistent set of parameters within a

Linvill Lumpd Model ot The Diode lltroduction --.-The Linvlll lumpeo model is tlresenteclin this section to
I;

intrcduce the ,al.alyst to an alLern3tp ao~,:oach to the moJeling procF>~s. The Li nv i 11 1umpe f ~ode I uses e 1eme~L tl'at represent actual oLjs i ca 1
proce~ses

to aescribe the diode. The previous dioJe,modpls trrat only the t~rminal behavior of the device. The Linvill moar! allows srl'latcr insight. if1~o the phy::.ical

rrocec;se" occurrin9 in the diode. to disC'dvantage of the Li:".iiil lumped ,t:lodel ic; the inability to dirpctl.v 0btCiin the values of Lhe Linvill elements. For this reason, Lim.:ll mollE' I i:; a more apP"opriatc tool frr analyses considering the ,effect cf material nr fabrication val'iations on
devi~e

:1

and c!'cuit

~~rforman:~,

The

;nte,act:~~

betwF>en radiation pffects

at the b2sic mat,erial level .:-nd their manifestation in th\! elpctnc.)l , behavi0r'ot the dIode is easilY,simu,latej by themocel. The ~OLOW1.'g presentation contains both electrical effects and radiution effects in the Linvill terminology, The Linvill model providp.s yreat flexibility in 1;lodelir,g 'material variatiuns in the diod~ structure and aemo:1st r atinq the re~ult of tilese variaticns o~ terminal performarc~, For example, diode'" constructed with anepita~ial la}er ca~ have both the charac~erist:~s ~f the eol tax L 1 1ayer anJ the subs t"at~ inc 1uded i nd i v i dua lly b~' the i ncorporation of ~~propriate ~lements in the model, 'llihich may be ut Only th~ NEf-l circuit a~alysis code has linvill ele~ents i1izert dire .. tl'y in the (.)Ostruction of d Linvill' lumped
,

mode 1. The mode I c"nnot be used di r~ct ly in any othel' crde adrfre,sserl in the hdndbook. b.
~usic

Concepts Consider the dicJe shown in

~~e ~chematjc

of

figur~ T[-5~

"

11-85
'"
~

"

,'"

','

JUNCTION

DEPLl T'IJtl
REGION

ANODE

:P!~AXIAL

Lf fER

Figuf! II-54.

Diode

Struc~ure

A slice of material ~X is shown in the sutstrate m~terial. if"J';s slice forms a volume tlXA where A ~s t~e area of the diod'~. A fundamental equation of semiconducvor physics, the conti~uity eqt.:ltioll ' describes the processes occurring within a semico1ductor volume ~s: (1) The flow of minority carriers into the volume. (2) ThL flow of mi~ori:y carrie~s out of the volume. (3) . T~e recombinatio~ of carrierb within t~e volume. ~4) The generation of carriers in the volume. (5) The storage of minority carriers in the volume. The usual procedure is to make the vc1umes approacil zei'O and then cont~~d with the ~~sulting partial differential equaticns. The Linvill model leaVes the volumes finlte. The volumes are usually form~d ,by slicing the device parallel to the junction region so that the 'problem j:; one dimansional .. ThE' accuracy varsus' si'rriplicity trade~off is made i~ determining the thic~ness and rumber of slices. . The Li nvill elements are functions of the ;;Ji nority carri er concentratjons in the region (holes iT N-type, eiect,rons if P-type). Each element represents aport i on of the cent i nlJit" equation. 0 iffusance ~~prespnts the movement of carrie~s when a carr~er graJient is fdrmed. Storance represent~ charge flowing into a volume but not leaving the volume. Combinance represents tf"Je 105s of minority carriers through
. .

11-86

.
.'~

<

---:::::--::---

~ ,,~

.~.' j,

~ ;~

------'....-~*- - .""'~A;.';'.... "

~ .....,j

I'ecor'lbination. tric field.

Driftartcp

repl't>!.>ent~

cal'rier ,netion produced by an elec-

The defining flquat;ons cf the I invill elements are giv,3n ill

rigLJr'e II-55. The Element symbols art> used withollt the p-n s!Jbsrr'ipts when the material typ~ is undefined. lumps. The "slices" of "i semiconductor are n!presehted hy Linvill These lump!= al'e valid l'nly in quasinputral regions; that is,

The currellt flow t~ruugh the Linvill elements depencs only 0.1 the value n,f m'inority carrillr concentratior tit t.he minority carl"fer node as defined in rigure II-55.
II-5G.

wher'c no depletion exists. fi,e Linvill elec,pnts represent the physical processes oCClJrr~ng in the lum~s. A Linvill lump is shown in figure

The junction region n,.jjel is illustrated by figure II-57. The minority carrier concenL'ation~ at the depleti:ln bOl'ndal'ies are defhed as, a function of the volt.::ge across L,e junction and the equilibrium minority carrier concentratiuns IJ 'and Pno' Thp P-N junction pc modlll defines tt,~ boundary conditions for minority carrier concentrations and all dioae ',I' .. : It 's a COlls~q:,ence of the charge at the junction. c. 9'ude Modeling The cho ice ot' the numbel and placement of the lL!mps for a diode is a matter of judgment. O,ly as f~w lumps as are required fo~ correct results to a ~roblem shOuld be used. Some general rules at'e avai lable. Diodes irt wnich one side i~ hlldvily, doped cumpared to the ot Iter 5 i de may be mode I pd by inc I udi ng lumps on on Iy the lightly doped

side. This 'iirr.plificati'on requires the assumption th~t minority carrier inJection inte the heavily dopea side is ins,ignifir.ant. Tn the simplest fo~m only 'one lump ma~ ,be used. This modlll WI n bp adt>quate fo~ only the dc or slow bt!havi~r of the diodp.' ,Two lumps would p"cdl'Le a better simulation of the transient beha.ior. Often thp "slices" of the two lump model are given differ~nt widths. Typical values are LIZ and 3/./2 whe ..,. lis the diffusion length. The tvo' lump model will predirt :I m"re accurate strraye time but ~ill yield significant prrors in predi~ting the ratio of reverse to forward curre~t. ,For better results, more Jumps dre needed.

, I 1-87

IIdN
PaCt)

~ II,..,--_0 Ph{t)

where HdN = the diffusance elemprt

'p

= minority carrier hol~ concpntration

=

current SN

r (t) OOO----t.. ~_ _] _ _ ' -- - - 0 0

where SN = the stClt'ance elellient HeN P{t)

>
It

all
i HrN =

HCN P(t)

where HCN the combinance eleme'nt

ag_,)_'--i.~,----"/1[>

where DN
= the driftance element

F'igure II-55. ' Linvln Lumped Elements for Nand P'

r1ateria~

11-88

.,

.-

.,.

, .......

where H dP
N
=

the diffusance elew~nt minority cJrrier I?lectron conc~ntration

~J(

t)

iSp

'L

'r

.sP

.
0

=S

P dt

cjN

where Sp = the storanc~ element

N(t)

i HCP = '!cp N(t)

I
1

where HCp the combinance ll~nt

1.

where Dp ~ the driftance elrment

linv'ill Lumped Elements fC'r Na,nd P r~aterial (Concluded)

Figure II-55.

11-89

r~Jr,RITY

CARRIER NODE

CHARGE GENERA TI atl

MINORITY CARRIER NODE

Figure-II-56. Linvill Lump

~ =

npo exp KT

gy.
---t

p-TYPEr1ATERIAL

tl- TYPE

r~ATERIAL

p -

Pno exp gy KT
R~Qion

FiQure II-57.

Representation of Junction

11-90

------_._--

I I: !
,
! I I

For the case where neithpr s~de of the ju~~tion is heavily doped, lumps
ar~ required on each side of the junction.

I' i:
I ;,.
i

d.

Inclusion of Radiatlon Efrects

The Linvill lump:, will represent the physical changes induced by radiatic~. I~nizing radiation will produce an additional term for the charge generation current clement whic~ will be:

I I ,i i'

l
~

, where:
e~uilibrium minprity carrier concentration generation rate ~x = the width of the " s lice" .\ = the area of the "s11c(>1

l'
mo go

~
~

= the = the

"

Hc = the value of the combinance element A current generator across the Linvill juncti~n i3 r~quired to model the prompt component. This current generator will have the value: Ip where ments.
',I

= )'q

go 'riA

'is the depletion reglon width. Neutron d~mage will alter the tarrier remo~al effects will alter the e of the L:",dll eleva;ues of

minority concentratibns. The increased number 0 reco~bination ~ites :>roduced by radiat'ion-induced displacement may d astically alter the value of the combinance element. ,And fi~ally, m bility chang~s will affe~t the values of the diffusance and driftanc elements. ltle .radiation sections of this chapter indicate some of t e quantative changes which OCcur to the physical behavior of semicond ctor muterial. The (invil1 alterations of the tinvill el~~ent value must reflect ~hese change:,.

"

11-91

--,~

.---.-.---- - "-----:0- _ _ _

;!' - ;1..

F ('

tr'

Is

To illustrate the implementation of a Linvill diode by a circuit analysis cod~, ~ Linvill model of the lN914 was devEloped by use of estimation t~chniques. This example is illustrated in the next section. E!. Example Li nvi n Gi odE> Morle 1 1) Description The Linvill lumped model '1ses elements th~t rep' ~sent actual physical proce~ses to describe th~ di01e. Neutron, photocurrent, and failure effects may be simulated. 2) ~ntages The Linvill model ~ives greater in~iqht into the nature of' semiconductor devices. 3) Cautiuns The one lump model presentej does not model second order effects. ' Transient behavior is ~ot adequately modeled. The Linvi 11 elements cannot be d~termi ned di rect ly from t~rmi "31 IIk3surements. ' 4) Characteristics The radiation inclusive on~ lump model for the lN9l4 is illustrated in figure II-58.

Figure II-58.

One Lump Model

11-92
",

) U*,

"

t' db

"b'

,",..;"

-"

5)

uefining Equations
:n

= mo

[ex p (~) - IJ
9 AW

1gx 19d
6)

= yq
-

yq g AL

Parameter List m = the minority carrier concentration within the lightly doped region at the boundary of th~ junction regi~~ rna = the equilibrium minority carrier concent~ation within the lightly doped side of the junction q= V= kT= S= the' magnitude ot the electronic c~lrge the voltage applied to the junction region
Boltzmann'~ const~nt

f .I

temperature i~ oK the storJnce element the combinance element the j~nctioll capacitance
~hotocurrent produced by generated carriers in depletion region

= =

photocurrent'produled by carriers generated within one diffusion length of the depletion region edge g = c~rrier generation rate A = junction area W~ depletion width l = diffusion length

11-9:1

.-...'. . . . .
!--~~

~.~

.:

I
I
I

I
i
~.

'i"

7)

Paramet~rizaiion

a)

m o mis the minority carrier concentration within

o

t
I
II

the lightly do~edregiunof a one-sided diode. If the N side is lightly doped, ~o equals P " If the P side of a diode is lightly doped, rno is no equal to npo ~o can be det~rmined a~:

I
I
~

I
where.N L pond;ng equations are: is the doping concentration In till' 1 ;~ht.1y dopeu side.
',(lI'r,s-

r i

2 n. 1 Pno -- Nt)
_

where NO andN are the doping concentrations in the Nand PrE>q;ons, A respectively, and n'. is the intrinsic carrier concentration. 1 , ' . If,the ~oping'profiles are known, Pno and npo can be estimated directly. If no dopLlg information is ava~labTe, then mo can be \!s t i mated fronl measurem~nt.s and used to c,a 1cul ate S, and He' but i ')f(')I'mation 'about which minority' carrier i~'being dealt with will be ~nknown. NL,the doping on theli~ht side of a diode, can be estimated as (one-slded
abr~pt ju~ction):

11-94
..
'~
,'_"i

__ '.~~"J."""""':,,"",,,,,.~- .. ,

__________

~~~

____

~~

______

_________________ __ __ ' - -..........

'~" ~~

--~M~'~'w

.....

mo is

flOW

cal:uJated for silicon at "oom temperature to be:

b)

-1

e. '
Definition

itor which is associated wi~h Cj' is a non J i nea r. va ltage-tjependent capc'lcthe depJ~tion region of a diode. '2 ~'!.J Value on the ol'.der or

C. bias voltage and is 2 J varies with , 0.3 pF /~i J of junct ion area.
] Measurement

tY~i~ally

e. be determined and Character'ized by J can th:, metho:1c;, devp10ped in 'chapter rl.B~6.

c)

He
1 Dodi nit ie

He is the value of the combinanc~ element i1 the one-lump model elemert represents the reccmbination on nnn~qujJjbrium Minority charg~ carriers.

'present~d. T~e comoi~ance

2 ,TYpical Vall!..~

Value:.; of He vary winel)'.

A typical value

,J.

,r.!easllre"'ent

He can be dete)'m i ned from' the re"ers~ ,aturation current of the diode, IS' IS. is first determined using

measurement sche .. developed in chapter I I. B. 3. as; ,

He

can now

~.

t~e

ca Iculated

11-95

..,""--_..

,---_ ..

r
I [
i
"

I,
d) S

gefiilition

I
I

ill

S 1S tre ~alue of the storance element in the aile lump model presented. The stonnce elempnt represents minority charge stor~ge in the neutrdl, lightly doped siae of the diode. TYDical Vallie 2 Val~es of th~ sto~Jnce elempnt may vary wide~y. A typi'c'al value for S is 1 x 10- 24 cm 3 .e.
3

!
!

Measurement.

!
f
I

S can be calculated from tcs values. tcs values can be determinec by the method explained in chapter II.B.7. S can then be calculated fr~~:

I
t

8)

E-.:am~1N'j!4

a)

II'a

Since dopin~ profiles of the lN914 are not readily available, 'mo was, estimatedusir,:} the I'Ieasured breakdown voltag'e and assuming the lN914 :s a wel,l-behaved, one-sided, junction. The reverse bre~kdown volt~g~ ~as the measured Jt a rever~e ~urrent of 10 ~A as 150 vo 1ts. m \.',,'; then calcu a '

m (

\2.72 x l '
b)
~c

G~-\")::m

2.1 x 10

from a calculated value lN9l4 mode!, he is:

tor the lN914 diode can no~ be determin~d IS and mo' Fer the value of IS used in the

, I 1-96

.J

\
~,

'

'.. 1

,
~
< ,
< ,

c)

5
5 is deiprmined from He and tcs as:
.'

s
f.

= (1.15 x 10- 8 sec) (1.41 x 10- 14 ) = 1.62 x

1O-2~ cm.).C

r; ;1

txamule Co~~uter Simul~~ions

I)

2.Nard Cr3rac,teristic of Linvi 11 Ciode

rhe Li:1Vi,~l lN914 diode was exei<cised through its forward chardcteristic to alluw comparison with other thenretical and actual data. Th~ network used to test the linvill diode is illustratedin figure 11-~9. The NET-2 input listing is giveri in fi~ure 11-60. rhe s1 Jnulated characteristic is plotted along with the actual chdracterlstic in fiyure 11-61. < Excellent agreement is obtained.
2)

!!ans ient Response ,of I N914 Mcde 1

The linvill Jiode model was put'through th~ saffie storage time test as W1S the standard diode ~oJel. As expected. the waveform produced was nearly identical. <The NET-2 listing f"r this run is gIven in figure 11-62. The output ,plot ;sgivell in figure 1I-e;3. All storage

tiiTI~ ilarametl?rs (for'P'ar1 current. reverse current. stor'age t:ille) cflmpa"e very (;losely to those of P," standard diode model (figure, 11-:-39).
C. .1 FERENCE5

iI-T.
I 1-2.

Preferred S~r.liconductors and .;omponents From Texas' Instruments. Texas Instr~ment~. 1970 Catalog. Wirth. J. l. i1nd S. C. Rogers. lI'~he Trans'i~nt ~es~onse of Transistors." tHE frdl1sacli')ns ,on NlIclea',.. Science. N$-l i ~ tiovember 1964.

<

11-3.

'AFWl-TR-73-272. March 1974.

Pocock. D. N. et a l

"Simplified Microcircuit Modeling."

11-4.

qcJd1at~on' Effects on Selliconducto'r Serv'ces Harry laDOFi{orl's, HDl-OS-n,.]. Ray 19"'. ~'

DialllO~d

11-\'}
....
','

.~

, .1

0- 1 :".A

LI~VILL

DIODE

(lN9:~)

, .,
: "i

o
to) Forward Characteristic

Hii

I.

lb) Expanded' View of Test Circuit,

"

FiglJrp 11-1)9.

Linvill Diode Tpst Circ:Jit.

:T-9B

...... ... .... ...

... D
... # "
~

10 "'17' .... :0

... 11\

"'0

oDI
.tJ ... .tJ.tJ .tJ.rI
.tJ#

.l)'"

+-I
~Ol

oD""
.0_
.tJ~

.n
II"t

"0
~

"' .... .t'I.tJ ,n

11\.
II\~

.t'I '.b

Q)

IQ)

11\;" 11\-

, "C

o .....

11\0

' . :D #.tJ
#

....
#'"
:"'

.....
>
Co

II\,...J

.#16.1

(J\
.

. ., "" ,., "

"" .tJ 1\.1 1(\

"''''0

"" 1,0

.0 .., ....
.. _ 7

#""0

#NO

"" ~ ,'n

'

C9'1N.,.

IAJ

,n

16.1 ...J
I

Nn-"i
I\I",...J N.c...J

"'O~

:.., .... "

.....
('"j

"
I

-J

"' ...

I -

z:
\0

LU

ex

!\,#-

N,., ..

N ........

1\11\)7

-a-

I\IO...J

-'" nN. ..... Inun " .....

- ... c..W

-II&.

-1 -

# ~:1'

""16.10-7

I-

........

W:D

oD.tJ

' ..n

... 1n0
In
)0.

-.--110 -_ N "" " ~ 16.1' , 0 1\1_ L

L'"

crt""OOcrt_o NO

16.1-000

........... 1'\. "'. oil> It,

c_ Z 0 o( In
~

...JI\I

7 OoDe 00 O:Q. 011\0:-00 .. ,,:,.e 1\1-":'0:

1\'

0"" ..1 ~ .... O~~ o ... c, 0 1\.

",oCE

e)

...... '7'Q.

""

o .Q.~T'" n f . 7 7 " ......

-> o l.n- .....

00-

"'

'0 --Q.Q.I 16.116.1

~

0:

0"'1:-__ o N V Z U N
,

~I

<D O - ' B I n T _ _ '\....J

~,

ee

...

'-'" "'In

Z 16.1

16.1'"

... ..,
1\11\1

Z'

1 " WI:' 7

-~,.,~II\~~~a-O-N,.,~II\.tJ .... Ia-O ................................................

'"

,I
\

".
"

':J' ,
,

I
'--.-~------'-

'. ,~

,----,----.----.----, , , ,
: ,
, ,

1----

.... _

....... - - - - .. - - - - -

, , , , ,
,

, " ,

.... ...
Cl

........ .. ,
"'e:
0(

, , ,
,r

:
,
I I I I I

.. .. ..
.,
~
0
,0 0

"

... ... c: " ...

E~

.,.

. . . ., ! , ctt ... : ...

,n

, , , :

+-'
Cl

to to to
C

,....
+-'
Q)

,
I

I I

E .,..
~

: : , ,
, , ,
I

a.
)(

Q)

LU

"0
or>
..

CU

..... ::I
111

+-'

111

..

"

cr:::

Q)

, ... '

,....
Q)
~

"'-

.,..
C .,..

>

...J

" ,....
_. ___ ~\O_

......

. .;
I

'u,
J!

....

':"
y

...
41 ..... ..,

_---1----.----.----.---- 1---- 1----r

____

.... _ _

____

I I I I I "I(

~ _
~

-.!J -'. 4 IT"-

O'..U1'l4-

'"
<>

>oJ!"

..-,-......

"

. '"

.,

I
"

.... -D
.... #
.... M

.... '" ........

~

CDo

.... ,n

or",
~

.... ""0
-DCD

.... 1\1

~~ ~lI'l

....

..oM
-DI\I
-D~

-D

-D::I

n '" -",1) ,n ....

In ,n .lI'l # lI'lM lI'lt\l lI'l_
-"..0

+-'
VI QJ

.,.
#

.n 0 #a-

t'QJ

.... 'Xl

# ....

E:

n #,.,

#..0

tQJ

.1\1

,., ,,.
-#~

.#-

I-

01 to

MCD
M .... "",t)

+-' VI
I-

.... ,n

.,.
..J

M-# MM MI\I MO 1'\, 'n1'\, .... . 1\1 .c

1'\' '1'

,.,

'" C(
IAJ
-.I

'a-.t

0 .....

c:

01

.....
VI

!"\IX)

-l

'" a:

N
I

1\1#

t\lo~
~C1'

I\I-IAJ

~~~

t-

-CD ...
~""7w
~
~

.. n

." h.

1\1 ~

1'\., 4-

' - -# "'.,.. 1 1 0
_ In II!

"',.,
~

cs.
111:'

., M

-.I'"

.... ...,~OWW~ oD ... -1\1< I \ I - l 11

W
C

'\. 1\1 1\11\1

~

...... ....
IAJ 0

t.J (1\

i_

~'O

aI
0

IAJ

1AJC1'
~..o

.n

"',
0_

N \0
I

cn...,OOIl" ..... t\J 0

lI'l'"

-O~
0"""

~"""',"J'tl . . ,.,,,,,,,,,,

~,OO
0

.oa- .....
0 0 ....... .".

"I."..
~

"""tfII",

III
h. h' h'

::l (1.ZTN .""'7,."~

-'X

...

QJ l:l

n-

o lI'l > -# ~ ~ . '... O'4Z CDt\I"'~""IIl"'''' .... ..J

O~a-.t............ ~

O~_

n .....

O:O~

,... ......... 0

0' ........ "' .....

011."",

CI_~~7 ~,.,.O"'.OOO_O _ _ t\la:.~

"'Nt-

oX

C(

a :.
~CD

(%

o - n.

ON-.lZ",vt\l_t\l"'''_t\l_t\lC(
VI T -

tJ'

.r ar rr u u > >

.J

... ""

.:.

-"'(1. IAJ

h'~

SO

CJ'I ..... .....

a
IAJ

IAJ ....

Z,

'"

1\11'\1 I,
~M

IAJO

,.

-t\lM4"'~""CDC1'O-t\lM.~-D""~C1'O_t\lM."'-D~CDC1'O t\I '" '" '" '" ~ t\.I ' " rU ,.,

.... .... . . . . . . I.... . . . .... .... .... .... '"

11-101

_ _ -- --

.- -

..

--.

.~.

....

_4

...

. ,

~.

,.,

...

...........

...

~_

.. ~ .

,_. _

. _

_ _ .. ~_

,.....
Q)

" S2
Q) ~

0
0

:;
c:

-1
l'J

>,
.0
~

Q)

=-.,
~0...
f::'"

~ '0

'+Q) >

r.
~

~
E

Q)

,"~

toQ)

0'1
I1:l
~

"

'C.

: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
,
~

VI

0 .....

I.P I
Q)
~

<~
LI..

m ....

.,.
"

--- ..

'-,""--'

,- ......

....

-. ----, .... _-. ----. _..... _........

eo

'"
I
I .,

, '"

,-'-, .. .
OW ....
....
~

C:_='~:;
.. J

..J .... ' -

lI'

.
11-102

Fn~"~"~''(.'i
n
'J .,

", ..

it. IN. PitP

J.,

'51

41).> J.L.%

1::~1:Yr.~~di'~~;~

!.

,I

'!

.~'1

E, rt~

~
.~

f:~ :

>.:,: ;1
.~~
~.
.

... J

..
~~

?~3; i...
.
\~.

1
"

.-

'-1
{<'"

:i4

~~'j

lii:;:"(~

',>\
:.~

'.'
,~.

,
)

,
)"

.>:~;

~:

i:.';:~
J

;-'
;,
~"

~r
;:.;

,'.

'I.,.

r
i'

f, t

" ~";:"

"

.1
J

'"1 t'
~

~'':

l
"

~i

( ,

CHAPTER I I I BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS A. INTROOUCTION

Bipolar junction transistor models are the best represented category of modeis and also the most diverse. The three ba~ic transistor modeling approaches considered in this chapter are theEbers-~oll model, Gummel-Poon model, and Linvill lumped model. An "~xpandable model" fonnat is applied in this chapter to allow the analyst to develop the simplest mod~l required for the problem under considerCttion.' The expansions occur in ~our steps: (1) Basic Transistor Modeling (2) The Addition of Ohmic and Charge Storage ~lements (3) Modeling ~f Beta Variations (4) Modeling Higher Order Effects The transistcr models presented in this chapter represent a sutmlat'Y of the ~ssential features of Modeling The Bipolar Transistor by Ian Getreu (reference 1). Uselos interested in more than a c;uperfici"l treatment,of transistor models are referred to this boo~. The user should always be aware of the limitations of the model bein'g used. Transistor models are usually based on describing equations ,'1hich requi re numeroUs simpl ifications and as,sumptions for thei r d,evelopmente If pc~sible', 'attempts should be made to aevelcp a b~sk understanding of thr physical proce~s~s which occur in a transistor. Such an'understi)nding will va~tly simplify the modeling process, Discussions of physical p'henomenon in thi s handbook net.:' not be IJnde rs tood to deve lop a mode 1 , , but are merely i,ntended to clarify the rea~ons formo~el developme,nt. A transistor model win on1ybe as accurate as the parameters which describe it., Judg~nt must be exercised c. n~ernin9 which source o-F parameter infonnation to use. Data sheet information is generally very conservative yet it places bounds on the parameters of a device type. Minimum bet.a information from data sheets will yield a worst case value for neutron hardness assessments but will repres~nt a 'lower bound for
,

,I

111-1

" I

secondary photocurrent production. Measurements *i11 yield accurat,. values for the dpvice being measur~d. b~t will not indicate the ~istri bution of parameters over the whole device type. The problem of choosing parameter values now becomes statistical in nature and may ile treated as such if su~ficient information can be obtained. Radiation effects simulation often requires knowledge of material pl~sical properties. This chapter include~ technique~ for estimating these properties from terminal measurements on transistors. These techniques are often ~ased on far reachiny assumptions anJ should be applied only in the absen~e of better data. Again, a physical understanding of the problem will giv~ the analyst insight into the usefulness of a given estimation technique.

I
I

a.

TRANSISTOR MODELING 1.

Basic Transistor Model a. Description The most widely used basic transistor model was originally proposed by bers and Moll. It is a nonlinear, . large signal dc ~odel whiCh modeis the fundamental current gain properties of transistors. b. ,Advantaqes The basic transistor model may be quickly and easi,y parameterized. Manufacturer specification sheets are often'all that is required to develop useful models. It will perfo~m first crder dc analyses with minimum computer time. c. Cautions The basic tranlistcr mnd~1 simulate~ ~nly first or~er dc effects. Therefore, it cann,ot simulate frequency effects or any of' the s~cond order transistor characteristics covered by latter sections. d. Characteristics Two versions of the bas1c transistor model 'are t,le trar~port ~ersion and the inJection ~ersion. The two are m~thematically ilientical, differing only in the choice of referenc~ currents. The injectj'Jn version is shown, in figure III-I.

I IT -2 .

\
. c

.': ni'Hi'd

. to

1
,1

e
V BC
S + V SE

lro u

E
PNP

Figure III-l.

Injection

'~'~rsion

. rle transport version of the basic tran!iistor macel is shown in figure 111-2. e e
+

Vpe
B

lEe + {)I

Ie .

+
.+

ICC S
~

'~cc

lEe +.~.

IcC

V SE

Icc + {)F

lEe

IS
~'SE

+ Icc
car

. lEe

+
IE

E
NPN

~IE
E
PNP .

Figure 111-2.

Trar"port

Ver~io"

,11.1-3

.' J

, I

H."> ransport version is prefp.rabie for the following I'easons:

(i)

(2)
(3)

reference currents can be completely determined i~ a single quantity, 1S' is known. In practice, transport reFerenC'~ curro:!lIts are linear over many decades on a se~ilog plot. For more complex ~odels, diffusion capacitance is more easily
spec ified.

~oth

AI" example of the transport versioll will be given in this chapter.

t3o'i:.h versions of the basic transistormcdel produce an, Ideal characteristic illust,'ated in figure 111-3.

IC

a.----------- ,IB=41 ,
. . . .,.._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ IS=3}

___- - - - - - - - - - 1 e=2 I

'P----------- IB=I
--~~~~~ar-~~:-~~---~---VCE
4 ( 1+ 1)
1(61+1)

1,

_" "
" "

I B=1 , _ I =.; I
B

Figure 111-3. e.
nefini~9

Model Characteristic

Equations For the injec,tiol1 version: 'exp' (qVSE) -1"

--rr-

I
1
I'

01 .

, I 11-4

. . .. 'Mt

.. ;,

For the transport versicn:

'.
r

I CC'= IS lex p

(q~~E )

i ,

-lJ

IEC = IS f.

. [ex~ (qVB) . KTl.

-lJ

Parameter Li st IC~ = refp.r~nce collector source current IfC'= reference emitter source current . IS = transistor saturation current q = magnitude of electronic charge (1.60 x 10- 19 coulom~s) K = Brltzmann's constant (8.62 x 10- 5 eV/~K) T = t~mperature of device in oK "BE = base to e', 'tter voltage V BC = ~~se to collector voltage a F = forward large current common base gain a I = inverse large current co~~n base gain Parameters to oe Found
IS' a F , aI' T

g. hi

Parameterization
1)

Definition a F i. s the rat i 0 of the dc co 11 ectol' current to the dc emitter curr~nt whpn the transi5tor i~ in the normal active region (collector-bdse reverse biased, base-emitter for'Ward biased) and the base is grounded. Although a F typically varies with. collector cl.rr~nt, for most application~ a cnnstant value may be a5sume~. b'> .TY2i~al Value A typical va~'H:! for'u F i!. 0199.

a)

",

111-5

I'
'1

~l
.

...

"
'~"

.... "'

~
.

c)

Measurement of can be det~r~ined from the relationship:

, j
I.
i
1"

where ~F is the ratio of the dc collector current to the dc base cUT'rent -he,' the transistor is in the normai active region and the emitter is grounded.
Th~ appropriate constant value of ~F can be

I~ r; r' , , H !~

ij

it

determined by biasin.; the! t,'ansistor t~ a desired operating point and . then dividing the collector current by the base <;urrent. Current gain information may also be obtained from manufacturer specification sheet data. Example - 2N2222A 1 From Mpasurement of was determined from the curve tracer photograph shown in figure I!I-4. The point ~o be modeled was ,chosen as VeE = 10 V and IC = 5 mAo The trace most closely.correspo~ding to the' chosen poi~t is IS ~ 4(5 ~A) = 20 ~A. A~ V CE '= 10 V, this base drive produces a co 11 ee,tor current of 5.,6 mAo .
~F
O~

d)

"'

= 4.6

mA/20 ~A
+ 230)

= 230 = u,9Q567

= 230/(1

,Other opei.:!t i ng po i nts wh i ch cou 1d ha.ve been chosen are shown i n tab) e
111-1. '

I I
I
!

,'II
111-6

! '

riqure 111-4.

2N2222A Forward Charactpristics

11- i

....
','
"

l'
I

rA8~E

III-l, Ia 5 tlA 10 15 20
"r ,.J

AlTERNATf OPERATING POINTS

~

240 240 240 240

240

30 35 40 45 :i0

240'
2:>1 2S0

249 256

"

From Data Sheets

The manufacturerspe~ification sheet p~ .~. eters are listed in figure III-5. From the "0., -Characteristic; St'etll'l dL current gdin (~) for the 2N2222A is specifi~d as a ~i~imum of ~O at 1 = 1 mt. and a minimum of 75 at Ie = 10 lilA The "S e l e.:: t ion Guid'?" puts de current g~in bet~ecn 100 and 300 at Ie : 150 mAo The data sheet~ therefore proyide u~efulinformation for ~orst case simulations, but fail tc provide an aCCliJ'ilte- eSLimation of CUT're.lt flain for a given d(vice. 2) "I a} . Cef.initi~
~I' the inverse
U,

j. .~

~ur~eni to dc collector current wh~n'the tr~nsi;toris in th~ i~verse -rperaHnq regio'l (collecter-base f",rward biased, bdse-emitter r"'veise
b~ased).

is the ratio of th~ dc emltter

and the base is grounded. D) T~eical Value A tYD~cal value of

c;)
Measurem~nt
U

,-r. is

0.5.

uFo but' with the emitter

r can be measured with the same techniqu~ as ~nd collector leads interchanged.

il

1
(
t

J
2N2~ 185, AS 1 2N2219S, AS, 2N1221, A(SIU~~N) 2N2222,A, ~NSSal, 2NSS82

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2N2?22A rlanu facturer ~pet:i f.i ca ti on Sheets (Continued)

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2N2222A r~nufacturer Specification Sheets (Continued)

rII-12

2N2218S.AS, 2N2219S.AS, 2N2221,A, 2N2222.A, 2N5581, 2N5582

(coF1tinued)

NOISE FIGURE
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2~~222A r~nufact~rer S~ cificatton Shee~s (Continued)

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2N2222A Ibnufacturer Speci fication Sheets (Continued)

111-14

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2N2?221\ fI.lnUflcturer Speci ficiit ion Sheets (Colltinued)

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2N2218S.AS. 2N2219S.AS. 2N2221.A. 2N2222.A. 2N5581. 2N558:.. \~""t,"ued)

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2N2?22/\ tlanuLH:turer SPl'C i fic.lt ion Sllppte; (CorK IudI'd)

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d) . E,,:al".~J f'

?N2222A

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The curve tr~cer photog~}ph presenteQ in fiyure 111-6 shows the inverse characteristic of _ 2N2222A transistor. The point cho:,cn La model ,was IE = 4 mA and VEe = 2 V. sponding point is: The

neares~

corre-

VEe = 2 V, IE = 4.4 mA, 18 = 5(100

~A) =

500

~A

= 4.4
SOD
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= 8.8
=

LY

= (J
3)

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+

8. 81

IS
a)

1
;1
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Def i nHi 01 is

Is is the transistor saturation current. defjned by t;,e reciprocity relation;

b)

fypical Va!ue

IS is proportional to the emltter-base junction dlea and may vary s:gnifir:antly between device types. A typical value is I 16 amperes.
I -

c)
Thi~

~~m('nt

IS can he found by measuring ie at'V = vSE' ee is to cannot br- done by shorting the base to collectGr, Gne method current versus collector-i>mitter vo'lt .. ge,at a constant .rl;splay colJ,>dor . vallie of .base-emitter voltage .. .I S is then the measured va.lue of Ie divided by the value Of exp (qVBE/KT). The informat'ion required to
,

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111-17

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compute IS (IC at VCE cation
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= VBE )

may be available in the manufacturer specifi-

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in figur 111-7.
~CE = VBE = 0.6 ~olt

. S -

I -

b.t; V exp 0.0259 V

0.38 mA

= 3.30

x 10- 14 amperes

From Oata Sheets IS can be obtained from the manufacturer :>,cification sheets sho'," in fiIJure Tl1-5. The 1I0n" voltage plot yields .a point w~ere 'J = VCE = I volt. Atthis point,' ~C = 4..;0 rnA. BE IS = 430mA .1V exp '. 0259 V .
4) T

= 7.33

x 10- 18 amperes

'

See discus:.ion of T in .chapter Tl.a.1. 2. Model ing Breakdo.... l a. De:~ripLion ,~n important characteristic of transistor mode~s is their beha'lior in drl ~lec'.ric~l overs".ress e~vilonmellt. Even 'Jefore the onset .of break~Jwn, the :ollector multipli:dtio~ gffects s~riously alter the behavivr of the transistol.

; ,
! .

.~

lII.-19
.,

VlY::
il.l :'1,\ 'd i\'
t

HtIRr:..:
0.1 V/dh
Vf)r

, ,
~

.
l

0.6 V

Figul-,'IIt-i'.

Ie

Versus Vn: '

:I
4,

,1 , ,

I
, i
I

,I

111-(11

I J .
1

b.Al~anL;Jt's

Addition at the breakdrwn characteristic to the transistor model improves rinulation accuracy of th~ model. :nclusi~~ of the breakdown chdl'dcter'istic will allow the predi..:tion of tra'lsic;tor' failure Dy overheat .1g. c. Cautions Model complexitj' and simulation time will Increase with the inclusion of th~ Lreakd~wn chara~teristic. d. [baractl'ri st ics Breakdown can, be siinulated with t.he inc1u!;ion of the two current generators shown in figuft. Ill-S.

IeI'
13

I
R

Bc
!
I'

I !3E

I[3E
PNP

,.

. FigJre 111-8.

Inclusion of Breakdown

The charac.teri~(.i( produced when the breakd,own gener'ators are ir.c:uded is shown in figure 111-9.

-/
------~--

"

:.

~igurn

111-9.

Avalanche Bredkdown

:1 i I -21
,'I.
'"
:.'

e.

Upfinifl9 Equations

IBC = IC (MC - 1) IBE = IE (ME - 1 )

fo4~
I,

.,

,J
N
,
,

,
I _

(~_
C6u
1

) c I

ME = - - - , :
1

-(~_
EBO

Parameteriz~tion (BV CBO > BVEB~' NC> N ) E ---1) u"finition

'r
'I a 1:Jes

--

BV-SO is th~ collector-to-bas~ breakdown voltage BV EBO is t~p eritter-to-base breakdown Yoltag!. NC ~nd ~f are the consta,lts ,.. Itch model the rr.ultiplication regivn of the collector-bdse and ~Jse-emitter junctions, resp~c~iyely.
2)

I.i:E.i ca 1

over 2LJOO devices.

BV CBO and BV EBO 'IIay ... ary from less than 5 volts to y'oltS . . 4 C and NE are typically bi'tween 2 and 4 for sqicol'

.n
B~l:EO

Measurement

BV CBG and NC may be determined with the"aid of B\~EO'

is the maximum voltage in the common-emitter conflgur'ation with the basl lead open. CV CBO i~ tht" maximum ,yoitage in the cOlMlon-base, configur-:t ion with 'the emitter lead open. Ne may be deteY"lli,ned through use of the, e..<presslon:
10

~F

l
t

log
B'i EEO and

\ BV CEO

CBO '

!'

" i

~E maybe deh'rmined in a simnu manner t""ough use of BV

BV ECO ' and PI'

EBO

!,
! -

111-22,'t'

'

4)

~xa~ple 2N2222~

a) in fic.'urp 11I-10.

Fro~

Measurement

BV C8 " WilC. de'>rmi.1L'd f!'om the photcgrapt, shvwn The ~)I'~dkdo"f1 voltaljE>- can be seen to be tlJ2 velts.

FT'om th .. IB = 0 trace s;lOwn i'l figUl'e 111-4. BV CEO wdi found to be J9 volts. N( may now be calculated as:

~\ 10g(1~~~)

= log 30

= 9.';13

inp oho' 0qrilph sh0wn ill :fi!;ur'e 1II-1l allows determination of [<V ESO ' This voltage CC!f1 ~e Sf.1 to be 8.4 volts. ~ .yure '111-6 yielJc. a S"ECO '~' 7. _- volts.

b)

from Data 5h ets

r

'- ....

The man facturer s~L_ification sheets (figule III-~) list a ma<;min p~ o. IOO-3~~. a minimum BV of 40 volts, and a CfO minimum of ~VCBQ of i~ volts. Choosing ~r = ~00.

t'

8.43

g,

["",mple l.Omputel' Run

,To simultanpously obtain the ch~rdcteristic of t~e examp:e lIasic trwsistor model and thE" avalancre,bn>,kdown :hdl'acterlsti:. the genl:'ra 1 purpose t rilllS is tCll" .mode 1 charlcteristic.
W,lS

made

to

pi'oduce a "curve tracer"

Ttl~ tl'st ciT'cuit ie demc'l-

The !:lode! "dS exercised by SCEPTRE. . An :ncl'emental base The input listingfol',this l'UIl i~ given in
f\"'jm

curre,lt was prodilci>d llsing the RERUN n.>,=iture. str.Jted in figure ll'i-l? fiqurf' Irl-J3, Tt-l' results,

this run were p!otlell.to 4 i vt> figll:'e J'1I"14.

Thpst> rr>Su'ts may bt.' comp,wed to lht.' pho,totjl'aph sho~n in fiqul'e li'l-'~..

I.I 1-:' 3

: '-'

., :

Flgu're IIt-l0 .. ' Collector-Base Reverse Crldr'JctcrictiLs

",

,.

fI(1f~

1/:

I V/div
\'f !~ I :

il 1-.'"

-..~. . . . ~<

..

~r~

,-

_;"

_~

_ .. , ..

.v . . . .

, __

..

,' . . .

_ ... ......t

. .:. ... "".

c... c...
~

a:l

c...
~

w ')) c...

I I
I'
cr
w
~ ~

1
i'l
'i

1
,J

: ,j
::4

~.
W
~J

!1 H
t
W

cr
0
~-

, ,

U
W ....J ....J

a
0

I~"

...,
u u
0
~ ~

I I
I

11 t'
""
t.

...,
\Il

<lJ I-

I L_ -

u
N

WU

en

ex:

Vl

.I

Ij
~
~
!"
t

J
. c:::::
.l

U"'lo..
.-1 I W

Vl

0'1 ....
U

Q) ~ ~

c::l
~

01~Vl

t,
~

\0
I

..
,'I.

111-,.'6

"

-,

....

~,

-....

...

~."'.

"

',J~ ..; ~ ..t '-,

tt?

::- l ~\ r ~ 'ltT .. )..,j,I'C. ;';'1"'lIL~'.~ I~ ;'_\1..;"""'''' Fn'<rf ~t~I-'~)"I, _AL)"~I.J"'Y - 'A!: ','4 1(''', C I':": "."). '
I't

1/ ~ "

,.~

\1"1. ;

I., ".

.'(l~ " L ;',j INt, ~H Lh~" . \ ;"".J~'" ~U""'IY " (l"P rO~IAI'4I~J(, !ojf

"''''t)

"n

)'"

lu

1'11~;

.th{(,'~

U~

<;U"'..tt

.1,
': (I

I",

''1''.11
; I"~ ( "A
1-' ..

Tt.( 1
I

"'):":~'~l

'.r"

II'>

1,," r I .. "r :"..tll

'-H'lI T! 4

" If

IJ

~(,

'.:
,

I.'

I:,

i">1 ),' LI

II .1!IO

.,:

C .,:,(

. .

r' ~i II ') ~

~"

:- I ..t " II I T I if
: L:

r:

"'t

1'\1

HI -

I - I II-, I t I t I I ~,
I

r ...

<./ I .. I:

I'.

JC(.I-,=~iIJ .II~_I'. "~"(J,,"l'\J~ I - I . ) J r C J -~) :..:: ,,' I _ J (: ~ - 1 'e ~ I ~ "j' ( ~)\.~) I .,,, ~J ( ) _ 1 , Jr. i' - I =III I.') C I) ~ ... ~ ) t' - \ =, I I ( ,.\' C U '... ", 1 ) j~' C 1 - I ' =,J l' 'c v )' ~ ~ 1 (I'" ) . II ~ )

i .

.. ,

.I,

J,. (

i.
I

J>','HC.I-,': It.,!.,
J"'~)Ht.
I'

.J(

I I ~I'

J-(".;I,
t'

: r 1 - =1 ." - 1
~)

.I-?= 1.< -Ie'

Jf1tU-4_0
-.I"

L 1
I,

'''-1'''''';'
r ()u r~.
Jj 'Ii (,

-I ' " " "

)1,

i.
I

If,CCof'L(ll (. (,C) It (C o,JII( .,J,,,, cc

: u'le r Ill'J',
i

I ( .\ ~ )

( I, I'i )

I .\"1 L f

It' ( "

c !) J = ( ~ " ( I- I I ,

',I - ~ " I ' i I

~ .. "

oJ. ( t 1 <,

, ,11 C ! ) " " )' I I ~ I )

f
I

,/, >, ~ r l'. II I .0

~li'l

~.Lltll.f-l.t,o

I.

((1',

T,'IlL"

~If' f ! " l = l l . f - l "I'i1"ll'4 '.1, ""I!::'I.:_,;~ .,,,q"lI'4 ~()l'II'_~lnn ."",1"1 (,!'.C.qr'110'4(I,)) :Lf !-'t''.IT<;

"'."'Jf

JI~:~.F -"".l\).~ -#\,.l',.f -""r'~)." -f'~"L,.f _,.'.

i(l .
I . '~l)

f-I,]',.r
N' j W

-t'l ... o.~ .",.I.t'...... ~. lll,,-.,..

~ y .;r l "

~>

...

T! -'"

'I "

, I ' , _ A I fl, III

I'
I
t

l
~,

Fig u re If 1- 1.1,

S~EPTRE In~ut for Oasie' Transistor and Breakdown

i' I
I

"
en "tV

III-V

, ,

*p'"

1 .8E 02 I.EE':02 1 :4E-02 1.2E-02

III

a.

1.0~-02

"'-

.f

.j
-l
0

,
!
!

.
J

8.0E-03 6.u.t:-03

OJ

4.0E-03 2.0E-03

6.0E:)0

1.2E 01

1.8E 01

2.4E 01

3.0::: 01

3.6E

(,"1

4.2E 01

4.:,E 01 5.4E 01

VeE.' volts

Figu~e
;
I.

lII-14.

fMl Characteristics

.,~~:,..

"'.
,!,7"~'----"

..

.::~ :-'.~ -:::_:=.:-~~~ ~~._-====:_=::::~~ t~\.~ -~:..:.- --:::. -:..,~~., .

-:-,-"...-",,_ ... , - " ' - . - ' ..... eb'

....111'

~'mkr ,1; 'tV.

~""r~~ ~-

; rift'

't!"'" _ ........ -- --- --" '.

t

C' ,.' h

e++ '< *
-~.

- .'

.. -.

.--------- -" --",- ,

.. ,-'_ ..........._. ---, ~'-' .... ~ ..... t

",' . t ' t (Ph

ttv i

**

..-~--

-tt

n roti'

Addition of Charge StoragL Element~ and Ohmic Res!stan:-! a. r<.:!scription The addition of ohmic resistance, diffusion capacitance, and depletion capacitance to the basic transistor model furms what may be descri bed as tt.e genera 1 ~urpose tran~ i s tor mod~ 1. The genera I purpose transistor model is the model ccmmonly included in moael libraries and in the internal transistor models of circui~ analysis codes. b. Advantages T~e genera 1 PUI'pose trans i :; tor mode 1 ma} be app 1i ed 'to trans i ent ana lyses,. The model reprpsents a good compromi se between accuracy, ease of parc:meterilation, speed, and useful results. c. Callt ions A'large amou~t of time is required to ~evelop the e~tra parameters required for the general purpose transis!or model. Sc~histi cated ,.lectronic measurement eQu\plIJent is also -equired. d. Ch"Ncteristics The placement of the parasitic capacitors and J-psistors "is' 'shown in figure 111-15, C rl,
+
c

3.

!'
I
/.

k
I
;

~;

t,

.
"

B
0---

_ COr: rl b
+

CjC

BASIC TRI\NSISTOR
tlODEL'

V B,E ,

C nE

Cj[ rl
e

E,

Figure 111-15.

Inclusion of Parasitic

Ele~ent

(NPN)
,, ,

111-29

I'

'

:h~ effect of r~ on the model characteristic is illustraed

in flgure l!l-IC.

\lITH r'

....r;c:::-_ _ _ _ _--:._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _...... VeE

rigure 111-16.

Effect of r' c

The effect of rb and r~ on th~ model charactp.ristic is illustrated in figure 111-17.

/
;'
~

;,_IHTHOUT rt, AtlD r~

- - WITH r h ArID r~

c: .,..

veE

Figure 111-17.

Effect of rb and r~

111-30
.:
it
'.,

i 1
I

l
The Jep1etion capacitors model the stcred ch1rge associated ~ith th! junction transition regions (see chapt!r II). T~e'variations of the~e ,Jpacitors with voltage is fl1ustra~ed in figure III-lB. The

:1

diffusion cdpacitors model the stored ~harge in the collector, base. a~d' emitter regions whic~ must be r':~oved during switching. Tn~ minorit) charqe'distribution befor'e and after switching is il1ustra~ed ir, figure 111-19. In the figure, all the charqe rep~esentej by the difference in the shaded area. ~etweenth. two bias.s must be removed during the charge in bias, This mobile c:,arge, t/,erefJre. is also store1 charge. e. refi~ing Eguat;ons
r" r ._ = -~JL

~l

:1
'.,
i

(. '~'~T
1--

'-'E

-jC

c. JCu

(1C OE
~

V3'~)
~,

\ mr

c
+ IS)

TF (ICC

CDC =
'f.

TR (lEe + Is)

Parameterization
1)

r' ...

a)

Definition

'r~ is 3 constant va1ued"resistor whic~ models the resistahce between the emitter region and t~e emitter terminal. 'b) Typ:cal V~I~e
A typical value of ,,' is I ohm.
e

I
I
I

",

, 111-31

f,
I

/
-Vr:-rLl!-

,
'

Co.
J-

FljUre III-lB.

voltage Sehavior of }u'c'

I~l!; r~~)acitJI'

'-

~t:>J lE

(a)

In NorMal' Opel"ati!"n Mude

i3

(b) In Inverse Operating

k
~ode

II
I,

'

I t
I'

L
rigure fI,19 . . ~fnor~t~ Charae Distribution in a Uiased iransistor
!

"

Mt?asurement The v~lue ~f rl can be determi~ed by obtaining ~ tile base current as a function of collector-Pl1litter voltag~ for a transistor-with an onen-~ircuited ccllector. This test ~onfigur(~i:J,l is illustrated in figure III 20. The stl'dight lint! portion of thr curve is l/r~. The bioi current "flyback." effect i's caused by iJie decrease of ir.verse a at low currpnt~. The slope shoulJ be determined as closely as possible to the flyback. r~giQn.

c)

i ,

,
I
~

J
IB
IB

.
~

lk.~.
r~

/SlPPE

,.~

~-

,.

V'r l.

..
! -

Figure III-20. d}

Setllp to Measure

f.

Example ~ 2N2222A _ rl e wa~' obt~ined from the phqtograph show~ iri figure TlI721. t::.V:Jf the straight line pO,rtion of this curve is about 20 mV, lnd t::.I is ahout '~O mAo rl

= gU~ 20 mV = O.2~

. I
I

t"

111-33

','

...i,
1

Figure 11 1-21.

DC'~"!'incltio'"

of r' e,

I r r - 34

2)

r' c a)

!Jefi nit i on
I

r' c ~oa~ls the resistance betwep .he cOllector region and the colle~tor terminal. r' c is actually a current dependent resistor, but is usally modeled 35 a co~stant valued resister b) Typical Value

c)

A tYPlcal value Qf rl is 10 ohms. c ME"dSUI'ement

r~ may be obtained frrm a curve tracer Dhut~ graph at low values of VCE' The two li~~ting VJlues of r~ a~e r~SAT and r~NOr:MAL' . These rpsistancE values ar~ obtained from the transi!;tc,: chardcteristic as illustr1ted ~n figure 111-22. The rCNORM~L line is drawn throlugh the "knees" of the characteristic. The cht.icp of r~ de;JEilds or how the trarsistor is biased. Ge~erally, a single value of r~ oE"twepn, r CSAT Jnd fC.;ORMJlL is chosen.

,~JP( = - - -

~LOPE = ::-r -

r CNOP~1AL

Figure 111-22.

Method of Dptf"r"'irdng rl c

t,

III-J5

From
ph~togrJph sho~~

t~dSul.:ment

'
trc~er

r~ wa~ deter~ined

in figure III?3.

r~SAT

from the curv~ is approximately:

100 mV - 50 mV

4mA

lmA

= 16.7

ohms

rCNORMAl' the: inverse. (\f the slope of t~~ line pas'sing thr'0l,lgt. the knees, is about:
200 mY - 150 mY
.- 12.5

4 5 rnA - 0.5
~~

rnA

ohms
roun~ed

was ch~sen to be 15 ohms.

t~e a~erage

of the tWQ'resistance values,

to

Data S~eets : ~ ftta:y be !s t i :t1ated from the specification sheets by application of:
?
Fro~

.. ,
lII~nufacturer

J
:

;;

rl

YCESAl ' - 0 2 v

Ic
,

where 0.2 V is a typicd'i value , of ideal sat ration 'Iolt,.ge allowing the ohlllic /bltage drop to be estimated. Ie should be the highest current available on tile data she~"'s.
3)
"rl

a) and the base terminal. sister but is ~ererally

IJ)

Delinition r~ ffiodels the resistance between the base reqion r~ varies with ~he operating,roint of the trangiv,en a COilitailt, value:, Typ~cal Value A typic~l value fo~ r~ is 100 ohms.

1 1-36

I
Fi;Jrt:: 111-23.

Obtaininq r' c

1:1.-,3 ?

Measurement r~ is a difficult parameter to weasure,because it is modelLd a~ a lumped constant resistance although it is actually a distribu~ed variable resistance. The value obtained for rb depends strongly on the measurement technique used as well as the transistor's operatlnQ conditions. Some measurement techniques lre disc~ssed be'ow. 1 Pulse Measurement Method Th is was the ,1'!c~hod' app 1i ed for tll exam;> 1e . The test circuit required i5 :;/':0\0,0 jp ! I'.;..re 111-24. det'"rmination of r b The current pu 1se c3J1P 1i cd to. the base causes the ,dev~..:e totUt r! off. The voltage across rb dro~s to zero while the tase capacitance keeps the junction potential, V BE , constant. rb can then be determined by:
r' b -, rpulse generator
~VBE

c)

When the volt~ge drop no lcnger appears, uertic~l on an oscilloscJpe trace, the con~tant-resistanc~ mod~l !~~ 'b is no longer valid. Adjustinij the time base of the oscnl:.~('~_~ until this condition is reached ,!;ives some indication of tht' switchillg times at y,hich thf; simple rb model is not. 'adequate. Noise Measur~::!n___T!!,nigu'" 2 This 1.ech";j(~ ~:) tfifficult for those who do not ha\e experience with n~!J~ mp~~L-~~rnt. J~, :: ,~~tr ,'.:",i:;e i,s assumed to be neglig'i b1e, rb can be es t bated as:

r;
where:

=.(4

WJ)

rg;;;F

Af = th-. bandwidth of the measurement gmF = calculatio;'1 from th~ known colle~tor current V'i
I

Z = the

transistor's equivalent input mean square voltage

"
II 1-38 '
",

t,

-.

Ll_ _ _ _

t
t

V:'I
' Uf/\NtH l

________ L -----..',_
r ; qure I! 1- ;'l.

'.
',V

-,---------------l

CI/I\UNI.L;'

11 1 :;<1
,-, ,

.1

lhp maqnitude (It Vi 2 i .. detpl'mined tr'tHn:

" Vi'wherE': '

V0

:: thE' mE'ao;ul'E'd Ol!tput system

i,1'dll

squal'E~

noisE' voltaqt> from thp t.ht

; f; ,,~
l

G :: the vo I td'le qa i 11 from ttlf> t l", t dt'v i Ci' output

.',

t pr"

This mE'asuremE'nt is pel'formed with an ac ',.hOFt sistor's basE' and emitter.

3

Abo,

Vo

, 2

"i' tJt'twe.~n ",

I":d ,l:l. ,1

It

mllst be

trup

I'm';

".:t

:k.l!~aSl:I'emer1..t,J.ec~~i.g~I~

A plot ot loq (I ) vel'sus V [ (V[)c c tl) B A over a widE' ,langE' of CUrrE'nl<' yields d straight line which bpgin~t~

bE'comE' nonlinE'ar at the higher currents. straight lillE' is:

The voltage rleviatiun trom thr

This effE'ct is co~siderE'd in ~rE'ater dE'tjil in spction B.4 of this chapter. Knowing the morE' ~asily obtainab:4? parametE'rs r~. I , ~nd Ie '(1 [ B Ie Is), r~ may be obtained, 4 lstimat illn Ft'om Data Shepb
r~ may be estimalpd from the manufacturer

-----..-

specification

sheet~ JS:

t,
0"

1"

where 0.6 V represpnts a diode voltaqedrop and IS is the highest availabl~ base current on the data sheets. d) Example
1
Frc~

2N:222A

Measurement I'~ ';o/as dete':mined us~ng the setup of figure

111-24. A current prcbe of SO mV/mA was us~d to obtain base current. V cc was' set to 10 V. Rl ~as 100 O. dnd a ~chottky barri er di ode ,( 1N6263) acted as the clamping diode. T~e result obtained is shown i~ the photograph pre~ented in figure 111-2S. T~e top ~raceis from the current probe and corresponds to 10 mV/div. The bottom trace is V BE and corresponds to 20 mV/div. IB is a positive pulse from ground. Therefore:

= 10

mV (

1 ')' ;mv inA

= O. 2 mA

j,V is tile rapid voltaqe decline at the (-I'd of the current Dulse. j,V
1'1

20 mV

= :'0 mV

o.rmA

= lCO
2

ohms Fro. I Data Sheets' The data sheets.shown in f:qure 1II-5 list

a VBESAT af 2.0 V ma~ at a base current of 50'mA.

r'
b

2.0 ~ - 0.6 V

50 mA

28 ohms

\\\-41

t.

'

.....

"

i'l'II'(,

(I (-."1.

Ill't t \ "Ill i 11 in': "I II

IJ 1'1,'
.,

4)

JO a) Definition

C. , 4', m

C. .10 , ~, Jnd rn are thp three parameters which des(rihe the tr3nsistion capacitance associat~d with the collector-base junction or the base-emitter junction. The two capacitors are nonlinear Jnd voltage dependent.
b)

I Cjeo ' ~E' and m~ are determined by capacitance measurem~nt~ between the base terminal and the emitter terminal with the coll~rtor terminal open. The voltage VS'E' is adjusted so ~he junction is reverse biased.

V, and 0.5, respectively. c) Measure ..lent

Vallie A typical value of C. ,

~cal

I
I

Jfl

tjJ,

and m are 10 p'F, 0.6

Cj~J' ~c' and me are determined by capacitance measurement between the base' terminal ami th~ collector terminal with the emitter terminal open. AQain, the junction should not be forward biased. rhe data obtained shouj~ be reJuced u~ing the graphical technique~ discussed in chapter II.B.6.' ~

It may be necessary to subtract out a constant cap~citance from the measured valup. This extra capac~tance term is usually around 0.5 pF and is t~e stray capacitance associated with the transistor package (C ). k d) Example 2N2222A Coj eo' tjlE' mE' From Mpasl,Jre:nen,t BasP-emitter capacitance measu.rements with a Boonton 700A capacitance bridge at different bias values produced the data shown in table 111-2.

"

t.

"

--;-.------'-_ ,---'

..

- - - ----

':

p-"'-

"

fABLE

111-2.

FXPERIMCNTAl EMITTER

CAPACll~NCl

VALUES

0' volts -0, I

22,62 rf
21.
~5

-0,2'
-0,3

-0.5
-0_ 7

-1.0 -2',0
-3.0

-5.0

20.66 19.91 18.68 17.70 16.53 14.00 12.48

10. :'0

The i~itiJl guess for ~ is 0.6 volt, .and the 'initial guess for CK' is. 0.5 rF, The data reduce to the values shown in table 111-3.

TABLE IIl-3.

REuUCED EMITTER CAPACITANCE DATA (Cmeas

-

G.6 V 0.7 0.80.9 1.1 1.3

1.6

'-

(41-V)

C) K

2.6 J 6 5.6

22.17 pF 21.05 20. 15 19.41 18.18 17.20 :6.03 13.50 11.98 10.06

~1!-44
,', I

::If-.....''''',...;p; (

40

t$ 4b:<f

lAC.

t . ,.. .

.4$:

~"'~

"",,.,. .."". ' ..... A-O:-_ _ _........'!"J!I_;........_,.,..,..........

Th~ results ar~ plotted in figure 111-25. linp is straight enough to be considered an adequate fit. The value of -m is the inverse slope of the line and can bE calculated t,':)m two points as:'

rh~ res~lting

-m :::

lOr

F - loq 11.98 pF 22.12 V og O. 6 :-roq-3. 6 V

m -:: +O.34?
indicating a nearly perfect linpar doping gradie~t.
i Cjeo, can be calculated from the capacitance formula and a single raw data pOint as:

C.

Jeo

~hoosing the 1.0 ~ point,

C. ::: Jeo

16.~3PF'[I-

(-1.0 V)] 0.342'

0.. 6 V

C, Jeo :::2J.12pF

thi~ compares'favorably to thp measured value

2

Of

From Data

Sh~ets

C which is 22.62 pF. jeo

The specification sheets for the 2N2?22A (figure III-5,' plot Cib ,and Cob as a function 'of bias. C is the emitter ib junction 'capacit~nce, CJeo .. , . tilE' and mE can be ,found by taking data off , of'Uris curve and reducing ,the data as done previously. C data from ib the plot arp shown below.

IT 1-45
\
.'

.1:1 .....

Cl

:>
t
U

"0

OJ U
~

.....

VI

0
>

"0

OJ 0:

:>

t ..... .....
Q)
~

....
LJ..

en

o o .-

U;

, .J

4 _

Z$

..t,

$ ..

. ;

-0.1 V

25 pF
2l>

-0.5
-1. 5

15

AssLming

~ ~

0.5 V and C ~ O. K
,~)

O. 7 V
1.1 V

25 pF 20 pF
15 pF'
tjI.

2.1 V

Aga,in. a straight line results indicating a correct choke of 1II-27). -m = 1~~F - log 15 pF = -0.465 10:;O--:tV log 2. 1 IJ

(figure

which is the ru value for a junctio~ with a nearly abrupt doping gradient., l~is ~alue disagrees to th~ measured value in terms ~f how the doping profih.:f \tt'.ill look.
, :

= 26.86
. _hich is about 4 p~ higher than the measured value.
3

pF

Base-collector capacitance.measuroments wi~h a Boonton 700A capacitance bridge at different bias values produced the data shown in table 111-4.

, I I 1-47

, I

I;;

_I . ."

l.

;fa

IOJ

r~--~--r---'-"'--"'--""'-T'

, 'j

..... a.

10

.,

U. f

10

(. -V). volts

Figure 111-27.
'.

Reduced C-V Data from Specification Sheet

. II 1.. 48
.,g ..

CW'

TABLE 111-4.

EXPERIMENTAL
V

6ASE-COLL~CTOR

CAPACITANCE VALUES

BC
V'

Sf
10.18 pF

0
-fJ. 1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.5 -0.7 -1.0 -2.0 -3.0 -5.0 -7.0 -10.0 -20.0 -30.0

10.1 S 9.G5 9.24 8.61 8.12 7.57 6.46 5.82 5.05 4.59 4.18 4 ,7' 3.28

The initial guess for.~ is 0.6 volt dnd the initial guess for CK is 0.5 pF. The data now reduce to the values shown in table 111-5.

TABLE 111-5
(tV

REDUCED BASE-COLLECTOR CAPACITANCE VALUE

-V)
(C meas. - t,) K 10.28 pF 9.65
9 .. 15

0.6 'J

O. 7 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.3 1. l; 2.6 3.6 5.6

7.6.

8. 74
8.11

4.55

7.62 7.07 ;).96 5.32

10.6 20.6 30.6'

4.09 3.68 3.67 2.88

...

I.lI-49

....

1
I

I
;~

The results are plotted in figure 111-23. T~e data seem to form a str~~ght ~ineexceDt for one point which may ~e a bad data point.
-m ::-

I i
,
I

log 9."5 pF - los.-.l.:...~ ::; -O.32C

log 0.7 V - 109 .~O.6 V

(-0.7 V) . C. [ I = 9.65 pF 0.6 V J'-o

10.32
j

C.

Jeo

= 12.36

pF

the measured value of Cjeo ' pF.

~nich

appeared to

~e

a bad point, was 10.28

Cjc~~IC' r.;.: From Data 51-eets

The speciflcation shpet~ given in figure 1II-5 contain a plot of Cob which corresponds to CjC ' C ' ~L' jeo and ~ c can be found by tlking data off of this curve and reducing the data as indicated previou~iy. Cob data from th~ plJt are shown belew.
V f1C -0.10 V

17
15 13

p~

-0.25, -0.50 .-1.25,

-8.00
-15.00

, 10 6
5

Assuming

= 0.6

V and C = 0, K

u.

-~O

F"" .,

1 L.o_ _1..,;.'_"'" '_.J...-..L

-..1..:--1-.... 1...... ' .....

0.1 '

I~I

....

1 _ _.&._--'-_

~~ ~ J
10

i,'V), 'IoH\

Fi()lIl"

J J 1-'211.

Rt'tluc!'d C-V D.H"

for LoP"rt,

'0

.Iunctlon

....

','

.,,--_. . . . ,

(C

mp3S

- C ) K
~F

0.70
0.8~

17
15

1. 1(l

1. 8~

13 10
6
S

8.60 IS.60

The plot cf these data is sh0wn in ligure 111-29. A definIte co~cave curve is obtained indicating that a smaller ~alue of ~ should be tried. c Assumin~ ~ = 0.2 V and C = 0, K

(';' -V) 0.30 V 0.45 o 70 1.45 8.20 15.20

17 pF

,15 '
13

III

,
i
f

6 5

"

~he resulting P'ot~ w~ichis a straight line~ is shown

in figure III-3D.

-m

= Jog

17 pF - log'6 F = -0 315 log 0.3 V - 104 8.L V '

!
i

C eo 15 pF J
1h~ valu~i ~f ~, m,

J'. " [ 1- '~W'" .... , . 1

,

U.315

.. 17.04 pF

t
f

and Cjeo obtain~dfr~m dir~ct measurement are:

'''r
,
-'-

'~

111

_
~

- 0.6 V

I ;

! t
j'
f

'1'

--.,....t

---------------...o...-r-.-.' "I

_~,~Ij
10

,f

r! (ltJr(~

III - 79.

~('duc('d f.ollpct.ur

C-v r",Ll

(1btainetJ from SP(lC ific.lt ion Shpet

I!

I-,~d

.-.luO

"

1 1
W-

e>.

,.10

'" '"
QJ

o. I

I I I

I
I

d
10

. ( .... ~ )

volts

,Fi'lurc ttt-30.

Rt>lluccd C-II Data with New ~.

\
I

t 11-54

= 0.6 II m = n.320 C. = 12.36 JC(l

Vc
:

pF

IF
a) Definition

IF is. the total transit time~ IF is used to model th~ cllarge stored in thp tr<1nslstor when the base-emitter junction is forward biased., The element used to model the stored t.:harge is the diffusion cap~cito~ C " DE b) Ty~ical Vaiu~ A typical value of tF is D.t nanoseconds. c) Mpdsurement T~' ~ay D~ J~tr~~ined from fT' the t~ansfsto~~~ un;ty-gain frequenc). '1 ~~ the flequency at whi~h ~he co~~~n emitter, zero load. small siqnal current gain "extr~polate~ to unity_ f T varies with collpctor current. In a r~gion where fT varies little with IC' TF is given by:
T

Whe~ 'T varies strongl; with'I C' pl~t 11fT as a funcllon of lile and
p~trapolat~ the str'liqht line portion of t.he lille to llIe = 0., .. fhe frequency value obtained is fA' tF is now found as:

TF =

Jc
O~

(r.A
l

- CJ'C (VS'C') rei

T-

is J1;u equal to:

,:

-----

...

I Il-SS
----

..'
.

'.

,~'

""-'

where t r is the collector (1) (2)

cur~ent

risetime.

Some tecllniques of determining fT are: An fT meter. Small 'signal measurement. The test setup 'for this method is s:)Oloon in figlJie 111-31. rhe trc.nsistor is biased to the desired operatin~ point. The frequency is increased incrementally until ~ deCreases to ~ /~. rhe'fr~q~ency at which this occurs . 0 is f~. From the one pole rolloff transistor model, fT'wil1 b~:

It is important that the kpedance in the col.lector c;rcuit be

! (

'\

as small as' possible. 1& the collector circuit resistance is not lero, the following co~rection must be ~pplied:

Figure 111-31.

Small Siqnal Measurement

,. l

tIl-56

(3)

S-parameter measurement. ~o as a funct i on of frequency can be determlned from S-parameter measureme,lts. The value of ~o at a given frequ~ncy is:

~gain, fT is given by: , '

fT
~o

= ~o
= low

f,

frequency

f~

=f

at f. d)

= ~0/2
Ixample - 2N2222A 1 From Measur~m~nt

,I
I

i
!

! ,
t
;
I

, IF was measured usin~ the small signal test corfiguration illustrated in fi,ure 111-32. Current probes were ~sed to monitor ba~e current and ccll~ctor current. VCC and the variable resistor were used to obtain th~ desired val~e of bias. The dat~ ~btained are shown in tab~e III-G. The r~sults ar-e plotted in figure II.1-33.
I

CTI

;C
Figure 111':'32. Determi nat: eon of TF

III-57

.~

......
0
UJ

....
0
U

'u

Q)

c:

Q)

"0

c: Q) a.
Q)

>,

Q)

c:

:::I 0Q)
N

:I:

. u..
M M

I
,j
-.0
<.:)

Q)
~

"

UJ

c:n

:::I

Lr:

,.
t
!

. f
t
t

1.,

L"
N

I,
0
UJ

! I

,..
C'I

<:>

0
~1

l i l._

I II-58

"

r"--'C'---~

,.

TAELE 111-6.

M~ASURED

FREQUENCY RESPONS

Ib
0.08 rnA O. 10 0.10 ' O. 10 0.10 O. 10 0.10
O. 10 O.lC

Ie
13.00 rnA 16.00 15.20 14.00 10.40 8.00 4.00 2.00 1. 20 0.54 O. 18 O. 14 0.14

~ac

I
I
r

100.0 kHz 150.0 300.0 600.0 1. 0 MHz 1.5 3.0 6.0 10.0 15.0 :30.0 60.0 100.0

162.50 160.00
152.00

o.oe '
0.09
'1. ",2

O. 12

140.00 104.00 80.00 40.00 20.00 12.00 6.75 2.00 1.17 1.17

The -3 dB frequency ocrurs where:

= 115.26

This occurs at about 950 kHz.

fT

= (163)(950

kHz)

= 15~
~

MHz

CjC at (4 V - 0.6 V)

5.8 pF

III-59
.'
'

.~.

c_

''''''''''':-'''>c_''.''.'!''':~'-'''''''\;

~~""~~'''"",~,~""

..."",-...-

r~~ORMAL = 12.5 Q

TF =

2n (155 MHz)
10

- (5.8 pF)(12.5

0.)

. TF = 9.54 x 10

- seconds
~rom

Data Sheets

The ma~ufacturer specification s~eets (figure 111-5) plot fT versus coJ1ector current. Fro~'the fT curves at'
~C =,

10 mA: rCNORMAL = 12.5 ~

'.

C at 20 V ~ 4.5 pF jC
fT (at VC6 =,20 V, IC = 10 mA) = 230 MHz

2n (230 MHZ) - (4.5 pF)(12.5

TF = 6.36 x 10- 10 seconus 6} {R a)

0.)

"

f
f
~.

opfinition, ~R is the total reverse transit time. tR is 'Jsed -to mode 1 th~ stored charge when the' CD 1,1 ector-base junction is , forward biased. The element which models this st.ored charge is the diffusion capacitance CDC' . . b) Typical Value A typical value of tR is' 10 ns. c) ~easurement Lf ~R is much greater than un i ty" t R' may be obtained by the same method as t F, but 'with the c0112ctorand emitter

i.

II 1-60

,l

I.

tel'mirM!S intr-I'chanqed. If !'R is le~s than un:ty, (R ",,~y be calculated il'llfl1 (SM' the ~,~tu:"ltilln (1eL1Y time consLlnt, as:

TSAI

by

in turn is dt>tel'mirwd from t s ' the tl'ansistols saturation delay time

(SAT = t \ t'n
s whel'e:

lIar

ncf71'fT'T.Jii J

JaR

1) -)

,1 SF = the fOl'ward base (..;rrent

ISR

=-

IeF

:; th~

the I'evel'se base' cUI'I'ent forwa~'d co 11 ectl1r cUlTent

A test cil'cuit for o~taining the necessary values is given in figurp

II 1- 34.

I
"

,I I I

I I

~-

Figure 111-34,

Measuring Sdturation Time

. 111-61

'L ~ ---.-..---~.

,'I'

Example - 2N2222A From Measurement . Since P R is significantly greater than unity in the 2N2222A the sn,all signal setup used to measure TF was also utilized to measure TR . The data obtained for this measurement are shown in table 111-7. The results are plotted in figure 111-35 .

d)

..
TABLE 111-7. REVERSE FREQUENCY RESPONSE

IE = 1 rnA dc V EC . = 4.5 V
f

Ib
0.08 rnA 0.10 O..10 O. 10 0.10 0.10. O. 10

IE
0.51 rnA 0.61 0.44 0.28 O. 18 O. 13 0.07

~ac

100.0 kHz 150.0 300.0 600.0 1. 0' MHz'

1.~

3.0

6.38 6. 10 4.40 2 80 1. 80 1. 30 0.70

The -3 dB PQint is:

~ =~=

4.53

" 2 This corresponds to about the 300 kHz point.

fT
t

= (6
2~

4)(~00 k~z)

= 1.92 MHz
= 8.2'9
x.10- 8

R-

1 MHz) (1.92

sDconds ~

.J.'

111-62

1 'l
I
,..,
::"

t::

aJ
::::I

0~J

u..

'" Lo' "I: 0

4-

0
t:: 0

+-'
U

t::

u..
It!

::::I .

r
"1
I

In

It!

C!l.
aJ
L'l
~

>
C

aJ

LO M

.....
aJ
~

Cl .....

u..

.'

.......l0 0

.I

J
,
"

"'" 0

II 1-63
.,'

...

','

--

FrGm Data S~e~ts tR can be found from storage ti~e information. The manufacturer specifIcation sheets (figure 111-5) give stora~e time ~a~a for the 2N2222A. From t~is data,
~

Computer Exa~ , To verify the validity of t~e charge storage mcdel;ng port~ons of the gen~ral purpose transi~tor model, the 2N2222A model was placed in a tr.ansient. test circuit described hy the manufacturer specification sheets. The simulated circuit used to test the tran~ient respor.se of the 2N2222A transistor model is il1ustr3te~ i1 figure 111-36. The 'SCEPTRE ,listing whic~ simulat~d th~ tran~ient tst is , . g:ven 1n figure,I1,I-37 .. Three olo:.s resultinq from this input are s~o....,n in figure 111-38. These three plots represent the pulse generator voltage, collector cu~rent~ and the co11~ctor v~ltagr, respectively. T.he delay tinle 1:. thE' time.'req~ired for collector current to begin to respond to the b~s~ inou~ pulse. The predictd delay ti~e can be seen to be about 4 ns. 'The specificat~on sheet~ for the 2N2222ft list ~ maximum d~lay t~me of 10 n5. Thp. simulated colle~tor risetime is ~bout 20 ns. The speiification sh~ets ~Il~w a risetim~ of no more than 25 ns. g.
.
'

,I 11-64

,1

'~1\-~
\.

- d.

'j

II;

t
I

,
I", .' ,

1
1

r
(

,
~

,
.

I,

l'II,W, , r I, "I
I\~\! TI~H

I
,
.'
ll, 1 I' .

'\ r(lf~I\(;1
/'1 L TIll(

r IMI

\ t

-4'" 71 .
l~t"1
I i It,,"I' I ~ I .Ill,

r I,Hh : "II t

/ \11.1 t~..; i

r i I'etl i r

I I 1-(,',

!
V r'
"
I

"
'i' (
,

~t

I .. ,""
_

:\ :...
\I~.

t:
\..,

A P ~J ~,:,
. . . "'l ....'

A i ~ i '"' A
"'

',J""LATII)" PI<, ",1-1 A, J ..., 10('" - "A ~ -i ,.. ...

I ,:'

:'
I" ....

: r'

r ~\

0- , .., .i ...

-i

':.:~ A LI .... Tp." )"')"l" A C:. ... I)

,,~-

iiI'

~J;.~

~~)-'4rAI

__

= ..4(.

f~~TJ,'lt .... u:,llllt In TIi .... r~'t~ ,.1)')11 "n r);:U-4t"4Ttf

'/'~')IO'lj A, 1Mt'.

;.,.

"'CI"T04~
LA~1l

~1,.J~r

T~1 ~

: ' ..

~..J

T 1" . f

:- f)1Wt.,J' lol

T f.

i..l

T j"t tYA

f ',T ~

I ,,:, ",,_ TLIP '".",:>~ >..,1.4

~r
:II:'

"" I;)
\IIt))f.l
"\.' l:- ~

() ) l' ()

C C.

(l.)lIu

"-. <.

r:f "C""'IPf !n ..
<."~~t.)"'"

(.-'l-.,)

:\..".... t~~T~ .
Jr.l-!~J""{JC(.'1J:~~.ll))'

-I.

"J'

-I" !ll I I. J' - I .. " ( ~}l ,J t L J - I = ~ ( ]. ,I :J t - I ~. :',

J( C . I

~, ( 'j ~ "

Jr. 1- I ~ ... ( ..it ,

Jf. l ~C.

A oJ ( .J" f>

: I - I I I I ' ". J C ) - 1 ,I I

':;l"' .

/().

1 ',:,,, )

}(-C/t~ .... (.,;,.,

I}

"_I = I',

~I.J-C=().I"

,., ..... -;>:, 10.

:: c: .1- I : ',J I , II .1" ~ - I :..1-1:'111 ," .... ,t -J

.. t:~c T I ('"j'"
oJ

.J. ,,(

,'.,,:'!.

C J b. 0 .J >. J" f Jt :: .... CH - .. , i. ,H)' -I'" .C.b.O .I .. I. 1,~.",.,J:('''',''''f -1:1. I. 11l~ -I'" 1 I -, '" I :41 ('1/". (i ... ~ i I '\ ~
,- (',
0 ..

I , A .... ( f'

~ ( .. '" , : ' ,~ I

1~

,,> A ., ( () , : I Ii I I I I I - A "I I '41 I "'. ,j..j Aj ~ ( ::104(0tT 'If',C''I''f)o-.:

~t~~~

" 1 , J , -

'i' I I
I I

.. ~,'j
~

I
if

, I J - I - .. : ,.~): ,~, L "'~",,? :I.I-?r:'i<Lf.llq .. -,

,
~

.c .... -~ '(' ,10

)."-1:0
j.

i .1- \., '" I

<,I

:".I-'>~IO' 0 .... ( T f 1.;'1\

r A ,"

~,
'I ..,

0'. - .., I ,- t - .~ - ~,. 1 ,j. 1 E )1,1,"1' .."

~, '> ~ t - .. "" ..... ., \) I r

- "'. - .... ~ 0

t -..,. _ ~

I . ,
'

l
l
j

\/"J.I"'l' 1.'1 ~"Lor

~II~

cn"'''ol

'~,

"'J'"
~
~: ... t)

"A_I"'I'''' .... 141 "'1'1""""00

T:W

1',',qAL (l"'''ITIO~'; fI 011 L % ,0 V.I - ..

Fi q lJ
i
~,

re

III,. 37 .

Tr,lns 1(\n~, Tes t Li st IIII')

f ,

I 11-6E'

J::-:~ ~,~,:

If:

..
i

,'

f ...~."

i - -- ----..

-- -. -- .--- . ---------- ---------------- .. ----- ... ------- ........ _____ ____ ................ _______ ._ ... _________ 1

1 1

"1

.:

';- ..

, --

_.. :
1
1

"1
1

1 "1 1

...

.. .. .

.. ..

..

..

...

1 I

1 t 1

1
, 1 1 "1
1

1""-'-

I - . - - -'. " " " ' " " ' "

... ",I.,..

I 1 r r 1 - '---1

I.GJII'-",
... 'I "',
"loll ' , 'nUt

...

t,

1 0'1(-0' l .... onf ... '"

I."JI)'-'"
. ~" .Ii/"t "1.1'

(a) Pul~,~ Ge,nerator Voltage 'Figure 1tl-38. 2~2'22A Transient Response

II 1-67
,

"

",

'-

- -- -- -- - - - - - -- ---_. - -. - --- - - ' - . - . - - . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- --

-~------ ----------------1

..................

-/

- ... :
/ 1
1

I
--I

--I
I I

-.

I
(

--l

-- I I

-- i

:
I

....

i
(

I I
I
(

. ...., . '" ~ ~ . 'J"

I
1-(

I
I

--I
(

'(
"."'1" ., ..

( r ,

.- - - - - ... - -- - - - - -- - - ---- --,--- - --- --- :------- ----_.

-~----~--------
I.'''''Q.

I i I

"

"'")'"

-0'

(b) Collector CI..4i"re,nt Figure 111-38. '2N2222A TranSient Response' (Continued)

r
I II -68

- - '- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - --- -------- - --- -- -- -. - - -- - - - - ----'- - -- - - - - - - 1

-.

1 - -I 1 1 1 --I

--I

1 1 1

- -I
1

'-.'1

1-.

--I

! ........ - ... -_ ....... -- ........ '"''' - ......... --_ .. --- ....... -_ ......
1.

1 1 1 1. 1 1 - - - - - - - - ----- -- --- --- -- - - - ----- ---- - ---- - - - - - -- - - - - --I

I .. ,.ou \.It ... !~ I

1."';0'

-1/

,F1 ~ure ! II-38.

(c) Collector Voltage 2N2222A Transient R~sponse (Concluded)

,
!

II 1-69

,The test circuit shown in figure Ill 36 is not the same circuit applied by the data sheets for storage arid f~lltime; however, a comparison will be made. Storage time is the ~ime required for the collector current to begin to turn off in response to a cutoff in base drive. The simul~ted sturage time is about 68 ns. The maximum al~owable storage time for the 2N2222A is 225 ns. The simulated collector current falltime is about 125 ns. The falltime required in the specifi:ation sheets is less than 60 ns. 4. Modeling Variable Beta Q. Description The most i'mportant s-:cond order effect~ in transistors ar,e variations :in B. The two variations considered in this section are ~ as a function of collecto~ current and ~ as a function of collect~r-base voltage. These two variations may be treated togeth~r. ~ variations produced by cha,nges i il collector current occur in three ranges. In reg~on 1, low injection, ~ falls off with decreasing base curre~t due to the' domlnance of charge reco~bination at low currents. In region 2, the co"st~nt ~ region', current gai'l "eaches i ~; maximum value. In region 3, t:le high injer:tion region, the minority carrie~ concentration approaches the doping density, the net result being an increase ~n the conductance of the bas~ and a falloff in ~. ~ variations rroduced by increases in the collp.ctor-base voltage are caused by the modulation of the base width.' 'Iil the normal operating region, an increase in Vec will increa'se the dep'letion wiqth,at this;junction. The increasing rlepletion width cuts into the base ~nd decreases the effe~tive width ~f the base. More injected carriets ~uc~ Leed i~ crossing the ,smaller base, and ~ ~ncreares.' b. Advantages, Inclus~on of variable ~ effect~ will yield greater accuracy in simulation. c. Cautions' Addition of variable p effects are often unnecessary. The ",odel produced is complt!x arid difficult t,? parameterize., Computation

. f

I ,

I
!

I
\

f t , 1
~

! f l

i f

I ,
[

,
[ (.

[ l

.'

I
[
L_.

~i~e is incr~ased.
"

,'1.

I tI -70
,'"

J,

d.

rhar~cteristirs

;,

Descripticn One method of modeling varidble current gain is to describe p a5 an analytical function whic~ is ~fit~ed" to tnE ob~erved aain variijtions. An alternate approach is to de5ctib~ curr~nt ga~n as a function of Ie or V BC through the u<;e 0f pjecewise linear tables. 2) Internal Model Description Internal models of circuit analysis codes often are fixed in how ~ variati,ons may Je described. For examille, computer pro'grams such as SLIC and ?INC use parameters called ~FHAX' ICMAX ' PFLOW' ICLOW~ B CEC ' and VCE to describe variable p. !he significance of these ~drameters is illustrated in figure 111-39. The Gummcl-Pnor. transistor m~del parameters which incorporat~ variab 1 p ~ are described in fi~ure 111-40. 3) Modification of Eber~~Moll Model The Ebers-Moll mod~l may be modified to resemble the Gur..me~-Poon model in its description to incorporate ,vdriable p. Two' extra eleme"t~ are required along with the modification of the defining ,equations. The modifiea Ebers-M311 model is sho"ln itl figure 111-:4T. , 4)' Definin~ Egudtions For the', modi fi ed Ebers-Moll, n:ode 1:
I)
~mpirical

"

i. t !
!
I

t
I
~

J.

i!
t i
(
I f

,
'1;_,

;;
,iI

1I 1-71
I., .

,,1

~
l

------------

CE

- CONSTAUT

SLOPE
I \\ 'c

S-IRA I GHT L I UEASYMPTOTE HAS SLuPE OF

I 1

(I - BCEC)

tn ( I'C"_O\l) or tn (I,CL)

Ui(IC1\AX)

or I:.n'(I /,\) C

'-

iKT

---;ij
/

/
/

! j
l

Figure III-40.

Gu/,lIl1el-Poon r'lodel Description

c
:i

y
,....-----1
, B

I t
(,
l

ICL
rl0D I FI ED EBERS-ftOlL ~lODEL . .

"

B ~---t----t la

MODIFIED EBERS-ftOLL rtODEL

r
t

'I
t
'L

E
NPN
PN~

f
.
.

Fi~Jur'

111-41.

t,'

f r,

Inclu~ion of Vdri~ble G in the EberS-Moll Mod21

, ,---_
~

.. ~

III-lJ

..

..

::eM

,-~"'-,",'~'-"---~ ,,-,~, ~-. ,.~"."-, .. ,~.,,., ,-.,

Is(O)r L .' ~'qVBC) . -r:::exp KT' -1

KR

'

where B is the base push-o~t factor (see reference III~2). B may be approximated by unity. The empirical analytic expr?ssion~ applied in NET~? to model variable current gain
~re:

I
f

~F = Bf(A l '+

A Bc + 2V

A3V~E + A4V~E)

,I

,t

~I ~ Bi
e.

(B1

B eR 2V

B3V~B

B4V~B)

,
r(

. 'f
i

I
" f

Pararr,Jterization C2, 'NELl e 1) Defi,nition e2, NEL' and e ~efin~ the variation of Prw~th Ie' Thpy are d()fined i'n' terms of plots 'of .en (IC' IS) ,v~rsus V B,E , for VB'C ' ~ o. This plot is illustr~ted in fig~re 111-42. C2 and NEL descritie the low injection component of IB which describes the falloff in ~F for low currents. The,pa~ameter 0 mooels t~e falloff in ~ due to '~igh injection.

if

I
,i

III-74


~
"

..
~ .. ~,.

"

....
' ".'

.
--'<"-'...... ~

--_,..~~--.::.-:.;..-;t~,:,-.,,,,,:,,,

-. -

~''"--

~"

'. -

~- ~

... ,.~-.~~.'-.

~--

,C

I
I

I ll1\
I

I
I

I
I

'(Vue = U) frO)

I I I I I

IS \ l~ I
. fn

/
/

,l

-t------________ .

'~.['

Figure III-4Z.
2)
T~eica'l

Example Ddta Plot

Values Typical values for C , N , and 2 EL 10- 6 , respectively.

3)

are 1000, 2, and

Measur'ement

I!!-43.
,

values. Th~ data are then,graphed on a semilog pJot. This plot must BE now be c;o~rected for' the voltage dr'ops across r~ and rb' To accomplish this, first identify th~ ideal l,in~ segment for base,current. Extrapolate this line out to the higt, c"rrent Clnd voltage region. As!'ume thilt any deviation from the ideal 'base current line is due to (IBrb +, IEr~):, ~ubtract this voltage f,:om the,I e line. 'This proce~s is illustrated in figure

Ie ana IB must be measured o;ver a w;de range of V

1'
,fi;;

i I'

'1 ,,

II 1--75

---------.
,'I'

LOG (I)

/
.
V SE

~:

~.!

~ ~/
,
.,,(.

.. t
1

,, , ,

-,

/'/1
i
,
'

[ 1" e

Figula 111-43.

Voltage Corrections

If the corrected IC l)es to the left of the ideal IC

curve, back cbrrect the corrected IC line by the amount ~V~~ where ~Vm is the maxi~um voltag~ de~iation to the left of the ideal Ie line. This I~over correction" may be caused by current crowding effects. Extrapolation ~f the various asy~ptotes to the VSE = a v axis will,yield C2 ' NEL , . 9, and IS as illustrated ~y'figure 111-4~. 4) '. Examp I es - 2N2222A* a) From Measurement C2 ' NEL ,"and ewere determined using t e tes~ configuration of figure 111-44. In this figure, V represents a high , input impedance voltmeter and I represents a current meter. Da a obtai~ed I!sing the configuratioll are shown in table III-S.
'

'FigureIII-4(

r~st Conf.guration

HI-7S
--'
!

l. 1.

fPBlE 111-8.

MEASURED

VARIATIONS

FORWARO ACTIVE REGION

VSE

= VCE
1 !JA '

0.562 V 0.582 0.594 0.615 0.629 0.649 0.661 0.681 0.683 0.706 0.718 O. 734 0.,744 0.767 0.787 O.:20
iii,

2 3 6

0.055 filA
O. 135

60 100 200 300 600

30

10 20

1 mA 2 3 6

0.222 , 0.519 0.942 ' 2.000 3.200 7'.200 12.000 24.200 39.500 '85.000 130.000 192.000 240.000 370,.000

NOTE: Due to the failure of the device which was used in earlier eX2!11ples, a new device was choseri yielding a composite model for th~ remaining sectirns. The plotted data wi th the necessary correc. c.i ons are shown in figure III-45. The' following steps wer~ devised to ident'ify , . the straight line segments. Lines of s,lopt: q/KT w.ere fi tto the Ie and .L8 data. At th~ point wh~re high ~urrent P falloff was observed, a line 0f slope o/2KT was constructed.

-8-'- = 6 x

I SCU)

10- 8

~~

! '

111-7,1

, .~

.J

1. DEJ 1

/
1.;:;t-,:13

I
I I
LA 06
I
/
/

I
I
/

L :r 0e
/
1.~[09

I
/ /
/ /

1. :t 'J I
1 . (;. ~ 1 1

L ':f .1,
~
.j.",

:L. t~

L O[]j

-~ ~

1. tiE 14
1 . ') .1 '1
,,~

.16

i---~~--~----_+-~--~,~--_+----~I----~~--~----~--_+I----~ I.:)t vl l. ('f 'J 1 '1 f)f - 01 ] . f)( - ') I q . O( ~ 0 I

I
Ftqu"~
I

111-45

111-78

asymptote is not clearl~ vi~ible. Ho~~ver. an aSYMptote ~as cQn~truc~~d for illustr~tive p~r~os~s. The low
~ 1~-15 = 2 ... C2 ') v

I~

.,

,
,

2 x 10- 15 C2 - ---~ 3 x 10

= 6. 67

)( 10

-2
10

Slope
.- 3S.57

= (tn 3 ~A - n ? ( . 5q4 V -

A lJ

-15

V)

--

A~

1 = rr~;r>r":"7""nr-.,....,..r(C. 0259)(35. ~7j

I~

(O)

= 3

x 10- 16

t'FM

b)

~OatJ Shp~ts

give Ii versus IC d.lta.

~~nuf~cturer d~vice s~~citicatirn 5he~t5 often Th/'se dc.lt~ may be us{'d dir'1.rtly for models ,which,

,describe p as a functi~~ ,f Ie' or ~FM' C ' N , and 0 may be extractnd l EL from V,; ~ inforlll~tio,n The I~ 'VprS,llS Ie data tor the 2t422n:. trans i star are included In fioure ,111-5.:
5) 4 CL -----,.1)

C .N

' OR

O{'fi~i.!.!~r'!

Th~SP thr~{' parJmet~rs d~fine the vJr:Jtion 0'

fiR with I[and are analog:>us to lif~' C , N ' anJ 0, ,'ec;ppctively. with

VGE r.'pl.lced by Vec' Ic rf'placf'd tly 1[, Vsc I'('placed hy V

rl'f,/ 1acpd by I\R'

qt

and IiI

0)

In> i ca 1

'~'J 1ues

10- 6 , resp~ctively.
c)

~ypical values of

C 4 , N\.L' and OR are I, 2, and

Measurement

collector

Th@ P R versus IE parameter~ are obtained by the same methoj used w;~h tr.e P F versu~ Ie parameters, except the emitter and
termi~als

are interchangeJ.
Exam~

d)

- 2N2222A

C4 , N lL , and. o~ were. Jeternd oed with the same test configuration as figurE 111-44, but with ~ne collector and @~itter leadi af the trarsistor interchanged. The data obtained are shown in table 111-9. The plotted data are shown il1 figure IlI-46.

lA6lE 111-9.

MEhSURED INVERSE
ACTIV[ REGtnN
. I~

VARIATIO~S

I~VfRSE

V BC
i I

= VEe

IE 0.050 rnA 0.120 0.200 0.455 0.840 . 1. 800 2.950 6.220

0.:}55V 0.576
0.5e8

0.01 ,l\A 0.03 . 0.06 0.10

0.112

p.610 0.626 I).GIl7

'0.662

o ':'J
0.30

0.679 0.695 0.718 0.726 0.747 0.7f2 O. 790

0.60 1.00 2.00 3.00 6.00 10.JO 30.00

10.COO

18.200 26.200 50.000 72.400 140.000

TS (0)

=J

'1

-14' 10 . amperes

IS (0)
0p,

= 2 x 10- 8

Ii I -AO

~
i f -, 1

~.
~

I ,,! .. )'

I ... II-i l '

~ E
/'

/'

"

H - :1

./

./ ./ ./ ./
./

I.iil

Ii',

/'
/'
~

1/

I If

c. "

. .' ..
~,

l. 1 -ii!

~
./

'./
/'

/'

,. "
I. 'I
,J'

''-

1,:'1

'l
/
/ /
/

/j
I

l
I

I
,I

./ I
I

1'/ I

I /

/~

'/
/

I. I! -lil

I
/

I.ill 11

/
I I I
'

/
I. 'I -I'

'/ / /'
/

/
/

/
/

1,1

i 'f
[
f

r
-/

,I

f (
I ,f:i -fll

',. ill -ill

I . III Il I

.111 -Ill

Figure

tIl-46:

IE and IU as a Function of

Vue

in the Inv'1rse Mode

111-81

L:

I
"

- --..-'------..-.-0;- - .-. '.

AR = 1. 5 x 10

-6

C 4 IS (0)
C4

= 2 x JO- 13 = 6.67

Slope

=~ =
CL
= 32. 1
1

(Qn 0.6 rnA - fn 2 x 10-1~

(0.679 V --o-vy--'-

NCL

= (32. 1)(O.02~9)

= 1.2

'A

30 . . RM -

6)

VA' VB a)

Def;,lition VA and VB are the Early voltage and the inverse Early ~oltage. ~~spectively. The defini~ion of the Early voltage is illustrated by figure 111-47. lS4 0R V SE4
16:~OR VSE3

,
I

Figure I tI -47 .. Definition of Early Vol,tage

111-82

b)

Ti:eical Values A typical va1ue of VA it; 100 volts.

,1\

value of VB is 10 volts. c) '1easurement

typical

The sloPe of IC as a fun:tion of VeE for a constant V BE at V CE = V BE is defined as'gOA: The definition of gOA is illustrated in figure 111-18. Th~ correspondin1 s10pe ~n the invets~ region is defined as gOB ~s illustrated in figure 111-49. gOA and gOB are given as:
, ' ,

Ie (J)

'V A dnd VB can now be solved for as folloW3: '

If only VA is
:.

d~sired

the approximation

'. V _ Ie (0)

Amay bp. used.

gOA

.:.~ J.,
I

\.
"

1
.
~.'

II 1'-83
.

VPE

SLOPE = gOA

,Fi~ure 111-48.

Definition of 90A

'~-

SLOPE

= 90B

Fi9ur~

111-49.

Definition of 90B

I II-84':
,"

d) trace

Example ~ 2N2222A gOA can b( obtained'from fi~Jllr'e III-50. The top I~ (0) at V = VeE is 37.5 ~A. BE
=

rep~esents a V BE of 535 mV.

gOA

40 - 0.53~ 'l?5 ~ 10 pA VV

2.64 x 10- 7 sl'em.,ens

Th~ first approximation to VA is:

V = 31.5 ~A A 2.64 x 10- 7 siemens

= 142

volts

= VEe = 0.6 v,

ThE' inverse pal'ameters can b~ rleteqnined from figure 111-51. IE(O) = 0.32 mA, 4 - (3.4 x 10- A -3 x 10- 4 A) gOB (1.0 V =-0.2 V)

At Vac

~ 5

,x

10- 5

. Slemens

be noted that VB 'cannot be calcul2ted by the same apofoximation u5"d to calc'ulate VA becaus~ the approximate method of detel'niining VA dssumed a negligibl~ effect from the'emitter-base space ch~rge l~er. This assl:mpt~on i'i not valid deter'mining VI!'
It

sh~uld

w:"'n

(31.5 pA)(0.32 mA) - (2.64 x 10~7)(5'x (0- 5)(0.535 V)(O.6 V) 7 A (2.64)( 10- )(0.:2 mAl + (2.64 x Ht7}(5 x 1O-5}(0.535V)" VA = 131 ,volts V V - (37.5 1'11)(0.32 mA) - (2.64 x 10- 7)(5 x 10- 5 )(0.535 V)(O.6 V) 5 B(5 x 10- )(37.5 f (2.64 )( 10- 7)(5 x '10- 5)(0.6 V) VB = 6.38 volts

~A)

1 .....

II 1-85

" i

Fiqure Ill-50.

2N2222A Ie Versus VeE

1.1 J-86

L~----,.,.

"

VLR f[ C/\L [L

ltlll ~.I\/div
fil'l( r ZLlN rI\L

vEC
v

0.1 V/div
Vl~C
Ll.6

Fiqurl'l[[-51.

l1etcl'Illindtion o( InVl'l'Se Lady Voltdqe',

II I-Hl

Computer Exampl~ To verify the mJdified Ebers-Moll model, it ~a5 attempted to recover the IC' IS' and VSE data from the trar.sistor model. The, cir:uit simulatioll of figure iII-ti2 was applied.

f.

Ie --.,
'

, Figure III-52.

Test Simulation

i i

r
j

,r

l
,
i
;

!.. r

One difficulty .encQu'ntered was the prublc:!m of r b , r~, and r~ .. These resistors were defined for an earlier transisto~ and now form the ohmic imp~dance of a composite model. To avoid this ditficulty, r~, r ~, and r ~ were made very s."a 1 I, and the data were compared to the corrected ra\tI data. The transistor model implemented contained only thedc porticn 9f the model a~ shown by the listin9 in figure III-53. The data' produced by 'the modal and the experlmentt:l' data are plotted together in . figure III-54 .. To deruons~rat~ the Early voltage inclusio~ in a mo~el, the Gummel~Poon ~odel was put thrQu~h,a curve ,tracer ,simulation circuit. To obtain the cur~e trac~r, the circu{t offigur~ III-55was simulat~d u~i~~ the SPICE code. Figure III-56 is the SPICE listing for this simulation. Fig~reIII-57 is the transistor characteristic of.the composite 2N2222A model. 5. Model i ng Other Seco.ld Order Eff~cts a. Description' Other second order e~f~cts woich may 'be importan:.. considerations are:
k
J., ~

;,

I II-88
i
i

,
j
~

\
------._----

t P T ~ E ~ETw)QK SI~UlAYIO~ P~O~~~M FORCF WlAP0~j ~A~ORATO~Y, - KAli N~ vE~SION CDC 4.5~2 ~/7b OJ/Ol/7A lJ.ll.53.
~ C ~I~

O~ A LISTiNG OF' US~, n.ATU~ES UNIJlJE TO TrilS V:':~~lm~ lW SCEPTQl :.l'Pi>lY A CA~D CCHAI~IN', TIiE IOOJ.lO "DOCU'1i:.'4TII A'i TIiE FHST CA~'lJ ':>F' THE INPuT TEIIT
:O~~UTER

TIME
C~A

[NTE~I~G

SET~P

PHASE-

PP
10

.l83 SEC. O.lOO ~E~. O.lOO ~EC.

CIRCUIT OESCRIPTIO~ ELEMENTS

JCC.I-2=~1 '3.E-l~.'E~i>'J8.bl.VJE)-I.).~I/P21
JCL.~-I:~2'2.f-1Jo'E~p'VJC32.1)-I.))

JC.2-1=~.'JFC/U.~b17) JE.2-3=X~'JCC/O.~9l1) ~C''''-I=O.OI

~E.3-0=0.OI

JE~.2-3=X8'2.E-l~'E~P'VJE35.57)-I.)) JEC.3-2:~l(3.F-l\'E'P!38.blVJC)-I.))

~9.4-?'=0.01

CC.2-1=1.[-12 ;:E .2-3=I.E-12

EB.0-4~TA~~E 2(TIM) EC..;.O-5.;X9(EBr '
JEFI~ED ~A~AMfTE~S ~1=X~(I.-~JC/l.~.)

~2=~7(1"5.E-7(~)(~(~JEl~.Jl)))

.}

'J'lCTIONS TABLE 2 0.0'.1.1 JurpL'T'; ::S.IHC.IRB 4U'l cornROLS >TOP TIME=1 ~I'lI~UM STEP SIZ~:I.~~j9 ~A~IMUM PRINT POINTS=500 ::':)

I" '1/,
CO~~UTt~
/.

TIME AT TER~INATION OF SETUP ~HASECPA .1~7 SEC. PP 0.)00 SC. 10 0.)00 SEC.

Figure Ill-53.
~

Listing for Variable

(i

Test

f.
,t

~ ..
~

II 1-89
.... -

-'"

,".,

x
x
-1

-2

IX
rc
~/x

<.Il

IS

,-:I
<.Il

+-'

0::

a..

,Q)
~

t;
-I

-3

,
l

;:

LI'l
I

.9-

a:

<
0 -'

....
Q)
~

I
.,
t

<::

-4

.... u..

:::l

0'

. = EXPERIt1ENTAL DATA

r10DEL Oil fA

-6

.4

.s

.'6

.7

.8

.9

VSE' Volt's

II 1-9('

..
\

!"""".~-.-.."..,,~...-..

LO LO
I

IiI-91
! ..... !

 03/01/78

......

l .... ,jG.J~.

I"ru r L!STI"C,

JCC I 0 0 n I '2 0 >12 1 3 0 0 .3 I oJ_ I I) 0 v') 1 ~ 0 IIf> I 7 0 0 Y7 I vI! 1 q 0 I II) 0 0 I I : J

,,~

"

.,
,c
~

.-:.

13 0 1_ 5.f.-b l'i~ 183 0 I') \.~-I) Ie" c I,'> 1.5(,-:; .d':r 0 I , 2.0[-5 1'~b 0 I~ 2.5[-; Id7 0 I ., 3.0t:~" Iii .. .j 20 J.'~-:; JtH 0 21 _.CE-5 1910 0 n -.'>[-<; I b 11 0 7J I).Ot-1) )1 Z 13 J IJO n ] lit 0 :'0 J] It, 11)0 ')Il' :1- ~ 1b 0 ~J JI) b 17 0 ~o Jb 1 lit II 0;,0 )7 19 0 :.10 J8 9 2 C . " JO :Iii 10 21 0' yO JIO I 1 'll 0 :)0 ) II I? 2~ 0 1"l0 .MUDt.L flO .. PNIHF'=l:'~ :J"=Jl .15=3.f.-)" ~i=lvr) ~(;.q e ' l . ' ; IO,,4 .,.JoI C? ~ /., t. 7[ - L' .. : ~ I J 1') II< =! "? r - 3 I ( .. : 1 ~ ..... , ' . " . ' " .. TF'=~.".[-I() TOI." .... f- .. C)f:I.!.I(~-!' .. o . , CJ:"ll.J"t:-IZ PC'0.~ .. e ').U ~ ... '!oIil .OC VC cor, 0 I ~.'..ll 1' .. 01 OC.IIV)I l,v,1I IIV'I Ilv,>' Ilv,>' I n l . ; '
0 0
~-----~---.-

"II

12

a'll

..

.r '.0

I'''l'

....

Fi gure

I I-56 .

SPICE r.nput

.~

I I l-9~

.
I

" [

I
[
. . . . . . ............... } 1

iI

' .........................
..
~

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FIgure III-57.

S j nu 1.1 tl'tI "Curve Trace"

1&1.-93

(I)
(2)
(3)

Distributed JUl,ctioll CaU?citallce

Tran~it Time Variations with Collector Current

Parameter Variations with Temperature for

section.

Techniqu~s

~Od~ling

these second order effects are discussed in this

tJ.

Ad'Jaflt:ages

of second order ~ffects.

...
,

I~creased simtJlation ~ccur~cy may be ottained by inclusion

Cautions

Incl~sion of second ~rJer effects incr~dses compl~xity,

simulation time, alld parameter!zation time. Second order effects should only be mOdeled when t~e extra accuracy is absolutely necessa~y. d. Characteri st ics The collector-to-base c~patitance i~ not a simple capaci'tance, but is dist.ributed across tlte high base sheet resistance. The si~plest lumped modll for this distributed transitiqn capacit~nce is given by figure III-58 RATIO is a parameter whirh defin~s how C is split. jC
C,
r'

C,k2

Cjt: 1 R

I'b
'f

Figure III-58,

Distributed Base Capacitance

.J

'."

e,

Defi,ni n9 Eguat i Or.5 Cjcl = (C jC )(RAT 0)

Y

c. JC 2 = (C'C)(1 J
PARAMETER (T) f.

RATIO)
+

= PARAMETER (TnO~)[
Parameterization I) RATIO a) Definition RATIO

leI (T - Tnom) + TC

(T - Tnoa)2 ]

the split of the collector-base junction capacitor C'C arro~s the base resist0r J u b) Typical Value

defin~s

r:.

A typical value of RATIO is O.B. betwpen 0 and 1. c) termi'al measurements. device is known fro~: Mpaslrement

RATIO must lie

RATIO is a difficult parlmeter t~ dptermine from It can be determineJ easily if 'the topolo~y of

th~

I'

.
i
~

RA Tl 0

= (I

0'

A" .~ )
th@ emitter 'a~d AS is the area of't~~ base including

r ,

I
r

where AE i~ the al'l~ the emitter arpa,

2)

TF (IC).

a)

Definition'
rf

r ,
f

time with collector current. tahle, a fit to an pmpirical

Tf

(IC) modE.'ls th'e varir'lion "f t.ot.d transit It may be descrjhed by a piecewise linear tll ..1cttO.l, 01' byfitlin'J to:

~T flO [I ~ (~Y( t IY]

~ ~

II 1-95

...

.
~

.
----------- -< - - - -

.1

where:

LE = the 5mall~st emitter width w = the base width leo = the current at which TF starts to

ri~e

This expression is dPplicable if tile data form is as shown in figure III-5':l. T'I"o points on the curve cpuld be taken and the h'Il) simultan':'(ltJs equatirns s~lved for LE/W and leo or a curve fitting routine coul~ t used.

1 _________________1

ICO
Figurr IiI-59.

1,.

Dependence of 'F on Collector Currpnt - ?N2222A manufacturer specification sheets shown 1n

bl

Exa~ple

Th~

figure III-~ give ~ plot of 'T versus collectDr c~rrent. lhis plot may be, reduced to a plot of IF ver~us collector curr~nt dPplying:

111 ~96

*.
:
.~

where: . CC J

rl {1 . c which produces the total

= 4.5 pF . = 12.5

tr~nsit

time data listed in tau1e 111-10.

TA3LE 111-10. IC O. 1 rnA 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 fT 12 MHz 23 54 90 140 170 200 240 280 300

TF VARIATIONS

tF
,
'

1.32 0.86 2.89 1. 71 '1.08 8.80 7.4 6.07 5.12 4.74

x x' x x x x x x x 10-'lO x 10- 10

10- 8 seconds 10- 9 10- 9 10 -9 10- 9 10- 10 10- 10 10- 10

(
t

Figur! 111-60 is a plot of T~ (I C" It does not appear that .the parameters lE/W and ICo ate applicable to the 2N2222A. 3)' T,C l , TC 2 , TC l and TC Z ar~'th~ fi~st and secofid order temperature coeff'icients of pard.meters ~hich may vary with temperature. PARAM is the te~perature variable parameter. TC 1' andTC 2 describe a simple fit to experimental data obtained f.rom an environmelltal chaPlber. , 6. Photocurrent 'Effects a.Descriotion Photocurrents in the tran~istor are produced in a similar manner as within the diode .. The geometry, however, is more complex.
.

~,

I
. t

r l ,
~.

I , I ,
".

II 1.. ~7

l'
"

l . 'i

"

: !

"

+-'
C
Q)
~ ~ ~

U
N

.... a
I

0 +-'
U
Q)
r-

VI

..,

Q.

.... .... '"

<1'1

VI
~

::Q)

Q)

E,

i=
.,..
VI

+-'
C

....,

ttl

....
I

'Ir-

+-' 0 I-

ttl

I
I

10
I'

L'~I1~_~~~~~~ co
.... C
I

111-98
.
-..

C0nsider the schematic tldnsistor of figure 111-61 which is in the normal operating region. When'expospd to ionizing radiation, photocurr~nt i5 produced at the base-r:ollector junction and, at the base-emitter junction. The base-emitter photocurrent is often ignored since it is usually muc~ s~aller than the bas~-collector photocurrent .. Photorurr~nt at th basecollector junction will consist of a pro~pt component,consisting of pairs . . gen~rated within the. .depletion region, W c , and a deJayed component of minority electron and holes on~diffusion length away from, the delJletion reqion edge (L pc ' L )' ec
BASE

CONTACT

EMITTER cornAcT

i .
I

I I I I

I'

- - --.

........

------ 0

-L

ec

_.J

,r
f ,

. .COLLECTOR:-N' . ... .
I

(V

rp~--

Figure III-61.

Transist~r Geon:etry (NPN)

"

photocurrent qenerators should Le treat~d in the manner dis~ussed in chapter I1.B.8, The physical parameter estimation techniques found by terminal meaSllr~mentJ for the diode may. be applied to the base-collector terminals of the transistor.

, If a detailed time dejJendent prediction is desired, thp

. 111 .. 99 .'
." .. J

-,.,-

! I

t I

I
I
t

t
l

r r
r t ,
b

One of the simplest yet effective ways to pr~dict photocurrent magnitude,is by the use af the equations develo~edby J. K. Notthoff (see r'f. 111-3). tlotthoff's equations are time independent and p.redict the peak primary photocurrent. They allo,w calculation of primary photocurrent from manufacturer data sheets and require no measurements or te~ts to be performed, Primary photocurrent which is produced across the base-col- lector juncifon m~y flow across the base~emitter junction to be multiplied by the ~ of the transistor. The resulting'Lollector current is the secondary phococJrrent of the transistor. The magnitude of the secondary photocurrent will be a strong function of r~ and extern~l resistance in the base 1ead .. To obtain only the primary phc(L'current, 'ionizing radiation tests often me,asure orly the photocurrent flowing from the collector to the base by leaving the emitter lead open. This measured J,lrimary photocurrent can then define a base-collector current generator through tables, double exponentials, etc. A drawback of this method is that changes in bidS a:ld 'dose rate are not easily handled .. b. Artvantag'~s lnclusion of photocurrent generators will allow the prediction of circuit response to ionizing radiation. ~~te~mination of the value of the photocurrent generator fro~ exp~rimental dat~ is the sim- plest method. Prediction. fr~m terminal measurements allows t{me depend~nt pre~ictions. implementation of Notthoff's eq~ations requi~e only the data sheet information. c. Cautions Prediction from ex~erimental datl allows no flexibility for parameter changes. Prediction from terminal measlirements ,requires. lab6ratory facilities~ Pr~di:tion from Notthoff's equation does not allow time dep~ndency. ,d.' Chdl'acteristic5 The plac~ment of photocurrent genera~or~ (Ipp> is illustrated in figure 111-62. c_-

I - . ~_ ;';)1-=_-=--:._ ...

-.: 'j

111-100

=-~~~..:..-~_~_"':'-"':';'_ _ _ _ _ _":"";"_ _ _ _ _ _. . . . ._ _

"';""""""'....i.............',~, _ _ __

,~

i-

c
rl c

IpPBc
..-----~

rl c

rl
B

, ppBE

rl

rl e
E
NPN PNP,

Figu",:: 1II-62.

Placement

Q,f

Photocurrent Generator-s,

.j

e.' Defining Eg~ations Notthoff's equations are 1istea in table III-11. The a~curacy of prediction by Notth6ff's equations is il1ustrated,in figure 111-63. f. 'Pa!'amet~rization The 2N2222A is listed as a switching and amplifier 'transistor. Two of Notthoff's equation~ are applicable. The ~quation for switching'tra"sistor~ is the first applicable ,equation. rrom th~ data , she'ets sl1own' in figu,re 111-5, the equat'jon may be pa'rametel'ized as:

I
P
-

",
~;

'"t,

~;

~-~

III-10l

..f :.

.-- ... - _ - " , ........ ...,..."' ......,.........

"7" _._.

ft_ ........... ,_ .
~. ~

~""""'_"~_~"

..
TABl: IIl-l1.
DEFI~ING EQUATI~NS

....,

Pre~iction

Equation

Polarity NPN PNP NPN PNP

- Po (Watts) (Not~ 1) to 0.6 to 0.6 0.8 to 1. 0 0.8 to 1. 0 2.0 and over 2.0 and over All All .

Ipp Type (Note' 2)

'5\11

=
+

1/3 1/2( 1CtBl V CB1 ts 6.47

1/3) V CB2 .

6 x 10- 12 9.5 x 10- 12 1. 7 x 10- 11 2.6 x 10- 11 4. x 10 .

-11

--~

'

..

SW SW SW SW SW Amp Amp

Same as Above Same as Above Same as Above Same .('s Above Same a5 Above -2/5 V ( 1/3 1fT CBO CCB1VCBl
+

-0

....
I

NPN PNP NPN PNP

6.3 x 10- 11
+

.N

1.08) ( 21.6

.V 1/3) CB2

3.24 x 10- 13 4.8 x 10- 13

Same as Above'

~--

NOTES: 1. Power Dissipation at TA

2.

= 25C.
-

SW - 5wh:.eI':ing, Amp - Ami'll ifier

.3. Units -are mA, !'ad (S;)/s, pF, Volts, GHz, ns. 4. V is voltage at which CCBl 1.s specifie.d. CB1 5. V is voltage at w~ich device is to be operated .. CB2

..

'.
""~:'.":~."

'r"':':

~.....~~,,..,..... ~~-'~""'.,., .. ~.~

" ................ -~~--,,--

..

..
'l~ '""'----~ - - ........ ~-,- ...
.

...

'"

-. .

,
'",

~-.,~--

jf)

.-

1: x
x
~

:....

"

w.'.
1',

.~. I

i
""' It. i \ C ,,) '- "\ I ~ .)

l,j

',"

iI,'

.. i .. \

~')~' !d.:J

:)P
I

-f"

'I

')1-'1'

,~i)

. ",J,.CIL.J .

.-

::
');)

I' {:,.J)':],,}

;'J

~.

,. x
~

1 ') ')
- I
')

"

]f) -

:-:;
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IIi>

""
x
:J.
~,

i"U:JJl C ~E.J
2.IJ

="'

1')~
:;j'

i'~.rJ}

I Cj LiJ

101

I,),:,:lL\,>,-'<r::J I.

2 .
,L\SL',<I..J

.W

o.

~
11/)
!II'}

:r,

;Jj'

<

I') J
[() [
JCj~

: :)3

1'1"

1') 'j

1",')

1)

[,)

lOJ

10'"

1;) :i

IU

I' ::ELJ I CT[l) I':IJ. !'\'" y i'ilOT{)CL'l;!{L~;T(::J,\)

i';U.'Jlc,'L.i; l':n.lA!(\' i'ljlnl)CLI;i<E:;'~ (!1IA)

(a)

l'redi('teu vs ::easured Prir.J:try I'flo'tllcurrcnt S ill Silic'>n Swirciling Trilnsistor~ ill.!O

If)..

(b)

i'rediclt.:(j vs ::e;j!j'lrt:~ i'rLnary j)lloto,~urrt:nt!j in Silicon

r.lcJ(Si)/s

'

' f ler ' ' I' ' I .') 1~I ra J '\;.11> I 1 , r'lOs1st,'rs.1t

( 51 '. I / S

Figure 111":63.

Predicted Vers~s Ileasured Prirllary Photo,:urrents in Sil icon ..)\'litctling and Anplifier -Transistors (After Notthoff, Reference 111-2)

------

\
r'

Ipp

=i
=i

(8 pF)(lO V)1/1(225 ns)l/~ (~.47

V~~~) 6 x 10- 12

T~e equ~tionfor all NPN ~mplifiers yields:

Ipp

(0:3 GHz)-?/5 (75 (21.6

+

V~ [(8

pF)(lO V)1/3

1.08J

13 1/3 ' V CJ2 ) (3.24 x 10- )

Examp 1e - 2N2222A A siiTluliition of a 2N2222A tr.:wsient ionizing Ir.die;, ion test was made by application of Notthoff's eql''ltions. As an a~)p"OX; rnation, the photocurr,ent predlcted by these equations,was given 0 waveshape identical to, the ionizing waveform discussed in the diode pnolocurrent examole. From dosimetry, the peak ionizing dose rate was taken to be 1: 16 x 10 10 rad (Si)/sec.
f

g.

/.i

i~

The test 'circuit used for the actual test and the simulation shown in figure 111-64.
It-------.

i
!

1
, ";

Vec 20 V

RB
100 .: '0

, i ,
Fi!:jure III-54.

f
I

I
r

l
Photocurrent Test Ci r~uit

! ,
i
.i

r
I. i

i
I

IlI-104

.'

.'

Hotthoff'~ equatiuns for these condit;ons (V CB2 10 = 1.16 x 10 ) yields the I'esults.

= 2G

V, Y

Ipp (SW) : 165.26 rnA I pp (AMP) = 203.19 mA The results from tho switching transistor 'equation wer~ epplipd. The results of the actual test are illustrated in figure III-65. The curt'ent probe user. to monitor the test has a response of 5 mV/mA. Thl pc-ak photoresponse is about 92(1 rnA. T:le SPICE simu1ation circt:it is listed in figure III-6G. The simulativn result.;' are shown in figure 111-67. The predicted pea~ ~hotot~rrent w~s 456 rnA. The experimental,waveform lasted roughly 300 ns. The. predic~ed waveform lasted about 180 ns. 7. Neutro~ Effects The two major effects of .leutr'on d,Jmage, increased density of rrcombinat iOr! centers and carrif:r r~moval, may produce serious degrad3tion of the performance of the transistor. The carrier removal effect will result in an effe~tive courterdoping 0f all regi~ns of the sem~conduclor. O~e effert of lighter doping is to increase junction breakduwri. ExperimEnts, however" indic,ate tr.at this effect is relatively small for transistors. The change in av CEO will be significant due to the gain dependency of this parameter (see chapter III.B.2). Anotner effect of counterdoping will b~ to incre~se the resis-' ti~ity of th2 ~e~iconductor. The increase 'in resistivity is es~ecially , pronounced in th~ lightly doped regions. Since'th~ collector region is USUJllv lightly doped in a planar process, an increase in the collector, bulk resistance is expected. The increased density of reco~bination cp.nters will produce several effects, the most important being the degradation of transistor gain. Miilority c(,!'riers which are, injected into the base from the emitter must cross the base region to reac~ the collector as ~ollector turrent.

Ill-lOS,
,., ,

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" #

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.. .. ..

. ..
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. .. . ~

:. . :., ~.
:

'.:,

":. :.': :.

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' I

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t.'

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...... .. .. . . :..

. ... . . . . . .. :'.o:' \

: : : : ': : . ~
: t

.:.-:

:...:

II I -10~

Carriers injected into t~e base are not at equilibrium and may recombine with the majoi'ity carrie,'s in the region produc1ng ba'e current. Th. addition of recu~bjnation centers to the base will increase the reco~ bination process producinn more ~ase curre,"t and less collector current. The net resu~t 15 a loss of gain. Very nalTow bilS- wi dtns mean 1ess time' fo i . base trans it and tHerefore less chance for recombination. higher gain, and higher frequency per f 0rmance. This is the ba~is for the Messenger-Spr~tt equation:

=
\lrnere: rO p$

21lT

the preirrauiation p the postirradiation p

K = an pmpirical constant approximately equal to 10- 6 cm 2/n-sec ~ = the neutron fluenc~ in n/cm 2 in I MEV eq~ivalents Other effe~ts of the increased recombination center density are incre~sed junction leakage. decreased ~iffusion capacitance, and increased
coll~ctor. re~istance.,

1
~.

t.

It ha'<; now been stated that both 'the car'rier rel'loval effect and the ~ncrease in rec0~bination center den;ity'will affect the collector bulk reiistance. An increase in c~llector resistance coupled wth,a I . decrease in bet L,ay producr a serious change in the saturation charac-. teristics of a transi~tor. rir!it. the decrease. in, beta will require an ircreaspin bas current to b~ing ~ transistor into ~a~uration. The ircreased colle tor resistance will produce a higher coll'eetor-emitter saturation vol~ qe. The change in safuraticn voltag~ is frequently ~he mqst important ,adiati~n eff~:t for switching tran~istors. While the most impo~tant neutron radiation effect, gain degr]datiOll, molY he ec, imatect from tprmill<tl rr,easlJr't>ments or data sheet information . test data are the most reliable.

'j

Test data may be obtained from such sources ~s the CRIC ddta base if e~perimental facilities Jre not available (See reference IiI-4). Al~ char'lC]es tJ a trallsistor, including ,tho:.;e represented by, cl'mplex lnteractions such as collector resi!.tance, may be determined b~' simply remodeling the transistor from tests described in this chapter. S. ,Total Dose Effects Ionizing rldiation alters the bphavior of s~miconductor surfaces. The major effects are the accum~lation of pos'itive ch~rge in the pas5ivJting oxirle and an increased density of surface states at the' silicon-oxide interfaci. The net result will b~ ari enhancem?nt or depletion of the semiconductor ~urface. The surface field may p~~duce a loss in gain ~f silicon passivated transistors. Surfac~ damage will produce an .'3i(Ht.lonal leakaqe COMponent for the reverse biased collector base junCt10n, and an ad~itional tase current component for the forward biased, base emitter junction. Transition capacitancem'ay undergIJ an increase. Unfortunately. the effect of ioni~ing radia~~on on the surfdce of transistors cannot be predicted from the ')hysical ct-.aracteris~:cs of the transIstor. The fact that damage appears to be bias dependent further complicates the problem. At the pre~ent ~ime, the effects bf total lonizing dose are best m6~ele~ from information o~tain~d throu~h e~perimenl. 9. Burnout Electrical o"erstress or even extreme bias conditions 'may prOluce overheatin~ and failure of the transistor. For EM~ simulations, bJrnout will usually ihvolve the ,breakdown o. a transistor junction andth~ sub~eQuent h~atinq. The best technique currently available f~r failure prediction is' to 'treat the two junctions of the transistor as two' interrelated diodes e"ch of. which has associated failure constJnts, K. These diodes may be analyzed by the techn'ques discussed in 'hapter
Il.P.10.

l . ;'c" "d~'

III-110
,'I,
<0 , :.:-:,;....,.,. " . ' ,

"'--,

Linvill Lumped Model o the Transistor a. Introduction In chaJjter II.B.12, the concept of lJIodeling the physical proces,es within a biDolar semiconductor d~vice using lumped, 1 inear networ~-like elements was discussed. These concepts may be applied di 'ectly to transistor models which will be discussed briefly in this sect ion. The Linvill "lump" represents an arbitrarily small slice or volume of semiconductor matp.rial. Each slice is made' up of the Linvill elements which represent the physical behavidr of minority charge carriers in the slice. The storanc~ element represents charge storage, combinance f't'present5. charge recombination, diffusance r'epresents charge diffusion~ and driftance represent5. charge behavior in an electric field. The Linvill lumps a~e c~upled with the Linvill P-N junction. The Linvill P-N junction models th& "law of the junction" which defines minority carrier concentration at the junction edge as a function of the vJltage across the junction. \ The Linvill transistor ~odel can now be se~n as two Linvill ?-N junctions sepap~ted tv a'region of ei~her p,- or N-type semiconductors. Obviously, the accuracy of the model will be a function of the' number of lump::; and the size (for example" 1/2 base width) of th~ lumrs As a general rule, ho~e~er, only the smallest numb~r of lUlJlps that per~its a sufficiently accurate ~odel'shou1d ~e used. , The base region of a transistor is designed to be ~arrow c1mpared to the minority carrier diffusion length. For this reason, a , single It repre5.~ntation of. two lumps is usually sufficient til Rlodel the ' bphavior 'If the bas'e regi,on. Doping gradients, et~. may pro~uce an , electric field across the basp. so carr;er mov~ment in the base may bl ' rp.presented by the driftance element a!>'we 11 as the di (fusance e 1emE'nt. At thic; point, thQ simplest transistor moael the two-lump model, is defined. This model is show:) in figure 11I-G8. Relpvant pxpressions for this :!lode 1 ar'e:
"

10.

11'1-111

, .' ,. ____ . . ,_ -::.; .

~

;:=;::::;;:=:wIiI-IIfiIIII-~--

,,1

. i
,
.c

1
......V
~ j.

...... <11

0.. Z 0..

--.0
til
"":)

~V/
' .-e-

a.

.c
:::t:
"'C

a.

<11

\<11~
. 't... .

<11

r...

til

",

l-

c::: r...

til

n.

.....J

('-'

l-

')

c:::

:::t:

"'C
t..;

<11

('~

0')
~

..... .....
<11
~

r...

0'1

....

+
1,),

...... <11

70..

LL..

7.

-.!

.c

111-1)2

,
I

-I 1
,'.

,- .. t

where mo is the base equilibrium minority carrier corcentr3tion. $1

Hd8 - TF

,$2
Hd8

~ TR

The ~mitter is usually heavily doped unJ has little effecw on the radiation response of the transistor. Physically, the importanc~ of the emitter is in determining the current gain of the tra~sistor throu~h emitt~r efficiency. Normally, no lumps or only one lump is used to model the emitter region. The .Iightly doped coll~ctor region will significantly affect the charge storage 'behavior and the photoresponse of the transistor. Becau&e the length Of the collector is generally long ~ompared ~o the minority carrier diffusion length, a number of lumps modeling the collector regior.may be necessary. Other isolation region and even higner accuracy be built to simulate regions, such as the substrate buried layer and, junction, may ~lso ~e considered for mod~ling. If is required; two dimensional Lilrvi,ll structures may laterul effects ..

I
i ,
i

c.hC!pter 11.B.12. For neutrons" the change in ~he combinance elements of the b~se will'mo~el tra"~istor gain deg~adation a5 this element will ' reflect the increase in recoillbination centers produced by the impinging neutrons. If pholocurrent pr~dictions al'e desired, the colbctol' regio" must be modeled. The two lump m6del will not p~edict the shape of the primary photocurrent waveform ..

R~diation effects for Linvill models are discussed in

III-113
..

-------~
.' . . -.-. . . . . . , . , .... > ....

. ". ~

.- .
.,

_"OJ'

::.J':"~'"

-. - - ., *:!to b('t
.
"'

The ~alues of the lumped elements cannot be easily determined by terminal lr.ea!';U1'e'llents. As a 'consequence, the lillvill tnnsistor model is better suited to research into device behavior than for practical nucle3r hardness assessments. However, to demon~trate the im~lpmentati~G of a transi'stor model by a network analysis code, rough approximati.;":; were used to produce a two'lump Linvill model of the 2N2222A. b. Example of Two Lump Transistor Mod~l 1) Description The Linvill lumped model for the trdr5istor represents the development of a symbolic model consisting of lump~d, linpar, networklike elments which rerresent physical events within the device. These elements represent actual physical processes occurring in tra~sistors such as ch~rge ditfusion, recombination, gener~tion, storage, ~nd drift. 2) Advantages The Linvill lumpey mod~l of the transistor gives th~ analyst greatei' insight into th~ physkal processes occurring in the transistor:
3)

Cautions The principal dis~jvantage of the lumped model is

th~t the lumped elements are not directly measurable. The number of cor.~s adaptable to ,t~e Linvill formulation are also limited.

4)

Characteristics

The concept of modeli~9 ~sing Li~vill lumped elements is discuss~d in chapter II.B.12. 01le concept is th~t model accuracy , improves with increasing, number of lumps. For practical use, th~ model needs to be as simple ~s ~ossi~le.
Th~ simplest 'transistor mod~l is a two lum~ subdiv'ision 6f the base. Th~ total excess charge stored in th base is then divided into two independent lumped components' contained in these two lumps., Two lump models of transistors are illustrated in figure III-G8.

'-i

111-114
;
~ .l

,!~~

"'-'

~.J

:1 I r r

l I
f

r I

5)

~efining

Equations

i, 91

(if PNP)

i92

= = =

Pno HC2 npo HC1 nno HC2

-y-yliAB W

qA Ws

90

. (if PNP)

\;1 i92

90 Y

(if NPN)

qA Ws -Z. ,go y
1 -lJ

(tf NPN)

P e = Ppo [exp. (~e) Pc = p"O [ex p

(

~) -1

"e = "po [ exp ( ~) -1 ] "c = "po [exp( ~) -1

(assuming uni-form1y doped base)

52

.... t

HdB 6)

Parameter List 5 = the values of 'the storance elements HC = .the value of the combinance elements

. 111-115

",

'

--,,-,

... ?

~.~ ..

'

______ , _ __

II&. _-.. .."-' ....

, ......... ' . . . . . . w . ..... ~ ...~t t._,.,_"_,~,,, ..........:.->-.._-..,..".., ., ..a'"""':"": .. ~'......~~,.,u.. :

~.....

"_

..- - ...........- - - -0" : -t rtf ;;_:;;~._, ~- J _ ii _ ;.,;;; _ _ b

,. ,

ig - the value of the charge generdtion current generator Ic = the collector current r b = the base current Ie = the emitter current n -- the concentration of minor'ity carrier electrons p = the concentration of minority carrier holes npo Pno

= =

the equilibrium concentrations of minority carrier electrons

til~ equilibrium concentration of minority carder holes

, I I
II
H

t:

I'
I

= the voltage potential ~c = the voltage potential Ws = bas~ width A = base area ) = ionizing dose rate go = generation rate
~e
7)

across the emitter junction across the collector junction

Parameters to npo Pno

52

~e

Found

HC2
51

HC1
HdS

8)

Parameterization
a)
'n

p.o' pno Definition--

npo and Pno' are the equilibrium mino~ity carrier cc.ncentratiQns in P- andN-type material, respective~y. npo,is required for the bas~ material if dealing with an NPN transistor~ P is no

t
.f
. ~

'

'i

~-~_~,~~~~~~~~ -_.

",

----

'4 ,J
'::~'-~

required for the b3~e regiun if d PNP trlnsistor is being considered. imp'ortant. assumption ; s that the transistOl' is a~rupt and unIformly duped.
2

An

, T~~ica1 Value Values for npo and Pno vary widely, A . / cm 3. typical, value is 1 l( 10 4 carrIers 3 Measurement If the doping concentration of the bas~ is known. a minority concentration mo (n po or Pno) can be calculated as:

wile: e: the doping concentration in the base n. - the intrinsic carrier cOl)centration (1.45 'x 10 10 carriers/cm 3 I for ~i1ic0n at room'temp~ra~ure) If'the doping concentration is not known, an estimate of NBcan be obtained from BV EBO ' th~ b~se-emitter breatdown vo ltage as:
NS

VS~

\3/2

( 2.72 x 1019

~s~uming

that th~ emitter is much more heavil~ doped than the base and that the em~tter junctio~ i~ planar.
t,)

HdB
1

Defi nit ion ------

HnB represents the diffusion of

minori~y

carriers through the ba5e

region~

2,

Typical Value A typical value for ~dB is I x 10- 16 cm 3 A.

," ,
0----;---

III-1l7
-_'-

~ l--.---~-;--.---' :.-~-'- -

"

.)

Measurement'

HdB can be det.ermi ned f rclI rna (r po or Pno) and IS,'which is described in chapter IlLS. i a1ol1g with techniques to determine its value. HoB can then be calculated to be:

Oefinnicn HC1 and HC2 are the values of the elements which represent the recombination of minority charge carriers in the base region. 2 Typical Values Typical values for HC1 'and HC2 are 1 x 18 10- and 1 x 10- 16 cm 3 'A, respectively. HCl and HC2 ca~ be deter~ined from mo (n po or Pno)' IS' H dB , NF, anda R IS and a R are parameters which are disrussej in chapter 111. 9. 1. From these par'ameters, HC1 and"i are found a'~ C2

d)

Sl' S2 Definition ~1 and 52 are th~ values of the two storance 51 and 52 represent charge storage within

e1em~nts

in the base region.

the base.

j,

"

)
,

Typical Values Typical values for 51 and 52 are 1 x 10 -24 3 22 3 cm C and 1 x 10- cm .C, respectively. 3 Measurement 51 and 52 can be estimated from t , t , and F R H dB tF and lR are paramet~ls developed in chapter V. 51 and 52 are estimated as: 51 52

= =

IF HdB

tR HdB
9)

Examples - 2N2222A a) mo

The doping concentration within the base is not directly available; therefore, the breakdown estimate ~ill be made. Base-emitter breakdown voltage was measured at about 8 volts.

=(
1

2.72

8 V
l(

)-3/2 10 12,

= 1.98

)(

lO~7

atoms/cm 3

lhis implies an equil ibrillm electron conce:ltr.:!tion in th~ base of:

npo

= '('.45
b)

x lOiO)2

1. 98 x 10 17

= 1.06

x 10 3 electrons/cm 3

Hd8 . Choosing IS from the basic t~an~i5tor

.
3..3 x,lO

model, HdB is:

.
;

-14
A :: 3:113 x 10-17cm 3. A

1.06 x 10 3 electrons/cm

.>
)

.1.

111-119
i
I

~.

{
'-'

.~ ..

. '.

Obtaining basic

tr~~sistor

model

r~r3met~rs:

=
=

J i c 3) 3 1 l' " 10- 17;. . ", J . " ) n- ; .! ;.. , J \ I'( f\ q' - 7 ) - , ;,~ \3 . 3 x" , _, C> -,:"::Jtl . U b" )( lll , 1.:.1 \ ' .)---,"_ _ _ ~_'" , (l.OC x 1!)3 /rm J)
I

1.375 x 10- 19 Ac~3

(J, 3, )(

_)- lt. , . (,.. ~ q")

I,

tiC2

= =

~,

(1.

06 )( 1G3!e~3)

,U, tl'.. j , -

~. tI ,1 . L,.)

1 (', 3, 3' , I ~ ~ I .: ,\.' I em ) \ J, ' 'J

1,' -

17

.;,. em' k

- ,- --.

HC2

3.)2R
d)

)(

AoplyinQ the transit times

stvr~qe,

fro~

the ehJrqe

mode I:

~' (9 .~~
=

'0- 10 5eeonds). . (3 11 J,j(.O ' -17 cm' 3 A) x:

~ 3 ,.97 )( 10 - 26 emC

S?.
::

(8'.29 x 10- 3 . sDeonds)'

(1.113 x 10-11 el1:A)

2.~B )(IO-2~ cm 3 C
10)
~ol!lplitE'r

Simulation of the L;nvil1 Tranc,istol' r-lodel put thr Oll(l~l a s i mu 1a ted curve Tile NET-2 The lluti,lt f'or

To demonstrate the imple~e~tation of'thE' Linvil1 t r~ns i c; tor mode ~. the Li nv ~ 11 mode 1
trJCf..
il1~(:~
.thi~ruli
W,lS

fhl> topoJO(IY ~cplier1 is demonr,triltpd by fiqure 111-09. lLtiflq for this run i; sLow:1 ;n fiql.re Ill 70. is
sho~n

in fi(lt;I'e lII-l1 ;,omt! indicu'tir,n of ttle, s~,ccess o,r the Lin,i;'1 tr;lnsht\)!"

modE' 1 c.tr. be found bi' chp~kinq th(' qain characteristic (If the mod!:'1.

The

tll- i 20'

I(
[01'_[ L Ttl"

i'i1L ~ '\l; [

,t"j'"

~
I

T
Fiqurl' III-69.

- r - - - - - r - J J"

4'

l'invi!11r,H1S:St.Or Tt'c;t Circu;t!O-S A

If r '121

r
"

-..,.----~.

... C'
.c~

... -.
"'N

... "

... '" ....

cmo ..,. ... "" ..... ... ..,

.c '"

.c. ~',..., ..c. .;" .c_

..le>

c.., .c,,,

oCl ....

e ....
IU L

l.-

tr. ....
01'.

.ro~

'" '"

c:

VI

"

In In
11'1",
0
.~

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-J

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>

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1'\1

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n

..,,,

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ut

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I l
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eli'>
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,.
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'IJ

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J 0 .. ,n

Z
4

IJ

......
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()

- ' v ..

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I

-- ..

rl,,,,.

'"~

''''''_'04.1-..) 1J.1, , J' I ....,

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.n

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,~

1"\1 (\J 00

'"
0
r"'"!

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...

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_

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I'\~ ..

r....,
...

- 'c...}_ ''')-C''

.,

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0.

.".

... f l . _

~n~____

04,' -

. -#

(",)...,'
0

.l.

...,

., ..... o,.., __
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~~~

"(\J

'" \

" .
.~ '~
,.,

J ..... .- ,,-,: t\J

'l

\..1 _

.J _

......
.0 ....

.t>.

t::to -

'"l.

,r,

,It

t\J ,,,.., _ _ ~ ~ I

..

r ~ .",
1

'"
"
~~~-~-~~~'U~7-1\J""#"'~ .... r~~_~,""
_ ...... ... - ' 0.-4 .... -. _ ' " "',...

>- ,..,

~~ '->

;"\J f'J '\J "\J \.I

\1

"

- . ,...,

"

til-122
.'.,

111-:123

-------- --

..

"A" points of fig~re 111-69 represent the collectur current produced by a base current of 50 microamperes. The collector curierit produced is about 11.2 rnA. The model current gain is about 224. The'actual gain is ,230. The Linvill model used does produce the basic gain characteristics but should nJt be considered as representi~g physical reality because of the rough approximations made. 11. Code I~plementatlon lable 111-12 is a set of converSlon factors to allow the parameters obtained using ~his handbook to be applied by the more popular circuit analysis codes. A set of typical parameter values are given as defa~lt parameters in ,the event of incomplete characterizati0n.
C. REFERENCES "Semiconductor Data Library", Motorola Semiconductor Products Inc., 1974 Gretreu, I. MOdelin~ The Bipolar Transistor, Tektronix, Inc., Beaverton, Orego'n,' 1 76. , Notthoff, J. K. ,"Technique for Esti'mating Primary Photocurrents in Silicon ,Bipolar Transistors," IEEE Trans. Nuc. Sci., NS-16, no. 6, December 1369. Radiatidn Effects on Se~iconductor Devices, Harry Diamond Laboratorles, ,HDL-DS-77-i, Adeiphl, Maryland, May 1977.

111-1. 111-2.
!

111-3.

, i
1
I
i

Ill-ll.

. ,
lt

l " .' t
....

I
,~

I II .. ' 24 .
' L . , __

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r-

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Ie.,.
.-

\
H,CLE i!1-12.
'leU:""
HA"[5~C-'
C!~CVj

"l,
J

1
CODE
IMPLE~Er~p.T

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Cd
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~C (~I:

Re

(0:;)

.sa ("';)
~C.

RS (.n

RC (a!, I
C~l (,~

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of

etdlrrp~es

in tnis

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r

CHAnER IV MOS MODELING A. INTRODUCTION'

The MOS (JT1p.ta 1 oxi de s'emi conductor) trens i stnr is a s~mi conductor device in which the current betl'e,en two electrodes, Ue source' and the drain, ~s modulated by a relati~ely small voltage applied to the gate '~lectrode. The modulation is acc';nplished by attracting or repellir.~ charg~ carriers to create a narro'N, high cor,ductivity clla~nel near the surface of the semiconductor material. Sillce the gate electrode ic.. separated from the semiconductur ~aterial by a high quality insulator. verv little current flows betw~en tne gate and either the source or th~ . dr3in. This produces an e,xtremely high input impedance, which is the chief advantage of the device.
,

T~e construction ana cperation of the device ran best be understood

be referencing figur~ IV-l (ref. IV-l'). This figure represents an N-channel. MOS tr:..nsistor. The device is constructed by diffusing parallel' N+ source and drain ~egions int~ a liqhtly doped ~-type ~ubstrate material. . . A thin layer of oxide is then grown over,the region'ieparating ~he source and drain. By dep~siting a layer of met llization (gat.e metallization') on top of the oxide arid making electrica contacts to gate, source, drain, and substrate, a four terminal MO trans'istor results: For devi~e operation, assumr tnat 1 e substrate and source are tied to ground and t~e drain i~ conne~ted to positive voltage. If a posi, . tive voltage i3,appli~d to the gate, le trons are attrlcted to the surface. At a sufficiently large g~te v ltag~, the surface of the silicon will become N-type Jue to the presen e of a large nUMber of electrons. With this thin channel formed at the sur ace, current can flow from the drain t6 the source. Sinc~ the drain voltage is positive, a depletion

;.
"

IV1

.
"

':,

.. ~,,
.
"'''-~

"'~~"'~~'

I
V sub

Figure IV-l.

N-Cnannel 110S Transistor Oiag'ram

I,'

, i ,
<

I l I
l

1 .I
t

:1
..1,

.I
,~',

region is for~~d around the N P diode comprising the drdin~to-substrate Jiode. As the drain voltage becomes increasingly positive, the depletion region expands until it eve:1tually penetrates and pinches off the chal.!1e1. Thus, once the channel is form~d between source and drair, the current increases with increasing drain voltage until the pinchoff condition is reached ard the'current no 10ntJer increases with drai,n voltage. Three regions of .operation are of interest. The first region is "cutoff" ~n which no channel is formed between sourre and drail'l and no dra~n current flo~s. The second region of interest occurs vnce sufficient voltage has been appli~d bet~een the gate and ~ource to form a channel between drain and source. This is known as the triode reyior, of operation and is characterized by increasing dra{n current with increasing drain ~oltage. The t~ird region of interest is th~t of saturated operation in which the drdin voltage has been inc~eased until the channel is pinched off and ~rain current no longer incredses with drain voltage~ MOS transistor~ can be fabricat~d so 'that they operate in either the ~nhancement mod~ or the depletion mode. The enhancement mode d2~ice has been gener~lly described above. Without gate-to-source bias, a channel is not present between source and 'drain, and current will not flow. The carrier density near the sl,Jrface must be "enhanced" in ':Jrder'fQr conduc~ion to take place. For N-channel' j~vices fabricated on P-type material, the gate voltaqe must ~e positive to form the channel. For ~-chann~l devices ,fa~ricated on N-type material, the gate voltage must' be negative to form the, channe 1. The dep 1et i on mode devi ce has a channe 1 formed , between the source and drai~ even without gate-to-sourCe bi,s . . Thus,' the , device ~s normally in an "on" condition. To turn the. de"ice "off'," a 'gate voltage must be app 1i ed to dri ve carri ers away froID the surface and ' "d~pl ete" the. channa 1. For N-channe 1 dev'ices, the! po 1ari ty of the dep f et i ng voltage will be neg~tive. For P-c~~~~~l ~e~ices, depleting voltage wi~l be positive.
ca~acitances

The ac performance of the MOS transistor is governed by parasitic which appear :ross:

'

'. >
".

. , ' ~;

. '

~,

i-.

!V-3

/
(1)

"

..

Gate to Substrate (2) Gate to Source (3) Gate to'Orain (4) Sourre to Substrate (5) Drain to Substrate The source-to-substrate and drain-to-substrate capacitances are ~eplet~o~ region capacitances normally associated with reverse bias,PN j'Jnctions. Their valu~s vary as a function of reverse biasing voltage as previously discussed in the chapter on bipolar diod~s. Th~ values of the' gate capacitances vary as a function of gatp voltages .. Expressions describi,g the variatiun ~ill be discussed in this chapter. Note that MJS devices rely on majority carriers to transport current between the source and drain. As a result, variations in minority carrier lifetime have little af;ect on their perflirmanc:e. Consequently, minotity carrier lifetime degradation induced by neutron irradiation is of little consequenc~ for MOS devices. S'Jme carrier removai ~ff'2:tz associated with neutron irradiation may occur at highfluences (::: 10 15 n/cm 2 ). Neutron damage to MOS devices will not be treated in this handbook. Ionizillg radiatior. produces hole electron pairs in the insulator (usually silic~~ Gioxid~,' Si0 2) between the gate electrode and the channel as well as within the '::;emiconductor matP.rlal. . Unfortunately, electrons have a higher mobility in Si0 2 than do holes. Therefore, ele-:trons tend to be swept out uf the Jxide leaving trappad J positively charged hole,s behind. This positiv~ charge tends to attract or repell carriers near the surf~ce depending on whether the device is an N-chann~l 6~. P-channel tra~sistor. Ionizing radi~ti~~ causes P-channel transi~tors to mo~e toward enhancement mode operation, and N-ctlannel trahsistors move toward depletion mode operatio,. In addition to oxide charge trapping, ionizing radiati0n increases Lhe interface state density. This is refle~ted as a shift towJrd enh~ncement ~ode operation for both N-chahnel and P-channel devices. Thus, oxide tharge trapping and interface state

,4
. IV-4
,-, I

.t
~

i I
i

.t
. I

r
~

density increases tend to b~ offsetting phenomena in N-channef devices and additive phenom'!na in i)-challnel devices. Both phenomena an- a f.mction of: (1) Total lonizing Dose Absorb~d by the Device (2) The Gate voltage (3) Th~ Physiql Propprtip.s of the Gate Insulator T.. e fUflct i ona 1 dependt:flci es are comp 1ex and not thorou~h ly def: j' ed at tnis time. Ionizing raaiation also produces photocurrents in PN junctions associated with the source/substrate 3nd drain/substrat~ diffusions. Th~se photocurrents have the same f~nctional dep~ndencies 3S those dis'cussed previously in the bipolar diode chapter. They are reviewed briefly in the models presented here. In CMOS (~omp~ementary ~ymmetry MOS) technology,' both N-chan~el and P-r.hannel, transistor::; are f~bricated on the same silicon chip. As a res~lt, three and,four layer parasitic structures can be formed. These cali act like trailsistors and SCR's when triggered by a 'pho:ocurl'ent pulse. If an SCR structure is triggered, it C1n remain ~n a conducting state after the termination of the radiation pt:lse. This is the co,ndition ,known as "latch up." It may result in catastrophic failure ,of the device. These parasitic bipolar ~tructures 'must be incl,uded in any transient photoreS;lons2 anal'yses of CMO$ de~ices. Electric~l overstress pulses may dama(1e MOS de\'ice::.. eithe .. by burning oct'PN diodes associated with source and d~ain diffusions or by rupturing the gate'dielectric., The Si0 2 gate dielectric is extremely thin o C ' (700 A - ';000 A) and is subjec,t to brea",::!own at voltages in the range af 70 - 100 V. Thus, the gate voltage must'be moritored in an electri't:al overstr~5~ ~nalysis as w~ll as the power dissipated in PN jUflctioil5. This c~apter include3 a discussion Jf the following areas: ,(1) ,First 'Order Ora,in CIt~"eht ~iodel , (2) Parasitic Elements '(3) Radiation Effects Model (4) Secolld Order Effects Model
,

'

'

'

,'.'

Section 8 presents a ~irst order model of the draln current generato~ which simulates tile three operating regil)ns. The analyst who is inter, ested in' simple sirnulation of ,discrete MaS transistors will fina t.his model to be generally adequate. Section C expands the model topology to include parasitic capacitances and gives their a~pro~riate functional forni; ~t also provides informclt'ion for model ing multilayer, parasitic bipolar structur~s. Section 0 describes methods for modeling radiation effects including total dose, photocurrent, and electrical cverstress environments. The final section includes model variations for simulating . second ur~er effects including weak inversion, channel length modulati0~, two-dimensional ,effects on threshold voltage. variablC!mobility, and te~peratur~. These effects can be extremely important for the ~nalyst modeling MaS devices found in high density MSI and LSI circuits. B. FIRST ORDER DRAIN C'URRENT MODE.
1.

r
r ,

Oescription The first order drain currp~t model is based on a si~ple' simulation of the ~rain-to-source cur~ent in the three regions of operation. The .bou:"l::dries of the three operating regions are determined by the ,' .followi~g inequalities: (1) Cu'toff V , T GS < V (2) Triqde VGS'~ V T and VDS'<'VP (3) Saturation V GS ~ V~ and VOS .::: Vp' T~is mode'l considers the MOS transistor to be' a bilateral device. Therefore. provisions mus~ he in:ludcd f?r a~ter~ng the directipnof current flow when the' sou,'ce .and drain are interchanged. The key' concepts tu be mastered in applying this ~odel are threshold voltage, pinchoff voltag~,. and the functional relationships all10ng V SS ' VOS' Vp 'V p ' ,and 10 ,

IV-6
.
'.

. ...

Advantage:; The first order MOS model is' usually ea~y to implement in compu~er analysis codes. Its parameters'iend them;elves to straightforward empirical measurement. It can be quite accurate for disCI'ete MOS transistors. 3. Cautions Logical FqRTRAN statements have often been used to switch from one fL!nctional dependence to another in ml'deling cutoff, triode, and saturated operation., :hese statements can create discontinuities in the derivatives of th~ model equations. This can Jead to numeric~l difficulties in the codes. Some ,nalytical switching functions wh;ch help to eliminate this problem 3re presented in this chapter. They should be given careful attend on by ana 1ys t s us i ng SCEPTRE or s i mil ar codes. The accuracy of the fi~st order drain current model is usually ad~quate for' discrete MOS transistors but is usually not adequate for MOS transistors found in 'integrated c~rcuits. 4. Characteristics d. Topology The topologies shown in figure IV-2 are convent~ons for N-channer and P-channel devices. The gate-to-source, gate-to-drain, 'source-to-substrate, and drain-to-substrate capacita~ces have been shown in the topolo~y. In this section, these parasitic capa,citat'lces wil,l be considerE:d to have cc.nstant values. A more deta:led treatmt:.it M thei.r funct i ona 1 form will be, presented, in the ne)(t section. ,The vo L ages across the capacitors are us~d to determine the operating condition of the transistor. b. 'Typical Electrical Response The drain current characteristics of N-channel and P-channel transistors as s~mulated by the first order model are shown as ~ function of gate voltage ,i~ figures IV-3 and IV-4. respectively. Figures IV-S and IV-6 show' the drain current as a function of gate voltage for N-channel and P-channel devices si~ul~ted by the first order mod~l.

2.

"
"

N~llIS

I'HOS

CATE

-r

(C;)

Fi 9 u I"e I V - 2

Topology Conventions for N-Channel and P-Channel Transistors

-REGiO~:

nunOE

SA TU RA T,ro~1
P.Er. In~1
A

w , c.: c: =>
u
~-

t:
NORMAL OPE RA TI O~l

V GS V GS V GS

JX
2X X

V .:: 'X _ _ _ _ _ _ _"" GD

I~VERTED rp[~ATION

DP"I~

VOLTAGE

V GD

2X _ _ _ _ _ _..."

V'JD = 3X - - - - -_ _""

Figure IV-,J.

Channe 1 Hlhanc-men t Mode Trans i s tor

,

Dra~n Voltage'wit~ Gate Voltage as a,Par~meter for a~ N-

First Order r10del Characteristics of Drain Current Vers,Us

"

IV-a.
'.,

:.'

Vas
~-

-'JX -2X
1

',J

n:

:-)

Vas Vas

'-l

-x
I

\ ,.

NORMAL OPlRAT!ON
V'S II,
V (is
V ) G
~

DR,\ I N VOL TAGE

-x
-t'X - - - -_ _ __

-3X _ _ _ _ _ _ __
--~

---'--..,-TRIODE
R[G ION

)A TtlRI\ TION

RlGION

.igure IV-4.

P-Cnannel Transistor Drain Current thar~cteri~tics

. !

,,I , ,
I
I

.I

/
I,

IV-9

~ .----.-::.-:.'~~~~~~.....:.__...........;,..._.,;._...:..__.;._..;.......;...iiiiioiioooiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii_ _ _ _ _____

..---------..

Fi~lllre

IV-S,

first ,)"Ifcl' ilou~l Ch,ll'.lctt'ri<;tic for Ih"lin N-Ch.1ll1H'l rnh,H1CPl!1ent l:lldt' Transisto,'

CIIITt'I\t

1\11" .111

vt:, ~V t

Fi 'Jure I V-b.

Firs t Order flode 1 Chil rae ter is t. i c fo,' Ora in Curren t Versus Gate VOlt,l(j(' for it P-Ch,lIll1el ~nhanc('mel1t node Tr.lI1sistor

IV-l0
,

"

'.

"

Det;n~~~~ons If the soul'ce and subc,trate al'e always tied t,o the same potel~-

tia1 li.e . Vas = 0), the first ordeJ' dc charactel'istic<; of the MOS

~ransistllr can be de~cribed by the f'Jllowingequations for all N-chanllel

device. VGS ' VT or VOS = 0; lOS NORMAL OPE RA r ION V T

=0

"r.c and 0
u~

<-

VOS ... Vp;

l~s = B[(V GS
1! = (2)

1
- VT)VOS -

'2

V~sJ

V ... VGS and 0 '- Vp : VOS; lOS T -

)2 (V GS - V' T

FOI'

a ~'-chann'el dp'.'ice the equation:; bec(.me:

NORMAL l'P(RATION

V > V or Vns T GO INVfRTED OPERATION

= 0;

lOS
<,

=0

~T '? VGIl
Vr

and 0'( VOS

-VI); lOS

-I{(V GO - VT) VOS -

V5s]

VuO and VOS

-Vp; lOS =

"<lV~),(VGO

V~)2

6 ..

Parar.:?tel' List V GS VOS lOS

=
=

gate-to-source voltage drain-to-source voltage drain-to source 'current

",

Vi'riabies

lV-11

. _ . , . , - -....- - . ~ " -..'-- ...... l-<'

7.

threshold voltaq~ , I pinc~off volt~ge (VGS-V ), Mode I Pa'rameters T transCbnl1l1ctance factor , Parampteri zati on a. Threshold Voltage (V ' T 1) Description

The thresh01d voltage is the gate-to-source voltage requlred to form a channel and initiate coneil.ction between drain and Source. It is considered J constant in the first order approximation. Its value may be determired from measurements in either the triode o~ saturated regions of operati~n.In the triode region, the drain voltage is held at a low value (typically 10 - 50 mV) and the drain current is measured as a fllnctio~ of gate voltage. Figure IV-7 illustrates the experimental tpch~ique. Extrapolating the ~esu)ting plot to zero driin current yields the th,'eshold voltage fro'in the equation:

ror :,at~rated rp.gion measure"'ents, ~h,e.9,He and drain are tied together as :.hown in fi~ure IV-a, and square root of the drain current is plotted as a fU1ction of gate voltdge. At ~ero drain current, the value of applied yate, voltage is equal to the threshold voltag~ as indicated by the equation:

VG5 - ,V I
VGS

,-: J
= VT

2IOS

,~

=0

IV-I?
- , '--~. ---'- .. ;------'~---

._-

"

Figure IV-7.

Triode

RegionMeas~rement

for V T

Figure IV-S. 2}

Saturated Region Measur~ment for V T

Typical Value ManUf3cturers can vary ~hresho ld 'N! tage over a r(lat.ively wide range. ' This is espe,dally true when bot.h ~nhuncement mode and depletion mode dpvic~s ,are ronsid('red~ Table', IV-l gives reasonable signed values of threshold 'vo1tag~ for both N-channel and P-channel tr ... nsistors. Vo1ta~es are referenced to the soul'ce.

TABLE IV-I,

TYPICAL THRESHOLD

VOlTAGE~

ENHANCEMENT MODE
N-channel P-(.hannel
+1. 5 V

DEPLETION MODE
-2.5 V' , +2.5 V

-1. 2 V

IV-D
,.,

.
,',.

Measurement E~ample Figures IV-9 and IV-10,show th~ res~lts of triode region meaSurements of threshold voltaqe of N-channel and ~-ch~nnel transistors taken from an SSS 4007 integrated circuit. The N-channEl devices show ~ threshold volt~ge of 1.65 vo~t5. and the P-chan~el devices show a threshold voltage of 1.13 volts. Figures IV-ll and IV-12 show the plot of th~ square root of the drain current of the same ~- and P-channel transistor operating in the saturat!d region. The extrapolations to zero drain current show an N-channel threshold of 1.65 V and a P-chann~l threshold of 1.12 V. Note that both methods yield extremely clasp results. Not~ that in both the triode region and saturated region measurements, lhe d~td begin to dev~ate from the expected beha~ior at hiqt"e r gate voltageS. This is due to variable Iolobility effects which, are discussed in section E of t~is chapte~. b. Transconcuctance Factor (~) 1) Description The tranSLonductance factor can be thought of as ~he gain of the MOS transistor. it is determiner! by the mobility of the majority carriers in th~ chanr.el, the oxide thiLkn'ess, and the width to 1ength rat b of the channe 1. I n the f: rs t ordel' model it is cons idHed to be a constart. The,data used to'determin~ the threshold ~oltage tn the previous sub5ec\ion can al~o be Used to'determine th~'transtonductance. For the triode regionmeasure,,,,ents, V DS ~ is the slope of the plot of ID~ versu~ V ' GS 2) lyp!cal Value The transconductJnce factor i~ a'function of the gpometricalconstrlJction oJ the MCS transis'tor (i.e., it is directly proportional to the ratio of channel lengt~ to channel width). Therefore, suggesting a t~p~caJ vatue could prove confusin~.

3)

'

Iv-14
,

'

'j - .
I

.-

400

300
q:

DATA VALUES
L5
1. 75 2.0
:.~5

t -

J. ~

~.~

w
0:

n:.

::;)

~
0

9. 1 ~A '1. 6 pA
~9. 3 "A 36.0 ~A 113 0 ~,A 1~0.4 I'A 1&5, 7 ~A
19?,~ "A ;16,0 "A '.19,0 pA .'H.O If A .

t.50

2'10

~~

3.00 3.2, 3.50 3.75 4,00

4,~5

l()O

4.50 4.75 5,0

!L
~5

' 2Q 7,

p!'I

3',9.0 If A 33LOlfA
35~.0 ~A

5.5
5,1'i

377,0 :fA 3,)" I'A 414.0 ~A 435.0 If A

6.00 625

2
Figure IV-:l.

-,

.,

GATe VOLTAGE(V0LTS)

Thr(>~tfold Vol ta.qe, D~tenl1iOcltioi1 from Triode Region Data for an N-Channel Enhancement Mode Transistor

'.
,j'

IV-}'i

500

400

....x:

300

a: a::

...,
5 ,
1'4

.;

0'

z:

200

? 0

:0 :;
105 /I 1,1 6

~ ..

.' 5 J 0
1. :5

RII. J ,,4

1 J" 1
"0 1
1~5

) 5 . J 15
'.0

171' 1
1/1/1 ..

100

" :5 , 5
, 75

lQ9 6

",0
5 :S 5 S 5 r~
~

1."

"0

:J ..
l40
:~O

.
6 0

:60

..

,
7

GATE YOlTAGE'(YOlTS)
figure IV-10.

Threshold Voltaqe Detennfr.ation fran Tdode Region Data for P-Channel E~hancement Mod~ Transistor

IY-16
",

, .2"',

Q(

4S

ij

$.

..
'r

..
4

.
'

3
N

.......

I",
z.e
1

tlATA VALUES _ 0.1

,,_

I ~ I. ,~

1.0 ;.A

lS.B pA

11 ~
4;:8
'I~

~,~.

~A

713

.1.0

I. Ceq "A

1 lS
J. S

1. ~ 38 IlIA
: L'S Z.1>4 IlIA IlIA

1. IS
4.0

3: II

lOA

4 ZS

4.0) .....

4.8Z -,

4. IS

S.

6~

IlIA
lOA
IlIA IlIA IlIA

S.O

6.58
1 SO

s. ;S
~'. ~

II, 48
'l ~l

IS

6.0

Ill. S6

lOA lOA

6. ZS

II

.6~

4
~VG(\'OLTS)

Fi~ute

IV-l1.

Threshold Volt~ge De~~rmination from Saturated Region Data for an N-Channel Enhancement f10de T.ransistor
IV-17

pc i

14

i' !1
\

~.
~,

!l I,

I
I
DATA
VALUl~

[1
7~

'" ---.
-;
t;.

: 0 1:-

" , ., " ,
1
~:\.l

l' ,
\

~
~,~

,
<,

,~

",
.4
I.~

1 .'

'-->

I:,

.,.''::0
t~;

.' r

"~
'.'f"", -.\
~.

: :'
.'
\

: '\
1

..\

'J
.~~ :i

"'"

"'~

"'\ ,..A
~,~ ~~

,.
~
I~

'Jl

,I

.. \
~. 1"1
~
,,~

~ 4'~
~

~ 'R~

.."
"'" .., "''
m,\

I ~ll
~ I~

4 I~

S
~

l'
:~
~
I~

-\

liO

10

:r

"'\

11 '10
1'

'II

...,

!IIA

6 0

14 09

"

.7

.
'

lOA

Figure Iv-i2.

Threshold Voltage Determination fr~m Saturated Region r)atd for P-Chanllel EnhancE:'n)ent 'lode Triln~i'stor

IV-lO
,
"

,'.'

Measurement Example From the,previo~s example of triode region data, the value,of p for the N-channel transistor is 2.08 mA/V 2 and the value 0f p for the P-chanrel trans~stor,is 1.61 mA/V2. c. Pi nchoff Vo ltag~ , The pinchoff voltc:ge ma'rks the boundary between the triode ard saturated region of ope:ation. 'It may either be approximated by the expression Vp = V GS - V T or measured as t~e locus of pqints satisfying the condltlcn ~V
.. 010

3)

the first order model and ~o attem~t tJ directly parameterize Vp will be made here. 8. Code,Implementation and Notes Table IV-2 presents a listing of the parameters available for specifying a first order MOS transistor model in SCE:'TRE, CIRCUS2, TRAC, NET-2, and SPIC~2. Since SCEPTRE, CIRCUS2, and TRAC all require the MOS model to be included as a 'user-c;efined s'loroutine, only a single column has been a~signed to them. A ,FORTRAN subroutine suitable for implem~n tation with,minor modifications.in any of those three codes is given in figure IV-l3. In figure IV-l3, an analytical 'switchinG functioll of the ferm
I

==

O.

The approximation is usually sufficient for

f(X)

1 1 + eS(R-X)

has been used, where:

x=
R=
S

f(X) =
=

,independent variable reference value at WhlCh switchi 9 is to take place scale facLr to determine the ra e of transition (10 is a recommended value) 'value of the switch 1 for X > R 1/2 for X = R

IV-19
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

______~I__ , ~__________________t~'__

, -;\

a:: w ra: c.( a..

~

V1

-I

uJ o

... .

: :

'. ,

".:",:',.

,,' : .....

'N

:>
---~

--

-IV-20

..~ ,

..'

TABLE IV.;.2.

SCEPTRE, trRcUS2, TRAC. NET-?, Arm ;..PICE2 r10~EL PARArlETERS RE QU I RED FOR THE FI ~~S T ORut R nos rlODEL (Cone 1urled j

::,":,
,;;. or

- .,,:
: " ; ' _::

.'~

-"l

.. : '_:'

;.,,;:..w: -.

,. :,; :,:: ::""1

.. I .....:;~l ,.,;;;.,. I,,,,pl" / ... . :::, I ....:: : I:.1 ~

-::', ... ;. .. :

',.. ':' .. '.:''':

...

: "... ; ..

;"';','

,.

-.;

u,
...

:,::-

1 .

""

,,;;;; .,'

"~:' . ;., .... .

. . . . . '

I
I

: .-.:0 '

1>""""
~

"" .

~::

I ..':
I
1

' .

,;

! /

'.:

< I
N

~~

.:
I

..

: . . . ~~

... :

~ s .os,:.:" ,~: ':.: -; :":~-:.t _'" L." :_._ .. : .. ~ ..... ~ .. ':.

.:': :""t

',:'"'':,.

~: . :":~~ '"'.; ..

i
...:.,:

.1

t';:-, ~: .. ":t

: .... .;

-:: -:" .

~''"i''

:~:.

~A!VUA'~OE'VGl'~'VT)=8.SIGNIAMSIVOE)~AHSIVG~_VT_VOE/2.),VDA) FPIVGf'VT)~VGf_VT
VDE=VO , \lG[=1I6
IFIVO~.LT.~)GO TO ~
\I~E=VHS

FUNCTION F~OSIV~'VO'VH~'H.VT.s) f S wIT CHI )( U ~) =1 / I 1 E ){ P I A~ I N J ,I 1 00 , S,J ( U_ 1. )

I ) ) ,

lJJ TO 10

5 VOt:=-VO
VGE':VG~VO

VHt:=VHS-VD 10 CONTINUE \I",AX = I.E] IFIA~~C\lG().GT.VMAX) GO TO 50 IFIAH~IVOE/.GT.VMAAJ GO TO 50 IF(A~SIVHE).GT.~MA)() GO To 50 AU=FAIVO,VOE,\lul,A.VT) VP=FPIVGt::.VT) ADSS=FAC\lV'V~'VGE'H'VT) Fl:FSWITCHCVGE,\lT,S) F2=FS wITCHIVOE,VP,3) HETUkN ~O FMOS = O. HETURN
END

F"'OS=Fl~2.AD~S.Fl.II'_~?).AU

F~gure

IV-13.

FORTRAN Subroutine Implenentation of the Fi rst urdpr Orafn Curt'ent Model for Incorporation into SCEPTRE. CIRCUS2. dnd TRAe

rV-22

-----_._.

,':

'

/
I

In using the switching function ~ith the Moe model, a value of S equal to 10 was found to represent a good compromise, between switching speed and computational efficiency.

To utilize the switching function with expr25sions for drain

curr2nt for p- ~''I(' :!-channei devices in an ~10S mod~l, the boundaries of th~ regions of operation must be defined. Once the uoundaries are defined, the appropriate switc~ing functions ~an be derived to provide sreooth transitions (continuous first ~~rivatives) between regions. 7he operating regions to be consi~er~d include cutoff, no~mal and inverted triode operation, an~ normal an~ inverted saturation. Therefore, switches must. be included for the following transitioilS: (1) Transitions ~rom ,cutoff to either normal or inverted triode "operation. (2) Transitions from normal triode' operation to normal satur~ted operation. (3)
Transitio~s from inverted triode oreration to inverted satu-

rated operation. Table IV-3 preserts a set of, switching functions w~ich ~re ajequate to mod~l the required tral;sitions. For the model, cutoff is defined as the region whe~e either the gate~to-drain or gate-to-source voltage is too small to suppo:t 'conduction (V < V , VOS = 0), Two GS T switches are required to bound 'cutoff. One compares gate-to~source voltage (VGS ) with V T: The othe:' comparee; gate-to~drain voltage '(VGD ). with V T, The,switches (f 1; f 3)are de1ined such that f1 is "true" for VG . greater than V greater'than V , T, The swit:h f3 is "true" for V GO T Saturated, operation 1s defined as the region where drain- t 9- i ource or source-to-drain voltage exceE!ds pinchoff (V p)' ,rwo switches were defined to determine transitiG.::; between triodt: and saturated op2ration, Switch f2 is defined as "true" for the drain-to-source voltage (VOS) greater than "P' Switch f4 is defined as, "true" for source-to-drain voltage (VSO),~reate~ t~an V?
I

Since the signs of the quantities V ' and V are GS ' VOS' V P GD different for N,- and P-channel devices, the inequality, changes required

IV-2J
,'I'

to retain the correct sign comfentions for enhancement mode devices are given in tabl~ IV-3. TABLE IV-3. ,ANALYTICAL SWITfH DEFINITIONS SWITCH -. fl f2 f3 f4 N-CHANNEL V T GS > V VOS > Vp V GO = V GS - VDC; VSO > VI
'>

= T~UE = 1 = TRUF. _. = TRUE = = TRUE. =

P-CHANNEL < V T GS V V T VOS < VP V GO ~ V GS - VOS VSO < Vp

<

V T

Ihe cutoff region is not specifically included above. Ho~~ver. cutoff is aulomatica1'y defined by a "false" condition'on e3ch of the switches fl' f 2' f 3' andf 4' ThE' switches. f3 a'nd f4 actually perform the same function as fl and f2' res~ective1y. Thus, they can be e1 iminated from thp model by the aopropriate I'~uefinition of the source and drain ,terminals. In the implementation of the model, that redefinition is made and only two switch'ng functions are rl"qui red as wi 11 be shown later. The use of the analytical switching function will usu~lly prod~ce a more co~putationa11y stahle moJel th~n will th~ use cif a logical switching function having discontinous first derivatives. The NfT - 2 Mas m~de 1 lias been bu i ,1 t i rito the code and may be ac~essed through a model can and an' appropri ate parameter ,1 i st in the device parameter library. The NET-2 model allows the user'a great deal of flexibility in the selection of model equatio~ coefficients. This i~ ~special1y useful when the~e are sufficien( experimental data available to allow curve fitting of the equations to measured values of drain current as a function bf gate-to-source anddrain-to-source volta~e.The relationship of the NET-.2 model parameters to the USl. . 1 MQS ch~racteri~tic equations is demonstrated below.

Iv .. 24
j
,C

. '.
,

"

. ....

Tri ode Re,gi on:

NET-2 Model:
lOS = Vos [AI + A4 V GS + A3 Vos + Az'IV; + AS

V~s]

Saturatp.d Region:,

NET - 2 Mode I : lOS

='(VoS

2 )' - Vp)(K I + K2 V + K3 V GS GS

~ V~

(AI + A4 V GS + A3 Vp + A2

'F; + AS vis)

"

j
)
I
1

for the first order modeli parameters AI; A , and A3 ar~ required, The 4 remaining parameters are used to inclUde seconrl order effects which will b~ dIscussed in subsequent sections. The SnCE2 MOS model is ,an e-:trt;!r.te!y flexible bui It-in, mOdel. It was des'igned to b~' ,u,ed in all phases Ilf MOS integrated circuit desiq!l. Therefore, it can be parar.'l,eterizedfrompither measured electrical data or device phys~cs data determin~d from fabrication proc~dures, The ' parameter value~ given in table IV-2 are based on the assLmption that only measured electrical data wi 11 bp used. , If ,the first order SPICE2 model is desired, the analyst should ~e careful not to specify ~alups for substrate doping concentration and should insure that all other values. marked wit" an asterisk (lI!) are set to precisel; the values indicated in tJbl~, IV-2. failure to do so will result in inconsistencies within the model 1nd inarturat results.

i ,

lV-25

9.

~.::'~l~~!.!!'!:l_~a_fl1~

li::-tinlls uf SOPTRE rl'Lll,f'.lms to IJI'odllCt! "ClIl'lJe tr',lCel'l/ c h,,,. dC tel'; ,t if s M .11 N- ch.nlle I dll" p-, han"pl , 1',111, is tOI' dl'. p,'e, .nted ill ut

ll~eu

f hl .nd

"

s IV - 14 ,111</ I v- 15,

NI1 t. tha t the z,' 1'0

v. 10Nl

JG are o.ed to d.tect the qlt, alld ,.b,l,"t.

' l snu'''e, Inp I'.<U Its f f I'o,n the S' 40('! ''''e 'hllwlI ill

0 '.''C ;, it",
f

&i.~ with

CUrt'en t

SO'"'C.,

.lB

r.,pect to the

th",. ''''oql'am. iOI' the III<'J5[",e</ ",' I'am. te i qut:.. I V- 16 alld IV- I , rhe, i qur

"~I

display the dl'.ill CU.rellt as a tOllctlllll IIi ""dill ,olta'ie gat p

'0) t.,,1 s

I h. Ii s t '11" "f

~EI- 2 1''''''.('1''

ill"~

, '"dHy of

u ,pt! to pl'O,luce ""n-II"

cha r.c tel' j s ti c "un. lID'" I', ,tS V GS ) I II r N- ch ""le I ,"',' p_ challnp I d.", I', uu ao . . . ho',,,, ;n H ,'., IV-I" alld IV-19, Ihe r'<ult, of the ""''i''"", ','lu, i'in, f r me,,, U "ed 1',"' amp t I " fI'om t h. s J 40'.1 ,lee shown j II 'i, 'it"e, j \' _.' I ," ,,' IV-2!.

c..

PARASITIC INCI USIVE MQ5

I.
OesCr;'ipt iOIl

"'OO!l~

Parasitic )Iemrnts (1Ssociated with MO) tl'ansist;:H's OCClII' bt'C.lllSf' of j nteract i 011. betw " thp g" te e' ec tr'o,1 nd the sem i Cl' nduc tOI' t "r i" I and ., rN Junct;on effects .e.ulting f,om 'Ouroe alld draill dlffus ; ons ;" to the sem i'conduLl 0', Th e ,'ar as i tics ha,. a.; gn iii c i ailt

~eca.se

~d

elfect oq the ope tton of Circuits, Accurate prediction 01 op.rat'; ng 'peed Cdnnot be ,,,,de ithoot "PP."d i n9 appropr i a te capaci t'" and

~S

resi.tl,. eleml ,ts structures

m~

the medel,

Parasitic diodes and othel' bipolar

be i portant for prediL"ng Po'er

cOllsu~Ptl~n

and Inlor-

ma t ion torage time propert i es for MOS i nt.qr,lted c i rcu Its, and they "'. essenti al to pred Ie Ions af t r a,., lor t I'ad i d ti on effects (see sect Ion 0 l.

2.

The oper',ltion of digital JIOS integr,t.d circoit. c.I) generall; s of the charging allU discharging of 'late by n, 'n Ii near, vo itag cont ro lied, corr.n t sources, A r onab Ie "f capdC i tanc. can b coup led it
be understood

~ap.citor.
~roduc.
'5 t ; ma t.

ba. it d.'a in cU''''nt med.1 s to

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F i <J ure I V- 14

SCEPTr.E Listing of Curve Tracer Circuit'for Disp1aving tI-Channe1 ,<'haracteristics for the Fir'st Ot'dl'r ilode1

rv-v

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Fi'!)ure IV-14 .

"

'!'

"

r~{-.J."I.!'.I.'

r" \' ,

I' I

t ...

1 ". ,

SCEPTRE lfstfng of Curve Tracer Cfrcuit for Displayfng N-Channel Drain Characteristics for the First Order. Mo~el (Concluded) ,

"
IV-ZB'

110" F -C'> (we.. vr. v"" Hil.i'''.C,..f .'.Jol>. wF ." ..t1.~t.f f .s) : 1./(I"~'~I.l~ltIJu ~t~-.I'" F. ! ~ v wOE Vl:~ .". WI p., I , A' f I = .. ... ,1 "Po t ~L': I tt .. t Wuf -V I-WO / i!. ,
~u~c
FS.fC~'I.Q.~'

-i. I

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1.'

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-A .. tl.'l~/l

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JP vt,;f,"Of" .Hfu.vl ....... t pfo11, ..r:<Il' vc,t- AuE/Htu ~v'" I " .. I<>t ..... I/<'. - .. 'J~I'.~:.tll':t-.r,t /"tlJ -wF-w .. ~ .... I ...... I/ ... ' I '
FU f IIF VI If tVD.S.L 1.01 C,(I IlJ '>, V Jf. IIC' ~r,f = IIC, VH~ = wI'S uO IU 10 -VO '> wO w(} "r.[ = ~" ~(l VHf :

.1'. = =

.HC;

,,,.,1/

10 e(l~II"ut V"., z I . f l .

... ., --

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!F't"'H~cvlJf),"".V""I.

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ll

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'>0 H'lI'>
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O.

100 ~I'''''&T 1' ~tl>.fTlft valU! u ... r.f" "'!lle'l I~ llt.L , . '. t",u'T10~ C.u,rD~ . . . . ".t~t" '"''0''''' I" F~u:. " t"t~Ct.' I
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~

10

I.

Rf ILA .. t . . . ,,-10,/1 ..
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l>~

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,~

10 'Ill

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t~o

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VO'~.O'l

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lfll.nlf.I~.II~-I\)PI/II.-IU .. "

"f'U"~

Fi'gure IV-1S

SCEPTRE Listi~s of Curve Tracer 'Circuit for .Displaying . PChann'cl Drain Charact'eristic'for First Order rlodel

,1
.

IIIItOL1t l

i);': ( ,.

!P f
r..

1;'1'>,1

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.'t

i.

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, 1..' - ' , 'l

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:'""'t 1...: .... \,..:.1-

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= 4.
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_.,

Figure IV-1S.

SCI::PTRE Listin':J of Curvp Tracer Circuit for Displaying P-Channel Drain Characteristic for rir~t Order Model
(C'onclude~J

IV-30
,','

,~
~

'.
'

1 I I
j J

..
~

-:

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I .. .... ,.
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. . . ---.. --.. -.. -------.. -.. ----i

. . . . . . :. - .'

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to 'J

1
,; ... -.I '.. : . '

',,' ...

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... .,I ,

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.... ;...:,

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Fi9ure IV':16.

SCEPTRE First Order !lodel N-Channel ilOS Tral1sistor

~!n Chdracteristi~5

for an

! 1 1
i
-I

~ ~l_
\

----

p .. or

vI

ltoo(J""j

/CII

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o.

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/------~--------------.------------------------------------------------------------------_ .. _--------,
/ / ,. ,

,
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.i

: /-/ I
/

VG-Z
VG'-4

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Figure IV-17.

SCEPTRE First Orde. t10del Drain Cl1aracterisl;i.:;s for P-Channel Transistor

~~,;.;.

.
.

i.'-

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Figure IV-lB. ' NET-2 listi'ng for Curve Tracer Circuit Displaying N-Channel . Turn on Characteristics for ~he First Order Model '

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Figure IV-20.NET-2 First Order r~del T~rn on Characteristici for an r;-Char.nel liDS Transistor

~7"'''''''"",_

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o.~ ------'--1--1--_-_0 __ . -1--'--_--'--'-----'--'--_--' ___ --_-_' ___ -____ ' ___ --_- ----1--""7"'11"' ___________ 1_~ _________ _

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1 1 WD-12 I -00' 1 ___________ 1 ___________ , ___________ 1___________ , _____ ______ 1 ___________ ,-----______ : ___________ 1 ___________ I ________ ~--,

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a,a

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II
,--" ~~"':'"'!..,

NET-2 First Order Itode1 Turn P-Channe1 fX)S Transistor

on

Characteristics for a

~---

very acceptable predictions of propagation delay, risetime, and falltime. The atd 1i ty to di recl ly sea 1e both capac; tance and current capabi li ty of MaS devices with tl'ansistor geometry often makes the anal):;is task much sim~ler for MOS circuits than for bipoldr circuits. 3. Caution!. An MOS model which contains full parasitics requires 'a large number of elements. For example. a complete modei of a C~OS inverter containing an N-chdnnel and P-channe1 transistor with full parasitics can require 37 individual resistors, capacitors, and current sources. The, analyst must use his judgment in determining which of ,th~se ele~ents are really necessar) for an accurate solution. The parasitic elements described in the following ma,terial can be appended to either the first order model discussed 1'n section B or the second order model discussed in ~~ct;on O. 4. C~aracteristics A CMOS integrated:ii~cuit structure as shown in the cross section of figu~e IV-22 will be u~ed to illustrate the relationship of the parasitic elements to the MOS drain current model. In figure IV-23, the CMOS structure has been redrlwn schematically in terms of active and passive circuit elements. Figure IV-24 shows the MOS mf'del t:c;pologies for the N-channe1 and P-channe1 transistors with the required parasitic elements. The N-channe1 transistor is shown in the top half of figure IV-Z4. Its drain current is modeled by the current source,JC2. The . P-channe1 device is in the lower half of the figure. Its drain cu,rrent is mode1.edby ~he JC9 cu~rent sour~e. For each MaS transistllr. three , capacitors are associated with the gate/semiconductor interactions. These are CGNS, CGNO, andCGNB for the N-channe1 and CGPS, CGPO. and CGPB for . the P-channel. Each of these capacitors has a fixed component and a voltage variable component. Two capacitors for each transistor are associdted with the source and drain diffusiors. These are CNS ~~~ CNO fot:' theN-chan'1e 1 and CPS and CPD for .the P-channe 1. These represent a cOmbination of the depletion region capa~itance dnd dHfusion ~I.;~acitance
.

i'

)
.I'

.\

1,

IV-37
.,'

! .

,','

,'.!.i,
~

l I
J

I
I
I

DRAW

CHANNEL STOPS

N (~'Y '>TRATf.)

Fi ~ure IV-22.

WOS Inverter Cross Section

I V... 38

---------

- - - - ' - - - - -----

--

'

---_........ -,

, j,

.....

.J, "

GATf

Q--_-,

-:> )U~5TRI\TE '(V

oo '

P I<IELL (V

ss )

----J
Figure, IV-23.
Parasitic Incl~sive Schp.matic of CMOS 'Inverter

IV-39
,'.'

CGNS'

CGND

-it--or---A---n---,

RNSB

RrmB

JND~

eNS

J.,
Ri3ND

RBNS TUB CPWS tJANSl

y' +-1---,
RB.PS'

1 CPWD _--1J_JA~ - ,
CO , RBP(l )

SUBSTRI\~E (V

JPS

ps,
RPS S CGPB

cpn

JPD RPO

JC9

CGPO

CGPS

Figure IV-24. Hodel Topoloqy for Cf40S Pair

,.\

, ---L____
'I

"

.............

terms de~eloped for bipalar di~des in Lhapter II, During norm31 oppration, the so~rce and drain junctions should remain reverse bi~sed and only the depletion ca~dcitance term should be reQuired. Source and drain r?:;istances are incl~ded fnr beth the M- and P-channel' t~ansistors as RNS, RND, RPS, and RPD, respectively, The remaining I'e"istol's, r:apacitors, a:ld cu,'rent sourcps in figur~ IV-24 are included to mod@1 the parasitic bipolar diodes and transistors associa,t~d with the C~S lnverter, Each source and drai'n is 'rerr!sen~ed by a diode equation [urrent generator (JNS, JND, JPS, JPD), Since these juncti~n5 are normally reverse biased, only t~~ r~verse saturation curr~nt is i~porta~t for most applic~tions, The resistors RNSB, RNDB, RPSB, and RPDB reprt'sent ttla~ pOI'tion of ttle leakage CUTTent that is vo I t~ge dl'p~ndent. 1 he : es i s tOY'S RBNS. RBND, RBPS. and RBpt, represent the bulk resistances due to the s~miconductor mater!al hetweer: the metallurgical junctions and tne ohmic conta(ts to the power sup~lits, In bulk eMO:; technologles, there is a:1 additional PN jUllction betw~en the P-w~11 a1d the N-substratt', This Junction is represented by lht> dio'je Cl!tTf'nt genel'dtors JCS and JCO, Capacitors CPWS and CPWLJ rppresent the depl~don ,'egion and diffusion capacitance assoCiatpd with the jUr.cti.Hl, Since the' three layer structure corjlpo~ed of the N-chanl1el source (or drain), the P-well, ana 'he N-substrate is an NPN ~ip1lar tr'ansistor, the dependent CUl'I'ent sources ~ANS, JAND, JAIS; dnd ,,'~ID have, been added to model the requirQd transistor action\ Thp dep~ndencies are dS' tol lows:
= Nl 1\ JNS JAND .. N2 I\'JND
J~NS

J'AL = 11 -- JCS JAlD =.11 1\ JCD These are the same ,as discussel1 for th"' bipolal- trC'nsistor mo-1t:'ls:n chaptl'r 111. Since all ttle'diodt' junctions al'enormally r'verse biased, the parasi~ic transi~tor is turned off for stan~drd operatin~ conditions, However, it ca,I become l'xtremE'ly important in modeling i,)nizing 1'.niiation 'ef,ferts,

IV-4~

5.

Oe:ining

Eguation~

Only t;le gate-to-se:niconductl)r capacitances are cescriD.!d by equations ~hich hav~ not ~~en discussed previou5ly.

CGS = j WL COX

7.

CGSa

CGO - 1 wt Cox CGB = eGBO

_ 2

CGB'= Wl COx CGS = CliSO ;,'0 = CGOO

CGBO

Note the .following cases of. interest:

(1) At V GS
to

= Vr' or
_ 1

V liO

= Vr

and VOS,

= 0,

the equat~ons above red~ce

CGS - ~ WL COX CGSO

CGO

=~

WL COX

ranO

'iV-42
"
.~

(2) At satur~tion in normal mode~ V T GS - V GO = V GS - V CGS eGO

=j =0

WL COX

C~50

The ~quJtions for parasitics associated with the dlffusions are given below. They have been treated in ~hapters II and III. Tne re(!der is ref~rr~d to these chapters for more det~iled d~scussions.

... .) - AS.I O \, e

lr

_.

OV S8

-1
)

JO

= AOJ O

OVOS ( e

-1

rs =

t ~)n
0 S
N2

C A

co= ~

JANS ::: a Nl JNS

JMlD =' a

* ,JNO
JCD

JAIS- ~ll JC~ JAIO

= u I2

1"43
" i

-.....-._ ...

"

,i

!
t
t

6.

Paramet@" List
p
r~ :
:::

matP.l'ia~

-::

W
::: :::
:::

Ja
A
~
01

rt?s is t i vity sheet resistivity (ohms per ~ qual'e) length width reverse saturation current de!lsity
ar~a

! ,

-:: -::

uN
cr

-::
:::

(ofttact poten~ial junctil1n graci" (on::.tant normdl cOl1'llnl)n base cur"ent gain inverse common base current gain

CGS total gate-to~~ource capacitance ~ f(VGSVG~) CGSa 9?'c-to-sou~ce capacitance d~e to gate overlap of the source
~

a constant

C~O total gate-to-drai~ capacitdnce ::: f(VGS' VGti) CGOa gate-to-drain capacitance due to gale ov~rldP ot the
drain -:: a constant CGS total gate-to-sub~trate c~pacitance = f{v GS ) CG30gatp-to-substrate c,apac i tance due t.> g1te ovel'lap of the :;ubstate RNS & RPS ::: RNO & R:'O ::: RNSB ~ RPSB ::: RNOS & RPOB -:: RBMS & RBND -:: PBPS & RBPD .= JNS & JPS ::: JNO & JPO ::: snurce r~sistance drain resistance sOIli'ce-to-5ubstrate lea,k.age resistance drain-to-substrate leak.age resistance
P~wel1 resista~ces su~str~te r~sistances

JCS

JeD

::: :::
-::

JAMS & JANe' JAlS & JAI

source diode current gen~r~tor drain diode current generator P-well-to-sl.;:strate dilJde current generator paras it i c co 11 ~'" tor \I"ppnde,n~ current s'ourc~s rards it i'f em itt ',~ dependent cur'rent :iources

, 1V-"~
,',.

7.

Parameteri~ation

Values for parasitic parlmeters are typically difficult to ~asure for several reasons. First, the capacitive terms are often mas~~d by th~ packaging capacita~ce, and me~sured gate capacitance data . c~~not.b~ p~sily ~eparated into package capacitance, gate-to-so~rlE gJte-to-drain, d~d gate-to-s~bstrate depletion capac~tances. furtherIIIOr~, the gate elt"..::'rorjes of alrr.os,t. all H05 int~gr.)ted circuits and :nany discrete MOS transistors are protected by networks which protect the gat~ fro!" ~lectrical .,vt."rstress transients. The capacitance of th~st" protectior networks usu~lly completely masks the glte capacitance. They also clamp the voltages whi~h c~n be applied to the gate to levels ~elow those ~ecessary to separate sC\urce and drain rf'sistance efft"cts r"1'V~I: v'ariable ~obility effects. Usually the best approach for estimati~g parasitics is to use typical val~es f~r the'MOS process bein~ analyzed and scale the values by . . the 3ppropriate geOflletrical dimensions 0'( t"e device! The following discussion provides a .li:;t of typical values and techniques to be u,sed 'tor. estimating !lodel 'pJrameters from thell. The typic3l values arE' most applicable to CMOS/Metal gate technology with gate' oxide thicknesses of o I approxi!lately 700 A. Figure IV-l5 shows th to~o~ogi,al layout of ro~s of N-channel and P-channel devicei similar 0 those ~ound in CMOS technology. It will be us~d as the principalreferen~e n the examples. a. Gate Capacitances (COX' CGSO :GDO. CGSO) The, key parameter to 'b~ dete ,ined inf'~tabHshing the the capacitance per unH values of gate capacitances is COX' This area of the gate-thin oxidf' semicondu~tor s ructure. Its value can be . f'sti..,ated from thf' pemittivity of ttl~ yate insulator divided bv the illsulator thickness.

I
I

,Ii

,
I

,J

I I I

,.....
'."~----

.... _~1IiWi li

4,.

,...------- ------------------------- -I I I
I

.-. '.
~

I
I

~I

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l'

,.

.......... ;

off'-~.

I I

~----------~----~:~---------------------------~--------------I I
;' " ; f ': '"

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I

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I

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I

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r-----------------~
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,

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,
I

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i I

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i
i ' I

:.~
:;

1.,:,-

~;

u.~

J-

\
Typi ca I Ct10S Torology

L __ - - "" __

1-_.J___ 11 ,._'

1, .....- - - - - -......- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _O_II_I\_'~_IO_~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-,-._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..:..._ _ ,

Vi gu,'e IV-2S.

.,
TV-46

,
..:...i.. '

Ty,ical lalue, for Si0 2 13 LOX = 3.54 x 10- ~m

6 t OX - 8 x 10- cm

~e~hnologies

are:

COX

5.06 x' 10-

~
cm

This value can be u~ed with the equations presented in section C.5 of this chapter to predi:t CGS, eGD, and CGB' as a function of voltage., In addition to the voltage variable cOlnponents of these capacitances, there ~re fixed capacitance values noted.as CGSO, CGDO, anj CGBO. The~eare ,overlap 'capacitances which are d,ue to 'the metal gate extending over the sou:"ce, drain, and substrate, l'es;ectively. The values of these capacitances can be estimated as fol lows: N-Channel CGSO =, C OX 'I< CGDO ::: Cox 'I< CGBO = C OX 'I< P'Channel ,COX oj' LO )\; Wp . ,COX 'I< LO 'I< 'lip t: Oll,.1( (Lp + 2LO)
Ty~ical Values

LN = L = ~ x lO-4cm (channel length) [o = 2p x 10-4 ' 4cm W = 15 x 10- c,m OB ,wp & W N =- proportional, to the c~rl'ent capability' of th.:: ' MOS transistors (chan1el width) Diode Capacitances The depleti,,11 and ditfusion capacitances asscciatedwith the source and dr~in dioJe~ follow ~he same functional rel~tionships as those discussed in chapter II. Since they are difficult to mea~ure b

tV-47

peri

directly. tney can be estim~ted from ~ capacitance 'p~r unit area and from the forwar~ diooe current. C~pleticn Capacitance:
'. Na C -'~qi. 51

~ ~ 2 (~ Typ ica 1 Va 1ues q ,charge)

VA)

NMOS
1.6 x 10- 19 coul 1.05 x 10- 12 , F/cm 2 x 10 16 cm- 3 '
.9 V

PMOS
1.6 'x 10- 19 caul 1.05 x 10- 12 F/cm 2 x 10 15 cm- 3
.9 V

Esf (permittivity) NS (substrate doping) ~ (contact potential) CIA

Co

C s
OifCusion Capacitance:

4.30 x,10- 8 F/cm 2 4.30 x 10- 8 * W * N 4.30 x lJ- 8 * W * N

1.37 x 10- 8 F/cm 2 ' 8 1.37 x 10- * Wp * LpO 1.37 x 10- 8 * Wp * Lp~

Typical' Values

{) =
I

.026

V-

minority carrier lifetime =

x 10- 6 sec,

ClIo

= 6.13
c.

xiO- 6

amp

_E..'

Diode Current Parameters

The bipolar diode5 associated with the source and 'drain may b modeled with reasonahle accuracy by the first order diode equation.

IV-40

--

-~.-

...----.--~

-.-- .........
,',
,

, ... ...u- ... J../O..,. . . J

...

t~rMt+

"b_ ~

In =
, T

10

(e 8V -1)

'0

- q n2 i

[ NAD~J

~-chal1ile1

!o
T

7C

qn

2 i

.[NO\ 1

,P-Channe1

Typical Values
'q

N-Ci)anne 1 1.'6 x 10- 19 cou1 1.96 x 10 20 cm- 6,

39 cm 2!s

P-Channe1 1.6 x 10- 19 cou1 1. 96 x 10 20 cm- 6

15.6 cm 2/s
2 x 10 15 cm- 3

(charge)

Ni 2 (intr;~sk carrier concentration)

(diffusion constant)

NO (doping concentration)
L

(d;ffusion length)

6.25 x 10- 3 cm

3.95 x 10- 3 Lm

6.20 x 10- 1 I A/cm 2

38.5

38.5

9.80 x 10-12*W "'lNO N 9.80 x 10-12*W "'lNS

Drain and Source Resistance The draln and source r~sistances may be estimated from va1ul'5 of sheet resistivity, and the geometry of the source and drain diffusion. '
d

IV-49

----------- ;
I

~,: j

R
Typical
PIl

V"lu~s

N-Challnel lv ot)m'squure

I'-Channel 40
ohm/squan~

(sheet

r~si!>tivity)

;>-Well ResistrlflCe The P-we1l resistance associated \vith the ba:;~ \It th,' pcu'asitic tr.'lhSlstors ~an be estimated f"OM Knowledge of the P-wf'll ~.II.!t r~jisti~ity under the drain and source and the ~-w!11 sheet resislivitv in tile l~pen tuh. In the structure showh in figure IV-2S, the p" diffl,;ion around the P-we~ I produces a tdw resistivity path tu VS3 on e~ch side ot the drdin. This has the effect of paralleling two resistors and ~aling the effective tesistance one-half of the value.
' I
~
p~

e.

~2
T~'j)ica1

-::

ID

WE
lW.l

+ I

,'2

PliO' dEB

-L

NO

Va1uLs

P[lO (open P-we 11, she~t res i st i'\ i ty) 100 n p~r square

Puo

tP-wp.1.l sheet. resistivity ullder the drain) ,12,000

per square

IV-50

"

I I

Note that R , the P-well resistor associated with the source, has not l been parameteri;;ed here. The source of the N-~'1annei \Ihich is also the emitter of the parasitic NPt trJnsistor is tied directly to VSS as is the P-well. Thu~, it is unlikely that thete will ever be a'5u1ficient voltage drop ~cross the base emitter to turn on the parasi~ic transistor. f. Sub5trate Resistance Substrate re~istances are extremely 'difficlJlt to estimat~ becaus~ of the distributed nature of the suhstr~te and the uncertainty associated with current flow f.atterns. If the ,~nalyst considers these re~istanccs tJ be importlnt, he mu~t usually select them bv a trial and error ~rocedure wllere results are co~pared with ~xperimental data which he believes to be influenced by substrate resistance. This is likely to be an expensiv~ procedure and wi~l result only in a simulation of experimental data. 8., Code Im~ 1ementa! ion Table, IV-4 provides vllues for parasitic elements as they would be implemented in e~ch of t:le three models. SCEPTRE, CIRCUS, and TRAC models are lumperl togpther since they 'implement the MOS model through a userdefineu subroutine. Similar parameters in each of the codes are placed on the same horizont~l li~es'~ince th~ parasitic parameters are based on topological layout of the MOS transistor. The following dimen.. ions have b~pn used to determinp. the parameter values in the tabl~. Th~ reader should referencp fi~ure IV-25 for an explanation o~ the dimensions.

I
f ,

i
\

,I I ,

N-Channel Channel length Channel width Gate ,overlap of drain/source Gate overlap of c;ub5trale -4 ' LN, = 5 x 10 cm (.197 mif) 4 W = 94 x 10- cm (3.7 mil) N 2 LO = 2 }( 10~4 cm (7.8xl0- mil) W OB

Lp
W~

"

P-Chanll('!l 5 x 10- 4 cm ( 1.97 mi 1) -4 145 x 10 cm (5.7 mil) 2 x 10~4 (7.8xlO- 2 ,mil)

:=

LO WOtJ

-:

= 15

x 10- 4 cm (.6 mi 1)

'-4 (.G mil) 15 x 10

I V-:i 1

.;!,
' .'" "-J..-..-,.-".

TABLE

IV~~.

SCEPTRE. CIRGUS2. TRAC. NET-2, AND SPICE2 fIDDEL PARrullTEoS REQUI~ED FOR PAKASITIC P!( _USIVE 110S il0DEL

()L~~a"T;~, ;lOfl'IIE~AT::~)

):,P'~, r:RC~S
,.

Z-'A:
loKI

T
~s -.

eC:LTr~ ..c~L

~E'-1

_-y-_
....:; \ .A.A

---+-----,.,
-,

_~_

_ '.:', '.:.t,
'.' . ." .. t

.':-:

__

::OE PARNOtTE'

OEfI-1'

,A,.,

,A,",

:JCE PA';.M,[R

JEF:~:'I~"

i-..-:'

::: I,,::,.t't<

.l':~!':-'_~

'I

~::::~'.,d.ct."to II :~.~ '1', ~

I.ct"

>.-,

! o"to'

"0

"0

,. p,,;.t, Co-,. ..
'..

i,;,,;, .' I.."c.~ I. ! !

.,.u
6

,~;

C',

...:

A4
A'
AJ

... -......:,-~.;(.
~
,.(~,.
'.

I
J.-.;

I
I

:4;
-.

I.

. '.

-.',

-~.: -

... , "0'" ,-. , :,: .,_:~.:(;,"-' i

: ...

.-.

;-,~.c t.,_

I I , ... , ' I ." ;j

0" -

':0.

,'"

.:.

'I'

-< I
N
V1

I
I

42
A'

~.-" .,
.1

:~:

:;~';~';~'>"
~;~:::oz~<,"t"II;
- '- : " . -<

I ,'-1_

'
.",">'
=.1

I :',.
C

; '-1
-,;,-Ji'

i
1"I

.1:::,,, ..<.:, ,,,,;,1

::',

:a,

,O'..

, _ '_,__

~O!.-c.

~~;::~;~'t . t. L' ."."

~."t' . ~"t

S:[";'

~;~:~;.~~-,
~ ___ .

.J;~~ ~i"':':

( . , ... :

I ~:~,~:~;:-- ..".
_1~"~ !.~'~t"
t.',e___

,,,.,,
_ '____

I : ,., I;::':;"'"'' l ___ L__ ~~'~

~.

_I ,;,z:-"
1-

'

. i

<'.C'"

I' """,

_ ______1.. _ _ _ _-'

JI
~
-_. _ ..

_------------- - ---

---_._-

,.
TABLE IV-4. SCldRE. CIRCUS2, TRAC. NET-t. Arm SPICE2 IIODEL PARA:1ETER5 F::QUIRED FOR PARASITIC.INi.:LUSrVE r:05 1I0DEL (Contlnued)

';"a;~~:~~'~:; .":":;:;:"1

I ,:,;.n . 0' ./ I
I
I

:..:

1'~' ';'''' ',,1 ".", F"" I~ ," -_. i : :;:. ,::'~i;;;I'

.1........:. ....
: I;ltj

I
I

''''',.". !:;':', I :", I~-fJ

.. ..,.,.;,

.. ,'~ .---: I
v

::. .

-,

' '.. 1 . . . , ' ' ' ' ; '

r --

:;.
,

:'~: .:': '. :.

I

.~. .,.,.lp!+ ~~:", -. ' I "..... ,.

. ,: :

,I

"r

.'

.. , " :;.: .;;.,.;.,i

I

...,~
,I

. ~.' ~
l
,.'

' j .----

:.
::.

-< I
(J-

.'"

:'Z 2

I -,
I.~

.;;:.;:. . :. /,.':, i:::",!,

'1

j;::;:::.:..:. !.:' .j ,: .. !
"..':
0'.

.. '. '.'

:.~

..

,'~

-:0.

i'

:
I

I I !.:, I i ' ',: I; .'

:
!

,I
.-1

r'"
I
i -.
!

II

:~~
..

I
~--~------~~

'::2

i.

..,

I
I ,
---..J

r'

I I

...

-~

(/)

a::
W

----~

C(
0:

w ....
~

Q.

-------1

::::
.~ ~

a.

Wo au Q-

-Ie::

~~.

.....-.
"
I

0::(/)

wa UQ
.... ~
J

Nw

-I

I I 1
I

L _ l . + __

:iw >

0:;::

~- ~-.--.------- -----.
..

I ;"~ . :
-

----~-

-J

I :-""
...
0: l (.1
~~
-~

--------------------1
--_._---- -- -._--- ---~ "

........ --

......

Uu

I - "-

(/)
'-'

N..;,:

=>0.

0::0::

-0
U&.....
~a

I - _ 0::0::

WW

V1Q::

Q.=> WCT Uw.

>

----._--- ---

-----1

,----_.
t

IV-54

..j

TABLE IV-4.

SCEPTRE, CIRCUS2, TRAC, UET-", AND SPICE2 rlODEl PARAr1ETE~S Rf'~UIRED FOP. ?ARASITIC. iNCLUSIVE 1105 1I0DEL (Concluded)

I
I "'''-1',
'
:'..<
"'t\

,;';'O'''-'~ !~. n.--. l','O ..," ..

:l"'f CiC.> .

,.'.~:
.~

"::~--.---

A,;!

.. . . ..

i ,. I"'''''' .,~. " :.~ .', t....

f .... i

I ,"',
.f -.'. --

0:"';' ...

~:

I -r----~
I
i
4'.

+1. . '--------l . ~-.--.'-----r... I ~;-ir;~.; .,-.~:, '. ",;,;':.' ~':'r ~ . 'l

,:::;,'~:.
' . , -. . - - ' "--'

' .-

I
.

.. "

I
I

I...
I

I ' .... ,', . '.

""
"-.o;.i:.

1.- <:8,

I \ ......... ." '., ~ ... ,..... 1 ". - :"",~.t. > . , .,.,. I ,_ . . .

t .'... '

., ~. ,. I ' , 'I! ', ....... :. " :.,. I

, ...... '"

'"

......

.' i 'I

, ,
.,
...
I

t,,'

"
.;

.r.~

":.t .. ~~.
'L..(; -

~:~:>.::.~;:: :.
t

,t.~.

........

I
!.; "'-"
. '

'" .I
...

I'~

I I
I

::. : . ;:'. ;.'.;~. '"

I
"

1
I

:.! ~\

;"':'''V.!t' ~;'''''';t'
'-'j" :

., 10:. ld-~ ~ ~ )2

-=
I

U1

uo

. ,1 .. , . .
!':.al

;::~:.:::~::. - JI~ :t" ~.1('

II
_~'.I_

"v.t.,. '",.,.
of. ')-" : ;".

...

02

t ...~t ftC~':I"

.
it
>(1"'1

!
) 46.,

~.::;::.:,::~r'

~",.' . '. >." ! .",., "'. '. t.!<

!

"" " :. ",.

~ ~ ,'1.

'1"

ii, ,'.

I .,; i
_i
;~

I I

I! ,.

..

.
~,

~\

!.:. ... ~

~:..

.. f":.

;... '1-;;6 .
I

.
,
',1

-t '"
~~ 1

;. .....

d',', ,-

--

I
II -

".

.. :."

"

.. !:

,'.,
I

I' ':,::./.,- :,: : : : <": ~, :~':" ,i~.J~" J-/," ,---"-----~ --LL __~_
~

',;.

I "

I . ~:.:l I

,.

';

..

",'" . t
.~ ....

f"

:.

'.:~~',=";

_ .. :, .. :".~ .... '='':

',f",':

'..".

I
I

Ora!", iength SJurce length P-we 11 1ength separating N+ and p+

N-Channel LNO = 32.5 )( 10- 4 cm' (L28 mil) LNS = 23.5 x 10- 4 ( 93 mil)

P-Channel LpO

= 25.G

x 10

-4

cm (1.01

mil~

LpS ~ 25.6 x 10- 4 (1.01 mil)

dEB = 15 x 10VT
~

-m (1.77 mil)

NA V-r=,-i.10
~

= 1. 65
= 7.67E-4 (KP = 4.0 7 E-5)

2~44E-4(KP

8.46E-6~

In SCEPTRE, CIRCUS, and TRAC, the parasitic elements are included by attaching the approrriate,Y'psistor, capacitor, and diode elements to the nodes of the drain',current source ~s s:lUwn in figure IV-24. This technique will be familiar to the SCEPTRE user ~ho is aware of the necessity for constructihy his own model. It I1J'I be less famil.iar to thl" TRAC or CIRCUS user who uses th "b"nt-i;l" bipola,' device mudels. ,Table IV-.. inclu~!s the values for th~ eleml"nt3 to be attached to the dr~in current generator in order to achieve a model topology for a CMOS inverter similar to that of figure IV-24 with one pxception. Hie depen'Jent current sources required to model the para~ltic transistor associated wlth the N-channel' device have not b~en included. T~eir in~orporation is a straightforw~rd application of bipolar transistor ~odeling concepts discussed in chc~ler III Thus, only t;lE~ source-subst,rate and drain-substi'lt~ dio~~s__an~_the P-wel1 resistanc~ val'ues are given for N-channel parasitics in table IV-4. The reader shoul~ not~ have been . that fixed value capacita~ces . u~ed fer C BO ' ,CGS ' and C GO in tho SCEPTRE, CIRrUS, rRAC models. The tabulat~d valJes inc1u~e the overlap capacitance ahd half of the chan~el capacitance in the gate-source and gatl"-drain capacitors, ~nd only the overlap capacitance in the gate-~ubstrate capac~t,.. If the anal.,:.t know~ that. the transistor is yoi"] to be Opt rated primarily in the saturated, triod~, or cutoff mode, he may wish to apportion the c~pacitancl" values differ(nt~y.,
,

IV56
, . ,.j.,

The NET-Z, model i~corporates scme parasi~ic elemerts wit"in th' MaS model pClrameter list. Only those elements so includerl are listed ill table 1'1-4. Certainl.: .lther pa"dsitics could br: ir-:.ludp.d as discre,te elements attached to the apt' opriate nodp. ' Specificaily, the gate-tosubstrate capacitance, source dnd .'~in resistances~ and the NP~ parasitic bipolar transistor are not included. ~'ET-l Cloe~ include voltage variable ~ate-to-source and gatp-tQ-drain ta~acitances in the model. h~_ever, caution is re~uired to u~e them prop~rly" Their Q~fining equation~

are presented below. (cutoff region)

. i

for

\i -

'I

Gl

< 'I GS - G~

(saturation re]ion)

for 'I

> It
G.:i r.Z

(triode rpgion)

for 'I

('I

(""

(~nverted saturation, rt:!gi on)

G02

lJu 1

GO

for V

< V G~Z GO

(ir.verted triode region)

If the an~lyst associdt~s 'I~, ~ith the thre~hold voltage and requires the value lJj capacit~nc:e ill saturation tJ be two-thirds of its 'cutoff value

I I
\

IV-57

(see chapter IV,U, then V is associate.; Gi equal5 217 VT, Similarly, if V G2 witn ttle tl'ansiti:~n tJ triode operatioll and ~he value of ~',1pKitance 'n that I'egion is one-halt '"If its cutoff value, then

"

I
,!
I

Similar argument~ holJ for CGO'

In realitv, the g~te ca~acitance in

(utoff ~hould be apporti0ned to C with 0~ly the bverlap capacit-n:es GB being associated with C and C ' Howevpr, if the su~stratr i$ elecGS GD tl":d'lly tied t') the SoulYe, dS is often tt:e cas~, the gate CdPdciLlIlce in cutoff can all ~. appnrtion~d to C . A 10nJ ~s the transistor GS orerates in n"e ;)Qrmal mode (source acts as the :,OUI-ce ard dl'ain act- ,b , the drain', the abo~p ~quJt:ons give approximately correLt beh~~~ur Jf the gate tapacitance. 1" ~h~s case, C should be th~ total channel GSI capatita"ce (COX~WN*LN ~r C~\*~~~Lpl and C GOI shoul~ be the fiXEd gdte-dra;n Jverlap capacita"ce. The gate-so~rce overlap capacitance sho~ld be incllttjed as a fixo::>d value capC'citJnce t>~tel'nal to th~ model. Hcwt:'lier',
j'

the transistor ~ay o~erate in bbth normal ~,d in~erted modes (e.g . a tran$mi:sion oaie), b'lth overlap caoa:itances should be included as external fixed value c~~acjtcrs, and half of the channel capacita~:e bE apporti JI,~11 to CGS 1 ar ~ eGO I' 'j he va lues in the tab: e IV-4 reflect the assumptioll that the trJllsis~or will alwilys op{>rat~ in the r:ormal mode.
5i.C\l J d

'The ~PICE2 M05 1T'0del 3lso'incornorates a lcirge numt2'r of pa~a, sit~c elemelts as int~gral parts of the model. The SPICEZ model was d:25igned r'r;'marily to assist integrate~circuit d~.iignei's ,in dnal y zing new circuits. Therefore, a ,ulT~er of features nave br~n il1~ludcJ for their conveniellce.' lhe analyst must be dwart.' of the~J features in apply,
,

"l~ the model.

MOS tr'ansi'stor.

He should conc;',.Jer the model tel rep,rest''lt the intrinc;:r:

The'intrinsic tnnsistor is that ll"rtion of the l1rv'lc{>' that lies under the qat" meta II i'!a t i'ln. It inc I udes the chanlle I Jnd the

IV-5C
,
"

-'----

r
drain and sour~e overlap "eg ions. All parasitic be continued to this rf~ion. T~e values of C GB ~.3rameter list should be given in units of F/cm. follows: elements are assumed to C GS ' ...nd CGO in the They are determined as
\

"

"GB = COX * Y.'DB

~

C GS

=Cox * I-0

l
f

Cr. = COX. La ..JJ --

actual capacitance value~. Th~ value of channel capacitance 's cal~uldted automatically and attributed to tile g.:tf'-substratp. gat.?-:,ollJ'Ce, or . gate-drain dpendin~ Oil tt~o region (,f operation. Tlter:C;'Jations governing the tr~ns:ti0ns 2re give~ in figure IV-26 whic~ al~o shows,a qua~itative represe:;tation of the capacitanc~ values if! tIle three oppr~ti"'g regions. The depleti6~ region ca~acitance and reverse ~aturati~n curre~t , 2" are in urits 0f FIrm ~n. A/~m~. respectively. T~ese values are mu:ti, plied by the source and drain areas provided in th~ mod(l call to d~termine actual lIalues. The diffusion capacllance i~. not inc'ud~d as partof the . SP I CE2 MaS. rnod~ 1.
,

SPIC[2 takes these values a;;dmultipl i.?s their by the appropriate oi 1ensions (CGB*L N or C~~'lp; CGS~WN o~ ~GS*Wp; CGO*WN or CGL*Wp) 'u determin~

Fixed'lalue sOUlce and dra;'n r,esistors ar~ include~ in the SPICE2 paraMetlr list. Iri table IV-~~ t~ese ~alues h~~e bee~ c~lculJtrd. for the intrinsic tral'sstor vnly. They wer~ determined as fullows:

La
or..P-'r LJ
r;-N' 1If

Th'Js, the :-esistance associated with the c;ource anct drain outside the . ov~p13p regions were not included in them~d~I, ,but thex may ~e included ~ith external el~men~s.

IV-SCJ ,:

I.,

. ~

C"

i.I.~

"3
l

II lC OX + CC;S
, '
l

3"

III

(IX

----

-~--

W L' ~Ox

"

--2~-

\ \
\ \

.!.. w've
3

ex

..
\
\
\

_ _____-+-________
,_

'- --

I...._ _ _ __+_ 'l. ~. eGO

1 c<;8 -+-.-.,.-+-----1 I I I

Vc;o;

~~
:>

:z

C>

:>

:>

=-

~~

A. ____~~~,-----'A-,--____~v~__------~--~~ ... A
1I "[AR Si. TUAII T I,ON

....
(UTOH

.J

WEA:; illVE liS I ON

flgur~

IV-26.

G~te'Capacit~nces

as a Functio, of Gatp Voltage as

r~deled

t-y

SP!~r2

," ,

lv-ro
....

Computer Example, Figure 1\1-27 shows Ule model schematic fo .. a CMOS inverter. It includes full parasitics for both an N-channel and P-channel device. Note that the resistance associated with 'the slJurce and drai" diffusions, but outside the intrinsic transistor, has to be modeled with,~wo series resistances (e,g., ,RPDPll and RrDP12)~ The parasitic dicde or bipolar transistor has been connected to the common node cf these resistors (e:g., DPDP1). The SfiCE2 coding for the model is shown ~n figure lV-29 and the results' of exercising the mod~l with alms pul~e are shO',lr. in fi gu,'e IV-29. D. RADIATION EFFECT INCLUSiVE MOS MODELS
1.

9.

Description In modeling the response of MOS transistors to radiation exposure, the analyst is primarily concerned with ionizing radiation and electrical overstress pulses res~lting from EMP. Since MOS transistors are majority carrier devices, their performance is not significantly affec~ed by minority carrier lifetime degrada,tion caused by neutron damage. Also, the effects of 'neutron damage are veryd~ ffi cu 1 t to separate from the damage caused by the ionizing radiation accompanying thp neutron fluence. As a result, there is no reliable ~arameterizing data'a~ailable for neutron effect mod~lin~. ,The NET-2 MO~ m6del 'contains neutron damage ~odeling parameters for modifying parasitiC eleme~ts such as the reVerse saturation cur~ent anirthe----dHfusion capacitance. ' However, thes~ ar,e, identical to the model modiiications treated under bipc1ar dJodes and transistors. They wi11 n~t b~ discussed aqain here. The interested reader is referred to tht!radiation effect, sections of chapters II and
III.

Ionizing radiation produces both permanent d~m'age and transient' photocurrents in MOS devices. The degree of permanent damage is proportional'to the total accumulated dose. Ionizing radiation pr~duces holeelectro~ pairs in the gate insulator. In Si0 2, the eleclron~ have a

l'V-61
,~

,"

"

""''''1'

RPSP1 RPGf1 11[11

leD
DPTN
,.'1[ N

RfJOP 11

DPOUT

vrrl

r
l,'IN]
~-1

CMOUT

"

RPSIIl

Figur~

1\1-27., ,Inverter Example

rV-62

\,

&

.-..:t.., .

"-_

INPUT LI3TrNG

Tt

,",PE~.A

TUPE z

Z 7. il "... DE G r;

,
'

.HO~l

NCfPILl

W~~3(VTO !.~5

+
+
+ .HODEL PC~Nll +

Io(S .':1 eGG b.:;~:-13 JS 9.'1:r-:'2 p~~S(vrd -l.lJ

KP ... _7C::-S Lao 3.JIoE-'J

LGO 8.SbE-IZ PO .91
~~ ~ ... ~~~

RO ~l CBS 3 'IoE-b CGS 1\. 8&E~1~

+ CG~ b.6~E-1J CGO 8~8;'~-tZ CGS ~.8H-1Z + JS :,.Z~-11 PB .91 .HonE'. Dlonpp~ II(CJr:' ~.~,r-~ "8 .;)1 .HODEL JICOI<PW ')(CJ'l ! .... =-~ PI> .5: .~OOEL ~PXSTR ~~N!Hr .~.. rl~ ~ IS 9.e~-12 CJE 3.0"-8 + Pl .'l CJC ~hE-1I PC.r ~C .Hll .SURCKT I~V~T~ 1 2 ! "PI .. ? ': 'j 'PCH;.d W:; .&9HIl 1.:..l17MIL A~=2 .811::-& AS=Z'.89E-& ~PPP~ 1 i~~ E(~ll. '1.911~- l~~.h; II.NS ~Z ... NS 333.NSI
VPPP~

~S .'i5

cao

RO .;:;
COS 'J. bZE-1

9.;2E-'1

7 ~,~

7 I)C

1: NCHNLI W=J.71MIL L:.197HIL AO=!.'3E-c A~=~.b9E-h arUN1 1 ".~ ~ ~PXST~ A~~4:.2.~7~-~ IPPNEF ~ ,r! ~X~(~. ~.Z'lE-5 1J~.N~ 8.NS 12 ... N~ 33j.NSI VPPNEF II: ~ Ill! - DC IFP~C~ 1 "~2 ~X~Cl. Io.M6~- 1CC.N~ e.NS 1ZIo.N~ 333.NS! VPPNCR 11"12 p ,)~ ~lnNl C '\'_" Hi; F UP t~ 1 ? Y P p" t 21 FOPOUT 1 J '/PPP'-' .Z: OPIN Z! OIOnpp~ AQ[A:~.~1[-6
9 2 11
OPOUT OPDPl
CHI~

"~1

C'10UT
RP~Pl

R!'np!l
~pnpl?

R"APl

RPON1!
~pnN1t'

RPCNl PPSNl .FNnS

~!

.." .:
~

1 1 DIQJPP~ AP~A= ... ~lF-& 7:. JIOJPPN A~~A=34"Z~-5 2 ' . ';;)PF J :IoPF 1 .. 6.~1 ! ,r; '. ;, 7 3.Z :; 7 J 1.Z'; J I! !. ~ 3
1. f J

Xl , 10

I~YR!~

~IN

\'1)0 1 C DC 1C ~DO 1 2 '1, VIN 3 ~ PUL~EI: ll 2~.~~.~5.n~.~,~.~;.1.5USI

3 .. !<

'

'::0 ~ ,:PF rRAN ioN:' 10'.(,4': PL c'r r~Arl Y b l

.ENn

Figure IV-2B.
",

SP.ICE2 Coding for Parasitic lnclus.ive crtQS Inverter, f10del

lV-63 .
,','

~.

.dlS PAlE IS

o __ t

iRlJK ;}Oi' 'i N'\Ill.Sk1!D 1'Q ooil

~~ ..... !IY P&l.Cl.L~ ------

i~

I;
I!I' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

;: ...... a-:-

I~ ..

, ., I ,
I

.. ..................................................................... ..

.................. ,;--- - ...,:;;0:.--------I

/ I

, ,
I

I I I

< I
01 -A
:~ 'I
. ". f

, . . . . . . . . . ,.1.

,
I

.................. /.

I
~

. ,
I I

I I

~
,

)!
.... ,.... ,.... ,.... ,
,1:' ".
if.

........................

,. ,.... ,.... .... ,.... / .... .... ,.... / .. , ..... ,

~

l':.

,
'"

. tel

IX!

1?~

II.;'

160

'",-

';11 '."~' ('):

..... .- ... ,..... ... ,.... ,.,.

. 80

"
i
,"0.

.... .

; /4

~ ,:..

3t'

?
". j,

Figure IV-:-29.

Pulse Response of CflOS Inverter r10ctel with Full ?arasi tics as Exercised on SPICE2

L.........

~,

....

"

r
I
higher mobility than holes. Therefore, they tenc tJ be :'emoved from the insulator. Thi~ leaves positively charged holes trapped there. This p05itiv~ charge attracts electrons to the semicJnductor surface and repels holes. The net effect is a shift in the threshold vo1tag~ of the device. The amov,t of tt,r~shl,)ld shift for a give~ dose is determined by o~ide properties and the pu1arity and amplitude of gate bias. The physical understanding of c~arge trapping in ,the oxide is i,ncomp1ete at this time. Ther~fore. no prediL~ive models exi~t for estimating the degree of threshold v~ltage shift from physical properties of the device. The analyst must rely on experimental dat'a,'for parameterization information. He should use extl'eme ea'Jtion in extrapv,ating data on radiation induced threshold, voltage shifts to dose levels outside the rang~ of measurements and to device~ taken from other m~nufacturing 10~s. In addition to oxi~e char~~ trapping, total dose fJJiation increases the number of surface stat~s, which tends to drive both N-channe1 and P-channe1 devic(~ toward enh~nceme~t mode oper~ticn. In N-channe1 (.~~ ices, th is counteracts the ox i de charge trapp i ng effects. In P-channe 1 devices, it a~ds to oxide trapping effects. Physical mechanisms under1yinq surface state incr~ase as a function of total do~e are not \>1.:11 understood. The analyst shqu1d ~Aercise the same caution in utiiizing,experimental data fof threshold vo1tdge shifts caused by surface s~ate density increases. Typically, oxide charge trapoing effects tend to dominate threshold vo'ltage shifts below 10 5 rad (5i) arid sUl'face stdte ciensity increases' tend to domlnate above 10 6 r,ad (Si). Figure IV30 shows the effect total 'dose i~radiation has on threshold vc1ta~e for sample N-c~~nne1 a~d P-channe1 devices ynder different gate bi~s conditions. Ionizing 'radiation ~lso produces hole ~lectron pairs in the ;~l icc.n materi.l1 of the MOS transistor. As a result, photocurrents appear acr~jS th~ junc~ionsof ~ource-substrate. dtain-substrate l P-we11-subst'rate. a:'d any other c!iodes associated with the MOS !.levice. These photoclirrents may charge or discharge cire.lit nodes and result in

I
t
,f

l I I
i

1 , I

I I I
I

I ;

1"-65
,
~~-

,'"

.- ......

....

--.-

_ ..
,

I ,

I
\

"9

til

I
I
i

m
of-P-

0'>

0.'

1
,
'

:>
1:1
~

..r::
'IV

.c
f0 0

I..

'"

I I

c:

c:

I
c.n
-J I..U

\.0

+-'
~

1:1
I.. I..
~

v) c.n a c:t:
~

0 \.0 0 U
~

c.n

I..U

Ld

....
IV

u <:J +-

.....

VI

..c

+>
0

c:

..... .....
VI

I ....

I Q.

< :r
0
N

.... .....
M

0
M

0
N

<:)

a
::t:

::.....
a
M

::-

f-

.......

.....

::3 0'>

s...

IV

'-----

-!
.al ..........

:j

'I

sig~al transients or state change~ in HOS circuits. The pdrasitic NPN transistors fc .. med in CMOS technoloyy iIlay amplify t'1e prima '/ photocurrent5 and produce secondary photocurrents; the5e are particuiarly effective in ch-, qing node voltilges. The same techniques for predicting an,: implementing photocurrentJ discussed in chapters II a~d III are effective in predicting photocurrents in ~IOS devicps. They will not Ce repeated in detlil in this chapter. The reader is referred to the radi3tio~ effects section of those chc~ters for supporting information. , Ionizing radiation can produce increased leak3ge between the gate e!ec~rode and the semiconductor material dur~ng the radiation pulse. This is due to ionization in the gdte dielectric. NET-2 contains provis ions -for r.1oJe ling thi s trans i ent increase in I eakage wi til currp.nt gener- , ators fro~ ~Jte to source and gate to drain. Transient ionization of the gate dielectric ii generally a second order effect in determining the pnotoresponsp. of an MOS device. Furthermore, -the current generators simu~ating dielectric ionization gpnerators are extremely diffic~lt to parameterize 3crurately. Use of the generators is not recommended and will not be treated in this handboOk.
Electrical overstress pulses can result from EHP, photocurrents, electrostatic d~scharge, or normal syste~ turn-on transients These pulses can damage MOS devic~s by rupturing the gate dielectric. The diel~ctric 'strength of Si0 2 is quite hi~h (7, x 10 6 V/cm); ~Q!..,e';er, the gate oxide is e;(tremely thin' (700-1000 A). Only 50 to 70 volts are requi~ed to 1amaqe the oxide. Such volt~ges can be generated by electrostatic disc~larqes enccu~tHed in pdCkaging, shipping, and as'!::embly. T~erefore, manufacturers provide te~minal -protection networks ~n, inputs and'o'utputs-cf'M9S,IC's and discretes. These are typically combinatioils 'of diffused resistors and shJnt. diodes which ':lamp transients b.elo,", the ievel required fur breakdown of the dielectric. For high amplitude, fast riseti~e'transi~nts, the terminal P"otpction network and terminalmetallization may be damaged or the bulk resistante a~~o~iated with the diodes may 'be sufficien~ly high tu allow the t~rminal volt~ge to rise above the gate dielectric breakdown voltage. These effect~ can be moaeled by csin~ the

IV-G7

techni~ues dis~Jssld in'ch~pters II and III for

on rliode~ a r 1 trans:stors. In additio~, the gate voltage must be monitcred to insure that it does not exceed t:le dielectric breakdown. 2. AdvantJges Radiation effect modeling for MOS devices can be of significant' benefi~ when combined with a good experimental program for determining parameter values. Circuit states can Le easily set and the. effects of thresholrl voltage changes 'on propagation delays and fanout capability can be readily determ;ned. For transient effects, the voltag~s at internal nodes can be monitored and the effects of drain and source dimenslc~ changes on photoresponse can be economically evaluated. For electri~al ove~stress effects, tradp-offs between terminal protection nctwcrk dE~ign and protective efficiency can be in~estigated. 3. Cautions There are no reliable procedures cur,'pnlly available for p,"edicting threshold voltage shift as a functio,n of tota1 dose. Seem:ngly -inor ~ariations,in proLessing have produced maj0rchanc~s in threshold ~~:t~q~ , shift a~ a function uf toUI dose. The anal}st should never ext.."apolate data beyond the range of total dose, gate bias, or processing tect'110 1 0gy, for which they were measured. h:m when the same processing technolog.y from the same manufactufer is used, significant variations in threshold voltage shift ~an br expected from lot to lot The be~t arpro~ch is to try to bound the limits of ~hreshold' volt3ge variatiQn~ and to nerfo'"m analyses based on those bounds. The ,resu'lts should t~en be r .!ported as a range of values (e. g., ",=or t~res~old voltage shifts betw~en 1 and 2 volts ~he ~ropogation delay of circuit X was found to vary trop lG0-200 IJ s. "). For photo response analyses, the parasitic networks are extremely important.' In CMOS circu'its t~e NPN transistors associated "ith the N-channel devices shouid be carefully modeled. Th~ analyst should also look for po 'ntia! PNP'devices wt-'ch can be,c"upled with 'the NI'N para~itic5 to form an SCR structure. If su~h a structur~ is trigQered, it may lat~h in a conducting state and re~~in conducting even after tle ladiation

EHP effec'

'

IV-6H

is r~~oved. The minority carrier lif~times in the silicon material used for the substrates of MOS devices tends to be quite long. Therefore, the analyst shouldinclu(]e tt-e dit'fusion compo'.nt of the phot('current iiI any photore5ponsecalculation~ , EMP modeling should carefully consider a~l possibl: current paths and aCLurately model all parasitic diode junctions as~ociate~ with them. Thi s USI~a lly reslJlts ina reasonab ie effort for input te:--mi na 1s, but may be unreasonably difficult for outputs and power supply terminals. Analysis resu1~s sholJ'd be yerified by tes' data. 4. Characteristics a. Topology Figure IV-31 shows a schematic represe,ntation of a CMOS in~erter with an input protection network and all photocurrent ge~erator~ . , drawn between appropriat~ nodes. Figure IV-3Z shows the model top o10 9Y required for a photorespcnse anaiysis of the inverter. Note .that no topology variations are required to implement threshold voltage variations with total dose. Only a parameter change in the dra'in current mod~l is re~uired. b. !1E.i.al Effects ~igure IV-33 s~ows experimental data for the variation in saturated drain current as a function'of gate voltage and total dose level s. S. Q,efining Equa'tions. a. Total Dose Effects The ~hreshold voltage can,.b' written as: .
"

~timulus

SS vT -.illS' - Q COX

+ . f

Z~

ZEsqN B .C Z~f OX

BS

KT [1 q

qN FS

2E s qN

.2C O )( (2~f

Section E gives a comulete de~cription of this equation and its.implementation in second order effec't inclusive MOS models. The in,terested reader is r@ferred to that section. Tr.e ,point to be made here is that both the

IV-G9

VSS

Figure IV-31. CMOS Inverter with Photo~urrent G~nerators Model Topolog~ Rrq~irpd fer a Photoresponse 'Analycis of the inverter

IV-70
-,

"

t','

I,)

CGS2

CGD2

SU-~~~T---~__~__~__r-~~

RS2

t-r---1~-T--~---r-rvv\.--oO

RD2

JPND

Rl

R2

CB
,JPBD
SUBS TRATE (V DO) , R3 R4

ROB 1
COl
RSI

RDI 5O---'~~-----L--~---+~~~____-L-+__~__~~__~~~-OD

JC9 CGS
G

(GOI

Figure IV-32.

Ibde1 Tooolog

for crros Invert~r Phot~response And1ysis

IV-H

IV~ 72

-----

----

','

oxide charge (QSS) lnd the numb~r uf surface states (N ,) directly influF ence the value of the threshold voltage (V T). Theref0re, threshold voltage s~ifts resuiting frum either effect ca~ be modeled by incr~menting or decrementing t~e value of V T. Thus" total dose effects can be successfully implemented in either first order Jr second order effect models. In this section, the radiation effects are included with the first order mod~l. In ,the n~xt section, appropriate discu~si~ns are includ~d with t~e second lit'de:' RI0dei tc guide the user in any special requirements for including r~diat.ivn effects. The presentation here is not meant to imply th~t tne analyst should avoid the use of the second ordef model with radiation effects. It simpl) reflects that the pr~sentation of the; radiation E:ffef,b modeling is simpler if the ,first order model is used. b. P~otocurrent Effects Any of the defining equations and implementations of photocurrentgener~tors discussed previously with bipolar clodes can be us~d 'with the parasitic diodes and translstors in MOS devices. Since the minority cdr:rier lifetimes a,'e q'uite,long in MaS subs,trates, the diffusion component of the p'lOtocurrent should be consldered In which~ver implem~nta tion is chesen. The redder i~ r~ferred to the radiation effects 5ection of chapters II and III for a more complete dis,-ussion. In this section" J douple exponent:al w~11 be ~sed to simulate the primary ~hotocurrent.

c.

,Elpctric~l Overstr~ss Effects

can result in d~mage to either terminal ~rote~tion n~tworks (Dl~ 02' , and ~l in 3 figure 'V-ll) or to the gat~ dielectric. The diode dam~qp in the'prJt~c tion network is a fundion of the alJplied power .15 cxpresse! by the equation'

A: noted above, electric.)l overstress

pul~es

IV-ll

"',',

~
: j
(
~

I.

, l '

:i
.1

:L i

;1
, !

t i ,!

;..i,
,

This .qu.tion is us.ful ,0 puis idths btt n IDa ns .nd iOO pL Iu. of the d g. const.nt c.n b tim.t.d frnm th. diode area fr~m the empirical ~quation
K

junc~i.n

Th

.. '
;

= 23.9
~

A 62

Th. g.t. volt.ge mrst .Iso onito;.d to insure th.t

Vg

th~ condition

tox ~

7 x 10 6 V/cm

; s never e;~ceeded.

6.

Parameter list a. Tota') Oose Effects

- Chanl]e in thr" .. hold voltag~. The parameter may be .ith.r positi or negdtive. Th. 'dl". should b. d.t.rmined frem experimental data. T~e P0sti~radiatio~ thre~hold voltage becomes

j.V~

b.

Photocu'rrent Respons~, tOR = tim~ delay ' soluti0n

I fJP ~ peak photocurrent

be~ween
of

the beginning 0f

th~

computer

the photo(urr~nt leading'edg~ tOF = time delay betwpen the beyin'ling"of the computer solution

and the ~nset

TR = time

constJ~t o~

the radiatin~ puls~

T~

and the beginning of the phot0current decay - time constant of the Dhotocurrent trailIng edge

Fiqur. 11-34 iJ I us tr.t.s the Primary photocurr.nt form.

,
~

, ,IV-74

I'
'~

.I'

t=C

tDR

tDF

l3EG rrlN r NG OF CorlPIiTER SOLUTION

Figure IV-34.
c~

Primary Photocurrent Waveform

,7.

P~ram~ter~zation

Electrical Overstres~ K ,= damage constant for the diode PF = failure power t - elapsed time from the onset of the electrical oVerstres;, pu,l s,! R~ = bulk rEsistance intimately associated with the junction and contributing to junctio~ heating ,
Do~e

T (1) Typical value - No tYPl':alchang,e'in threshold voaage shift as a function of total dose ca~ be given 'because of the large variations resulting from different manufacturing technjques. (2) Measurement - Fig'ure IV-3'5 shows the 'extrap:>lation of satu'rated drain current meJ~urements to yield values of, threshold voltage shifts for an off N-channel device. Table IV-5 gives the val ues of ,6V Twl, i ch wi II be used for N-chanrle 1 and P-channe'l Q?vices irradiat~d under two different bias conditions in the fo'llowing examples.

a.

Totar

Effects -

6V

IV-75

_______

10

PRE-RAD
9
N-OiANfjELS

107R

T
.... ....,
0
ttl

OFF DURING
lRRADIATIO~

"0
ttl
~ ~

'8

(VI-OV, V DD -10V)

....,
VI

0
Q..

<=

If-

.... ..c.
IfV')

III ....,

VI ....,

Q) C O'IQ)

ttl ...., ......

Q)
~

>

::::J
VI

ttl
Q)

"C ...... ::::

-= . . ,
0
VI

Q)

Q)
~ ~

..c.

If-

,-'
C

0
C

.t;.
]'

0 I.... 0 ..->
ttI"C
.::

.... .., E:
Q)

1
2

l.-

Q'
~,

::. ....,
ttl
V')

ttl I.-

I .I

Q)

Cl

I
I

I ,,~ Iv I

'll' I
I,

, /1

~.

FILLING OF SURFACE STArES

In M

>

Q)

::::J.
0'1
.~

/
I

u..

6.

- -7

,.
\

'

..

..-.:.-~~-"

.'

"

'.'~'.,'-""

....... -~

-~

"'"

TABLE IV-5. 0 V T + 1. 65 V +1.65

-1. 13 -1. 13

INDUC~D BY TOTAL IONIZING bOSE

~HRSHOLD

VOLTAGE

~'HFTS

x 10~\rad)
~VT'

2 x l0 5(rad)
~VT

5 x

10\ rad)
ilV 1
<~.

N-charnel (on) N-chalmel (off) P-channel (on) P-,channe I (off)

-1. 41 V

-2.20 V + .20 - . 15 - .47

60 V,

- .50 - . 15 - .27

.. .40
- .30 - .82

"0

Note that in figure IV-3S the c;lope of the: D versus VG curve chanL~s slgnificantly at higher doses. Also, ::.iqnificant currellts flow telow the thl'eshclc1 voltage at dosps greater than 10 6. Variations in slope can be accounted for by modi f) 'n9 the p parameter in the first order model. ,Current flo~ be10w the thresnold voltage will be tre~ted in the next chapter (see wea~ inversio~ ~ffect i~ section IV-E), The ana~yst must use his judgment and th~ requirements of his analysis to deride when these effects become important, b. Photocurr~nt Effects - Peak photocurrent. Typical value - peak values of pri(1) I pp . mary photocurrent may be ~st~mated using the (ollow~rig equation':

:!~ =6 .. 4 x10. 6

I
J

W+ l

or; (tOf ;
/-21:,
(~I
q
J'

tOR)

-V)

W = depIction layer' ,w'idtil =

,' "

s N ,T
B

W= 7.69 x 10- 5 cm for NB = 2 x 1015 (P+N ,diode) at V. '= 0 V J ' 4 = 2.68 ~ 10- ~t V.= 10

IV 77
1

= A.46 x 10 -5 at V.

= 10 =2

l - diffusion length = Vb'i-=~~~--;;

l l

10- 3 cm for 16 N S = 2 x 10 , N+P erf .025 = .028

erf ,100 = . 112 erf.5 erf :: .521 :: .843

= 3.95 .... = 5.10 x

10- 3

~m

frr N S'

x 10 15, P+N
,

For a 25-ns pulse width and material \:ith a l-I-Is ndnority carrier lifetime, the following ~an be considered typical values Of Ipp for a dose rate of 10 9 rad (5i)/s:
O'V
~:+p diode

10 V 1. 16 Alcm 2

1. C7 Alcm 2 1. 2 Alcm 2

N+P diode
(2)

2.42 Alc~2
Typical
I I

TR - Time constant br leading edQe at the pulse.

value - approximately one-th,ird of the time between the onset of the radiation pulse and the maximum photocurrent. For a radiation p~ls~ with ~ pulse width of 25 n~. tR ~ 8 ~s.
(3)

value - approxim~tely one-thi~d'of the minority carrier lifetime assumed for the materiaL For a minority carrier lifetime of 1 jJs, TF = 333 I-IS. K-

TT - Time cor.stant for trai,ling edge of the pulse.

Typical

(1)

dio~es to be used in the example:

D~m~ge

c.

Electrical Overstress Typical value K = :.9 A 62 . For the

constant.

IV-78

e'

cn

"5"< +

'.

.-

......

.......

'-

~',

(2)

5 2 K =: .026 Al -:: 1.66 x 10- cm 6 2 K = .C15 A2 = .84 x 10- cm A3 -- 2.32 x 10 -5 em 2 K = .032 These are damage constants 'for reverse l'iasing electri~al ovetstress puhes, If th:? pulse forward b,iases the jU:lCtion, the damage constc.:,ts, are typically multiplied by a factur of 10. I(S.' Typical value -, estimation of the bul~ resistance is generally 4uite difficult. However. val~~~ of 30 0 nave give~ satisfactory results in previous investigations.
RS

= 30 n

Code Implementation Only NET-2 has provisicns for dirett)y implementing drain and source photocurrent generators in the MOS model itself. Each of the ~odes requirp man~al changes in the threshold voltage parameter in order t(' simulate total dose effects.' SPICE2 can only implement the double exponential form cf the photocurrent generators and cannot imp)emen~ the electrical overstress subroutine. Table IV-6 gives parameter values for implementing photocurrpnt equations in NET-2. Jtherwise, all implement'ation parameters are identical to those given previously in table IV-4. The areas for'the source and drain diffus'iolls have been used to calculate IPll, IP12, IP21, ~~d IP22 according to the scheme inaicate~ belo~.
3,

IPll = ~.4 ~ 10-~ ~ W~ AS

I'

(N+P) IPll

=[~:4l(lO-6'

rad(Sl)~cm

.A--'j~2.4~Xl0-5cm)(2.2Xlq-5cm2)(lO'
, ' '
, '

e?s)

-. . ----..v'---.. . -..-..
qg

~....--........

Source Area

= 3.43

10 -~

~ ~

'\

I
IV-7Q
;
," ,
i,

\,

TAgLE lV-6 .. :lET-2 1-'05 ilODEL PHOTOCURREtn-lIIPLENfrITATlOrl Code

Pardillet~r

Defidtion
Regi~n

WIOS V.::lue 3.43 x 10- 8 45.6 x 10

PMOS Value
1. 40 ~ 10- 7

I P"ll
" I

Source Depletion Fhotocurrent Constant

~
mA ns -pJ

IPll
<: I
.~

I
t

Source Diffusion Region Photocurrent Constant

~rain

-12 ~~ pJ

59.4 x 10- 12
1. 40 x 10- 7

IP21 IP22

Jepletiorr Region -Photocurrent Cons tant -

4.75 x 10- 8 6.31 x 10- 12

~
mA ns pJ-

brain Diffusicn Region Photocurrent Constant

mA ns 59.4 x 10- 12 -pJ

i"

r.

..,. ..
--_. ----

------'------

-~--------.

10 7 ergs g

= 5. 08

8 coul x,'0- -J-.

3 5 7 = 6.4 x 10 - 6 . . 5.1 x 10- x 2.21 x 10- x 10

~S

= 45.6
9.

x 10- 12 mA ~ns

pJ

Computer Examples

Three co~puter exa~p~es are provided below. Figure IV-36 presents a SPICE2 listing of the inverter examined previously, with a complete set of photocurrent generators. Figure IV-37 shows the results of ~Aercising this inverter to determine propagation delays as a function of the threshold volt~ge shifts listed in tabl~ IV-5. See the SPICE2 listing in chapter IV.C for circuit description for pr~~agation delay analysis. Figure IV-38 shows the low state p~oto response of the inverter 10 at 1 x ~09, 1 x 10 , ~nd 5 x 10 10 r3d (~i)/s. ~ote that at 1 x 1010 rad, (5i)/s, s i gnifi cant secondary photocurr~ntS have been generated by the par,asitic transistor. Figure IV-39 givps a SCEPTRE list~ng of the ~nput protection network such as that shown previously in fiqure JV-31. The gates of the N-channel ana P~channel transistors have been replaced with, an'equivalent, capacitor. Table IV-7 gives the res!Jlt of exercising this'circuit for a ~ariety of electrical overs~ress pulse amplitudes.

IV-81

0.

"

it

INPUT lLT1'<l.

;: 7. _. _ J'-

............................. ,

......
j(p

G Co
(

,., .....................

......

...
~.

.-

'~D
L::\.'
I;~.\';

. ~ ~

':l,'
+
, '1C [1;: L

i'>'O
t':'. h&:: - , j.

4:-!'\

l ... ,

L:

'\ '1' _' - ~ ..

, II
j.&.o
f.,)

!.: .. L-'"
j.~h-::-:.~.

V: ... ~ LI

JS Y.i l-L' ~'.) ~ ('J T I -!,! I

hi
,,;

I ~J

',.'J': r. -'J
.'\, 1 t -1 .'
, 'I

l>~~,

j.~:

..--'l

C(,j,,;

d.

't~,_-:~~

P10ll".l

:'T /)(11 1''4 ,1 (~ I J

.I1CJfl lII,ll",:'" 'l(CJl.

P10UEl

..... ,' .. - f ;. _ ... - 0\

[1.', ~ T '"

It,ilC'lt
f' :

.SU"CIo;T MPl
/'1N~

:) 'l
~

.'

,.~

CJC

..

"- - , 't: .'

C J

,i.; .. E -

'I

a en~: 1

, ''I

.' . , ..
'I
, -,
~4

"C W Il.
~I

RZ[llijl

OPIN OPOUT
Jf-[of'l
C'1t~ ~HCIJT
qp~Pl

1\: , : .

:; 1 - "L IF'~:

r'

"7 ~ , " 1 '11 l .. = ' , : ... r l

L ~ j L;,;' j

'1 ;

I' '1 I L ".,) =.' ,,\ I. _ ,_ l i\ I) ~ 1 1 j L - f-

")-::?:i'~';' -t
:\';:,t.~l_t

.,
)

I)! :)1""1. 11" lp 1"

A'

RPAP1
~

.. oI-'t :

RPO~l=:

RP"lNl !

"pnNl?
~PRNl
~P<;tll

ENO:'
Xl 'l 10 V un 1 :
~

..
!.

: ') ,. . " :.
I

01 :r'", ..',.

A-< t_ A..l :-

,'= ...
.:.

~:

.', , i, -.:
j

r, _ ,',

= S.... ., ~ _ '. .

,'" .'F
.I'~

1 1

'-

).

5 "0

')

- ...

nl~ ~T..
1(;
jll J l 'I(

')0 1.' ~

\I ItI
"I~

.3 '. J ..
~
l

';~: ( , : '. .' . " , '4 ",

'Ij " ' '"

r: 0

'" -- P'

T ~ to~, 10 N ') I. i ; I';

T ~ l'l V (,. ,

Pl (T

~ NC

Figure IV-36.

spr::;L2 Listin'.) of Inve,ter Circuit 'Nith Photocurrent r.~l1erilt(lrS

IV-82

..." '1 J '$

------... ,,- ;......... ._-"""...............

~""'--"':!, 'b~~_'-:::;:1' .;"'- J

.........
..

. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~

..

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '.'

..

.. . .
:t' ,;,'

. ~~ ....
____

"0 ....
"

u.. .. .

''14'~
' ....

'Jff
)I'

','",

........ '

~'''.''''

~~----~

....... r

~.-

< I.
Q)

iI

r .. .. .. ..... \' .
I \

............... ..

:"'L"

:
\ \
0 . "0"

:1 .. 1 1
I'.. - fII'
'"

'1'
lilt

., ... ,
)r
~f,

..

I
t.:

,.
"

.,.
-.:

'1'"
1,)/

, . . . . , ..
{L

,t:

:1 1 .. , .... , ...
"".
/~ J~

t ..
..

H',

., ... ,..
~-

J.4

&'f;.

Figure IV-37.

Inverter Pro~lgati~n Delay for Different Values of Trreshold Voltage Shift

...............................................
-~

-~

I'J
III

III

a.

c:

o .....
0..
~

<11 L.

.r:
<11

1\:1
~

V'I

-J

..
I'

L. <J

\.:

I.

_i.

> c:
~

L. <11

:;
I
I

-;

-.
-"'
-j,

III

>, ..... .0'

~

III

c:

N
U ..... '0..
LoU

V'I

-;
-~

co rr.
I

==-

-~

........................................................................................................, ............... .
. ,..........
,

,t ,t', ..............

I.... . I '.

........"..... .

IV-84 .

. w.IliiIl.IiIliiir"';.;..'_..._ ...__..... ,>.~~.:..;,:-=--..,_..----....__.....~~_ ..~ __

.!.. _._ .. ::.

~. __ .~
..
.L-~~_.

MOulL

l'"
JIIVi,lL

... , .. .,
"'t ....

,", ~'+J'"
I ... :,.
'I ....

I.-C'

'"1~

-l')t.I~

A 1 , AI'. -,t.)

'v
l

1.'"1. ",.,.,11,1", ut ... f ... ",,' .:... .. . '. 'It \,. i;:
"l .. ,

"" J Tr:. - .. _., ",: t L t .It '. ''::I

oJ

1. 1 : ..........
t

.~.: ........ r.l-' ....... .

t 1 ... ~ ..

I..,~

L.Ji .....

I .. J.n~ftJ 'd.j~;t"'''::)L~I., ..

"l(

.J'~

.1 ....

',;-'

-( ..
....... , "'t I t

~i .... . ) J .. ,~). 'L , I ~ 1 L; , ' .. -,,' r... j , ".J ... , " , 1,(' .. " .'t111 J : . . Cf,i.",I;-;'.",>.1 __ ..,,,,,

:'1..,

Ol r 1 ~t

III

.. 40 ..... ~

V li ~
,a
"

'"''''' ':"

\I''''

ofa _

1''' .... ". ,." ",'

1'1 " "" ., " ' .

.... y ..

0;

c'W'

I " .... J .1
I .. "j

.. I ~

1,

I .. "ol , I

".

.'

;' : .., ~ .. r
toJ .. ':

t - ..... I -, f

" t ~.. ,. '. I J l'o~ ."''' .... , ..... I" , ........

U J ,<e'li I

"" . . . ':. .... . ',..."1 . . '-'."" .... ~ ............. " ' . I ....... ~l
..,
'"

~lll .."",~,,)
,1,I( . " . ' ....

~I .....
. ,,,

,...J f

1~'-'/',. ... ' ) l l J l - " . " l l

2: ' ..

V"ol ' I ...

" ' . l t 4 ....

~1.-trool .. I ' I - " ... j f l ... I . I J

'.I'i ..... .J.JJ.J.

1l(1

t,..J

'''''''u' ... v

C~

.. C")l"t.

'\..Illl~:",

I \ I ! ,I'..... I ,. ~,ft" U\'w .... , ... , ... wt''''''\'':'-'

v"tT,
t. L!: .. t ...

f'

.. ::-d ...... ~ ......

I"~,.,i.f::"':.,.,,,

..... ~ ..................... .
I .. oJ J

... ')

t ....' ..... t 1
~l".

r:

1
.I.

~. l ~.l'.

r ..... ,. r

l!. I I l "'t

-,..

1"

OJ

,--

-II.iLl:

-,

.Jt

... 1" ....

", 1'1
orr
C"
I~t l.

II,

I" "'\'.,

.l>
"io ...

-.,- .. ,.,;

~ .' "oJ
~\"'ll

r, . . \.
- \ ......... C
a

1 .1
lJ'"

'" .

...tJ .,,,, :"

~I

.e'"t -.e'

". ..,-'I,'"
~

PA,. ... r It ... ",

to'w ('

:'
'I

1 '.\,1.
I ,J " , . '114 .. ~

"-1.
0"" r"'"II ...

w e't

.. t, ,. L" I "'.J, .... "l ) I

1,., .... l l ' I
'l't h.t'",t'l

t' '. ".~

,. I.

... ' ..,i..l'.

c"": ,'I

.f I

. . . . . . . I l : .... \ . " ,

.... ., V t .... \.vl

... ;.

t.t':,.'"
f

U"'"

It .." r .... l.
'. ('t

1t
,.~,

- I
-.

II

i"'I'~A'

... u~I.I'.v ...

- , "'.

'I . . . . .

'.""lI ....... I

II

tJ H

I !.

"u"

,t ...1, t . (U .1.".. , ...

, .. I ....... : I
",\. "
~,

J.' .. ; \,..1
~...

:~..

1'04,," .. t \. ".

..... t

... .. , .. I \ ") I .,

"

t.~

J'''C

1".1 -',
0

ft ... I ... It
' I ,.,.,. ' I ' I t ," .. - , .1 't It .. ,',,'..

I' I'
I'

lit .. ,,, j u t I I'" 4 ~ \.1 t ."

It ,., . " I J 1 f. . . . . , ' , .1.1,_

't. .... : .1. ..

'1"I.'!~

ft .. '-1" 1

t ,,' 1-,."
I .. ..

J.J , . i , J. '.4.

;' ,." .....

'.1 .., ..

Figure IV-39.

SCEPTRE Lhting for Input Protection Network Electrical Overstress Analysis

IV-8S

TABLE IV-7.

SCEPTRE ELECTRICAL OVERSTRESS ANALYSIS OF CMOS INPUi PROIECTION NtTWORK

INPUT NETWORK ELECTRICAL OVERSTRESS FAILURE pREDICTIONS ELEMENT THRESHOLD POWER 9.& 20.4 30. 7 42.1 48.0 91.3 168 .. 0 263.0 365.0 471. 0 FAIL POWER - ~.8i 20.80 32 .. 10 43. 70 55.40 91. 40 168.00 268.00 391. 00 537.00 TERM:NAL FAIL POWER 17.3 27.9 38. 7 49.8 61. 2 110.0 193.0 300.0 430.0 584.0 OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE -170 -175 -180 -185 -190 +150 +200 +250 +300 "35(1.

FAILED ELEMENT 03 (REVERSE)

< I

FAIL TIME 7.00

1. 60
~s ~s ~s

FAIL VOLT -165.0 -166.0 -163.5 -170.0 -172.0 63.0 81.6 100.0 119.0
137.0

-Q)

03

(~EVER)c)

0\

03 (REVERSE) 03 (REVRSE)

0.72 0.38 0.29

~s
~s

1-

03 (REVERSE) 03 (FORWARtl) 03 (FORWARD)

a: 10
2. 40
0.98

~s
~s

03 (FORWARD)
03 (fORWARD)
_03 (FORWARD)

0.51 0.30

L.
~

'-

'.

---_._--

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -_ _ _ _ _ _ , _ . . - ....... ,.

..__

~<

, -_ _ _ _..... 'l!"~

..

_._:--~

____ .-_.

t.

MaS MOOELS INCLUDING SECOND ORDtK tHe: s

I.

gesc'iPt ion The first order MaS model diSCussed in sectior. B of this ct'iapter The thrESM~d \loltage and the i"ansconductar,ce f~r:t0r

i5 primar'iiy u'seful for s:!1Iulatin'y the _IV t:::haractet'istic~ cf an individua!

~S transistor.

arp mea~ured and used in the ~odelequatlons to match tt'ie experimental data. This ~odel can be useful in predicting circuit res~onse from, Howknowledge of electrical charJcteristics o~ individual piecepa;ts. model.
t ;':st. th~ analysl is often u:1ablp to measure the thresh(lld

ever, there are two major limitations associated with the first order voltage and transconductance factor of individual transistors. They m~v

be inac~essible due to :hei~ location within an integrated circuit, or

t~ey may b~ in the design stag~ and ,the analyst maybe !nterested in

parametric trade-vff studies befure finalizing t:'e design.

For these

case~. the anaiyst re~uires ,a mod.:> I which he call parameterize from a

pt-yslcal.description of the device in terms of doping c(':-.::entr~ti')ns, (lxije thicknesses, etc. useful. The other difflculty with the first order mod~l is it5 unsophisticated functional' form. terminal Its in-1thematica,1 constr'uction 1's not sufficient ,to acCt1rate-ly-represent t~e actudlI/V characteristi.:s'offour
~uch

a mocel must provide reasonably accl;ratt:

predlctiol's of indiviJual tranSl,~t(lr characteristlcs it it is to be

Mds

devices,

The so called' second o,'der effect~ which are'

responsible for the deviation of MOS characte:'istics frem the simple

,

theo"y repres~nted by first o~der model Jreof majc.r impo,rtance' for the '
sm~ll,geometry transistors found in int~graterl circuits. Fail~re to

account for these second order effects c<tn result ,in' gross i"accuracie'5 in prediction of integrated circuit response. In this chapter, second order MaS models are discussed which are parameterized from phy:;ical data related to the fabrica~ion proces's.

Iv-a7 ,

.'

:i
,
,

,
'

~j

.The aiscussiol includes the following: (1) S~bstrate Bias Effects (2) T~o-Dimensional Effect~ on Threshold Voltage (J) Weak Inversion Effects (4) Ch~r'el Length Modulation Effects (5) Variable Mobil ity Effects (6) Temperature Effects All of these effects are not included in all of the m~dels. Thp di~russion will indicate ho~ the effe'cts are implemented and ~hat p3rameters th! analyst must SJ~ply to use them effectively. In general. the SCEPTRE/T~AC/CIRCUS2 subroutine (referred to as the SCEPTRE model) and the SPICE2 bl'ilt-inmodel (untain'quite comple~e second order effects. lhe'built-in NET-2 model remains an essentially empirical.nodel with some provision~ for including ~econa order effects through increa~ed mathematical sophistication. Example computer solutions have been included to demonstrate the modifications in I/V ~haracteristics resulting from varying the va1ue of pJrameters a:;sociated with each of the s~cond order effects. The analyst sh.)uld use these exanles to ,detprmine if his p,'oble~ requires modeling a particular pffect.

t j' ~

'j

,
:-~

.,

Advantag~s

The functional form of the ~econd order model~ are'much mqre . representative of HOS tr~nsistor behavior than the first order model. They ~ill generally support an.:-lysis over a much great~,. range of forcing. currents and voltag~s than tht first order mod~ls. This ,is especfallj , tr:Je ~or the small geo",etry transistors' used, in HOS medium and large scale' integrated circuits . . 3. Callt ions As model:- become IIIOre sophist.icated, the analyst finds it increasingly 1iffi~ul~ to r~tain a gra~p of the interactions of all the ~del parameters. This is especially the case for very flexibl~ models such as the one fou,.d in SPICEZ. That model permits the aMlyc;t to either Input ~ertain sec~nd ord~r pffect par~meters or to allow the code
, ,

Ivaa
L
!

to calculate them from basic physi~al data. Extreme caution must be exercised to insur~ that parameters are specified in a consistent manner. For example, if the analyst specifies KP, the int:insic transconductancr, in the SPICE2 model he will override any value for ;,Iobilit.y which hE' "lay spE'cify latEr in'th~ parameter list. This potential for inconsistent parameteriz~tion ;ncreases the i~portance of,exercising the models in "curve ,tracer" runs before using them in circuE dnalyses. OnlX by looking at the J/V characteri~tic5 in a format where he knows what to expect can the a~alYit insure that ,the model is parameterizrd ~foperly. 4. Characteri~;tics
a.
Top(.l~

Figure IV-40 shows the topology of the 'SPICE2 model fpr al" N-channel transistor. Note that this is the sam~ topology a~ used in previous sections of this chap~er. The second orde~ effcc:s modeling is pri~aril~ concerned with the, fun~tional form of the drain curre~t gen~r ator. Therefore, no topological variations are required. b. ~nical Effects 1) Substrate Bias r-1OS trC:ilsistors are actually four terminal devi,cC's. As a Ic?SUlt, a "everse biasing potential can appear between thE' source and substrate. The use of MOS transistors ~~ transmission gate~ is an application where the source and substratp are,typically at different, potentials. The result of r:vel'se biasing drain to $ource voHage ,is 'to increase the amount of'charge stor~d In the ~epletion region. Consequently, th~ drain cu~rent decreases for a fixed gate ~olt~ye. Figure 1\1-41 shows ~ qualitative representation bf this effect.

IV-89

, '0

S ~-----~----~---'----~4-~----~--.~~--~~~--O
r
'i

V DS

'" d

C BD

Figure IV-40.

SPICL2 MOSFET Model

IV-90
--;-;--~~---':"".----'-~".- ~

..

---

':
. "

Fi~lure

IV-41.

Sllbst,'ate Bias Effects on Drair. Clwrenl at a Fixed Gate Voltage

and SPICE2 second order models i~clude substr2te bias effects on the dr~in current; however the NET-2 model does
not.

Th~ SC~PTRE

Two-Dimensional Eff~ct~ Oil Threshold 'voltage As the channel lenqth ofa'1 MOS transi5tol' is shortene(J to less than ap~roximately 5 ~m. the amnunt of depletio~ layer charge which i~, effective in ter."inatillg the [-field linl?s due to the ~lale-sub strdte potential fs significantly decreased. The're~ult is 'a l~we~ thrt!shold vcltage and a mociif,ied 'turn-nn characteristic compdred to t.h"t , ' normally predicte(; This effect c~n best b~ Jbserved by com~aringthe chararte~istlcs of transisto~s with the same width to ,length ratios but Ji'ferent ch~nhel l~ngths. Figure IV-42 ~~nws a QJalitative example of the,tw~'dimensi6nal effect on thre~hold voltage. Only the SPICE2 mocipl incorporate~ this effect.

2)

"

rV-91

....

--

------~

...

h'I'DTH TO LENGTH
RATIO

= 10

LU:GTH

Figure IV'-42.

Two Dimensional Effects

011

Thresho~d Voltage

3)

Weak Inversion Effects

Most first order models assume that drainrto-soufte conduction begins abruptly once the gat~-to-source lhresho1d oltage is , reached. 'In reality. ccnJuction beg;ns below the threshold v ltage dnd increase~ ~xpon~ntia11y until it intersects the drain current predidted by the t irst order theory. Proper simu1atirn of current in t e ilfE'ak inversion r~!lion below tne threshold, voltage can be cf!'igllif cant importance in modeling devices whi"ch have, beE'n subj(ct~d to ionizi g radiation with a resulting increase in the surface state density. The PICE2 model cont~ins weak "inversion"effects explicitly within the model. Figure lV-43 shows d q~a1itative example of the weak in~eTsicl effec on the turn on characteristic of a HOS transistor.
"

"

I
I

'j

"'---_
..

...

"J

r
I
I

I
I
I

t , ,
r
WF" AK ! NVERS roN REGforl

Figure IV-43. 4)

Weak Inversioil Effects on Turn

0:1

!:haracteri~tic

Channel Length Modulation Effects

MOS transistors with re1ativp1y short charnel lengths 10 I-lm) often exhibit finite drain-to-source c:on~uctance (1. e., ar. imperfect satur~tion characteristic) for drain-to-source v~ltages exceedi,lG pinchoff. This is primarily due to the spread of the dr~in depletion r~gi on i'nto the challn., I with a s~bsequent, shortpni I1g of ,the effpr:~ i ve channel length. Figures iV-44 and IV-45 illustrate the 5pread of the , depletion ~e9ion and its affect on drain characteristics. The SCEPTRE, NET-2; and SPICE2 mpdels all ~ontain provisions for m6deli~g finite conducta~ce in saturdtion, Eac~ uses 'a different techniq~e for imple~enti~g ,the effect. 5) Variable Mobil ity Effects The surface mobility (~ s ) which is a factor in the ,trans':onductance term (~) is a function of the appl ied vll.1tage. The value of I-ls increases to its maxi~um value when the ~ate voltage approa,:hes, the threshold voltage. Thereafter, it decreases with increasing gate-tosou~[e, drain-to-source, and substrate-to-source voltage. It~ maximum valup is al~~y~ less than the mobility in b~lk si11ern. Th~ re~ult of

IV-9)

r----_

+ VOS

CHMH4EL

rigure r: -44.

Schematfc Reprpsentati0n of Channel Lenqth Modulation

_---_-J ~
II

F "H TE
CONOLJCTAN([

-------

Figure IV-4S.

~'ouulation

Finite Saturation CO'lductance Due to Channel Lenqth

rV-94

-----

. J .~

the decreased mobility is adetrea<;e in drain current with gate voltage at the higher valu~s of gate voltdge. Th~s eff~ct is illustrated qualit~tively In figure' IV-46. The SCEPTRE, NH-2, and SPICE2 models incorporate variable mobility effects although different lmplementation approaches lre used.

'Ill CHARACTERISTIC
, ,V 10 V
(1

--- _------J
__......---------...,...-...,.-.~-_ Vl;

Wl'THOUT VARIABLE MOB III TY VIl CHARACT[RI~TlC W ITII VI\R I ABLE MOBILITY

I V

~ig~re IV-46.

Variable~obility Effect!

6)

Temp~rature

,parameters used in the s~cond order' model. These include tne,'Fermi level and s'ever'l' terms which are multiplied by the factor KT/q. For silicon aate devices, the silicon ga-li> work (unction ilIUSt also be v~ried with tpmperature, The SPICE2 model provi~es automatic updating of appropriat~ ",odel parameters with tempcratur~. This must be J~co",plis"ed ma"uai,ly in the SCEPTaE model. Figure, IV-47 qualitatively illustrates the effect of temperature

Temper~ture varidtions affect many of ~he physical

Effects

on

MOS transistor turn-or. characteristics.

-55 F

+25 C

/
.,-.

+125 C

........ -- -Temperature Effects on MOS Turn-On Characteristics

Figure IV-47.
t>.

QE.!i.~~qlldt i OilS

a.

Substr<lte

B;a~PTRE

and SPICE2)

Io'S

==

, where {-) dP~li~s fot N-C.h"~nel; <.+) applies f\.lr P-Chanll@l.

tV-96

b.

Tlolo Dimensional Effects on Threshold Voltage (SPICEl: ~

"T = VFt3 + 2tb F +

{ 2f sqN a
COX

f (V BS ) ,P$F~:VBS-

_ lOS -

~s:OXW'
[

I VOS

(, Vos) 2-1:~:-;qN8 V COX, GS - 2<lJ F , - VFB - 2 j

f(V S5 \ [(V o,

2~F -

V es )312 -

(2~F - "S5)312]:

\ 'here:

-)
c.
~eak

Inversion_Effects (SPICE2 only)

V IN = "FB .. 2cP F .. , "

~sqNB f(VB~) Vt$~VB-S OX

qNF('

-- l
KT
q

j ..

f(.VBS)V2t~qNB..

~,
j

2C ox

,(2$f,-:: Vas-J,

I ,0 -

-t-,-"~ ,VI)N - VFB I

sCoxW' (

",

Vos) . _,' ~2~~q~; 2.cfI~ - 2 Vos' 1 COX

(V ss )
exp ,

(2~F

12 1 1II -' v3 - (Zcll F - Vas) 312 , 13s + Vos)

IV-91'
,I ,

d.

Channel Length Modul"lti0n Effects (SCEPTRE, SPICE~EI-2)

F0 " VD " VP:

(I)

SCEPTRE Model 'I OSAT = l-~L

l =

IrL

f(IO"T.Ec,j!~:
[EcL('/DS

(VOS- Vpl
Vp)-l.z
+ (V

.~

- Vp)J\

K = (2f S j\)' ~
I . qNp .
)(

E-

where the- up~er sign is valid for N-chdnnel rlpvlces and th~ lower sign is valid for P-channeJ d~vj~es.

IV-98 .
-

J:

~ WC ox ~ = .....,~--

Ip=

e((vG - VFS- 2~F ~2

~. ~fJ t J)
2

I
2

VG -

2~F

v's

( V G

VFS~ 2~F
h::-VFS -

;2

~ /iV;-~ ~71 1+

CP

.j

*
+

II

2~F

~2 ~

/h -

VFS

2~F - Vss

312
1

(2~, - VssV121)
'.

(2)

The SCEPTRE model equations ~ccount for the effect of the mo~ile carriers in the channel on the spread of the depletion rogicn. This pre"ents the 'lremdture ..,rediction of )un;:h through of th~ d~pletion r~gion.f~om the source 'to drain. SPICE2 Model .

-------- ~-------~--~----~-------Term 2
T '::""1 1

IV-~~

. . LM1SDA =

1-.\ vos

- V V!.)5AT ::. V FB GS

2~F +

~ B --..,-

qN

.f 2(V

COX
\V GS - V FB f'sq'~B

RS

[1
.~

- ! 1+
\i

?~2 . OX,

2~F
(L'"

: VBS ) ]

\<2 ~r

V' V )3 2 OSAT - BS

'+'F'~'

)3/?]" .~

Note tt'lat tel'm 2 in the L equation has a functiona' fJI'11\ which WlS choson tc i~sure dsmooth translticn in current between linear ~nd saturat~d regions of operation, For values of VOS app~oaching zpro and small values of V DSAT (V nSAT = VGS - V1 ). a significant val~r of L ~an be ralculated from this fJnctio~dl form. This is not physirJl. anc such dreas should be examine'" carefully t"i '.tle Jlla l)lst.
(3 )

NET - 2 r10dp 1

'OSAT : Vp

Al ',A Z

,F~ , AJY p ,

V GS (A4 " AS\;Sl

+ (vOS - V p)

(Kl vl,VGS

K3V~S)

The term (K + K V K3V~S) is eQuiv.;.lent t.tl ,1 dl,lin ;i\tUl',l1 2 GS tiun conductance. Ph/~ically. the Si\tu.Jted drain conductJn~p can be written as:

'V -lllO
," ,

I
IOS~T -.J ~
90SAT

ri:-;
L
(V

r
;

= 2(L - ~L)2 ,

- V

DSAl

~
-

ID~AT ~
~L

I (VGS - VT)2 = 9(V~5

I 2F.
qN; (Yo - VuSAT )

2VGSVy +

V~)

= .J

(2f. s ~L ~ CiNB

2
VT

8(L -

~L}2

(V O -

VDSAT)~ ,

Although these constallts can be calculated, the analyst may wi~h to use only K , if a c')nstcont vah't!of satur-ated cunductance l is sufficiently accurate over the operating region of i.'teres~., If experi m.)nt~ 1 ~3t.l are ava,i 1a~ 1e', K l , 1(2', and K3 may be ~elected to fit the data. NET-l contains curve fi+,t.i'ng routines for dete:-mining values fOl' all mOl'elcon:.tants if the user provides experImental values for Y GS ' Y OS ' and 10 ~n ,the vicinity of the t,'ans;tic!l from triode to ,saturated operation.

I
I

IV-10l '

!;

(1)

e. Variable Mobility Effects SCEPTRE Model

~s:: V' L ~0 .... V -L....;;+"--~o .....e ...... s

, (2)

This reflc:ts the'v01tage drop alo~g the channel. SPICE? Model

'J :: ~' 0 [

. s,
~

COJ(

Uc~n (V r ) -v;; - I)TRA'JOS}

f.

DP U

::

WCOX~s

(3)

NET-2 Madej Thetriode region equation for drain current in NET-2 i~:

. T~e1~fficient A4 i~ the t~ansconductan~e factor a~d is'of primary importance i., determining the drain current as a f~nc tiDn of gate vvltage. , If AS has a n~gathe vdlub, it can be us J to ,reduct> the transconal'i:tanc~' as a fU"1ction of gate. and rlr~in voltage. This:i a purely empiricJI ~pproach to si~ulat, ing the E":fect'i of mobil ity degrad,ltil):1. Therefore, th~. analy~t sho~ld ha~e experimental data available b~fure attemp~!~(i to use this portion of, the NET-2 model.
,

'

IV- '102
,
"

i
.
\,

f.

Temperature Effects (SPIC[l only)

~
n

=q KT

2n ni rJ

. KT

Ne
-'~n

a
16

or q

n.

- 3.86 x 10

r3/2 exp (-

~iT )
'Oi'

For aluminum metal qate devicps, "m =3.2 V;

::.i1icon gate devices,

tlll'=

O~o

E
+

+r

The iariations i~ VON with te~G~ratur~ are made autrymatically in SPICEl

for whatever temperature. is ~;v~c;fiedbv the analyst.

S,imilar parametric

, variations can be made

'11

the JCEPTRE model, buttl-,tty m.Jst be made manually. ,

thic\n~~~

6.

Paramatel'

lis~

ox!ae ca~acitar~~ f'r~:, 0xide

(e:l)

tcr:

chanr.e i 'l~:'~i'-:' ~ .. ~.: 3pac:ing'betllteen source and drain)

W
~II
::.

Channel' width (t'he drain or source dime,nsion per- pendicular to

th~

channel length) (till)

gate - Si0 potential

cond~ction

"sox. ~so

2 Work function (3.2 V)

dif~erence betw~en

5i - SiOZwork ',unct ion,

the bottom of the Si0

band and the bottom of the Si0 V)

,potenti~l

conduction

band

(3,2~

Eg/Zq

intrinsic Fe"ftli

( . ~6 V)

".

, IV1J3'
",
.

:.

Hm i I t> V t> I (v 0 It) . '" 3) III t n n ~ 1 ( car 1'1 e rca rIC l'lI t I' at 1 on (r m

= =

~ubstr.:ltt> dl)pinq (~lIcentl'.ltiol~ (cm- 3 ) flat b~nd voltaqt> (volt)

J.!Hmittivity of !>ilicon dixoidp (J.!>4)( 10- 13 flcm) pt>I'Mitt,illity of silicon (I.O!>)( 10- 12 r/Cll')
elpct~onic lhJ~gF
<11',1 i n

I.

(1.6

10 -I ~ coulombs)

J Xd
Nf ~

X.

jlJnct io'l liepth

l1ep let ion' laver wilit" state dpn~ity (em -2 ) 0.26, V at 21C
~ul'face

Kilo
tc

cr i t i ca lEt i I' I d i ntens i ty tOI' the onset ot Sr,Ke charyl' limited velocity effpcts pinchoff voltage (P-channel)
= 3 x 10' cm/s (P-challnel)

space ,charge limited velocity - 6 x 10' cm!s (N-channel)

Pc,
::-

surfacp mob: I ity '(cm 2IV-<;) m.lW.imlim surface mobility field intl'llsity
~urface

Po .,

1l0~) c~2/v_~ (N-ch~)nnel)

2 = 1~6 cm /V-s (P-thannel)

UC~I T
UTRA Uf)(P
,.

::

l field required for onset Df variablp mohility effects in SPICE2

::-

p:f~cts
::

tr,lnsvprsfi fipld copffiCipnt tor variablp mobility in SPIell

~PICEZ

mobi J.:ty vdriatior. Pllponpnt' in

P'lr'!.~~!:i.la!i.~'

lach or the major second ordpr pffl'cts a~e parampt~rilPd in the foll,winQ subsections. The para~pterilation is a~comp'is~Pd frpm the follo~inq ~hysical characteric,tics for the N-channel and P-~hdnllel transistors. Thp parameters qillen in tdhlp IV-'S will he u~pd to calcul.\te

, I V-I 04
,'1 I

,'"

rAHll

IV-H.

MO'> MODU PAR/\MFIER Vl\lUt.~

PhY'>ICAl
-

PM~M'H
-<"'-

-'."_.

II R
-

N-CHI.NNI! VAL til . ---.

-.
~,-.. ~

-_.-.

P-C1IANNlI Vf;llJl -..... --._-_._--~

...

11l- 6

em

..

III I I em
c'n

)(

IO-b

em

.. iO '1
I' V
~\ : \'1

_"

1 "- 10 . '
\

ll

-, em
" (!II

~)

3,1

J.

;'~

J .',!.> V

!q
fl. I

.~h

. ~6 ... '

(;'/ne)

I . 4!, ,.. 10 tl em - .1 '

.')( 10 (; (m-.I ' . . tl.'ti IJ

1.4!,)( I ") l 10 em- J

'"

NB
11,1 iq (;'I"t:)

.,

10 1~
V

"em

-3

. (l;'h
')

,.

,
~
~

'(

10- 4 10
-

em
Cin

I(

4
"

"

'(

10- 4 ern

!.> ... III - <1

r
.J

em

10

em

'(

10- J em
IO- IJ

J.~4 ... ~0-13 t!rm

J.~4 ~

firm

..

, . O!, )( 111- 1"' .:: t t'cm 1,4!) '( In4 V/cm

'I ,10
-{, till

I . D'i

'(

Ill-I) rlrm
J

I. HI ,.. 10:> V/em

I
)(

J(l.- tl
"

.,
I,O!,
('11\"

em

IV- ..

1(;[, I
II.

em: IV-s
10 4

IICRl
1I lXP

r
. Ille
.111(1

Vlrm

ll'TIM

..10ll

I V-I Wi

mode; v.H'iables fOl' tr<!rlsistol's r'L'pI'P'>Prlthq an aluminunl ~l-lt~ CMOS pr'ocess "':Iich yields devicec, which can (lperale with sup~'ly voltages (V ) bet'r'een OO ~ ann l~ V. J. "iuh<;trate Bias fffeets The
s~ou:~ no~
~F(ond

ordel models f"r SCEPTRE and SP[CE2 do not In

f~cl,

require the specification of the threshold voltage. c,trate dopinq parameter parame.ter
l,~lated (~~UB).

the analyst

specify the parameter VTO in SPICE2 if he specifies the 5ubHowever. the analyst must calculate some to thre5hold voitaqe tot the SCEPTRE model ctnri hi:' may

find it usefl,l to continue the calculatiunfol' the complete thresht)id voltaGe to ~el've as a check on the model for both SCEPTRE and SPIC[Z. NEr-2 does not contain provi~i0ns for ~odelinq c,ub5~rate bias in the dr~i~-~ourc~ current flowever. the ~ff~ct of threshold volta~e variation for fixed val ups of substrate sou~ce voltage can be accounted for in the parameter AI' The re~dpr is referred to chapter IV.E.5.b for t~e relation~hip of the following calculations to the model parameters. I) Tra~c,crnduct~ncp factor N-Ch,lnnel Value

- -L-

~!s CO)( OW

Ra~ x S,06 x 10- 8 x,S x 10- 3 = 4.07)( 10- 4

~

x 10

-4

P-Channel Valup

166 ~ S.06
.~

,5 x 10- 4

x 10: 8

x 5 10- 3

= 8.40

x 10~5

is set equal to ~ for these talculations 0 The SCEPTRE'MaS model paramet~r is:
s.

The SPICl2 MaS ,model'pclr<lmHer is:

It.P :: ~oCOX

IV-106
.
"

In SPICE:'. .~pecitiLltioll of K P will oVPl'I"ide subsel{UPllt sppcificdtiolls of vwi.1blt' mobil ity p,U',lmpt .. ,s. Ihe an,tlyst should not sppcity K wllPll p, wlll'kinl) with tht~ spconti ontpr mo,tl'1 in SPICE2.
Tht' NI-2 tl'ansconductance pal'dmeters al'e:

A, J

I
~

N-Channt'l ValuE:'

P-ChannE:'1 ValuE:'

V~I s 4NS,
--~X-

I. 62

.52

the SCfPTRl MOS modt'! p,lI'ampter' is:

l<p f

PHI =

-~rCO:\(-'

ll21' s qNB

The SPICE MOS ilIodpl pdr',lmeter is: GAMMA ::

"it , s llN B

C~

The CA'*4A valu~ will be automaticJlly calcul.lletf hy SPICE2 if v.llups fOJ' the NB and, tox parameters are prov iced by the .In.llyst. latiorr procedure is nJt acceptable. The"t'for,e. a Sl'p,lrate value for GA~1HA s'hould be entered only i, the indiCated calcu-

IV-107

The NfT-2 MOS mot1el parametel" is:

Note that A2 only mUltiplies V DS in the NlT-2 mod~ ard do~s not produce val'iations i'r) drai,,c;:urrent 01" threshold vo1tag~ with VBS'
3)

Fermi Putpn~ial

N-Channel Value

P-Channel VaTue

? ,i,F

2)(

.0~6 ~n

'( __ 2 x

IOI~O)

.73~

1.45)( 10

2 )( . 026

~nl1. 45
, 2
'I(

)( 10 I 0 ) '= _. 615

10 15

rhe SCFPTRE MaS modpl parameter i'.

The SPICE2 MOS modpl pal"ampter is:

SPICE2 will au~omaticJIJy calcu'atp thp value of PHI if the value of NS sppcifipd in the paramptpr list. The, analyst. should only specify 'l ' vdl~e for PHI if he wishe~ to use an p)(p~rimental value.
Thf" NfT-2 MaS mode'l does not use the Ferm; level as

is

an pxp 1iC i t parameter ..

4)

FI.:>t. Band Vol tr~~ N-Channl'"

V,l 1UP
1. 6 x 10- 19

V - J.2 FB

3.25

- .56 - .3675

I x. ,5.06,)( 10- 8

111

10"

:, -1. 29 V

IV-lOll

P-(:haflflel Value
V~B= 3.2

3.25 - .56

.3075 - 1.6 x 10 ~ ~ x In 5.06 x 10-

-19

11

= .62 V

The SCEPTRE MOS 'model parampter is:

The SPICF2 model' calculates the valu~ of flatbar'd voltage ~utomatically tising the e~uation listed previously in chapter I'v.E.5.b. The N[T-2 MaS model does not use the flalband vo'ltage as an explicit parameter. 5) Thresho!J Volta~: N';'Channel Value

V~(VGS~ -I. 29

.735 + 1. 62

v.m

= .83 V

P-Channel Value -.62 - .615 - .52 F6-j-~ = -1. 64 V Jne SCEPTRE MaS model does not us~ the thresh;ild voltage as an explicit parameter. 'However, the v~lue of VT', is, cJlculated" internally. The SPICE2,MQS model will calculate the value of threshold vpltage automatically if the value of substr'ate doping is specified in the parametE'r list. This vall'~ will be 'printed out as VTa' in the SPICE2 output. The analyst should not specify VTa in the SP!CE2 , parameter list'if ~e wishes to use the second order model. A specified value of VTa will be overriden by the calculated value if both VTa anj sub$tra~e doping (NSUB) are specified.

IV-109
....

Ihp NEl-2 MOS model parameter is: N-ChClnnpl Vallie Al

:..

10'4 ,., .83 -t\12 (V 1 ) = -4.08 )( = -1. 69, )( :0- 4 2

P-Channel Valut'
,
'

2"
Note thitt VT is conriUPY'ed ~ositjve foy' t'loth '::>nhancemf:'nt transist.:>rs in "'U-2.
tl.

1. 64

5 = 6. 89 )( .JO -

~-channel arId P-chal'nel

Two-Dimensiunal fff~c~s nn ihreshold Voltage As indicated previously in chapter IV.L5.b, the bulk

th,'eshold parameter (,AHMA) in thp. perfoY'med automatically if

SPIn::? model is modified by a function .,

of substrate bias., The calculation of the,value of this function is

n:?
a~

value of the source -lnd drain diffusion A iample cdlculation is indicatIon of the value bf the function,

depths JI'e provided in th~ parameter list,

perfor~ed

below to provide

N-"Channel Value

= .86
P-rh<1;lIlel Value

' - ---~------~-~--:-----=- -~--- ,---- -----4 1.)(10

!H<lO
= .64

-4

( [ 1+2

, - - -19
1.6)(10

/2XI.05XIO- 12 )(2xlO 2)(10- 4

15 10.615

IV-ll0,
,

The SPICE2 MOS mouel also uses the parameter XJ (junction depth) together ~ith the parameter LD (lateral diffu~ion) coefficient to decrease the (~ann~l lenqth by the ar:lOunt of (Jut diffUSIon hom" the SOUI'ce ard L1rain. The effective ch;.nnel length then becomes:

If tt-Je an<llys.t has s;>eeified L as the channel length froll: the mask dimensions. h~ will wish to specify a value for LD. A typical vallJt! would be:
. LD = .8

Specification of I~ither )(J or LD as zel'o eliminates the ealcl.lation of effective channel length in SPICE2. e. Weak Inversion ~ffects As lndicated pl'eviously in chapter IV.E.S.c, the drain current generator prov,ides current at gate-tc-~Durc~ voltages less than the classical threshold voltage. This rurrent is described by an exponential .jJnetion up to the point where V GS = VON' VON is a functi9nof the classical thre~hold voltage; the number of iast surfar~ states, ~nd . the substrate bias. SPICE2 "automatically calculates the value of VON if substrat~ doping and fast sU"face state density parameters are specifi~d. Example values of VUN arecalculat,d below. ~hese may be c~mpar!d with 'the 'valuesof ,classical threshold voltage calculated previously. N-Channel Value

VON

lat f(V BS )
Vas

:.

=0

1.6xlO- 19 *lxlO ll + 1.62 ) .83 + .026(1 + S.06xlO- 8 2{:73s

= .83 + ".06 = .89

P-Channpl Value
__ -'1.64 - .026( 1+ l.f;xlO

-19*

I~~O

iI

+ . . 52

,. 06 x I 0

V' 615 I'

= -1.64
d.

- .04 = -).68 .
Eff~cts

Channel Length Modulation

As noted pY'eviously in chapteY' IV.E.5.d, all three of '. Ie models discussed here contain provisions for modeling incomplete saturation \:!ffects resu1til~g from chanqel length modulation.
~hi:h

The paY'ameters

must be specified for each model are indic~ted belew.

I)

SCEPTRE Channel (ength Modulation The SCEPTRE MOS model requires specification of tile

following parameters to simulate channel shortening effects:

E = critical E field to .achieve thermal limiting velocity

C .

N-Channel Value, C = E =

P-Channel Value

1.6xlO-19~ 2xl0 16 = 1.52xl0 9 12

2x1.05xlO4 7.45 x 10

1.6xlO-19~2xl015 2xl..05xlO- 12 1. 81 'x 10 5

1.52xlOS

Xe =
tn

2xlO- 4

X1O -4 )-1 lxlO- 6

5 = 4.65 x 10-

2xlO- 4

en

(2XIO-4)_~
lxlO- 6

= 4.65

x 10-

IV-112

pi

.i

ell

UD.'

, tttZIl.q

N-Chaime I Va I ue ----_.
. G
:0

= 44.8
P-Channel Value
- 896

2)

SPICr~ Channel Length Modulation

If J .zel'o v~lue 01' no' value is specified fer the LAMBDA parameter in SPICE2, channel length modulation effects will. be auto~Jtically calculated from the equations specified in ~hapter rV.E.S.d. If t"e analyst wishes to modify the sat.lJl'ation ct-taracteristic he may specify a value tor LAMBDA. This will override any automatic calculations. As a general rule. the analyst sh9uld not specify LAMBDA. Note that if ~hannel lenyth mOdulaticn effects are to be exciuded from th~ model. a small but nonzero value of LAMBDA should be used (LAMBDA ~ .. 001). n NET-2 Incomplete SatuI'ati.e.!:! The NET-2 ~JS,model u~es a conductance to produce incotr;:>lete saturatioh effects. The parameters for that conductance'are estimated below. N-Channel Value.,
= 10 - (10 - .83) = .83 =

1.6 x 10= 2. 57 x 10- 5

,--_....

2 x 1. OS '( 10 -12 .

19

x 2 x 10
~.-.:.~

-::T5 =

8. I x 10 - .J

J .83

= 2. 34 x i J - 5

= 4.08.x

10-4~ 5 x ~O-4 = l x 10- 7

.. '

rV-113
.' ,

PSiS!

.: ::

:.: 6.74 x

K.,
i.

= 2.0

1.62 ). 10
_r

-5

2.0 x 10 ' ~ S x 10 ~ --r-__ "-"-7',-- -:-x 10- 4 - '. 234 x I O-'~) . 'U ) \

_r

:: ~

..

.'

P-Channel Value

V o- V OSAT =

-10 - [-10 (-1.64)] ~ 1.64

8.11

l(

10 -5

~l

~l
K 1

= 8.11 x 10- 5 \I'i.64 = 1.04, ~ 10- 4 = 8.4 x 10- J x 5 x 10- 4 = 4.2 x 10- 8
__ 4.20
.
v
'1

10- 8

,I[

8.11 x 10- 5 ,. (.1,.64)2

-4,' . ' -i\ 2 r~~-' 8( 5 x 10 - 1. 04 x 10 )' \j 1. b4

s.n

x 10-

mA/V,

=
=

4.2d x 10- 8 *~. 11 x lG-~ * 1.64

4(5 x 10- 4 - 1. 04 x 10- 4 /

!i-54

= 6.95
~. 12

2 x 10- 0 mA/V,

4. 2

10" 8
4

,I[

8. 1,1

10- 5

8(5 x 10-

-1.(J4 x 10- 4 /

Ji~64

x 10-' mA/V

Variable Mobility Effec~s', . As no~ed previously in chapter IV.F.5.c, each of the three MOS models discussed here 'contain pro~isions, for modeling '-lariat;,' r;,Jbility effects on th~ d~ain cu~rent. Since the physic~ of variable 5urfac~ e.

lV-ll4

mrbility is I:Ot cc"l1pletely understood, each of the models can bE' ~05t effectively parameteriied from expel'i~ent3l data on the transrcnductance "15 a function 0" gate volt"ge. A:-: eXJmple of such data fer N-channel anci' D-channel device i~ sho~n in figGres rV-48 and IV-49. in the ab5~nce of such data. the variction 1n mobility as a function surface E-fi'd can be estimated from,tyoical parameter values. 1) SCEPTRE ~ari3~le Mobility E~a~ination 0f the SCEPTRE m~~el equation for var:able ,mobility indicat~s that the low voltage transcon u:tance fdctor {Po) is red~c~d to one-haif its oriJinal value when:

From fig~res IV-48 and IV-49, the slooe of th~ drain current vers~s gate' voltage curv~ is reduced to one-half of its ,low voltage value at Vc = V GCN = 3,.73 volts anJ VG = V GCP = 4.5 volts for the N-channel ?:1dP-ctlannel transistors, respectively. The SCEpTRE model pa,'ameter is

and can be

talcul~ted

as folIo

~:

N-Cha1nelValue

,?-Channel Value
I ,

.'

DB

3.73 - 2.01

: .58

4.5 - 1.7

= .36

~he v~l~e of ESC'~un also be c Iculated as:'

1'/-11 S

,.

.
-

'.r

. "" ,'

' .. J

.. .
~

-\, ,.,

,
l

';

...' "

," .,
J '\

.". .
.,

-'I

.,

."
....

., .~

.,
I

....,

0' , ..,
'. ,

r
1

II'
I

.. ,.,

,,
."

."
I

.. ,
I

.. '
I

...
IV-116

..

-,.

... ",
,t

."

."

4_2x1u

-5

SLOPE t:OUAlS O~'L -hALF

CKi:;;:IAL .. 0,; ',JLikGE SLOPE

3.7xlO- 5

- 1.4: 110-::1

2. Rx 11'-"

<:

_.. 2.3x'0-5

..., !. ax 10- 5
. 1.4xlO- 5

9.3xl0- 6
4.6x10- 6

/./
_VGCP ~ 4.5V

-.

1/

.7

J -1..4

\:I

2 .-1

2.0

3. 5

4.2

VI

4. 9

- ! _- - - - t - I - - _
'J

6. 3

Gate I/o - :,!ge (Volts) iat:;le "oL11itj '~odeling

C'igure 1'1-49. 'P-Channel Data for

Vi'

I: (';

tlr-, ,

1(1-''')

~' .. I, (' ~),- ltl -L'-

th,. on'>t\t (If UW!'!TI,11 limit illq VI\locitv,

t i t' lei (~.,,) "Pqu i I't~l! f or' l. e'p'I'imt>IlLtl In 'Uw ,lb<;t'fllt. d

.1';

11.t LI t Ill' V.l: UI' 0 f ell c .In 111', (,1 I nll.l t '\(1 t ,'(1m f C

~howrf

[It'

Im.. _

PH
, 3.'
.')

~1)lC!2y.!~~i;,lhIY_,:!dl'i I ity Mlll!~'-l~n~

P,lr'.ltnl'tPI-i.',ltillll M

ttll' )PICEi V.Wi.ltI!,. fT'ohi I ity

''''''1 """" ire,

'.1'"

C~.I;)tl'"

,,,.. , i t k'" i ""., t ,.1 "'" t .... "0' 1'cR /J' "I R,\' ,'od "I XP', IV,', ", 3 fo,' th." tlillet ilHi,ll I'l'l.lt illO\hip of tht'<;" PM'am-

~),

"' ",", t., I h"

t h"

''',. t ,.,,' .,,, d it v.

It.,

It tI",

I.' I"., ., t. "0 CI"

".,1" "I.. "'01

"0

wi ,It It- I" - 1""" ttl ,'" Ii., t ,..," I"'" i ."0 t,,' d,'1 ,. I "'.

i,

,.,.,w",

Ii.,

60 ~ :', Ilb

--- -- -- -- -------':H
II

. I.IIH I tl '~

p- -._-_._--_ ell,II1,'t'_--_ t .. V,I' III' ..

'U '

(0)

",,,. t h., ,',I Ii"

., f 1',' "It "<I ,i v,, '1,.1.' ,., It. '1" I., t h,' .... i' ; <.,1 '" It ,1<10 I",'
!-.

molli I ity (ft'l/r'uj.lt illn plot of d",li"

VO'f.lq~'

r.lj,1'11 til .1 J!llW,'r i:l :1", "PICI.' mOll(", .1 IOIj.II'i,tllmi( V, lJ - V, ;',

OftI'll

VI'J'<.II'>

1/'>1';:" for p,H"lmt't""ll,l

t

;"Il"

rV- 11',
,., 1

Lll...i.l1lj tilt' llllj.ll'ithm

UP'T't'nt

l1t

t'uth

~Ilfp., of
p
t

tht' PlI\l,ltiofl dt'~I::"itlinq dr"ill,

with

~,l,'i"bit>

motli I ity

tt'ct5 Ylpllb tht' <lpprllll.imcltL ,'P-'lI;t:

Illq

I iqlll't", ClilTt'nt
\t>I'~U~
all'

IV-~t)

lid

!V-~I

shew plut<. of loq lh',)in

tt';';lsi"tOI'~,

1114 lVlis"V
~hJWIL

r)

Ill"

P ,HIlt N-el1.mnt>I
VLl!~,llJe ..

rec,p.,ctively.

YWl) l'PQiofl'l

fOT'

IllW 4dtt' - VI)

t.he mobility is undt'{jl'adpd. Iht> l)(>twt't>1l

At hiqhl'r q.ltt' vlltMjPS, II1l)hilit\' llt'qr.lll,1tion .. ets in .lIht the slop~ of

th .. lnq 10 vel',.U" IlHl tht' two "t'qi(ln5 is lj''w't'n hy (I-U.,;,),

('~',.

b~

(U,'Vt'

is

1't'<IUCt'd.

bOlHllt.H'y

~pt by,

tieR!y, whilp the siopp of tilt' dt'qraltt'l1 ":UI'Vp is

~P

;ht> v,1lup,> lIf III

qi~t'"

e.ln h' obtained fl'om tht>

CUI'Vt'~

in

fiqull'~

IV-~)O .1 Ill! I'o'-)i.

lllXP

1-5kpt' N-Ch.tfll1{' I V.ll \It> , I - .44 P-C'hlllnl'1 V.1Illl -----.---.----~"---

I - .49 ::: .!> I

SPICl~

'lhp rpader '>hou'd recall that, tht> not

runid~r vd~iabie mo~ility

modl'l dot's the critical

pftpcts unt'il V

GS

- V

p~ct'pjs

AppI'opri"tp valliPs of ~l~IT m.l)l bl' obtai" .. d from the curvps' s~own in ~ilJII"rs IV-J~ .lnd iv-!>1. i'''' th.- CUI'VpS idl'r.tifipc; tht" critic.ll v;,lup of (V Tht> b'rp"kpoint From this, '

, ,

U CRIT mat bp

c~lc~latpd ~~:

GS

- V,l.

Cox
fS

(V

GS, leRIT

- V )

IV-119
,'I'

. ~x1 0- 5

0./1-

I-UtxP

."9

.~

.J .
c:
~
~

."

c:

::::I U

c:
~

1xlO- 5

< I

S1J p-e = 1
5)(10- 6

.."

cUCRIT
I '
"0 (V GS - VT ) (Volts)

-~-

o x (\' 'u) -5

IJ )

T CRI1

' ,/
2

.J.._..L--A..--'--------

~
~_.

figure IV-50.

Mobi~itf

p-Ch?oncl Data for Parar,;eterizing the SPICE2 Variable !lodel

I,
-1

.'
'I:i

... ~
.
C
w
~

2, O -1

Slope

l-u:Xp

.44

::

~ o

:XiO- 4
Slope

I
I

I I

I
I I I I
"CRIT U -

.i...L.

i/
I
2
(V (' 'GS- 'J r' Jolt:.)

--

ox ,V I

- 'J )

, ' G,

T eRlT
1-

:>

Figure IV-51.

'J-Channel Data for Pilraneterizing the SPICE2 Variable :1obilitj "odel

,
\

These values <ire:

~.06

x 10 -8

1.05 x 10- 12

(1:7~ V) = 8.43 x 10 4 V!cm

P-ChClnnel

5.06 x 11)-8

l.u5 x :0- 12

Ihe remaining ,PIelZ 'a"iable mobility pa",'.e'.", "IRA' ;, "q"e'""y 'Jiflicult to parameterize, Deg,'adatiol1 of mobility with d",lin ''''Lh,,,I,
Usually important only il' devices witn channel ie'l!-Iths In these

C~se~,

sho"t~\!'
fOl'

U'Li/l 3

,Jill.

the functional fOl'm of tfw SPICE2 model i<: Pl'obably Iwt

l

approp.'iate,

The a 1'llyst is advispd to set lIrRA to-ze:oo

3) NET-2 Val~~!JJJJ.:

most an,ll): t's.

i ca I.

The NET-2 variable mobility model is entire:y empirfhe pal'ameter AS ca" be dete,'m' oed f"om the gate vo Ita'le U )

"'here the initial vallie cf the transconductance parameter by olle-ha If.

(t~

GC is decl't\Jsed

N-Channel Value ?-Cha,nne I Va lue

I 8.42 x 10B 3. 73
f.

= -2.82

x 10- 6

I 1. 43

l(

il
Terr,perature Effect~

4. ~

10- 5

for the

~oltage

In SPICE2. teillreratule dependent. par'alileter's ir. the equation VON dre automatical'y updated if the analyst specifies'J

temppratUl'p other than thp. defalJ/ t va Iue of 27C . . Simi la"

tem~'~I'atul'p,

, e ff PC t, , mude Ii ng coul d be accvmp I i 'hed by manua lJy upd,t i ng ,,,p,'oP" i ate

IV-122

-.,

PdrJ~pt~rs in the SCEPTRE modpl.

at a temperature o'f - J?SoC.

A samplr calculation is shown bplow (or '

calculating the thl'eshold volt-HlP of the N-channel a;;d P-channei devices

-nr-_t! ( 2 8.61 x 10
:It

)J..
398 "

-:It

,= .463
VF8 , (at. 125C)

= 3.2

- 3.25 - .56 - .2,115 - .315

= -1. 1(;

"T(V aS

:=

0 at 125C)

=,-1. 16

.463

1.62 '/~463

= .41 V

P-Channel Vdlue
'3.86 .0345 n /

= -.38t!
V~B (at 125C) = 3.2 - 3.25 - .56
+

.152 - .315

= -.77

VI (VBS'=O dt 125"C) = -.77 - .304 - .52 Ji-~-3041

= -1. 36' V

8.

Code Implement3tion and Notes

Table IV-9 provides values for paramete~izing the second'order effects .. inclusive mcdels described previolisly in this subsection. The values included in the table were taken from thos.e calr:l!lated in the' . parametprization su~section. In order to us~ the 5CEPJRE model, the subroutine FMOS must be incl~ded in the SCEPTRE deck. An anotated iisting of FMOS is shown in

IV-123
,', ,

"

TABLE Iv-9.

SCEPTRE, CIR\.../":> 2, TRAC, NE.T-2, A:m ~F'ICE 2 r10DEL REQUIRED FOR SECOND ORDER EFFECTS MODEL

PAR.l\I"ET~RS

~,:

. ~.~':::.,':~;:
. ~;'''.:.J't . ~ ;.

.. ,:~:...

.
. .u

...

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I

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:-.' ~ '. " . ..

. . ,
:, ,"

.' .

.,

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I
. '

I.... ! ",
" , '. . .. I.,
I'

. ' 1-

.... ~.,

'.. I . .- I I

,'.
I

r
'.~

I
I

,I
I
I

':"~'

... I -'" ~ .-.

i..

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I
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I

l
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------1

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I
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1-

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I

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.,.

......
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'
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i., .. 'I
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.

. "'11.
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I.. I ;

I ! : ' .'. . ....... ' .i .

' , ',: ~. ' , " ,

...
I

: :"':' . j' '.

;:::/"'"
.;,....

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......
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Jl jLU I L''': '. '.' ....... .

..... \ . . , . . . ; ::.....

i
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",

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-----j

_______ -________ . . . . . I

------1

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....

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-- -_..

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en

... ....

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---- ---_.
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::-

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IV-125

, .,
'-.l::

"-l: --.,.
;l
~

w ... -

's

J.>
-J
W
~

C"

""') ' r

~~ ;)
\'-/ U

,-\ ..
a..~ v..., ,,:) o
-~

.-.J

:;?~

~
I
~

....... ,.)

~U

NW
LL. LL.
~W

"--1
. r

"
w .. =-:
NO
\"..;- L J ::) V1

:' i

..: :
~

..
'r

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,.: ..
i

U U

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; "

';

.-

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i:'x:~

""'0
LL.

ULa.! / l 0:

wo~.

a..~

o:u:: ~

-0 La.! u.J
i

..!

o
I

:::00

.'

..
,'"

, .'

. ..

.
"-'

, .,

. .
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- ---...._-_. -----..

_----

IV-126
"

"',1'.- - - -....----.~." . ..,...... L. ...

.. .
,
,

.
U-I

. ..

"

,.-

~,

.... . .. ..' .
.'

..

"

.'

......

, ".

.
,~,~~ .~

JI
i

.1,\

~.'...! :\

----~.

-_._---_._-----,
:..,'
"

I
'

U
-- .-J o...w V) 0

0:1:
~

7-

NW

I - .... Z

, .......
-W

-U

.. , 'Ia:::

1--'

-----l

"

-, "
.'

WW

L_ _
~-+-------

~~

UO
~a:::

I-

a::: CJ
-Z

NO U
I/l W :::> I/l
~-'

-----,-_._----- - ._--- --.

; ~~ .,
..... ...
~

" , - " ..

.. ..

..
~-

~.

LX

~.O

a:::

ULI...

-0
WW

IX IX 1-0... => I.U 0' U I.U

I/l

..
I

~.::' ~

.. " ., . .., ., .,
.. 0.:

~:,
. c

... .
,,~

a:::

'" "' . -'

0\

:>

,
-

.:0:

;~

. .

c.

...
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-;.5 ..... .. ' ... n, too ....

1il"

H~
...,~

.... .'

~~~
c v .............. -:;

@~~

[. ...
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~ ~.~ !Sl'

rV-127

-----------,

figure IV-52. Th~ reader is referred to the next sertion for a'series of example calculations demonstratjng second order effects. 9. Computer Example5 'Figure5 IV-53 through IV-55 give listing" ,.f "curve tracer" programs implem~nted for the SCEPTRE, N~~"?, and SPICE2 MaS models. The model p~rametprs wel'e taken from table IV-9 unless specific changes are indicated'in the examples to follow. These examples h~ve been chosen toillustrate the influence ('f the variou5 second order effe..:ts Oil CUI rent.! voltage char;;.cteristics of MaS d~vices. They ~~ould provide some guictance ,to th~ analyst in attempting tu ~etermine if he should consider these effects in his problem. ' a. Substrllte Bias Eff~ Figures IV-56 and IV-S; sho~ the effe~ts of substrate bias on the drain characteristics of "'-channel and P-cha'mel tri~nsistol's as mOdeled in SCEPTRE. b. Two Dimensional Effec~s on Threshold Voltage Figures IV-58 and IV-59 show the effects of two dimensional modifications to the threshold voltage of N-channel and P-channel ~r~n sistors as modeled in SPICE2. c. Weak Inversion Effects

Fiau~es IV-GO ~nd IV-51 d~monstrat~ weak inversion effects

on the tUrn-on characterist'ics of 'N-cMannel modeled in sptCE2.

~nd P-channel transistors as

d.

Channel length Modulation Effects '

Figures IV-62 and IV-63 d:-mons.trate incomplete saturation' resulting.'from channel length modl:lation in N-channel and P-chan'nel tranSistors as modeled in ~ET-2.
t!.'

Variable Mobility Effects

Figures IV-G4 and IV-G~ dem~nstrate tl:,~ eff~cts I).f mobil ity variation with gate voltage o~ the drain characteristics of N~channel,al1d P-channel devices as ~odeled in SCEPTRE.

IV,.. 128

F L' ~~C

I (j II,

F,~,-, <.., , Ii (; ,

'I li , 'I
0

n::, , tiO [) ~ c , t u
0

r' C;. TC. ':1

1

( )( . . . .

5)

::

I (

t "... ( A1.1 :

~.

ll. "F i-' N I F t f F ,., ) 1 : 1 uu ':>" ( iJ - A I ) I )

FA(~Ul.liDE."GE.h.VA.AP~!.ftFtJ=

H.~Ib~(AHS(VUEIOA~~(Vbt-V"-'IO~/2.)

- 2 oW AI- r< I c ( I A" S ( 'I,; t. ) AFt. I" 1." - Af- E.;> 01 ':l I I J 1/ I FP ( \ibf.t.t..:~ 4'1t'-'.IIJI;."''1r.A ... ~... ~tl = VGt,- A!Jf-/HtU -'0. 1 ~""l<>(A"~i!/c'. -':>.H'iT (A~::>(,/(:t.-A:lt- I"'~U -\IF-v;1t..Pt1i'.i:'~Hll ... 1 I I
A ... t1
\I

D."

1
::

A ~~ 5
+

( ~ r, I )

Ii:=

f ': t

f~.(J

IF(lIu<>:--.LT.O)

TlJ ..,

VOf
'I Gt:

=
::

vU
V \,

.t-t :: V"'':>
GC
~

T U 1 ()
.,.v[J

vCf III,E
\j~E.

::

::

11(' - V[ IINS - II~I

10

('C~TI""uE

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1.FJ
G()

l~(AHS(VGf).bT.~~AAI

TO
TI)

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l.F ( A H ~ , 1/ DE:I u T \I'" A"( I IF ' AI-< < 'VHF I .'; T. I

V"-f.'"

(,0 (,V

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.,n

AP~

::

A~~(FEtF-II~~1

wI ::
~t_

VJI;

P~[OS~WT(A~f-1

H:: 1'10/(1.
U
::

O~"A""(vH:-'I~11

::

'1

E OlJ
(v(,~.I) H~v.v"""r11'APHl.I/~E.1

A~

FA(~D.vef.'IGt.~.~x.'~HI'lFtl

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'oj ( )

'I .... 1/ r, t:

t4 .J X

'1.1- t1 1 , .. t. )

51G~(AU':>J.IIYI

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32 liP :: r-t->, ('IG!:.A1)t. 'NF_L..\I.(.~'Ht.APHI.VJH:) ACS':>:: I'AIVl).IIDoill,f.H.VA.A"' ... I.,.Ftl

A :.
uC>ll"ut.~:,>(r.P~~I)

At ::
~ ~

-':./C ':>I~N(t~~~l :!.t-laU.A~~(AI)

~ ~~ol

(A'iS(Vlll-~P)+toUI/C.

TE~P

.~.~Al~U~AH':>(vDE-V~}i~

IF (;~""IJ.LT.(I.) ~j./J~f 100 '. [) U ~ WT ( A~'" IT. ~ PI) ) I ( ;,> A A ) Fl F~.T(~IVGt'VT.SI fl' =F.".rCH'vl~r. V"".~) FIo',)S :: f-l""lVA[)'".,i./(I)' JVI '~!"(l.-ftl"AlJ

= (=

"i.

~t:TUI!(N

-"'i0
1uO 1

~~O:,

:'U.

fo-f T U~~I
FC~"'ATI~A.o~H/ATlvt: \I~Lvt'lJNP~1.I I'IAI)i'C.AL
tt:I-UIJ')
CAlJ,>ELI 1'Y"'Ah ... ~t TI:.~ f~l:

IN

H4()~

:JtLTA L. kt.,..I;. ... l:'l4Ct. )

IN

'".'../:,Al!ON " ..

rlqurfO IV-52.

p,.eOS :.lbroutfnfO IncorpOratfng \econd (rdp.r Effl"ctc;

for use With SCrPTRE

1'1-129

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1 II}) c.'i'"

... CiolTl fOl:'A(;l {WJ

.1 1 1 _~

11 tIII.I'I.~l.'
tIll 9

..

II'!; 1.

:,11

r.
'.
1~

Jr.

1 . \ 1 1 . I . I I .: 1 . 1 1 I . 1 I 1 I
.1
lj

Ii-'

l!!

j~

::.t

.<1

l,..'

.'J

oJ

z:,

; n r :

....

Figure IV-6n.

SPiCE2 N-Channel lbdel Demonstrating Weak Inversion Effects

-, t,o,

.. -'

.~~

.. . .'

". ..,
U

<lI .....

0'1 t:

'.
'.

.-

01 t:

-' _.

.s=
I

."

c:

N
W

..... .
>

/')

r-

16.

'.........
........... __...
'

..... ..~ ~

.................. ,.. .
.,
, .. "

.... , .
I'

-_..... ..-......._ .....-.- ........ _ ....................................................... . .......- ......... ... ................. ... -_ ...... _ ........., ._-_......_..... ......... , ., .... ..................... . , . ..............
, tN" _ ........

.... ~

-.....

IV-i~3

,.'

------------------....

--~.....~

. . , I'

,
I

.....

--

- - ..

~ ...

~,~_~

-.... - - . - -- '

.-

. - . ~ -..

I , . . . , -.

... _

.... _

, , ,
"

."

"

..,
...
0
~

c::

.~

:::t.;)
~'
~

.... ..,
Vl

::s

l..

-oJ

... '
~

QJ

C)
~

olex

.....

E 0
V

a.

e: .....

e: e:
I

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J

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..
~ ~

N
I

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.--:

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,~

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'1: ..
:.'" 'Ill

j'

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.'.....,rtcw.w"

'"

f'I"";

tl"'!

:'1) : ... ).~

IV- J44

1'1

... ~- ,.......,.. _~.I<tt_:;,:;t;.::.:'=;=$:L:'~t".

II'.......

:.fl

Ii
!
~.

I
II

..----------:-.-

------:----------;---_----.----------1--------_ -I----------l----~-----!.----------I------------

16

, , , ,.

'i-')-

I I 1

:&

,,"""

-1

Il

I
l.

I
f
.~
, !

.j

.,.
\It

-< I

I
I I .. I ..

I:

II

.....

~."

.. .. ..

..

..
..

..

..

..

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..

. . .. .
..
..

..
, ., ...
~~.,~.,';.,.,

- ., ., "............ ;

..

..

">

!". I
I'
- . UJ I J " ,)J I

. ;-:).10

1\

Il/,u<u, ;<,

" .. l.,., ... : '.i

----------- ----._--.-- 4 -----------~.-.--------;--.-- -----1------_1-----------;---------l-----------I-----------1 .4 ,t -',; ?
~

:!

U
t
f

J!

, I

. -to ..

I I I I

("~

DRA!t4 VOL TAGE (V)

I

Figure IV-62.

:.1-2 N-Chan'nel ft:ldel Oerr,c,nHratinq Inco~~lete Saturation Effects (ConclJdl"d)

(b) Ideal Saturation

l .. 'i

0'
n

,'.1
~

j't

.
u

,t'
(!' ,

.'
,"",

~:~

.
\.

," ... .'t'

\

+-'

.1' .,.
..1. 1
. 1.

.'
,\

,n

C>

.:.0
)

~-.

,-,

01' .... ,
.L~

..:
,n

,1'

," ,... .,
,

L-

.,,' .,
I
~

,.' ,
,..

'- ' .,

'.'

1,1

IV-146

"

.-.-~,,-...-

..

~.--

-,.: _"""'~""'.iilllliil.";)" .... 111....... "II1II2 . .l11li.. 1l1li ','

.~
"~ 1
H
~.l -. --~~------:---~-------r-----

______ ' ___________ ~ _______ ----1-----------1---------.--1----------_1 ___________ 1 ____ ~ __ .

C.J ...

"

,.
J _.

-I

,. "

I,

lll"

II' I

c''''

I"(,/i',rll"J .. ;
i t ,., ,

-,.,
-~.""

...

'J t J

j j t i l l ... ~J'"
~,."

.. . .
~
~I

.. ",., , 1

......
_

..,,..,"',
")""tJf-f

'I

.,
")

,.,,.,11

I I I

"

... "" "'10"

I II

.........

.,

-'
< I
i

.,
-i.~

...

......

A'

./
,I

..'"

'" '"

""

..

-,.'") i .....

I
.\

'.' '

')

-'::

.....
1
I' I I
I,
I
1

._~.

",
-1 ~

I-~---------:-.--,
-.,:;

:.:

(b) Ideal ~aturation Figure .IV-63. NET-2 P-Channel ilodel Demonstrating Incolaplete Saturation Effects (C()~clurjerl)

-"

-----~-

-,

...

--- ...

-1-----------.-----------1-----------1-----_____ . .

l-~

...
' - . . . . . '" ... j

.... - ...

_---_. -- .. _-- ... -_ ..... _-_ ............. -

-:.~~--:-:-------- ... --- ......... -------- ... --- ... ---------------:C :.::.

'. "."

.... ,

! . "; .......

... - i

.'

~
'J
~

<:
I

CC

"" !

""

- - 1

--i

r,

-------------------------_.-._-_ .. _---_:_------------- ... _------._---------------------------------

I' i,_
I.

DrAIN VOLTAGE (VOLTS)

'.""

l.

..

"., .'

.
Inclded

Fi j;;re I'i-64.

SCEPTRE :l-Channel

(a) Variable flability Effects ~iodel DE'r.onstrat~ng 'J~:-iable tiabil ity f~fects

.,
~,

..

'L.

,"C'l

1.,~~.-~7

I-------~------~--~-----------p------------------------------------------------------------------__ 1 I - I I I I' I 1 I I j
I
j

"

~~Qt~~

1 1-
I

,,~

1 I 1 __ 1

~~:.- .. J'"

I--

i':J

1r;

--I

, ..
I'

1
f'J _ ',- .... t"

:-I 1 1--

I'.

" . ~:. 'J;'

J>

_.4: J.

i z

;,Q

--

--:::

CIt

';.~~V"

.... ,J

i 1 I--

iG

.-

1 I --I I I I 1 --1 I I I I ".

::>

l' .... :. :'t - '... ~

_. :.
:
! __

- 4

1(;

I --I 1 I I I --1

I
--I

_('.t:. '""",,- . ' , ,

-"J. '.
-'.=

.I'

...

,--

--I

-.---------:---

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 1 ... . 1.,,'-.. ..... l.r 1 i

'J
... -,) j

t . : ;,

....... ~ 'J" :;

~ "J

'j

t oJ

'...J!J

'Jio.

"J

Figure IV-64_

S~EPTRE

(0) Variable llobilityFffects Excluded ll-Char',nel liodel Der.onstratingVariable flobil itj Effects (Co:,cluded)

CPJ; ,', ,r'L ~M[ (""L T_ , OJ ." v ' ~- -J

" \

111011

"L!J~

\,.1"

1- _'1

~~ tt.

, .!lOOf -0.

I I
!I.OOO~-u.

I-----------------------~------------------------------------~---------------------------------------I
I JI: ,14

I
I-I I I I

--j

1 1

t
I

2.SC.OE-h

II I' I I

--I
I
I

.'G -c

I I
I ~ I I I --I I I
I

O.

I-I I I I

vr. - ...

I-I I
I

jG -6

I--

,I I-I I I
I I--

I I I

I --! I I I
I

--I
J~ -~

I I I I , -- I

I
I

JG :: -10 I I I-I I I 'I -1-I I I I I _________ I

-1.!!lQf-Ol
-1."~r.E '~l
-i'.f')C'lE.Cl

.'

I
--I I

~-------~----;-------------------------~----

I I --I I I I I I I I I _________________ ., ________________ - ___________ 1

-b.~~ut .[fO
-"'.OulJr'.JO

-i ... v.f '01

-l.l-.t'':.''.'.JJ

-'.~'J~t.IJl
J'):..."!,,~.. E

-I.~~"t .ijl

- .... ~!J.jEOO

-".000f.00
Clio

CRt..!f-

'.'"1,.-',,,

(a) Jariable i,lobility .;:ffects Inc1 .. ded

t ..
~
"

~ ...

Fi']urf: IV-6S.

SCEPTRE P-Channe-l iiodel De:1onstratinr; Variable iloJil i t j Effects

':L

.. ,,"-"'- .......,p....., ..

..
IAOll
._______________
1."OH-~J
~t...v'
I"oof

1,")101

w'l

tl)

: I
I
I I--

--------------;---------;---------~---------7---------;----------------------.--~---j
I I I

1
" J.
c,' " .

1. I)Q:,c.. U.J

I 1 --I I I

I I
~ OOOE-~

..

I I--

--1

I
~.

1 1--' I

V(; -2
VG _. -4 VG -6
I I I --I I
I I

~_ -~.OCOE-O"
0-

< I
vi .....

'" -'" :::> ....

7'

-I I I 1-1I I
I

-I.~~O-~]

1-I I I I-I

~
-1."'OE-'o

--I
I I
j

VG -8

-i'.~~6~-v3

-~."~O~-'j}'

I I I-I I I I 1--

,-

VG -10

-- .
I --I I I I I

--I I I I I --I I I I I

I I I
-3.01l0~-~';

,-, I I
-!.(JlJ(d:..... ~
-!.t!:)f.J..;l
-,,~!J~~lt.lJy

I"

-';.C,OO-vJ

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I
..~.I.dJ':t..~(.j
- ...

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------"----------1
-.l. .....

-t'.

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I~j

c.;

.".!
- . ~"""" ~ '.J 1

- ' ... :.. .. r

'.;1

-",.:;UYt.(.jU
IJ(JO~1J0

I..

Fi gure IV-65.

(b) Variable :lobility Ef4:ect~ [/Cl:y;ed :)CEPTP.E P-Char.nel ;lodel DerJnstrat,ng Variuble 110bility Effects (ConclurierJ)
(i)

DPA:~ IOL7AG(

,
!

f.

Temperatuy'e Eff-cts

Figur~s IV-66 and IV-67 show the variations in turn on

m~deled

characteristics of N-'channel and P-channel devices. with tempenture as in SPICE2. REFERENCES

F.

IV-1.

Meyer, J. E. ,lIMOS MOdels and Circuit Simulation," RCA vol. 32, March 1971, pp. 42-63.

Rp.vie~.

i .,.

... ,..

- .. .. .. . .. ......
...........
'

.......

.... u
VI
Q)
~ ~

UJ

'.

Q)
.f~

L. ::I

.,

Q)

"'
L.

""

Q) ~

Co

.....
c
L. "' .... III

en

c ,.....
Q)

Q)

I:::

C'

.Q
Q)

"0

u
Z

.c
I

:'

,N LU U
V'l

a..

1.0 -\.0

:>
Q)
' ..................................... .. ,.,1'11
0 ,

.. u................................ .. , ... t;

.
II'IUII

.......................................................................................................................... .
,

...

.U-

::I C'I

,-

..........................'.................... ,......" "0, ",.. ....................... """" ................

"I. 'U IJ'J

IV-153

'\

~ -:......

~"'.'
'

,~ ..:.... .:...:

.-(I)

."
I

I:: I::

0N
l.J.J

......

-'

0... VI

,....
:>
\C I

.....
................................................................................
IF!''''I

u..

..........................................................................................................................
'
,

, ,~IIIr' . ', ..... )!:."

loal ):It.-

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4' . .

-'.r ."!.~

...........

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rl>~:~~-:~~~"~~;':': :~>::Yi~~'~p,~~~~~,:,::,
~-

'''''''''''--.-:
,~

:.;.

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CHiWIFR V

1/5CfLLANEOUS O[ViCES
A. ,)FtT M()ntIING

I.

:ntl'odLJd --_. --,,- -ion . <-

Tht> Jf[T (jllr,ct;on fielc1 i'ffpcttnn<.i.:;to!') difft':'":' f:'om tnt:"

bip()lar

trdn~ic,t()r

in

junction i:, L.sell t,)

CJITi(lY's.

th,~t tt~f> lll'plt'tioll 1'('(lion pf (~ revpy's> bL1sec1 P-N m('(ll".lt~ th(> Condl!ctie>o, <11'(>,1 ,lY,li labl!' to m,.jj0rity

lhis i~, i 1111stl'ated in figure V-l.

nr ;'1 17 rn~1
f~L (;! n~.s

T
t i Illlrt' V- I .

JHT Geomt'tl'Y

I.'ht'n thp <If'pl('tinn' r'pqion5 hJVP not pinchpd off thl' challllPI" the (hanrwl h(>n.lvPS <15 . n ... istol.
,1Ott

thp df'vi<.(> i ... in the lin,ar rrqion.

If ~h~ qatt' voltdQP i~ illcr(>ased to the rolnt ~hprf thp Jp~lpti0n ff'qirn~ [li~c:1! otf thp ch.tnnpl 1 :... "tur.ttt'd (urn',ll ~i'lJ'conti'luP tG ,flow in a
mannpr dn~loQous to thp injp~tion c4rrpnt acros~ th~ rpVPfc,(' hiaspd Od,e-collt'ctor junction. IncrPdsinQ dr,lin
VOltclQP

in lh(> Safur.lt,'l/.,

rpqion ~i:1 mprply ~ii!t,'n thp df'pli.'tiQn rt",i.m<, i,n.1 m.l II riP r' so th.lt no net incrPdsP in drain CL(rf'nt will occur.

"

2.

B,~SiC JH.I Mu.lel ---------d.

~e2~..'.JE~i,~ The basic Jill mldeJ

1-

a direct impl~mentation of the

basic equations which dp~cl'i~e

JfEl operation o~er ~Jrin~s modes of

CPf'i,_,t i un.
b. Ac1"Jl'tages Ihe pal'amderi=atil)n uf lilt' bd:>iL .)1 [1 model rcqull'es only The model can be used tor most pr,lctical

a "curlle tracer" photoqr,tph. appl ication,~. c. Cautions

Tile basic ,;fEl mod",l doesnot includ,> any secolld llt'der effects beyond channel sholteninq .,ffl.:t .... Oiscontilluitips in the d>,-illati\e of the Lha'acteristic pxirt at the tran~ition between operatin4 r ... qions.
~ifJh fl'equer':y chd:',lLtpristics al'e not includNL

d.

Ch~ractristl(S

The topology of the b~~ic JFll mudpJ is qillen in ficiure V-!, Ttlp charact;:ri.:,tic prol1ucPll by the tlJsic JHT mIllie I is :>I.own in fiqt.;e V-3.

----

-~-

[)

'v (~i 1

'.
"

I I' "

"0
\I

I.,
~

"l'

, .'

, (~S
,

~,

"
,

p-CilMml L

N-rl!,\~lNl

, V ,"

..

I
ll'l[ I\r~ f~U; wrl

I
(V (lSli T', I OSI\ T )

SATURATION RE'!lION
VC;SO V('(" 1 1,1

....~---~--------- ,V GSJ

V l ;S4

Fiyure V-].
e, pen-ling Equations

JFET

C~aracteristiC5

thf>n

(lir.e~r

Region)

It V GO . : V, an1 V GD ' V~S'

, then

lOS

= GC [\GS

~- to ~ 3Jvphs to)
(Pinchoff Region)

3/2

If VGS

<:

VT and V6s ..:

"GO'

V~J

,a"'?

.r!'

bt

f1 'r r

ct. '

nSt

t!

It',

then

IO~

:;:

-G C V GO

.. Vp r -

2 Q .. (-V GO S 3./V p

..

0B) 3/2]

(IIlIJt>rtl'd Region)
If V [, G
:;:

V GS or (V GO

..::

V < V T and GS . VI ).

then

Irs

(Cutoff Regicn)
1f V~D
"

~S or

Ves

!jIS'

then

lOS

:;:

o.

(Fol'ward Biaspd Forbidden Region)

V T -= III B - Vp
For al
J

legions:

R :;:

f.

Pal'ameter List
drain-to-sour~e

current

g~nerator

IT:;: K:;:

the pinchoff v~ltage the junction contact potential the gate-to-source voltage the gat~-to-drain'~oJiag~, the resistan~p which mod~ls the variation in drain current with.rlrain-to-source voltage in ~he pinChpff region with V GS ~ 0 the drain-fo-source c:Jrren~ for V GS "" 0 and drain-tosourcp vo(ta9~ :;:' -!vTI . . the CUrrent tho sen to reduce t~e VOS/RO ratio try ~ smdll leakage current when lOS:;: 0 the> channel ccndllctdnce

1
1

v; ,
.(

r;a: C. 'nN,

wk

It 1:

ma

it,' & 'f mr

g.

Pdra~eterization

I)

Vp' GC' t"S

a)

De~initio"

V is the device pinchoff volt~ge. It is the p gate voltage re~uired to pinch off the device ~hannel. G is the conducC tdnce or the device channel. $B is the ~uilt-in voltage 6f thr P-N,
j'.!',ct illn

b) of G C i.s ': 103

Typical

V&lu~s

A typical value nf Vn is 2 V A typical value A/volt. ~B has a typical,v~ll!e of about 0.6 V. c) "Ieasurement

:he parameters Vp' G W,dY be obtained C' and ('"om the c;aturatiOl. region of the device ch-1radC!ristic. This r~gionis illustrated in figure V-3. Vp' Get and ~B are found using the rollowing proces;:
(1)

$e

(2)

(3)

Assume a value for $0' Guess V OSSAI for th~ ~GS Calculate Vp as:

=0

trace . .

G C

~j.PJ' -I~sl

V -:"""1-----...;;..;~-----+

IO~
?

,3~1

I~

)312 . B, .

(S)

Substitute values of V GS
1-: OS li C

tin~

the curve trace in:

(-IVGS. 'I + ~J 3

V-5
.

,'

i
..!. .
~....\.

lI#il t.~-:)bI *-'_-'I i'

-fiil'}"tr...w'

_~s~~~'~,?,~'~,~~.~'<~~?~ir~n~t~.~'t~'~''~~~~!!!'~'tI! ,1~'!!'S!!!'! ! "! !'~!'.;I'! t~t!t! '-r!-;' ' '!!I!'"t.f.f !!i;t;~;-~-'~~~ -...:-lJ
51!!!""

(6)

Compdre the values from (5) with the drlin current in the saturation region at:

st~~

me~s~red val~es

of

VOS" [-IVGs
(7)

!' /Vpl '- !~B/]

If the compar'ison is unsatistactory. guess another' value for VOSSAT and repeat the process.
d)

~~~462

From ~ea~urement. Vp' G C' and tPa can ,be Ilbtaiiled from the Curve tracer Photoo.raph ,hown in figure V-4. The iterative procedure out! i ned in the para.et-ri iation secti,n was iop le~.nted us i ng , , a progr'ammable calculator.
'

GS " 13 V at V

~ 0 V and

/IS was, :1'>sumed to

b~

I volt.

When the point VOS

ration POint, the results shown in t'ble V-I were obtained. When the decision was made that a reasonable fit existed between the me"ured and calculated drain current. the values of Vp and G were: C v = l~ volts = 1.53 x 10- 3 siemens

lOS " 5.9 mA at V GS " 0 V .as chosen .s the satu-

G~

TABLE V-f.
V GS ,

PARAMETER OE1ERMINATION
lOS las (Act'JaI)

VOS 13 V' 12
lJ

O'V
I

2 3 4 5
6

10
9

7
6

7
8

5'.90 mA 4.87 3.98 3.21, 2.55 !.97 I. 48 'I. 07 O. 733

5.9 rnA 4.9

,.,. 1

3.2 2 4 1.7

Ll
0.4 0.2

V-6
;

J
J

-;'LJ V/div filll;i;,. - I 1'1/\ I'll i V Vl'!' !. I v/ 1!'.In'

V..

.j

..

'

......

--.-'~

......-

_.

.~-~

...

..-

...... -

.................." . , " ...

t . - ._........

t' .....

st

t.'

I"

D"

$2 t

.,;

ltd

2)

RO' IT' K

a)

Oefiroition

RD. I r and ~ are parameters that descr;be RD' RD i~ a vari~ble resistance that mcjels tne variation of lOS with VOS in the Jaturation region. b)
Typic~l

Value5

5 rnA, and O. I

~A. re~p~ctjvply.

lypica! "illlle~ fot' R ' IT' and K al'e 30 kilohn;s. O

c)

Meas'lrt'm~nt

may be de' 'rmined fl'om two points ontt"le dr3in-lo-so~rce characteristic for V ~ O. The first point occurs at GS VOSSAT and IOSSAT for V = O. The second point is chosen o~ the V = 0 GS GS curve to yield the best simulation of the change in drain current with J,'ain to ,source voltage ,in thp. saturation region. RO "is then calculat.ed
RO
f ,'o:n:

_ ti

VOS

RO - ~ IO~

at V = 0 GS

IT is I OSS.I\ T at V GS = 0
K
ct)

is assigned an arbitrary value for mos,t applica~A.

tions, generally lpss than I

fxample 2N5462

TI~ first poipt chos~~ is at the breakpo~nt between the' s~turation and triode region. This point WdS f6und in the . previous sectio; to be:
v[)~

lOS

= ,13.V = 5.9 rnA

.1 ,

t;'*

er

7 tw

'~--..... ts 1 i,P"rla-wf

...-.".'

,<

.'--

The

ne~ t

po i flt was thosp') to be:

\iDS = 18 V

lOS = 6 rnA
. RO.

18 V - l~ V = '5 x I04'ohms SmA ~9 rnA

microam~t!re.

IT, is fixed as 5.9 mM and K was chosen as O. 1 3. Addition of Parasitic Capacitance a. Oescl'iption

If d JFET model is to ~e inc~uded in a circuit where high fl'equendes are, pt'esent, pal'asitic capacitJnces should, be included as part of the model. b. Advantages' Tne inclusion of the junction capacitors produces a more rpalistic and useful modpl of the JFET. c, Caut 1ons Three terminal capacitance measurements are required for determination of the capacitance parameters. The capacitance bridge mwst have the ahility to apply a dc bias. d. Char'acteristics Inc.usion of thA ca~acitors In the JFET model will produce the topology o'f fi9ure V-So

R'

s
Figure V-5. JFEr Parasitic 'Capacitance

V-9

CGO and C GS ar~ depietion region capacitors, and have the voltage dependpnt characteristics of depletion region capacitance. e. Oefining ~guations

f.

Parampterization (C G, CO' n , nO) G 1) Uefi'nition

~quations.

C G, CO' nG, and "0 are parameters w~ich describe the two junction cap"citors C a'nd CGO' nO and nG are related to the doping GS distribution at the junction. CD and C are constants of the capacitance G 2) Typical Values

t~vely.

Typic~1 ~alues of Cd and Co are 5 pF and 1 pF, respecr'G and nO genh'a,l1y lie between 0.5 and 0.~33. 3) M~asurement
"

The values for t;,ec:e parameters are obtaihed' f.rom 'measurem~nts of Ciss as a function of gate-t~-source voltage and C ~s rss a function of gat~-to-drain voltage. Example test fixtures.are given in figure V-G.

V-:10

1\

C.
BIAS -HI -LO _
(~ND

lSS

TES;-

lmH

1000~F

'

BIA~ HI
-LO _ -GND

TEST

()-~-~o+-J~_

r,

rss

Figure V-6.

Capacitance Measurement

For the Ciss measurement, the drain-to-~ource voltagp is kep, constant:. and ClS~ . ~ is then measured for a range of gate-to-source , voltages. F r the C measurement, the voltage and the ' drain-to-sourcp , . , rss gate-tu-sour e vo1tage are varied. The following expressions may now be app 1i ed:

C.

lSS

v- fl

I
'f! ... j

.11

Frvm two p01nts on the curve of C.. versus voltage, the value for nG is:
~.J

C G is then calculatpd from one C~V point as~

C G :: C GS ( tPB - V) "G .

nO is determined in a simil~r'manner as:

CD is calculated from Jne C-V point as:

g..

Example - 2N5462

Reduced and raw . , capacltance dat~ are Shown in tables V-2 ~nd V-3. The voltage behavior of C GS and eCO is illu~trated in figures V-7 and V-8, ,espectively. nG can now be calculated from two arbitrarily chosen .points as shown ill tables V-'l cHid \'-3 . . .en (3.55 pF) - n (2. 3R ~ nG - n [1 V - (-10' V)] - n [1 'V-- (-o-vrJ nG

= O. 167

C G can be calculat~d at the (-0:5 V. 3.08 pF) point as:

CG = 3.08 pF [1 V

(-0.5 V)]0.167.

C G = 3.31 pF

V-l2

I ,._--""OM.'.-....,.. ' .....: ...._t_I_. . . . ,. ; __ .._."" _ ... ,_

~ ~ -.~_ ~~, ~.~.:

._-0

,.

" TA8LE V- i,.

DRAIN CAPACITANCE MEASURHIENTS . V GO :: ~DS - 'v'GS C : : C. '-55 liD '-55

~S.OC

VSO '-0.5 V -1.0 -2.0 -5.0 -)(l.0 -10.0 -10.0

-10.0

V liS
0
V

0 0
0

0 0.5
1.0

2.0

-10.0 -10.0

5..0
10.0

-0.5 V -1.0 -2.0 -5.0 -10.0 -10.5' -11. 0 -12.0; -15.0 -20.0

pf

:1.22

2.42 2.20 2.18 2.14 2.12

2.0Z

1. 92

TABLE V-3. "OS -10 V -10 -10 -10 -10 -10 VGS' 0 V, 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0 C.

GATE CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENTS

~

::C.

ISS

-c rss
::
::

,OS

@V'

:: -10 V

5.75 pF 5.26 5.07 4.85 4.51 .4.:10

'5.75 pF - 2.2 pF 5.26 - 2. 18 5.07 ;. 2.14 4.85 - 2. 12 4.51 - 2.02 4'.30 1. 92 ..

::

= = =

3.55 pF 3.08 2.93 2.73 2.49 . 2.38

/
, V-13

-t:.

roo
'}o

r-----------

80
70
tlO

50

40
30

I
,

'

20

..
u

10
9

8 7 6 5
4

12

16

18

20

Revpr!':e Vol tap,'2 Volts

Figure' V--:.

eGO as a Function of V GO

V.,.14
j

,',
.-,-----,

,Jf
~--'-----.-

-:

,'.

_._.-":--:-............, . ,~,.'~.~.~:, . . 1.

.,
1n:)
-)0

no
70

60
)l)

30

20

....
u

c/'I

t-'

1r
9
;)

...

7
6

5
4
J

'~

()

,
"

4
P"vf'r<,('
f 1 nun'
" -

t-

..
Vo It ..

Id

1;'

Vo I t,'IW.
t't'., ,i

i~

rG~.

I "'''- t hm of 'I c'I.

...:. ....

.
:

V-I:'

----------

nc can ne fc,und in tt,t.> same manner .1S ole:

no
nO

fr')[Iv - <-20 'i1T-

"~. 22-E) -..i.~ I .JL1~~.

I'n

[I V -. \-2 VjJ

= 0.266

LJ can now be calculated at Cr"I

t~,e

(-10 V. 2.2 tlF) point as:

Co - 2.2 pF [1 V - (-)0 V)JO.~~~

CD ::: 4.

1C

pF

4.

ilata Sht>t"t JffT Mode I

Ot>\it>J~~(~~
(dll

Pa ra;;lt> t'?rs for th(' JF[ r mode I facturl"r Spl"cification sht>ets.

a.
Vp

bt> determ i Ill"d f

n~!l',

t ".'

;;',dIU-

Thl" pinChoff oate-to-sourCl" cutoff voltagl".

voltaq~

is uften The data

sh~t>{s

1i~ted

dS

~S (c~tott).
V-9 "st

shown in fiqure

vp (VGS(lrF

bptw(,l"n I.u V Jnd S V. . Thf> unrt'.liisticaJly I.lrge

"a'l/~

of dl"riv('d Vp. ;: '.I, is l"XpJain;'d by the ta; lun' of this simple moCt" acculatl"ly Il"tlt>c.t suen second

ord~r

e;ft>cfs as

vdri<l~ll"

to

mobility. fnhomo-

gt'nl"OUS'doping, and vdlying ch.trql" distribution. while thl" satllrHion rt:'gion is adt>Qu,ltply l"'(lst in tht> modt>; ing Ilf thp I ine.lr rpgion.

modl"Ied~

The 'll"t ('ffpct i.j thdt siqnif;c.lnt

(>I'I'O"S

b.
data ')t!e~ts .<"s

f'

"C
t""I1(j

li C' th .. channel conductancl" parctmetl'r, is often

in

FS is . llstt>d bt>twt>t"1l Y ' the forwdrd trdr.sadmittanet>. F.or th' lNS462. Y rs 2000 and 6000 ~S. Tht> derivPd valut> Wd~ '~JO ~s.

c.

eGO

Cr~s' th~ rt"v~r~

l, CO' transft"r

th~C),1tt>-tO-dl"lin

cdp~citanc~,

rap,lc1t,lnet>, is oftpn found ,1<;.

as a function of VOS in 'fi"Urf" V_oJ.

por lh~ 2N~461, C

r .. ~

i~ prolt~d

V,:,16
I

"

".'-~-

..

2N5400 t:llICON)
thru
1,II,llllh" dept.-tilll! IIh,d,' ([\I'" '\1 !lIlhtl"1l Itl'ld ,'I fc . . t tr.in . . hLdf' ,h"I~nl'd tur ll'-o.l' It: t!l'Ul',.HI'tHrtl\4.: .UIl"lIf,er Ih'li ...lllt'n,

~ (I
! ,

-'J
a","'.!
I,~.....

1NI46O
:N~~I

]NII<>3
]"~~
'N'.~

,,

..

1"'401

Uno'

!d
CASllt '
:0.\11.

f .... rJ

: . ..,. . . . ,

.t-."

I I..,. " ...

',"",(II". '"

,...'.1,,""'", ....
f ... '

,
'
~..

;.""""'d.,'rNu....
~

",
""-'

.'. ........ ... -.. ........

.
:"",

I,_'_ _ _ _ ,U ...

.....
Mo..

n fCIN'J("At. r."Af.lACTl-'J,1Ic.;TfCS
(I........ ' ....

I,p
'. ~ I

Un,'

""', . \ ,,:

I.' I'

:
....... JI

...-

I
I,'
" ~.. .. ... ; I .'"''

",

"

do

..

01'

"

.1

r ltJure

V- 'J.

t:WdhO - ~tbfi6~ ".,nufacturt'r Specificafivn Shl'et" ,(ref. V-l)'

, V-17
",

2NS460 thru 2NS46S

(continued) ,

DRAIN CvRRENr ......1 GATE SOURCE 'vOl'rAGE FORWARD TRANSFER AOMITTANCE _ _ DttAIN CURRENT
"O'NlI. ......,.... - . . . .

:~ ...
';
'r~~"

.. ~~ . .,.
.'"

-os ..
_ _ _ .......... _ _ _
~"

t'~

.. , 't , ....
a._ .
~~_

~ f

, ,

1'1

1' .)

I) ...... (",_ . . . ."

,..u

....... _,.....
1'~

" ...... !

.......

.....

-:r

~.~
,

~.

---~ ..
.' ....! , ".t
I

..

: ........: ~
-IH.- .,

"

.. 1 I
-I , ..:...--.. _ _

._! .' ----joo-' .....-

"

.... 1
"

"1
I

"

....

, .. '

."

~.~

............... .
'..
'It

",a

} 110

V-I,:

lfiftlliill'1IIfllial :t._cil....MllIiII'. . . ' ii'.........IM!..I11Iij'_i1.""I'.."

:

..- -......~..

-$_....

rII...MI. ._ . . . .

_t .. 'lIisIiU ...iillrltll

',If

t.

ret d.

2N5<460 thru

2N~5 (contInued)

{': .W

....
'

"G~' 7 y ~

OUi",' IIII''',TAIIIICI

"A." (,~111''','
,

I , , :

! t if!
"0'\
t
I , ..

.
~

'I .... ,

......

w~

... --<---:'

~ ~.
~'

..
"
.tf':~..

'WDI-

,.",.touln YIh'''' "W0\.f1;1

IiIIOfIIf' fQullll,

'tf"'~t

IiIIOfIIt 'tOUtIIt ., .......

VI~""OU'IIiIIC'f

'....,
' ..

. ..
I ........

~CI

$I.' ... 1
,

"

...
j

W;K I' W

...

,'

u.~.

''!I ~'. ......

...,......

"
t
III'l._................. ....-.._ ... _.............-.I-- ..... 'I 't .

'~

r .............. ~
,,(

..... "....

.... I . . . . . . . . .

,,~

~.

r.. ...... -~. (.......... (.... (,

't ~-

. .._....__ ...... ,=: .. __

--

--

"...... ,

...

... ...

1iI.~

'_._. ,.......

2111

Figure V-9.

?N5~60

2N~665 ~ariufacturer

Specification Sheets (Concluded)

..
;

V-19
"

.. em-,:t rial:"

PC

,p. , :
"

'rUS).,

Eli

M'M_,."'

"

11f' ftt

nd,d

;;

d.,

C GS
CGS~

the gate~to-source capacit~~ce, is found from:

The data shepts shown in figu~e ~-9 list Cis; and trss as a function of ',lOS
e'.

Ro
R O' tbe ~esistor which models the slope of the characteris-

tic in saturation, can be found a 'R,=_l_

jYasl

where Yas is the output admlttance. For the ?N5462. RO is determined from Yas (75 ~S max.) to be 13.3 kilohm.
f.

IOSSAT' VOSSAT

An e~~imate of the V r,S = u saturation drain c~rrent and ~01tage is available from the lOSS parame~er. for the 2N5462. lOSS is listed between 4 and 16 rnA'at a drain voltage of 15 V. 5. Radiation Effects a. Photocurrents In the abse.lce of complete information on geometry and doping, ;>hot~c~rr'!nts pro'duced in th~ JFET may be esUmated'by the tech-: niques di scussed for diodes in chapter, I I. B. 8., The dep let ion regio"s wh i ch farm ,CGO and C GS wi 11 a 1so prodl:ce two photocurrents, I PGn and I pGS ' shown i~'figurp V-10.

V-20

ZWim

'rr

t't"'"
"

w'

ti '.

t'7$

""'

Xi

'f 5(

. ;{t.'~'-"I',,--,-<~-:,~,~ "
,

[)

[)

['GD

IrCD

C1;n
l;
r

C(~D

c::, l,.

"
Cros I p(;<.; S
N-CHI\NNEL

s
rCHMlNEL

Figure V-IO.

Photocurrent

Generator~

lhe accuracy of photocLrrent predictions from terminal meaSllren,ent~ for tt,e JFET is questionable since the' one dimensional, approKimatiJn ,no ,Iongpr h01ds. The experimental determination cif photocurrent generators is the usual method. The tra~sient drain photocurrent has been found to be fairly independent of drain-to-source voltage. If the device is operated in the linear region, transient dl'ain photocurrent is also relatively 'independe~t of gate-to-source voltage. b. Neutron Damage damage as caused by neutron irradiation alters several JFET para~eters. The characteristics of the JFET are sensitive to lny change~ in thp c~nductivity prQperties of the ~hannel~ Neutrcn dallhlge wi 11 a Iter ttle coneiue. t i v i ty of the channe I through cdr!'i el removal, ~obility changes, etc. r~ramet0rs which are dltered inclu~e the pinchoff ~oltage,'pin~~~ff current, and t~anstdnduct~ncel all of which uecrease. JFET's appear to be slightly harde~ to neutron dama~p than bipolar transistor,s, because ~FET's are affected m'ainly bybulk resistivity ch~n9' i , and bipolar transi~tors are affected by bu~k resistivity ch~nges and the increase in reco~binJtion'center densi~y.
Dis~lacement

V-21
at tf'fh
'~',

ec

'It

rib""

'n

L,,~~
$

'

Computer Example The 2NS462 junction field effect transistor was modeled and simulated using the SCEPTRE network anal~/!ds cude. A FORTRAN subroutine defined lOS (ref. Y-l). A cur'~ tracer output was obtained using 'the RERUN feature of SCEPTRF.. The output data w~re the~ graphed to obtdin a more easily interpreted disrlay. The SCEPTRE circuit used to test the JFET is iilustrated in figure V-ll. The SCEPTRE input data for the JFET characteristic are gi~en in figure V-12. The model chara~teristic, figure V- , ), may be compa red to the photograph ~;,own in fi gure V-4.,

6.

1- - ._- - -

0- -

-0.(11

I
I
+

I
t
.JD
lpF

OS,

(GS
10-1

-?D

,L ____ -.:: _ _ _ .-J

, Figure Y-ll.

JFET Test Circuit

The agreement I)~tw~en the characteristic of figure Y-13 and the characteristic of figure V-4 is good in the 'satJration region. In the linear region, however, thE' model. doei not agree as, wen because it fails to ~ake into account the effec~-Of graded doping and varying charge distribution. More complex models may handle'these effects,_ lhe ,simulation shown in figure V-I) is based on parameters derived from measuremen~s taken in the saturation, r,egion; hence, good agreellent is expected In saturati~n. , When dealing with large siqnil c~aracteristics, the saturation regic.n do'minates, so it is important to model it wel1.

V-22

if r,.(8.

,me

dS'

t'

'.Iei ,

'

5 C ~ P T Q f

A!~ FO~Cl ~EA~ON~ _A~OHATJ~Y

~E.~SIOI\j r.c~ _.5.2

,,~TW)"K

~1~ULATtON PRO:;IoIA~ - KAF3 I\jM . ~/7b

12/1-/7'

~ij.l~.

:(;.f

~u';'~LY
)F

A LlSTIr-.G OF 'u,E~ Ft:.ATU~ES lINJ)Ut. TO T-iIS A CA~O CO\lTAI~'IN(, T~E .1II0~O "oo::u",t...,T" INPuT lOT

VE~!)IO'4 OF seE".:.; A~ THE FIRST ~'A~O

lHf.

:O>4~uHP

T 1 "'f. CPA
pl.,)

ENTE H

~(,

~~TUP

PHASf' -

. Ij? :;::C. :I. ) 00 ;::C.

I:>

:>.)00

~::C.

5UdPHllG~AM

f u""CT I ON F J~:: T I Yli5. IIltJ. y .. ,r~::, PH II

JFfT SUH~OJTIN~. ~T~.P JUNCTIO" AT

CHAN~~L Cll~H~NJ SouRCE o~ ;jAH.

POTE'4TIAL
V T :""41 -yP

. GAT( Tl' C'1A~NEL 1~r::~;:"CI:. IS ~ET T~ IE~O u~u" ~O~.A~) 31AS OF I~E 3AT TO )UI~ JUNCTION:; :;~E.AH.'" TI14'4 !P'1f ttJILT I"

TJ

--.)Hl.

CI1EC'\ FOI'< ~U~''''1l) :HAS (J~FAER' T-iA~ .)til. IF (~I;['.IiT.P~I.3~.~:;S.GT.Ptill GO TJ 10

CHEC~

.K:l./13.0,w~T(~~11

IF

(~C;D.E.a.~:;~.;J~.I~;;O.LT.VT.A""l).":;:'.LT.~T)1 GO TO 10
FO~ :~~N~fL .)1~C~OFF.

FO~

~~rO~F

CH~C~

IF(~G~.~'.~'.'~J.v~~.GT.VII ~o TU ~o ~~A~~~L IS PI~:~lU-JFF Of n: ..... lNE H Hi J~t.T l~ 1111 T"4E .~O~"'AL Uk II\j~E ... rED -..1DE. IF (~.jS.LT."TI'~U T) 30 .JF E TIS 1111 T"t 'IIOH IAL 1oI0L>F. FJF~ T=Gr"I"lJ~.oIJ/3.-JHlAl(ol-Vr.~."'1II""I."1
~ETU~1\j

GATE

TO

SOJ~:~ O~ ~AlE TO'U~AII\j JU~CTIO~ ~J~.A~D alAjE~

IS NJT .)1",:-t~1l-0H . 1-'" TiE.
I"Y~~Hu MouE.

Jk CJT)FF.

1tl FJH T=O

70 ~JFfl=GC("~~-'~Il~~(I-~~~.~~I)~~l.~-(-Y~).')HI).I.~I)
30 FJFET=-GC.IY:;U.~~/j.-PHI.~~(-Yb) .)MII I.~j
wETU~N

IoIFTU'4111 (;HA""..,fl

~FT~~III JFET I~

f!\lO

Figure V-12.

JFET Charac~eri r.~ic Input Data .

V-2l

.s

tdttd ft d :

"

tt t f 2

~ODEL DESC~IPTIO~ ~DJEL 2N546~ (G-S-) --~I..EMfNTS. .

:G5.5-G=Ql(3.JlE-12'1.'V:G~ 167) CGD.D-G=Ql(4.1bE-12'1 V:~D 226) ,.JO.S-O:F..JFET(\lCGS.IIC30.1' I.S3E'_J.1.O)

~U"4CTIDNS

~D.S-D=Q2(5.E4.5.9~-3.JD,.lE-b)

~1("H.C.D)=('/(3-:)D)
~2(,.~.c.O'=((.3)/(:.O :I~CUIT' OE5C~IPTIO\f

::LEMENTS Tl,G-S-O=MOOEL 2~5'~~

::OS.5-S=TANLE i
-4S,o.-~.:4 .. 0!

(TI~~)

CS.O~S=1.E-12

::GS.S-X=O
.
~GS

.ltG:.I.

:G5.G-I:)=I.E-12
:U~CTIO"JS

-IUl.E-l

-Sl~P TIM~11.E-3
;:-l~NE~TS.

0.0.II.E-3.20 )UTPUTS IEJS,EOS.EGS ~U'4 CONTROL.S ~AXIMUM PRINT POINTS=lOO

~1"4I~UM STEP SIZ::=1.~~J9 ~ERUN DESCRIPTIO'4 (ll)

':: GS 1

::NO

= .1-. 3 It S b 7 , 9. ~. 1 0

SYSTEM NOW ENTERIN3 iIMU~ATION

CJ~PUTER T~ME'T TER~~NATI~N OF SETUP ~H.S::. ' CP~ 2.793 ~tC. ,PP O.JOO S~C.
I0
0 ) 0 0, SEC.

Figure V-12.

JFET Characteristic Inp~t nata (Conc:uded)

l
!

-,--.~/.:

...

J
r
f
~.

9.0E~03

!
t , , f

8.0E-03 1.OE-03
V)

I
< I.
N U1

...... c: ...... Q..

c::r:
2:
I-

6.0-03

5.0E-03 4.0E-03 3.0E-03

z:
L'-'

a:: a:: ~ u

z: ~ ~ n

2.0E-03
1. OE-03

. .
2.0E-00 4.0-00 6.0E 00 8.0E 00 1.0E O~ 1.2E 01 1.4E 01 1 .6E 01 1.SE 01

SOURCE-TO-DRAIN VOLTAGE. VOLTS

Figure V-13.

JFET Model C~aracteristics

"

"

'/~
,

"""

B.

UJT MODF.UNC
1.

Introduction The UJT (unijunction transistor) is a bipolar transistor, having one emitter junction and two base contacts. The behavior of the UJT i5 dependent on modulation of th.' conJuctivity between the emitter and base one cont~ct. The UJT topology is shown in figure ~-14.

B'2

RB2
N
p

"Bl

V BB

V E

RBI

Figur'e V-14.

UJT Topology

The introduction of V aB produces an intermediate voltage between RB2 and RBI (which forms a voltage divider). ,When V E reaches a voltage, sufficient +.0 forward bias ,the P-~ junction (.which is 11 V BB where' 11 ,is the intrinsic, stJndoff ratio) holes, will be injected i'nto the high , resistivity N region. , The result of, these extra carrie.'s will be a reduction of the,resistance value of RBI which lowe~s the voltage between RBI and RB2. The P-N ju.nction becomes regeneratively forward biasp.d~and switching occurs. Two appro~ches to modeling the UJT ~re available, the equivalent circuit and the hybri'd circuit analytical desrription. The hybrid
I
,

j"

.~

.anproach yields the superior ~odel, but the analysis code must have a math'ema'ticdl function capabllity. The equivalent circuit lS shown in figure V-1S. Tht two transistors for~ 3 regenerative switching pair. The hybrid .:!Iodel is rliscussed in detail in the following sections.
82
E 0------.

B1
Figure V-1S. 2.
Ge~eral

UJT

Eq~ivalent

Circuit

Purpose UJT Model a. besc ri 2t i on The UJT model presented is a practical, functional, allpurpose model of the unijunction transistor. b. Advantages The g~nera1 purpose UJT model is,sophistic.ted Enough for alm(\st ar.y ne~d, yet simple eno~lgh to allow easy parameterizatiun and implementation. Cautions c. Implementation requires a computer' code with a mathematical function capability.

V-27
,'
,

------

1 I

d.

Characteristics The t.opo lo~y for the U,'T model is

II,>

~iven

in figure V-16.

I
I

"8(.)

G)

I
R

Q)

"
Figure

V-lb.

UJT Model

in figure V-l7.

The s~jtc~ing char~cterlstics for th~ UJT are illustrated

1"

---....!_------_. ----NEGAT IVE

RESIST.\Nc[ REGI0N

VAll EY POINT,

SATliRATIl'N R'tGlO~

Figure V-17.

UJT Characteristics V-23

Ia

=-

,)

-E

. lE

= S

(e

Of C1

-1 )

a('le'L.~ V!(lj

[RSBVK + b(V es

VK}

J
VK.)

('EiIEl )
R32 = .: r - [

~VK list
V K

a( VSS " VK)] rOSVK

b~VBS -

P.'!!al':leter -1;,,/;, =
\'

the l~rin~ic st3ndoff ratIo measured at V BB

=
2 ,:ore

~~8

-=

t~e

voltage

b~tw~en b~s~

twu and Case

w~.iOt R

O~e

(B

'~

.lndC ) 1 H,e t~st \{alU1~ of V BS

at

BBVIC

and 'lVK

spt'c:fied
c
0

al =
-:

Raz
88'01(

base one the base two

th~

r~si~tanc~
rtsi~tanc~

C)

RSB ' tl"e int.,.r~"se r,:,~~stdnc(' m(>d;;'lred at 'fSB "1 V K th~ sum 0; ~he emitivr tlse one diode ditf~~inn
c~Pdcitdnce
Y ,; n~

tC'

and (I' a capacitor to keep C from 1

le ,"0

"

a cnnsLJnt ..~' ;ati ng c,urren', gNIPra\.c.r 1'3 to i E

current s)urce representing one dioJe,

d d

th~'emitter

base

Ig
[ 1

': )(

current source ,'eprp~~nt;nq tM~ modulati0n 0f the b~~~ t~o rpqion ~y t~p ~mitter current a ron~t<lnt .d<?tt';"rn'i ned 'from mCol<,tJrCments a ~~~I I aib{tr~ry va'u p cf cJpdcitance

,'1'

'S =
ii

the iiode saturat; or~ Cl1rrent an emp i I'i ca I cO:1stant an ernp;ricdl constant the constant of t' . e 2mi tter base one d:)do? equation

= =

g.

U,e difhsion capacitance ,:onstant KO = Parameterization

1)

0
a)

DefinItion
Tvpic-'ll
l;c1ilJ~

b)

,
rel'.l

a
c)

is ideally 38.61 ::It

lempe7'atl:T-e.

in the ideal 0 of over a fa..:tJr of. t ... J ar;e Measurement

Two I-V pc,i;,t;:,
th~ measur~ent

COfn/tj~l.

011 ~he E.

;.i tter b&:e one '.;;(

:,~

cilaracteristic are required f.;r t,'e dete,-mir, .. tion ()f O. is shown in figureV-16.

A, tEst se.u;> to!'

r--":.- - , \ , ....

,'\.---4.,+.

Ao"lMETER
~IIPfl Y

,l_

Figure

V-IS.

UJJ Oiode Test

Ci~cuit

V-30
,

',:

"

,j )

E_~~.!~...:.=-. "'N.4394 Two r o i nts mt:>,>:;ur'pu on tht:> emi tte,'-bd~P une

Ch."'.il

tel'1st ic "('rt':
(0,..'" ;1>\, U ~j4~ 'Ii J
(1 pAt '.>lC V)

26.8

2)

S
~('_!:..i..!0il~!~ Is i ~ the s<lturati(lll currel.t of thl? diode anci is
llPtlJviol' of
t::t>

d)
n('(e~"dr'. to lieT inp
(,it..'

diode. ,

h)

!1l!..i.5_,~Y~lll~' w1d"ly.

I~, v;~";t'<'

A'

t}pic~l v;~ll1e

is 1 x 10-.

14 A.

c)

~~~_5Urf''!1!>~

The diodp s.1tur<ltion curre:lt is dptl'rminpd llY' , choo'linq d sin!;!., I-V, point from the t"rw,ud bhs region,
lI'-PU to obLt,ir. (\ m<ly be used hy sllbst.itutinq into:

[ithff poil't

I --',TIj-l'

v- J 1
',-

d)

Exar..p 1e - 2N4894 Choosing the bias point (0.3 IJA, 0.3'45 V):

is - exp

(26.3)( .345 Y)J -1

ampe~es

O. 3 ~A

11 IS = 2.9 )( 10-

3)

'lYK' a a) Definition

'lYK IS the intrinsic standoff ratio at V SH The const~llt which relates It tl' Y is "all. b) for a i!. O.OOl/volt.. c) Measurement Typical Values A typical value for 'lYK is 0.7.

=Y .
K

aa

A typical value

Va1ues of '1 at various values of V are obtained SB lJslng a test circuit such as the one 5hown in figul'e V-19. The "test" , I switch is then released and '1 full scale.

i~ read di,r ct~y from the meter where, l.~:-

have a cha~acteristic sillilar to the ~mit er ba!oe one diode, rhe values of '1 ~ersu~ VBa are then ~lotte~ .. V is rbitrarily chosen near the k cent~r of thf' Y range. J'I\/I( i~ the valu of '1 at \/K' .. aa

!his proc~dure is ,repeated f r each value of V , The Illetel' BB mu~t be recalibrated fOl' each new value. Diode/OJ should'be picked to

I I

Y-37

l
,~

.,

.A

TLT

c::.{.

'10 _,

B2

75 .:
'N

Dl
'-d J'll

lufd

-1
B1

+ 100
i,.d

I~ETER

Figure V-19.

Test

~ircuit

The cons~~nt "a" is the negative of the slop~ on the ~ versu~ Vas curve .. A straight Ti~e approximation may be required. a is calculated from:

Example - 2N4894 From Meas.;rement The values of ~ as a ,function of V are aB sh6wn in table V-4. The data ~re plotted in figure V-20. One surprising ~~sult of this plot ~s the positive ~lope of the line formed. It is believed this may be due to th~ limitations of the test setup. Therefore, ~ will be cons i dered aeons tant and" a" wiT T bE' cons i d~red to b~ zero for this model. Choosing V K as 10 V, ~VK is about 0.82.

d)

\'-:33
,", I

.i

1
~

Cl

c: o
.~

, +..,

c:
lL...
~

o
.:
..;

.1.'"!
~~
.~

1
.:

,....

;..~

(1.'

I-

lL...

....

L"

",

V-J4

.\ j

TASLE V-4.

'l DE TERMINA r ION

!1

5.n V
10.5 15.0 20.0
23.9

0.820
0.82:'

0.830 0.838 0.840

F;'o;;, Dita She~ts ._-_._-'-A'

The ~anufacturer s~ecif:cation sheets , 'presented in figm'e V-21 list qat 10 V (V,,) betwe~n 0. 74 and 0.86. gues~ at 'lVK from data sh~ets mig~t be the midpoint which is 0.8. , 4)

--.<I)

RSR','I\' b DE'finition
r~si5tance

R BBVK is the int~rbase The constant which relates R~8 to VSS is b. b) Typical Va!ue
Ty~ical

at

VS~

= VK.

0.05 kilohms/volt.

resp~ctjvely.

values fJr R BSVK and bare 5 kilohms and

c)

Measurement ----'

RSS ,may be obtained at several values of Vas ~rom a test setup suc~ as the one s~own ill'figure V-22.

V-35 '

,-

TYPES 2M48',' THRU 2N4894

PN PLANAR UNIJUffCTION SILICON TRANSISTORS

P~ ANAa

UNIJUNCTION sluer; TRANS IS TORS SPlClflCALLY CHAIACTOIZED fOI A WIDf IANGl Of MIUTAIl, S'AC( AifO INDUSTRIAl APPLICATIONS: 2N4191. fer Gen.ral Purpose UJT Applic!I,ioni (I., lac" TlS43' 2NU92 fer Hi,h-fr "ne, ,.Ia..tion-O"mot., Cire!;ih 2fil4193 fer Th"ilter (SC!l) Trigg" Circuits 2N4894 ,., l ..,-Ti....-Ibla, CilC~iti

PI.... Pr.dll rr.yicltl h"':Mly low ltaliDg" "i,h CUlTlfttl, ...4 tit Ntl, IMprDV.d R.liallilit,

,.fort,..t Ltw Driyi..!

"".4, On-Pite. CtNlitructioll

_ ..... Ie de..

f"""" StD iard HtQ"",iI TO-18 P .circl.

Thpy "on"", Q!p I"'l(op,,,,lot-d '" a rplo,',c compound 'p.-if'cany dpli9n.d f~ 'hil purpow. uiin9 Q h,gHy 'l'Ipc"on !E'd d .. "t"loppd b., Tela' tn,f,.Jmeonh Th. cO'.tWln w"h,'and IOldeflng '.mpefO _,.ho u' dpfo"rJ"O" T"c-~'!" dp"'ct"1 p.",b" ,'obi. cJ,(),~ .'P"I"CI und., high "",mlt"'ty conditions and ar. copob' o' ~~t","g Ml, 5 i D202C ",p,f'\od 106& fhp 'rO""I'o" 0'. i"'."'lt.~. fa 119""

r,

t"".,

""",l""

', . .
,

..,...

-.'
. .,

,"

..'.

" J\.

l _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ "-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

. .....C ..... "' i..."", ,tiRgs .t 2"C f_.I, "',"' ("",.,, .ther.C.. _~I
Enu"., la,.'wo II ..... , Voft09. In rba Volta~. . Con',n,",ou\ f"""," C" ~.nt P..,k Em,H.r Curren. (s.. No l' . Con',nuou. 0 ,<. O''''PDIoon at \0' below I S,a,oo. T.mp.,o'ur. lang. . \.ad T."p a'~r. '"~ Inch Irom Co.. for 10 fn
I ,. . . . . "II", ., h_ 1.4 ""', ., , .. ~ ,.,.., . " .

-lOy

s.. Nc-t.1
SO mil
1~'C

Fr Air T.mp,fatur.

ts..

Nat. 31

"II.'

S.co~d .

\' ,;,....

1 II . . j60,. W . 61C 10 1~C'C 260"C

-'T'

"'"
., .. , . "," IItfe "t"I" .. ,...

t" ..... , ' , .. 11

""_,,,... '

:",.""""".
<,

Figure V-21.

2tHU91-?N4894 ~'dnufacturer Specifi<."tio,n 'Sheets tref. V-2)--

V-3o
,','

"PES 2N4891 THRU 2N4894 PN PLANAR UNIJUNalON SILICON TRANSISTORS

1 "ICAL CitAI:AC~IItISTICS
~u;..: NTtI""SfIl~'S' .. NCI

flll"'1 '~I"'H.I
10
Val . . .

..

'M,nn IIVIlSf CUII(N'

n(I"" '(J.."t""~l

'q

, i

~t~t-~~
-

..

.
I

1
..
i

, ,
i
v

1
10

1
'"
I

J w i
I

. . . -......
t
I
I
t .
I

t-1

I0

1 l_
.:"

.
i

-I

t
-t

t--t
-2S 2S

-~ .f-I

t
t

J
I

i ,

30

T.. _ _ ..... , _ _ -"C

itOUlI

'" 7'

--+I
100

.r

.: f~'~~il.~i~~~
~125

125

So

7'

100

125

T..- ..... "", _ _ -"C

r ..... I
,

2N... ' , .. Sf-<lNI PI ... ",Il \l VOL' .G(

'111,"'1 '1W(""~1

..

'.

-~ .....

10 _ _ -"C

.. ouel'

~ gurc V-21.

21~4891-2N4394 r"dnufncturer Snecification Sheets.'(Continued)

V-37
-I

..

TYPES 2N4891 THRU 2N4894

, ... PUNAR UNUUNaION SILICON TRANSISTORS

"'leAL CHAIACTIIIS'rICS
MOOUUoflD INflllAU C~'EN'
WI

MOOUlAfID INTIIIASI Cl.afNT

FlU-'\'1 TlWtllATUll

INn'IASE VOU AGE

CI

..

.!

I:
IS
10
I

t ...

115 I
30

'A

25'C

SeeNooo)

1 I

10'

1O

~ 7~

100

115

flOUII 7

2N41. . 'I"'~INT EMlnu CLUINT

FlU'AII 'IW1"'T~1

..

Flgure V-21.

2N4891",2N4894 nanufacturer Speci'f1cd,tio"

Sheet~

(Continued)
.'
'

V-38
','

..
f'

rYI'E$

2N4I'1 THIU 2N4IM P-N PlANAR UNIJUNCTION SllICCN TRANSISTORS

1011'

' ..............04: . . . .

fI,. " ....................... c._..

" ..,.,,.......'...... '44.' ....................

'AIAMlnl MIASUIIMINT IN'OIMA flON
S......H ~ ,- Thi, ..., ...... i' . . . . . . HI ....... the , . .... ,.. .., " ...... IItt .,,,., the ..... ,.... : Va. . . v., _he... v, ",056 ...... U'c .-' .Me,.....

1J -,.....flll(

_i'" ...............

I' ...

v,..

v.:..:-"

t .~.

:s ....ali... ltt/"

n.. ri,cvit ............"... " i. ~_" i.. the ~."". til ..... dr evit, I,. C, ......... "lIIi~.... h ......tet ' ' ' ' ' ....0 ........ ... ~, ....... "he ,.....i. . ., .f .... lI,e",,' .,. . . . . . . ,..11"" ...... .
. . . . . . with . . . . . . . D,

ev......'IC...'

.....,.......... .......
'.
~

'1tM,.. . . "'' ',................ "'' ........' we '.,.,,.... '.1' ... ...... ,.l4o ... 1J
i.

v," " .., ..

'he etre.it,...

c..

~....

.........,
1 ...

It ..

' ... ' . "

WIII .... the ....

i, , . . . .,ec~

,,..

........... WI.

71

C'ef'r . . . . . . . . . . . . .

f"' ....... .,\eel. . .

100".

I. ~ ,,,.. ' .

" 'N.,. ..-.11' .. -0.. __ '. = .,WS,. '. = = .,

~

in,

'IOUII I - " " CIICUIf '01 INntNSIC ' ' ' ' N _ ""10

''I'

lMlTrfl-lAU-ON( VOUAGl

("'lirE'

C~"lNr

I,

I.

I,

Figure V-21.

2N4891-2N4894

t~anu-facturerSpedfication

Sheets (Continued)

.,'
V-39

'P~N PUNAa UNIJUNOION SIliCON TRANSISTORS

TYPI<:AL CHAIACTIIISTICS

TYPfS 2N4891 THRU 2N4894

.,
IMIITI' CUI""'T
2.~
~

"!'r:~-II TT.~'"m I~ ~)., I, I; i' I : I i

'f'. , ..

~. t..

i
t ....... --~-

...

... ~

!;.;" :

,! ,

-t

" !..... ... ....

I ,

1.0
~

J
I

0.'

t I

.,:

, I o~ ,. ~--;;.!O;---;25. -7--:LI;;-~";:;'-;'--~
'IOUII "

"oue. 10
.,

~'II-":. lI"'I...,IUlI
10 r--o--- -"--~~--"l l' . . . . . ~

-' ~ L_~_ ~__;.~'-~J

-1'
-.!O -25 0 25
.!O "

!1~
"GU" 12

~"

~. ~~' ~ V: 'I'
I.,
.. .. \!oJ" ...

I. "..
.. '. '.
1

_.. .
I
,

JOv

20

.f

100

125
/

Fi 9ure V-21.

2N4S91- ?N4894 fldnu; de tur... Speeif j edt j on Sheets (Cont i nued)

V-40
,.
" !.a

,:~

J.

TYPES 2N4891 THRt! ~N4894 P-N PLANAR UNI!UNCTION SILICON TRANSIS70RS

"PiCAL CHAEtACTlRISTICS
Typ'C .... ",It

""J'" S~'lY \lO" .. ...GE TO T_IGGEI THfllSTOI

c: ..., ...CiT ... NCt

>

!
}
E

20

" ,
0.001 0.1 0.. I .

10

,:

~------\I,
::l kCI
100 g

8)

"

~
It

'.)(;\I

TEST CI_CUIT

IOU' '"'" (Htt ,.... t,,",sl

~ "I ...... :-'."" MMI............. ,...... .................... II ... ",. ........

.. OUII U _ OPIIAUNO INfO;uu,TION (2_21

Figure V-21.

'2rI4891-21~'4394

r\anufacturer,si-ccificc:..tion Sheets (Concluded)

V-41

AMME1ER

_ _9....J VOL TMETER

Figure V-22.
The ba~e

R BS Test

Circui~

of V BB applied. RSB

two current is iecorded for each R8B at each value of V BB is calculated as:
V

v~lue

BB =~ J.B2

ROB is plotted 1S a function of V~B. RBBV~ is the value of RBB at,V . K "b" is the slope of the RBB versus V BB curve.' A straight line approximationshou,ld be made. Choosing two points on tile straight 1ine approximation yields:,

- 2N4894 J From ,Measurement , ' , D~ta obtained from interba~e ~esista~ce measul'ements are listed i,n table \'-5. The data are plotted in figure V-23. R BBVK ~ s 6.58 ki iohms and b ,i,s abo~t:

d)

'~xample

,V.,.42

....

'!" .. _"'''''.,,''".,.... '' ......

".".~ ... 4

.... _ ... '.,.' ... ,

~w'

'1"';

I
,
)

~ !
.1

1
~

____~____~.____~~____~____-+______+-____~I_____

.<-

7.5E 00

1.3E-01
V ,- VOLTS RB

1.8E 01

2.3E 01

1
1

Figure V-23. Interbase Resistance as a Functjon of V BB

------------------

- "._, .... ; .. ,.~.,-, "",... : ....\ ..,~,-.,..,.,.".,fi;'-",

.J

b --

1 ohms) (8.71 x 10 3 ohms - 6.02 ~ IO~

(25V-:-S-vr---- -

= 1]8

ohms/volt

TABLE,
l

V-5.

RBB MfA5URM[NTS

Vsa
5V
10 15

'!

ISS
, 2.08 2.50 2.85
2

RSB
6.02
6.58 x 10] 7.21 x 10 8.00 x 10 3
8.

0.83 mA 1. 52

;]oj n
10 3

20 25

Fro~ Data Sheets

Raa and b may be obtained from the plot of d function of V _ al in figw'e V-21. laking points off of this curve yields the The data show an RaaVK of about 5, kilohms

modulati"d

intt'rbas~

CUrTent as

I isted in 'table V-6. and a b of nearly zero .

value~

The IE

= 0 curve is required.

a2

. TAaLE V-6.

RaB fROM DATA

~I/EETS

Vaa 5 V

, laa

Raa 5 )( 10 3 4 )( 103 5 )( Tu 3

1. 0 mA
2.5

10' 15

3.0

20
25

4.0
5.0

5 )( '10 3 5 )( 10 3

V-'14
I' ,'.,

--

',.

10

','

,',' ,J

5)

a)

Definition N is the exponent of the equation relating ReI Typical Value A typical- value of N is 0.5.
Mea!)ur~mellt

b) c~ -

N may be obtained hom the I-V char'acteristic of theemitt~r base one diode in the saturation I'egion (~igh emitter current). IE and VEBl are obtained at two points in the saturation region usi~g a test setup such as the C1e shown in figure V-24.

Allil[T[R

..
POIlE R

SUPPLY
VOL mETER

1\f::'ETER
vmVK

-.

POWER SUprLY
/

. Figure '1-24.

Saturation Region Test Circuit

The value of V BB applied is chosen to be equal

V-45

.j
.
'

when~:

N can

1I0W

be deteY'minpd as:

where:

RBIA = RBI at IE = value RBIS = RBI at IE ~ value 2 I EA = IE "t vallJt.> I IEB :: IE dt vdlue 2 d)
txa~e

. 2N4t~lJ4 The two bias poi~ts'produced the following data: Bias Point One l[Bl = 3 mA
V

~
. 1

"

EBI -= 1.85 " 10 V V BB IB2 = 8 mA

."

'J

j
l

V jf

I :: fb.8 2n (

3 m" . 2.9 )( 10. 11

A)=
106
{l

0.689 V

RBI =

1. 85 V - O. 689 V

3 mA

8 mA

::

. V-46

'.

'-

! ;

BidS Point ---_.

I[BI -. 5 mA

T~o

\\Sl ::. i. 15 V
V BB :: 10 V

If!

. 9.8 mA

\ 11

' ( _----<::n ~ mA ~ ) 2.9 X IllA

:.C

().

108 II

t"

!i 1
- ,I }

llt,t in; t i till

'l I ; ~
b)

.lI' t'ntp

i I'i ca Ily dl'tt:>"m i Ilt'd

tOl'

(Ofl" t.lllt.

.~~ i'i l' ~~~.:.~~~l.LJ~ A typiC<l.1 value

1[1 ~-- I mAo

d)

[xdmp'e_~

2N4894
pre~ious

1[ = J

~A,

Choosinq the .I ll can be found as:

result of RBI = 106 U at

i
:

V-1!' . .'.'

IEl

[(0.82)(6.~8
, -5

.3 mA x 10 3

n)/(1060)J1/0.8

IEl : 2.21 x 10
7)

amperes

a) De fill it i on a is the value of the tOn5tant relating the current generator IB to ~E' .. b) Typical Value A typical ,value for (J is O.l. . c) Measurement Tht! value for a is determined fro... IE' IB2,R B1 , "nd RB2 at a bias point in the saturat.ion rpgion. a can be fvund as follows:

At V BB

= VK'
r.Bi

= (1.- ~VK),RBBV~
d)

Example - 2N4894 ~Us,i"g the parameters obtained at "Bias ,Point One," a can be calculatedas: 1 [ 10 V - ( 3 mA + 8 mA) '106 0] a=~1 ,811A. - (1 - 0.82)(6.58 x10 3 0) . a= 0.18

,
~-4a

, " - _........__..-"I di

i ;.

. "

____

..

. v,.,"""".....

" .
~,,""""\

~,,_

....

,_,'..,.~

... _._"' ....... . __ ...

~

A' -I

KO

i1
eoQuation.

Oetinition kO is the constant of the diffusion capacitance

T~~ical

Value A typiral valur KO is 1x 10 3 pFlmA. , c) :-4easurement KO is detel'lltined from storage time l1easurements f~r'the emitter b3se one diode. Base two is left oppn. A aiscussion of the details of this measure~nt can be found in chaptp.r II. d) [xamp'le - 2N4894 Meas~rement of the diffusioncaJ,lacitance constant was oltalned fro. the rhotograph shown in figure V-25 which shows the switching transient 6f the diode. The oscilloscope voltage ,is obt~ined by lIonitoring the diode current 'through a lK resistor. From the photograph:

b)

0:

ts
~F

= 500 ns = 4 IlIA
2n (1 4 IllA/l IlIA)'

IR =,1 IlIA

1 ,F --rn

soo

I1S

F = 5. 12 ~ lOS Hz
KO , KO

, 26.8 '271 (5.12 x 105 Hz)

= S. 33
9)

x~o-~ farad'slallp,

~~
a) Oefinit ion RC is the ellitte~ base one diode
1eaka~e

resis-

tanCQ.

J ..

V-49
','

b) c)

~ical

Value A typical value for RC is 10 kilohms. Measurement RC IIIay be obtained l'y applying anverse bias to

th~ emitter base one dioJ~ with the base two lead opP~ and measuring the
current.

d)

Example -'2N4894 'The revel's~ leakage cut'rent of the emi tter base

ope diode wa~ found to be 0.68 nA at a reverSf bias of 25 volts.

3.

Radiation fffec~s d. Photocurrent ~ffects The chara(teristics of the unijunctiQn transistor are Ioni,ing radiThe

critically dependt'nt l?n t~e illtprLdst! reshtance terms. ation will Increa5e the number

of

charge carriers in the base ,-egion

inrredsing the conductiv'ty of ~~is high resistance ~aterial.

,decreJse, in interb~se resisti~ily may ~e5ult in sudden switching. This eH,ct ~an be modeled by VdryinQ the intf"rbase resistivity terms based on ",easurelftf'.'ts. b. Neutr~n Effects Ag~in. the (haracterht.ic~ of the U.1T are I inked, to the bfhavior of the interbase resistance. the rf"sistivity :>f thes, rpgions. Neutron irradiation will increas~ High resistivity semlconc!uctor material

is ,specially sllc:ceptlble t" this effect, The reduct'ion in ",inority ,carrie!" I Hetime will affect the conductivity IIIOdulation process.

Th~ illjected holes, which low@" the

, I,
)

V-.51

"

resistivity of the intel-base elt"~ent will disappi>ar fast~r. An innease in e!nittH current will b@ "equired to pI'oduce an equivalent change in thp resistivity of the i~terbase elrment. The circuit operatioll of the UJT dt'pends on lhe \Iall~~< voltage and firinq voltage. Neutl-on irradiatloll will Ipa~e the fil-ing volta.;le unctffect'd, but wi,ll increase the vdlley volt.lq@. Failure occurs when the valley vllltage is a~out equal, to the firing voltage. When tttis ~oltage, equality occurs, the usefulness ~r the device is lost~ The valley voltage has be.:>n seen to tie a dil'ect functIon of fl,uenLe level through eJ(pfuL-:.~nts.' Fai lurl? l~sually occurs at a f1uence lev l 1 between
l 10 12 n/l~ 2 an~ 10''3 n;c~,

4.

to~puter EJ(a~pl!

The 2N4894 ~odel w~s verified by placing lhe UJT mod~l within a rela'lt;on oscillator circuit. ,The test circuit used to test theUJf oscill~tor is shown in figure V-l6.

R~'

"
C1

...

Rl
1 ,

.'
Figure V-27
.~

input to SCEPTRE. The response of the si~ulated oscilld~or is s~own in fi~urp V-l8. A verifyiny feature of , this lun is the voltage at which the UJT triggers. [a in ~he test cir(uit was set to 10 voits. The 1\11' ~~ould tri~lger at roughly t~e intrins.ic
rppre~ents t~e

'

r.~~

,,'

" I
'~ 'I
'..'

t. P T

'4f. f.)~1(

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~/1~

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FONCE

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roc ~.~
lO.;I.~1.

1?/14111

:o~ A LISTING Uf ~iE~ Flllu~tS UNllUE '0 filS ~U~PL' A CA~D C0'4f'1'41~6 f~t .~~G "DO:U.tif"

)F

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Vl~~10~ OF SCEP1~t A~ r~l FI~Sf eA~O

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,<.

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~

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. "",,!'4C' I o... c; JIIA.H.C.O, z IAoH":' )11 ~'I A ..... e .D.t .f .l-. J ...... :.II:r

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.

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wCI.~~I'Jl'I.PLOf

Jf 'I'PLO' Ivell ~ J'4 ("0'' fll', .. .., . ... T)II 'I Wt :r .,. ~ -.'
~ ~)

Fi~ure

V-27,' UJT Test

. V:'S3

Ci~c~it
;

. '.

.. ' 'd' '; ,'

,. .

._

__

....

....

.....

...

0. ...

.....

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V-54

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,.44

+4+;' g

<-~ ~~,~~:",,", ;;~,~ .......~.,'r~"'4-'J";'~I"'"'-''''''-~ ......'"r~r;>",:''.~l'.,.......~'" """"""-'-_"<'>'''"~~'''r~'-'''''"'''''~''':.'""':--:-t~~~'-, ..1'''''' "I''' ... '.,...,..':~ .. ~. "~'',~:
"j , . '- ~ -." ,-

stanJoff ratio times EB. Since the intrinsic st~ndoff ratio for the 2N4H9~ was determined experimental1:: as 0.82. the. UJT should switch at 8.2 vo1t~, The model 2N4894 ' can be oLserved to switch at 8.6 volts. The freq~Je'~cy C' oscil1ations are determined by the extt:rna1 circuitry and cannoL be used as a verifying test.
,

c.

SC~

MODELING Introduction -----

1.

The silicon controlled rectifier is a fovr layer (P~N-P-N) switch. The standard model of the SCR is the two transistor model illustrated in figure V-29.

4 ANODE
3 ANODE

4 ANODE

Gft.TE
3 ANODE
~;'TE

CATHODE GATE 2

1 CATHODE

'2CATHODE , GATE CATHODE

F,igure

V-29.

Two Transistor Equivalent Model of the Thyrist0r

The anode gate, is generally not accessible to terminal measurements. greatly complicating ,the mode,ling task. Simplifications, t~ere-, fore, may, he required. Switching action occurs when the sum of the alphas (~r the product of the lJ~tas) of the transistors exceeds unity. The alphas of each transistor are fun~tions of anode current. At some value of anode current the sum of the two alphas will be uni t.y and the SCR wi 11 sW'i tch from the blocking, state to the on or conducting state. The switching is , , the result of regenerative feedba.:k between the" two transistors. Figure V-,3Q illustrates the characteristics of an SCR.'

v-ss
'1---

-,~'

/fOLDING
CUr~RNT

110 1 DINfi VOLTAfi[

t:REAKOVER VOLTACif

Figure'V-30.

SCR Charactrristics

. I

,. u

. Figure V-31.

SCR Model

V-56
,

".

','

",

"

lAot~ I{J'fIi:t.",

As with the UJT ,. two .lldeHhgapproaches exist, the equivalent circuit and a hybrid circuit--analytical function circuit. A third approach, which ~ill not be discussed, treats the SCR as a'logic el~~ent in one of two possible states. To model the variable alpha in the equivalent circuit, a shunt diode is inchJded as illustrated by f{gure V-31. Rl represents the gate resistance and RlC l determines turn-on delay time. R3 is the anode to cathode leakage resistance. R Z is the series resistance of the conducting state. The cun5tants of the shunt diode can be found by realizing that , , the ftipde behaves in an identical manner to the shunt diode discussed in chapter lII.B.4 which models low current beta falloff. An eqlJiv~lent circuit model was developed in chapter VII.B.! as an example. The gain of 'transistor 1 was chosen as unity. The gain of transistor 2 was chosen as 100. The parameters 0\ the shunt diode were chosen such that at the anode trigger current of 2 microamperes, the low current gain of transi!.tor Z was also unity. Thus, at an anode ,curt~ent of 2 micr03mpeY':es, th~ Sl'm of th~ 2 alphas reaches unity and switching wi 11 occur. ' The equivalen~ circuit of the SCR has the' chief limitation of being unable to accurately model breakover. Breakover occurs due to leakage" avalanche ~ultiplicatio~, and ~ase width modulation effects that occur when the revers~ bi~sed P-N junction of the SCR is subje~tedto furthe'r rev@rse bias. ,B,reakover is illustrated in figure V-3Z." If ~igher' sirilul.1tion accuracy is desired, the describing equations for the SCR may be implemented through the hybrid approach. Such a model is discu~s~d in more detail in the following section.

I ,

V-57
': '.'"';-

-- ._-----...

.~:.

'.<,.'

'",

.1

Figur.e V-32. 2.

Illustration of Breakover

SCR Model (Hybrid Approach) . a. Description

The SCR model presented is a general purpose model de~eloppd frorr. the equations which describe thyristor behavior lip to tur'n"'on. b. Advantages
T~le SCR mode 1 def i nes anode current as a funct i ofl of gate curr~nt in the "off" legion. Th~ breakover voltage is si~ulated as a

function of gJte current in the "off" regien. c. Cautions The general srR model o~ly simulates device behavior to the extent of turn on. Many simp~ifications are made in the ~arameteri lation proces~. Implementation is difficult relative to the simpler models. d. Characteristics The genera,l SCR model is illustrated in figure V-33.

,"

V-58
_.-

" - - - --~-'.~.------'----

. . I, !. . .

.~

.,-

Figure V-33.

SCR Model

'"\

The equation describiny the ofr charact~risticof a thyristor is:

IA -

112 19 - (u
f (I )

+021

ul

-:

=f

(I ) A

IB is a voltage dependent curr~nt source whose function ,is to model the breako':er condition illustrated in fig~re V-32. IB would be more accurately pl~ced in paral tel with el~ment IC since IB represents.the leakage across junction IC" IB was placed at its present position to allow ease of parameterization .

. e.

Definin~Eguattons

,
I,

.lj

I K :: lSI'. le)(p (OK Y ) K

~M ::

-II

(I A) IK :: f(~)

IN :: , III (I A) IA

= f(~).

;'

f.

~ameteriz~tion

IS :: lhe current necessary to in~reJse the gate current to the trigger current when a breakdown c' ldition is reached C A ~ application dependent capacitance C c :: application aependent capacitance C K :: application dependent capaci'tance 1)

Determination of III (I ), Il (I ) A Z A The characteristic of a 2N5061 5CR was ~btained through application of the test circuit of fiyure Y-34.

VOL mrHR

R nlAs
V S1AS

!
figurp Y-34.
Tes~

Set for SCR

"

V-60'

; j

j~j .

"

From the test circuit a set of anode Currents at various values of gate currents for low anode ~oltages was obtained. The anode voltage was then increased to record breako~er voltage. The results are listed in ta~le V-7. Alpha 1 was then chosen as O.S. Solution of the equation describing the off characteristic of a thyristor for u yields 2 the values shown in table V-S. A plot of IA and IG as a function of u 2 is given in figure V-3S. The valJe of gate current at which u equals 2 0.5 was chosen lS ~O microamperes. Subsequent romput~r simulat~ons established the exact gate trigger current as, 0.97 IJA. The experimental value of trig!]er current ",as about 1 IJA. The current generator T8 wa!= then described in a tabul~r fashion to supply current to the gate such that IG + IS = 0.97 IJA at the breakover voltage. Estimation of Other Parameters From the ilccessible gate-cathode junction. two I-V points were measured as:

2,

0.34 V 0.50 V

O. 1 IJA
1. 0 IJ.\

p' =!n

. (1 A )

'0.\ MA . = 14.4 o. 5 V - i:J4V --v. 1 uA .

S- ;p [( 1 )(0: 5VJ] -1
= 7.47
-10 a.peres x 10.

ForsimpHcity. it was assumed:

".

V-61
" _" J ;

.-"

"',

.TABLE "-7. IA
2 3 4 5 6
7
~A

M[AS~REO

SCR PARAMETERS

lr. :.J

"BO
45.0 Ii 2:3.0
19.0
14, J

0.41 fJA 0.52 0.60 0.66 O. 72 O. }4

' 1:J. 5
~,?

TABLE V-So

OE:.TfRio1INAT !O~
1Y2

OF IV;

IA
2
3
~A

0.415
0.423

4
5 6'
7

0.43!> 0.442 0.446 0.452

, I I

V-6~
J '

~6 ..:~

,~,._ ~

......... -:.;..."

.~

Figure V-35.
"

Plot of SCR
V-63 .

Hea~urements

"

. . t.

The junction capacitors WPI't' arbitrar'ily ;;et to 1 pF for

th~

desired

~pplication.

MJnufacturer sprcification iht'ets for the 2N~061 are included i~ tigure V-36. 3, Radiaticr Effect~ a, Photocurrpnt Eftt'(ts --' -'--'ThyristOl's art>' edrt'mi'I~1 suscPJ'tible to ionizinq radiatioll wh~n in the otf state. Innizinq doses on the order of 10 rads dt'livered in a ff:''11 micrcseconds Jre often sufficit'nt to switc~. the thyristol' to the .ln state, Tht"domin~nt photocurrt'nt qenerator will be the reverse~ bias~d junct ien between the anode qat~ ,anli the ::athode gate. The photocurrent may be represente~ by a current qt'oerator betweer the base . . of the t~i~ transistors in t~e equi~Jle~t model. Photocurrents produced in this rt'g;on will underg~ sO,me degl'et- of avaian~he II'ultiplication. l:he exact photocurrent rpquired to produce switching WIll be affect~d by bias, external circt1itry. ionizing radiation wavefor~.and dpvice par~rnt'tt'rs. The value of t~e photocurrent gen~rator aod the radiation leve's which produce switching a~e best determined by e.xperilltent, The device behavior ~nder irradiatio~ may be descrIbed by:
.

,.

where the a lphas are current dependent and I pp is the photocurrent pro-,. rluced across t~e reverse biased junction in the biased off state .

..)

2NS060 (SILICON)
thN

2NS064

o
PlASTIC SILICON CONTROlLED RECTiFIERS

.. s..o- G.- y' .... r _ _ ..

-.--.. -. . ... ........ _ _--PlASTIC THYRISTo..S

__ "VOl"
....... "1 . . .

_-. ..........

" ' - - - . . . . _ _ '" 10" _

.......

....... ....:- _ ................. _ _ _ _ "1(,....

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.

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.

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"Hgurf' Y-36~

2NS061 ftanufacturer Specification Sheets (ref. Y-3)

Y-65

.'

..

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...h

2N5060 ttwu 2N50e4 tconMuf1

.... ;. .-.. ...

ITC'

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figure V-36.

2f45061 "dnufdcturer Spe<;tffcatton Sheeb (Continued)

'

11

it

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. y'

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Figure V-3'i,

2N~061 r1anufactu.rer Sp~clflcath'n Sh~~ts (Continued)

V-67
. .j

;~.,' -, ,-'-...;.~~~.;.~I:..4Ft,~_.J

2NSOSO thru 2N5064 (contInued)

TYPICAl Ch~HACTERISTICS

II

-r---r
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'lCIl",-c-.., _ _

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..... 4lJ

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Figure V-36.

2r1S061 Manufacturer Specification, Sheet~ (Cor.cludpd)

V-68

.'1'

Neutron Effects Neutron damage will decrease the alphas of the model transistors. As a result. neutrons will make the thyristor har~er to switch to the on state. As a result of the decrease in alpha. the breako,ver vcltage will increase along with the holding current. and the saturation resistance. If the thyristor is not severely damaged. it will still show switching behavior. The dominant physical mechanism of damage in SCP's is the lowering of minority carrier lifetime. This effect. and other neut"on effects on t~e,behavior of ~rans~stors. is discussed in more detail in chapter III.B.7. Thyristors generally show switching behavior up to 10 12 2 n/cm . Care must be taken in the circuit design to supply the increased requirement for gate trigger current. 4. Computer Example The model for the 2N5061 was tested using SCEPTRE. SCEPTRE was chosen due to the h,igh fl~xibi lity requir~d by this thyristor model. This, model did prove to be somewhat unwieldy during veriflcation runs and c~rt3inly does not represent the easiest SCR model to use. The test circuit for 'the S~R mJdel is illystrated in figure V-J7. The gate is driven by a constant 0.72 WA and the anode to cathode ~olta~e is ramped to 20,V in 1 millisecond. ati obtdined for the 2N5n61 in~iclte that the'S~R should switch when the node to cathode Noltage reaches 10.5 v01ts. Th~ test ~ircuit. as input to S~EPT ~. is lllustrated in figure V-3B. 'The SCEPTRE o~tp\Jt of flgure V':3.9 prod ces a simulated breakover vOltage of 9:6 volts. D'. TRANSFORMER MODELING Introduction There are two methods by which tran former mode:s may be developed. (1) An equivalent circuit develop~d thr ugh physical reasoning.
1.

b.

:J

V-59
I,:

r-----------------1 ,

-~-------------------~

-. -,

r-

--------,
~---(0
r ,

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--9--(.-,
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-------+-t

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I I
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, '-;>

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U
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en c.:

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0

V-70
.. --:-.....;.- .....
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S C E PTA f 'I[T.)RII SJII.Ul*TJON PRO:O"'" 'I~ fORCE .rAPONS ~A~OA'TJWY - KAfi NM vE~SION COL ~.~ ~/1b
01/10/7ij
Ib.'l.J~.

~OA A LISTING 0' USE~ fEaTURES UNllU( TO T~IS Vf~SION OF SC[PT~l SUPPLY A C'AO CO ... UIIIINl> '''IE wOAD "I)OCU'4t.'IT" AS THE FIRST CAWO Gf THE INPUT TElT

::O_PUTEA

TI~E

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SETU~ PHaS~-

cga
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CIRCUit O[~CRI~TIO~ HEM[NTS CA.I-Z a l.t-11 JA.I-Z-0100 EQU'TIO~11"/t-l0.14.'1 ::c.1-)al.E-ll JC.3-1-0100f :QU'TI0~17 '~-10.1'.1
JM.l-l~QIIP?JKI

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EA~.O-.aT.SLl 2C"~fl

"BUS,l-lsl JCG.O-]sO.lZE-e. JO,I-OaO )E'INEO PARAMET~lS

~IO. ~laTABLE ~U .. CTION'i ~I

llJAI

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fAilLE I' , 0,0,7.~,1.lE-7,9.8,1.,)E-'~I).J'1.1~-'.IK.j'3.7E-1'18.1, ~f-"

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.,'
,'\
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Figure: V-J8. 'SCEPTRE Input for SCR Te4)t~

V .. 71 .

'

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An equivalent circuit based 'on the theory of magneti~ circuits. Method 1 yields the famil iar tex~.book models for transformers. These models consist of an ideal tra1sformer eleme~t and the associdted parasitics. Any reoal transfo,'mer may be modeled as an ideal transform~r' by inclusion of t:1P. proper' parasitic elements'. The ideal transformer requires the following assumptions: , (1) No Losses ,(2) Unity Coupl in~ (2) (3) Infinite Inductance of the Primary and Secondary Coils The relevant equations for the i,dea 1 transformer are: V =~ V P Ns s , Ns I = ff" Is p p

,
Zp

=(~)

2
Zs

Iniplementation of these equations requires knowledge of the drivi'ng point impeclal ..:e of the circuit. 'The circuit shown in fiqure V-40 may be transformed to the equivalent ci~cuit shown ~n figure V-4l.

,I p .
,
,

"

J I'

.
i

Figure , . V-40 .. Tran~former I~clusive Circuit

V-73
.: .:;

.. :\~'.'"

-,..-

"

.
.

,,

I'
: .. ,

---.<- '--- . - - - - . - . -.. '" ...- - .-. _-'"'_____ " _ c ....

--,.,~.,.

Figl,;rp V-41.

Transformed Circuit tor Anal}sis Thecon-

The transformer "dot" c"wention is also .important.

venti:," implies thdt a positiv~ voltage applied to the primary "d6tlf will induce a pos i t i ve vo 1tage at the secondary "dot". ,Any rp<! 1 trans former nay lle modeied as an ideal transformE'r if the proper 'parasitic are inclu~ed as part of the model. and placement of the.
para~itic elem~nts ~lements

Techniques fo~' determining the valuE's are discussed in

rl

erenee V-4. First, there

Difficulties are encountered when attE'mpting to place the "physical, reasoning" model in a computer simula,ted drcuit. arE' problems associated with impedance
transformation~

and reflections.

Second. ther(' are difficulties in deve!opillg a model if a' nonlinear, al..l i ve. or frequency dependent load f s be i ny d, i ven by the. trans former.
S~ch

pNblems, are not encountered if a "magnetic circuitll mouel

is applieC:." It is for this reason that the "magnetic' cit'cuitlt'lIOdel is deve loped in dp.ta iIi n ,the fo 11 owi ng sec,t ions. 2.
rransfo~mel" '~del
present~d

a.'

Description' The coupled coils model uses 1ependent voltage,

sources to model magnet-ic loupl ing effpct'r.. b. Advantages ,the modpl is a "drop-in" model ,requltlng no illlpedance or voltage transformations analysis' cod":;; It has
b~el1

applied in very simple network

V-74

-;

. } ,
J
\,
-::,'

c. this model. manner. d.

V-42.

Cautions Nonlinedr and spcond or1er efiects ar~ ~Jt intluded in The parasitic elements are modeled in a veri simplistic Characteri st ics The model fOt the coupled coils is

il~ustrated

in figllre

Figure V-4Z. e.

Equivalent Circuit for Coupled Coils

Defining, Equations
, MV LZ

Vl

='12
MV

Ll -r:z= . 1

f.

Parameter List M = Plutual inductance inductance 6r coil Ll = ind~ct~~ce of coil 2 L2 = 'v 1 = value of depende'nt vo 1tage source

",

V-7S'
'.'

:-----.-.

.,.,,,-----

V 2 VLI \ L2
l'

I r 2 C, C.,
o.

= = = = = = =

vdlue of dependent voltage source 2 the voltage acros:; l, the voltage acrf)s:. L2 the primary windi'ng resistance' the secondary ~inding resistance, the parasitic winding capacitance of the &:rima,'y the parasitic ~inding caracitance of th~ second, ary the interwin~ing capacitance L2

'

g.

Pa1ameterilation 1) L " a)

C = 3

DefiniUon L, amI L dre the small signal inductance values Z of th~ primary and secondary coils, respectively. b) !ypical Va:ue A llrge ral'ge of va lues fpr LI a!ld l2 are possible. Typical va:ues range fr~m' I microhenry to 100 henries.
c)
~1~,ts\lre~llt

L, can be measured by cl'nnecting an induGtance

bridqe across the p~imary winding and leaving the secondary winding ledds ~nconnected or opel. To 'avoid the effec~s of capacitive parasitics, the inductanre measure pnt sh~uld be made at the lowe~t frequency possible. Measurementi ;nadl~ 'n the low kil(lhertz'range ,lre generally adequate.' L is lII@asured in the same manner a~ ll', For the L2. 11M!3SUrement the primary w,i,nding leads a,'e I~ft open. d) Example -SlZX L,. the primary ,inductance. was deterntllted to be 1.06 ,~@nry on a 1 Hz .mpedanc! bridge. L", the sel"ndary induct~l"!ce. was found to be 1. 8 mHo .
Z

.
'

'

n
coils.

a')

Q!,tiAition M is t~e value of mutual inductance' for coupled

V-7o

~,

~---

b)

Typical Value M is defined as:

where K is the coupl ing coefficient and i.s unity for an ideally coupled circuit. M is therefore. a strong functiQn of coil inductance w~ich may vary widely. c) Measurement Two coupled coils are connected in series and their total inductanc~ is measured and recorded. This is done best at lower frequencies. The connections are ~eversed and the inductance ~f the two coils is again measured in series. The two measurements will produce a seties aiding indu~tance, La , and a series op~osing " inductance, L. The higher inductance o ' , of the two measurements is the series aiding value. The mutual inductance can now be calculated as:
, L - Lo

M=' a 4

d) measured as l140 mHo determined as:

Example- S12X Aidlng inductance of the S12X transfor~er was Opposing ind',ctance was measurpd at 980 mHo M was

.
"
t

1 i

'M - 1140 mH - 980 mH

-.

'4

M:= 0.04
3)

ilenri~s

:~
3)

primary and

sec~ndary

Definition r l and r 2 are the ohmic resistance values' of the winci~gs, respectively. r 1 and r 2 are ,actually

V-77
,., ,

'

Lj

due to such high frequency phenomenon as the skin effect. r l and r2 are distributed in II and l2" respectively. but are treated as single elements for this model. b) Typical Value

frequen~y ~ependent

r 1 and r 2 can range from a negligible value of resistance ta several 'kilohms. c) Measurement r l is m~asured by connecting a sensitive oh~eter .cross the prim.ry le.ds 'nd medsuring the ,'.sist.nce v.lue, '"2 is Measured in a similar manner across the secondary l~~ds .. d) Ex~mp!e - S~2X as 140 ohms. ohms. The resistance of the primary coil was measured The resi.;tance of t.hesecondary coil was found to beO.5d
4) ('I' C 2

a)

Definition

Cl and C 2 represent the interwinding capacitance within the primar:y and sec'Jndary cOils: C an~ C aroe actually distril 2 buted, but are assumed to be discrete, elements connect~Q acr~ss the primary and secondary inputs for this model. b) c) Typical Values

~l and C2 are typically several Measurement,

picofa~ads.

Measurement of Cl ar;d C i s diff~cu1t. One 2 procedure i~ to measure the capacitance of a winding with the other winding opr. at a frequency atwhic~ the inductive, impedance of the coil is much greater than the capac it ive impedance.. 'd) Example - M The interco'j 1 capacitance was ~easured acroo;s the prf .. ry at 1 MIIz 0" 6 pf" The c 'pac f t.nce acro,. the eco"d.ry was measured as 0.5 pF.

.--~

.'

. i

V-78

:.

.' 1

r"

C' 3
a) Definition C3 i.s a capacitance value ~hich represents the distri'll:!.ed capacitance between two closely wound coils. b) c) Typical Value The typical value
~l'asur\':1ent
t

~ C3 is several picofarads.

A'value for C3 Cdn be found by shorting t~e primary leads together' and tl)en ~hort iflg the secondary leads together. caracitanCf bridge can thE:o be used to determine the capdcitance the primary and seconda,yccils by con'lection across the primal'y and seconjary I pads. d) Examp,le - S12~

bet~een

The COII'~ 1 ing' capacitance' between the primary and secondary ~as measured at I MHz as 77 pf.

3.

High_~Order Jffl'cts

a.

Mu It ip I.e Port-1 rans fOI'mers

To model multiple-coupled co;ls, the m~tudl inductance between all the interacting roils must be rlefin~d. Consider the three port lI-ansformt.'r of f;qure V-4J. The relE-vant equation!; are: di l MIl Mil dt ,+ C- V + V13 + l2 2 3

'e l

= II ='r. I
MI'Z

r, i

e2

Vu + lZ

di

at

Z + M Z3 l - V13 + ;Zr Z 3

Therefore, coil IIIOdels hold for

c~ils

would be 1IIOrteled as

Z and l.

The

sho~" ~eneral

in:figure V-44.

Simi'iar

rlJle is that ,if there art' N

V:'79

. ~.;' :-.

,
'

.....

,-'

_.; --~

.-;

"

I.

-',.---

coupled coils, each coil will be morl~led as abov~ with (N-l) voltage' sources (one voltage Source for each of the ~ther N-1 coils).

I'

Figur~ V-43.

Three Port TransforMer

..

Ffgurf V-44.

Port Modfl

v-no

.i.)

b.

Saturation and ~ysteresis

Spec i ~ I and fa i r 1y i nvo lved subprograms may be req'll red to ItOdel nonlinear flux versus magnetic force characteristics. For sipgl,e windings,

l = N.~
where:

= =
l

magnetic flux as a function of I coil indi,;ct~nce current turns

= coil N = coil
I

To IIOdel the nonl inear _characteristic of a single inductor, a' plot, of flux as a funct ion of induc-tol' current is requil'f!od., Multiplying the derivativ~ by N yields the inductor value as a function of current. The d~/dI values Ift"y be expressed in a tabular manner or an~lytically. Two flux '1ersus current paths are now pc:ssible, a magnetiz~og path and a demagne" tizing path. The proble. becomes more complex when a transformer is considered. The 'value ~f each windi,lg inductance will be a function of the' winding current and a function of ev~ry other winding current. Fu,'ther infQrllation on the cO"'fluter-aided 'ftOdeling of nonlinear "agnetic,~ffects ;;aay be found in referent;~ V-5. 4.
Hyst~resis May be modeled in a similar Manner.

T~king the de:--ivative, ~f this plot yields d~/dl.

Mo~~D!!!!op.. nt From ~ata' Sheets

Useful IIOdels lIc1y be developed froll the manufacturer specification sheets. Unfortunately, the rtatasheets vary widply in the format and type of infonnation prese ted.

One widely-used format lists'the primary and secundar~ i~ped

ances, the lower 3 dB frequency of the trdnsfer functi~n, fl,'and the

VGl

J "

3 dB freQuency of th~ transfe, function, fHo The impedances are the rated source and load re~istances b~tween which the performance ra!.inys are de,ermifledo Reductions or incredc,es in the source or load .resi~tance would alter the frequency performance li~it~o The model parameters ca1 be determin~~ from these specifications a~:

~pper

\ L: GO = r--Z1
t

P
s

L2 fL =-

LL
. Gol S

2n~M

Un"er

impe~ance

matched conditions:
I

= L 2 4nfL

k=J-'(~)
~ = K~Ll
L2

The transformer transfer, characteristic is shown in ffgure V-45.

.- ..:... -

_I~-:'~'"

.'

-"c~

..__....__ .

.;0_..

1 i

;.,~

J- .

____

____________

_______.__

f (log)

rigure '1-45.

Transfoni".er Transler Characteristk'

tran~former

Similar relations exist for the

input impedance:

"~'

.;'

Under i rr,edallce .natched conditions:

'V-83,'

,.
_I~"';.,(

I ,

I'

k=F~
~t

= K~L-;r2
rhar'act~r'i5tic
is shown'in figure V-46.

Tne transfo"mer input impedance lin

,f !

(109 )

Zo

Figurp V-40.

Transforrr.e,,' Input Impedance Characteristic

5.

~'or. Eff~

iral'st'rmers are relatively resistant to radiation damage. Tt',lllsformers and r"lays require dosp'- of' over' 10 9 rads to produc" damage. is manifested as the ~xpansion of potting compounds. The

da~ag~

degr~datio~

of insulating material and

Ionizing,radiation does produc~ some transient leakage tI,rc.'Jgh insulators, but this et I,ect is gellerall.v of no imJ:...:rtance.

t~rollgh
6.

EMP'may be a a transfor:ner,

~erio~j

problem as overvoltage could be coupled Another po~sit.d1ity is 'ar'cint across, adjacent'

! , t ,

wires in the winding. The-lrcing oroblem may require the monitoring of ~oltages a(:oss the transformer.
~omputer Example

! 1

tt.riHi~

To verif~ the validity ~ f the Sl2X model, a'trdnsfer characwas obtainec' fr",m lhp SPICE code. This transfer fun~tion was

"hen, r:ompared to the act III I tran!ifer function which was determined from data obtained usin,., a ve~~l.; volt.meter.

V-34 "
,',
,

'.,' ~

...

"~:.-"~

.. ,........

-- ...

_,

......

_---

....

1, , / /./

The test circuit input to SPICE to det~rmine the trdnsfer function to ~he transformer is illustrated in, fiqure Y-47. The SPICE listing shown in figure V-48 produces the'transfer ch~racteristic. The results of the simu1ation, toyet~er with the experim~nta1 data, are shown in figure Y-49. At the. normal opeorating freq'Jencies of the transformer, good simulation results have been obtained. The rnodr1 does ~redict the first re~onance point but simulation ability is lost at higher fr~quencies due to the simplified rnode1iny of th~ parasitic effect:.'
E.

REFERENCES

Y-l. Sflmiconductor Data Liorary, Motorola Semiconductor Products Inc., 1974. V-Z. Preferr~d SemicondlKtors and Components From Te~as Instruments, Texas ' :nstruments, 1968-1Y69 ~atalog. , -Y-3. Semicoilductor Data library. Motorola Semiconductor Products Inc . 1974~ V-4; Fitzget'a1d. A. E.. C. Kingsley, a'r,J K. Alexander. McGraw-Hill Book Company. 1971. ,Pectric Machhery.

V-5. Bewers. J. C. and S. R. Sedore. SCEPfRE: A COlnruter Pros ram for Circuit and System~ Analysis. Prentlce Hall. Eng ewood Cllffs, New Jersey, 1971. " . ' ..

L
;
-~ ~--.-':"'"Ii''';'": ~'.

.i

Y.-BS
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I
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r,'"
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QJ
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0

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I
I I'
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~

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(1'

.
t
,

I
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,"
CHAPTER VI SIMPLIFIED MODELING A. INTRODUCTION TO SIMPLIFIED MODELING

The analyst confronted with the problem of determini~g the vulnerabiHty of systems containing Ie's (integrated circuits) must decide just ' how to model the IC's. In some cases, he may be ablt! to test, the IC, find out where it fails, and set the system failure level eqLal to the lowest IC failure level. More often,' however, a clear definition of. IC failure may not be poss,ible since Ie's typically show gradual degradati'on due tu neu,tron or total dose environments. Simi larly, the short tran~ sients produced by y radiation mayor may not be important to system operat"ion. T~lJs, computer-aiderf circuit analysiS may be required to determine whether the Ie respU!lSI~ leade; to system failure. There are two possible approaches to IIOdeling Ie's. The first of these is detailed modeling of the elements that make up the IC. This' require~ knowledge of the actual structure of the Ie, including knowledge of the parasitic deyi~es. Such information is difficult to obtain since manufactl'rers are usual1y hot willing to release it, and direct measurement of individual' de\'iC"es on t . e Ir. is usually not possible. Furthertilc.,'e, such detailed Ie lIIO~els requir~ large amounts of core, storage anci computing time, limiting the number of Ie's. that can be treated in any one simulation, Detailed modeling of' IC's may be applicable to the study of Ie response. but ~s IIOt generally applicable to the study of system response.
'

The . ,second approach " , to the modeling of Ie's, simplified mo~eling~ is the ~ubject 'of thischolPter. In simpl Hied modeling, the response of the Ie as measured at the terainals is silllul~~_ed to provide the correct voltages and currents as a function of tiMe and stilllulus. This modeling is done withcut' regard to' the actual el~ctronic devices within the Ie which

1"

I ,
I

~I-l,

... ~.'v

t,

_". ,

produce tha: rpsponse, and simplifi~d mbdels freq~ent'y bea~ littl@ re~em blr1nce to the pllvsical proper'ties of such devices. really only a mathematical
d~scripticn

.r'

A simplified .nodel is

of the measured response of dn iC

to c~rtai,n st imul i. The analyst must remember that, whi le a detai led modp.l might'be uc;ed to predict IC rl'sponse, a simpl ified model can only simul"te Ie response.

If

s,implified model is applied to regions Let the analyst

bewa,'e~

~he~e

th@ silDuldtion is not

valid, the resulting predictions of system response can be grossly in error. The sophisti<;ation of the simplified n:odel mav be limited by Hie properties of the particular circuit analys;s code used. SCEPTRE a'~lows user-definE'd medels, parameters, equations, tables, and FORTRAN sut'-,'outines, and can thus imp1ement virtually any simplified model that can be des~ribed mathematic311y. 1:1 additi6n, SCEPTRE/LOGIC (to be discus~ed in section C) allows straigntforward simulation of complu logic circuits such as those found in LSI (large scale inteQrated) circuits. NET-2 has
ca~c:!~i1iti'es similar to those of SCEPTRE" and the systetft elements available in Release 9 prl'vide many of the capabiliti~s of SCEPTRE/LOtiIC.' Other codes provide less fl~xibility, but still incvrporat~ features such

as controlled current and voltage sources. piecewise linear approxJmation,' and other useful tools. Increased model sophistication comes at the expense of' increa~ed memory requirements, increased running tim!', and increased chances for

e,'ror.

The, analyst should always use the simplest model which will meet

the required needs; Nowever,a sophistif:ated model should not be used -----simply beca~se it is fa.i1iar o~ because the code allows it" nor should the analyst model detai 1s' of the response if those details wi,ll be by data uncertainties
swa~pp.d

This chapter cannot be the detinitive work on si~lified modeling, 'and the analyst is referred 'to thE' many references (see referencs VI-l throughVI-6) on the subject for greater detai). It is the goal 'of this

..

'

chapter to introduce the analyst-to the concept and philoso~hy of simplified modelhg and to illustrate-it:. implementation with concrete examples. - It is hoped this will !r~gyer a ~park of invent{ve~ess within th~ redder , which will er.able si~plified modeling techniques to be applied to unique prcblems. Since tile requirements of simplified modeling of linear' and digital -il'tegrated circuits differ, they are discl.l-sedseparately. -, 74l0C operat~onal ampl ifie~. In !'ection B, linear circuits are discusseQ and illu:;trated through dctualmodeling of a In section C. simpl Hied model 1.19 of digital .hchniques for modeling input and integrated circuits is discussed:

output characteristi.:s are pr'esented along with techniques for modelil:g

lo~ic circuit response either throu9~ subroutines or through the use of SCEPTR/lOGIC or NE~-'2 system elements. [xamples are presented t.J illustrate the concept~ inv9:ve~.

B.

SIMPUF lED MODELING OF LIii[AR CIRCUITS AND SYS TtMS

..

1.

Introduction

T~e comple~ity involveo in modeling large linear' cir-cuits generally requires techniques of simpHfied modeling. The techn~que of simpt'ifi,ed modelin~ treats the comillex cir'cuil like a blolCk box with only the
terminal beh,w'io" considered important. - The simulation accur-1cy of

'a

si'mplified model, can be impr'ovpd to

any degree of accuracy required', but only at' the 'expense of model c.>mplex-

it~.

Only the tircuit characterjstics required for the currect solutionSO,me, features

of the problem need be inc1u;led in a simpl Hied m_odel.

' t ' .

which might be considered for inclusion into a simplified model are: (I) The ,voltage glin, current ga~n, or other ideal function ~f the circuit. The frequency and transient,re~ponse.

_ (2) The, inplJt I'lOd output ililped.lnce.

(3)

, VI.,3

. . ......
"

(4) (~)

The larQe s~gnal characteristics. The radiation res~ons~.

Only the ~articu!ar fe'itures 'needed s~ouJd be included. Thesf> featur",s are discusseu in a mod'Jlar rashhlll to faci I itate inClusion of l"lnly necessary I~atures. of simpl Hied m, del ing 'Jf a 741DC oper'atiollcd ampl ifier' is prese'ltt?d h'!!'re t'J ,help i llu~trate thE" concepts., This mJd~lis quite sopt-istic.lted ar.d is, used in ~"a!nple .J of Lha~t.er VII. Howe'JCT', a ~uch simpler mod~l of a 741 15 used in pxample 1 of ch~pter VII where a
An

~,ample

ful Iv detai It'd mOllel is not n~eded. T~ese l <amples Qlustrc1te the range of simplific~tio~s in the mOdel whi(h might be used und@r dIffering cir~ CURiS t Jnc ~s.

Th~ techniques illustrat~d here may be applied to linpar cuits oth~r than operational amplifi~rs.
2. MOde:ing rreguency Characteristics

~ir

of the more 1i ff i cui t teatuy'es to ; ncorporate into, a moJe I i!. the frequE'ncy response of the (i rcu'it. One method of "ppy'oachi r.q til, s ' ~roblem is to treat thE' ci~cuit as a ser:es of interconn~cted functional stages. Each stage can th~n model a particular r:haracteristic. For example, an a~'iti.r has the frequency charlcteristic of figure VI-I.

O.l~

211 dll(O! ':A[l(

.u

"

,-

'--~, .;;-;.:-:.,:- -

"'\

~p(llr;> A~O

P(lH 3

:1 RO ,

"

fl

'3
lOG FR[QU(N(t', (If.)

figure ~I-l.

Frequency Characteristic

VI-4

j,
'f,J
'!'

,',

, . ". '~'''',",' -...,.,. _J.....,..:~;.i , "

The frequency characteri'stic of figure VI-I may be mlldeled by application of the two frequency shaping ~etwork3 shown

.n figure

VI-2.

NETWORK A . RA
0

NETWORK B RA --I'N

,.

.".,."

lA

RA C A

I
~

C A'
0

I T

C A RB
0

18 " R8 C A

I
~

K :: RA/(R A+ 'RB' SLOPE 20 dB/OECADE

~
I

lIlA
Figure VI-2'.

Kh a
I

:,
I

SLOPE

20 dB/DECADE

1/18

Frequency 'Network!> hoose RA of network B to 'be any

To mod~l pole 1 and 7.ero 1, value.,C A is solved froll:

1.
. . R ' is now found as: B

t
1. I

'2n11fB CA'

ii

"

1-5
.
,.
."

.............. ,~-.. ... -,--~~-------

- ,.

fhe double p01e at f3 can De mOdelea by app!icatioll of .1etwuJ'i(, A.

f3 =

2n~zY-

To implLmpnt the frequency shapinJ networks ,in the ampl1ffe r model, it must ~e remembered t~at these networks cannot be loaded or th~ir trJnsfer ch~racterist~~s will be altered, and network A ~u;t be incluJea t'~ice to sir:ll!late th~ rioub'e pole, t freqlJenc 1 , . i..~end~"t 3 source may be used to conv,~n;t:ntly hpl,!TIt,,~ 1:'3(1; t'. ~er nety.,;r"~ ~_ ~, separate stage to avoid dny coupling prob:f'fTl". 'r~ d ;,tilr;ed net\-, ",' illustrated in figure VI-3. 3. Example of Simrl~fieJ Modeling
S;~p:ified modeling is best explaineJ throuqh the use of a~ example. It is desired to g"'lerate a simIJ1 i (ied mode~ of a pA7.t1!JC l!p .:.Imp (opera~ional i"""plifier). Tr,e following characteristics were chosen as being critical for ~bt~ining the desi~ed simulJtion results: tl) Offset Voltage

(2)' (3) (4) (5) (5) (7) (8) . (9) (10)

(11)

Open Loop ~din 3S a Function of Frequency CMRR (cJm~on mode ~eje~tion ratio) P(~R (p~wer supply rejectio" ratio) Input Bia~ Current Offset Current Supoly Curre~t (no 1uad) Input Capacitance Output ResistanGe Output Voltage S~ing, Slew Rate RJdiation Eff@cts a. lJefinitio'ls
i)

(12)

Offsrt Voitag! Offset 'volt~ge is defined ~s the differenti~l input

volta~? r~quired to obtain zero volts at the amplifier output ..

VI-6

"

":'

"

. '.'

\
~~'''~'''''''~'''''''' ____-'~'''!''t'~'''''_'~-E-!11 "~ .. " "'.;ra"',~"~-~,-.-""".",,-:~ ~ ".~

..

.. :: ...

,-

'"

-r
:,
;,1
~

ZE'; ( 1Ah' 2)
f f

POLE 1 Ar,Q

'.

,.

:.(I".. :;L E., FOL E

<
I

....,

'I

/ \
I'j

. --~\
EHI

I
'to

;,'"; f3

,,

'J R I '4

T':

1\
T)

"
(

)" '2

\
)

~
+

'/3

~/

"'3

r
t

1 i
1

.j

Figure VI-3.

Example A;,:plifie:r \"iith Frequer..:y Response lletNork

//
./

2)

~~oop Gai:l

Op amp gdin is uefined as the change in output voltagt> divided by the chilnge in the differ-ential voltu~lP at the input terminals for an amplifier with no external f~eJback applied. 3) Common MOde Rejection Ratio CMRR is it measure of the ability of an op amp to ignore changes in the common mode voltage input. CMRR is obtained by dividing the change in conllllun mO,de voltage by the c/:lange in differt'ntial input voltage required to hold the op amp output voltage const~nt. 4) Power Supply Rejectil'n Rat~Q , PSRR is a me.:tsur'e of the ab; 1; ty of the 'op amp to ignorl' chan~es in the pow.,' supply vohages. PS~R is obtained by dividing the ctlange in power ~;.pp ly vo 1tage l\y the change in input voltage requi red to hold the out~ut~oltage const~nt. 5) Input Bias Current

!n~~~ ~ias current is that cur~ent flowing inte either the inver'ting IJr noninverting input terminals. ,';) Q.:~t Curl ent
input bias currents. 7) The offset current Supply Current

is

the differpnce betw~en the two

... ,

\,

Supply ~urrpnt i~ that current in the tV or -V supply terminals of the op amp. 8) " Output Voltag~ Swing The output voltage swing is the maxim,. amount that the output.: voltagt' may change for a given supply voltage. .. b. Parameterizat ion of~lDC Operational Ampli.!.i.!!' In the following parameterization examples ,the measurements 'have beentaken using a Tektronix 577 curve trace.- with a'l78 linear cir-uit tester option. ihis measure~ent tool provides a great deal more information about op amp performance than the usual linear :ircuit tests.
r

VI,-8
,", ,
--~ - ''--~. --.,..~

' l
.
"

However, acceptable parameterization information can be obtained from other linear inte~rated circuit testers or from custom te~t apparatus such as described in app~ndix 3 of reference VI-7. 1) Offset Voltage' a) ~Medsllrement Offset voltage was measured by use of the Tektronix 577-178 r.urve ll'dce,', The displi\y used tn determine offset voltaye is illusLt'ated in figure VI-4, The dsplay shows th .. amplifier input voltage on the verti~al axis,and the output voltage on the ~orizontal axis. The' offset voltage (3 mV) 'is the input voltage rpquired to force the output voltage,to O. From Data Sheets The ma,nufacturer specification sheets (figure ,VI-5) 1ist a typical ir.put offset voltage of 2 m,V and a maximum input offs,et voltage of,5 mV. 2) Open LO,liP Ga i n a) By Measurement The photograph shown,in figure VI-6 depicts the gain of the 741 op amp. The rlisplay shows the amplifier input voltage on the vertical axis and the ~utput voltage on the horizontal axis with ,)ffset voltage nulled. The amplifiers' voltage gain can be seen to be fairly linelr and have a val~e oi about: , 14 ~ BQiiV, b)

5 or 105 dB 1.75 x 10' b)

From Data Sheets The m~nufacturer specification sheets (figure VI-5) ,list the typical largt" signal vol,tage gain as 200,000 and the mini~um large signal vqltage gain as 20,000: A very importal.t gain parameter is the open loop gain as a function ~f frequency. This is a difficult parameter to measure , b~t is ,available in the'data sheets (figure VI-5) in graphical form. The

VI.9.

,'.'

;.

VLRT.

:1

In\' l

,(

i \.'

fH)!';:
f; \ '''iv

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..

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~A741 FREQUENCYCOMPENSATED OPE~ATluNAL AMPLIFIER

FAIRCHILD LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

GIN.RAl D(sc ..,pnON

rnnt'.,cl ..t U\l'nq F.lfl'h,lrl ftl,.n. .....,." ....... ~hc."oni HIGh ronlfn(ll" rnc:wt. veil..., , . , .
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NO ,.IIEQUINCY COW=NSAfiON IIIQUIIIEO SHOll' CIIICUIT ~IIOTFCTION

...... 01 .. NO OlffflllNTI .. L VOL '''PI II .. NGIS LOW ~Wf II CONS~ "ON NO L.. 'C. ~ L.. IIGI

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...... ~J' t>. . ......~ .. ," - ", .... :,

OIlOlll'I.. ,.OIlM.. "ON
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i 1 .;

7AIC

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Figure VI-5~
I
1

M~nufacturer

Spe.cification

S~eets

(ref. VI-8)

V1-11

.-

~-.

I I

--------------_ ..- ------------------- ------------.,

741C
ILiCTlIICAl CH..... "-CTI ...~TlCI 'liS - '~~ II. """"ME TERS 1_
Inpvt Off .. , \'olt..,.
~~.,,-,---

fAIRCHILD LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS ,.A7.'

r" .I!'C un_ 0'..,. ...... -~~.-----_r_---....,r_---_r--o.:ONOITlONS I MIN 'VI'. 20 10

MAli

do',n"",,,,'

8_0 10 RS"G_._" _________________-r________~----~_4~-~ ~___+--~__

ilIl

Input .... CUI,.nt

~~'~. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __+-

________________

+ ___ 0_'_-+___ ._+-___-+_-:-;_ 10

I.

!:>OIl

'.,PUt

Cact.K".nc.

---- vun ----....

Input Off .. ,

T"- fOUOWf"l ..-:-tftutlOM"""'"

'01' O' C ..... T ...... 10' C

--

-~------.._----_r_--~r__--..,---

- - - -----.-'---'---t-1.... ' .... Current

'."..'0'.... Cu:.'_'""cc.:.'_ _ _ _ _+ ________ .,.-_______+-____ -t-----+-7:-:----'I---Ou'~,

L.;"S-';;,-v-';;;",li;';;-

v",,_

s_...

---+-~~-;I

"l ] OIl, lIoor -'0 V

.!.-......;.:...c-----+-=:. . .:.:.oo--t----c-::-+-----1I--:-:--

".000

TYl'leAL PER'ORMANCE eU"\"U 'OR 74,e

OUTPU' VOl'AOI ..... *1 AI A 'UHCTlOft C, lUt'f'\y VOl'AO'

1:-'
_UI
, ... , ..,. .... DI~.

:, _____ . L~~. . ~ .
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" ....... , . . . . ~t

. . . . . . . . .tMeft ...........

",W'
"

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t,,'.... h' 'o'c A...... 'oc .~, ..... Uf'leeft, . . . l ....,C._ .......... c.... J~J' ..c._ 'c fer ....... ,"1 DIP.,.d , IftW;"c fer ... , I.~ woo"............ -' ts V ..........u .. 1ft , " " " " , '''OU' weI'..,. ......... , ........... " "'"
......... t . . . . ." " .......... ~"

" . ". . . . . . . . , , . C .... ~...It _

,.

C...-bt.................

Figure VI-S.' Manufac"u"er Sp~ci f-ication Sheets {Conttnued >"

VI-12

"

_?f.o.IM.Ii......~+,;,.

}~"". "''''

..

,
,

~.' ~ ... ' ...

FAIRCHILD LINE~R INTEGRATED CIRCUITS jlA141

TYPICAL I'RFORMANCE CURVES FOR 741
'NPUT .. UIST ANCI AS A fUNCTlO ... Of A_,I ... T TlMPE .. ATU .. E

i i'
~

:JT'~~';;';'~":: ;:-1
t
t

.!.,.

"r .

.. 'r

'.!

'J' : : : . : . :: :' . ".

:~

"j
l'

INPUT OffSET ClI ...IUIT AS A fUNCTION Of .....,I ... T nWUIATu ..

r
1

, I

'I,

'.:

1.-. '. :

1, ....

..

I
i
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"i~t""1 ! . , , I ~.I . , . . , . : . \'

! o!

-1 'I . . . . . ..! . .
r;,:'..;--', ' '~ - ~
~.
,

POWE .. CONSUWTlOIil AS A fUNCTlO ... Of A_,I ... T nWIRATU .. '

f

'REOUENCY CHA .. ACTEnlSYICS AS A fUNeTlO ... OF A_'I"'T UMP .. ATU .. I

,~.:,~

'

I ' . ,

'.1

.. , .......

.
1

.,I
I

'

I.

:J
INPUT .. ESISTANCE AS A FUNCTION Of A_'INT n_llATU .. '
'\.:~

....
INI'UT Off SIT eu .... ' ... T . , A FUNCTlO ... O' A_,INT nMP .. ATU .. I wr I

I
1

TYPICAL I'R~ORMANCE CURVES FOR 741C

I..... UT liAS CU .... f ... T AS A fUNCT,O ... Of A_'I"'T nWRATU."

.1 \, .

, ',[,',
;::i
:,d

I
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~

!.I . . . . . . . ~ , '.' .., ' . . . , I" . i

-,;

..

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,.r. . .
'.

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:::: ./1

OUTPUT SHO .. T CI ..CUIT CU .... , ... , AI A fUNeT'O ... OF A_'I~IT nwt .. ATU .. '

q . . . . '. .
.. ..
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;.~
.. .. .
t '. ,

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'''IOUINCY CHA .. ACU .. ,STlCI AI A fUNCTIOOl OF A_'I"'T flMI'I .. AJU .. 1

iy": . ~":I I
I
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I I

Figure VI-5.

Manufacturer Spec1ficatior. Shp~ts (Continued)

"

FAIRCHILD LINEAR INTEGRATED GIRCUITS ,.Ale,

741
UEC "teAL CHA"ACTI"lSncs IllS' '15 II T,,' 2!i"C un_ ot~. ......poc.IoOd'
CO .... 0I110ll;5
InOw' Off.. , Volt..,.

MI ....

TYP.

MAX.

U ..ITS
mV

F4s .. 10 kll

'0
20
JO

SO
2",} 500

"A nA
Mi.!

20
.15

,.
15

of
",Ii

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I !l

T..... folto.nfI'lPktfIQI'ont~"
Inoui Oftwl Volt. .

fOt -

S~" C ... TA " .'15 C

"s'

10 kll

Inov,

Ofttoft

c...,."'"

~~=-~-~~----~-------------+---------!-----~~-+--.==~~~~~" M ~
T" -115 C" r". - ss C r" 115 C T" --SSC
200'

'0 70

-~--.-n j

6l!

'-

----'-l------=~-+--~~~~.,' ~OJ >-.. Os.

O.l
15

r,,"I15C r" ssc r". '115'C r" -ss'c

-- r-----.---' 10
45
iii)

253.1

1!i 100

"''' .mW

"'''

TY"CAL I'RFORMANtE CURVES FOR 7.1

ONN LOOP VOL T ACU QA'N AI A 'UtCTIOII Of' IUI'f'\ 'I' VCk TAO.
,

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(,1 ; .. t i r

:tl_ ....:_~_~----..-J _~ .: : . . ........... " . .

,

I ~ ~ ,~.1

..........

:.

..............

_______~_____________~_J
Figure VI-So
I

:anufacturer Speci fi ca t i on Sheets (ContInUed]

,---

VI-14

, I I
!

FAIRCHILD LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS "A741

-,- --, ---- --- '--'--- ,-' ------..--- .. -------. ----, ---' .. --...., - . - - - - - - - TY"CAlI'PFORMANCE CURVES cOR 741 AND 741C tC.,,,rdl
OPIN lOOP VOL TAOI OAIN AI A FUM:lION 0' '''EOUIIIICY ONN lOOP ,"All "I~ AI A 'UlIIClION Of .lItuUlIIICY

r-'------'~'

,l"' :;1 to; .. / ' I ::I/.. : ,c.

INPUT CUIIIIENT AI A flMCTlON 0' SUPPl Y VOL 'AGI

POWI" ~TtOIf AI A FUM:lION OF ~ Y VOL TAGE

~~.

:::;;~l
e' _

j::
.l

.' .. .
~..

i-I: :I .l.l . .. .,._!J ..

,H"'-~I
OUTPUT II(IIST ANet AI A fUfIIClION 0' lIaOUI IIICY

ST: !;::[71

--

0".'

INPU' IIUIUAIIICI ANO 'NPU' CAI'ACtTAlIIC1 AI A FUNCTION 0 IIIOUEIIICY

.'

! ..

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..

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!

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...

... ,.. .. . ~'''-~'''l

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i

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...
OU'''''' VOL' AGf SW.OOO , AI A fUfIIC I 'ON 0'
l~AO 1i1'~:'

!,
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ii

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t.. - .. H~'

-'1

l.~::::

:l::-:L:~j . . .;. - .

:::.: : :::: : :}j

."'-:1

OU,"'" VOLTAGI AS A FUIIICTION Of .lItOUEIIICY

- .. '.:

.~

-..

, . -.

;.

:.~-2t
,...
t

,
I
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...

u.. ....... ;
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+
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.'

AI A 'UlIICflON Of ""IQUINCY'

aa.
.. I
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...

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" ,of

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.,.

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j '" . . . _. ,_

i _~ .......

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l . . . .' . ' _

......

F1g~re Vl~5.

r:an'JfactuI"er Speci f1cation, Sheets (Continued.)

VI-15
.'

'.

rI I
i

,FAIRCHILD LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS ,.A741 -----_. -----.... nt.CAL APt'LiCATlOttS (Confdl

---------------

_ 1 ...noll"TOII

I I

l
,nT

I !
i

!:JU:.: I
....
.~.
~
",

. t~AA' . ...
. -.. -V
..
,

'...L.
~

{oN
0' . """

. ","" [):>----~~...,

Ir-'-:::-"-~--'I u L.I

I
I
(OU1

_ _ _ _ , _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . . . . : . - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . , _ ,_ _

.
t

'I~tt

1
o.

col, ..
IOUY ... ";rCt - ; ; -

MtCIM Ill" IlAn fOWl .........'1.

VOl'",

'"ltv. on .. 'l;'rt',,,,oo,'"
1"Pu,Off

a ..... to'
0_ .. '1;'

IOp~

c ..... .-., Ot.',

r
C

IIO'CM Pel nil UI_ 'HI ..... ,., AI"

--

.....---..

--.-----QYII","---IIOTCM .IIIOUIIICY ... .. .--_.UIICT;..-.._.IOIt ...-_---o;,.O"_-.. C .........

I
~
..
-

': : : .:. ! ......... .... . ., . ., . 1"

,

f';
.. j

..
r~---~-~

I
eo.

Figure VI-S.

llanufacturer Specf.fication Sheets (Continuerl)

.,

I
I. I
.I
f

VI-16
. .. tt_t_ _.....-.~w ii' - "~1'61' .fit'l'ru ......

iiI-- _.__

*...

__ ......

t .

...

t' be - t .......

t.

e-i,..-;;;;P

.----------_._-----_._----------------------.., c-. __
.IICTIOIII

FAIRCHILD LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS ~741

, .....lfn .'WOIIIII

, - . -.., WOIIIII
.II

t., .. -r .. :---~l .. 'r:-~~ ~

TIlT c.1tCU1T

... ''0 ' " ... 'UlllCT ION 01'

' OU.NCy

i ' .'.

t';'

'[. . . d' .~::..

"

l'

,...

.. - .....
,

~ ~

..

7--~

~--

. ':.

WL 'AOI OP'IIT NULL C'IIC"".

VOl. TAG. ~LOWI. L......ItGNAL ""LII .'IPOIIII

- ...

--..
UllIn...... WI. , _ 'OlL01III.

-._------_._-----

TYPICAL ."UCI.TIONS

..

;>.
... ,, ..... u
C'IO' ' . .

..
l

.; t ..!
1 I." 1

1>.
,.

....

..

't -----.-- ~?~~~:,:~.--..- --_____ i:__:I__ _

10

8W
'00 kHI
lOkH,
4OO~1I leO~1I

'01.

_._----_._-----

. "&-'--I~'H:o.''''''''._~ 10, :::.~II ...

1, " '~,..-:~.[>-,~ ..
'0 ~,

_.

~
,
"/

.,
".

..', -, "

~.

--4

"

.......

10 1 all

a"

'0 all 10 all "00

,-,
'OOaH, 'OaM,
It ....

lOW

'0 .. '

a" '"

'00 \I

,'"

' .. I

-- '-o,llau, I .... , , .. I,.. II, ,

loU~

",

...... ",.,.................

Figure VI-So r~nufatturer ~pecif1cd~ion Sheets (Conclud~d)

I'

i
I

.VI-17
.,-.. ,.".________
f

,i

ms

'"2",56 ?ltb )"

._~_ f

....

Information from this plot 'ls necessary to model the frequency characteri<.ticc; of the amplitler. 3)
~ommon

d~sir~d plot is "6penloop voltage g~in as fu~ction of frequency."

a)

Mode ~ejection Rdtio FrOM Measurement

lh~ tMRR can ~e det~rmi~ed from the curve tracer phllt(l9ra~'h shown in figure VI-7. The vel,tical axis di~plays the c.hange in input volta(j~ between the il1put tenr.inals. The hor-izJntal deflection is the common ..lode voltage. The ')utput of the op amp ,1 s he Id at zero volt~. The CMRR is' Hie change in r.Omnlvn mode voltage (horizontal) dividell by the ihan~e in input voltage (vertical). CMRR for this particular ~74t op amp can be seen to be about:
16 'v' 0.4 mV = 4

'

l.;

10 4 : 92 dE

b)

From Data Sheets

The manufacturer specification sheets shown in fiyure VI-5 yield a typical CMRR of 90 dB Jnd a min:mum CMRR 0; 70 dB. 4) Po~er Supply Rejection Ratio a) from Measurement Three naeasurements of PSRR may be made. PSRR can be measured from variations in the positive powe~ suppiy (+PSRR). for variati~ns in ~he negative pO"ler supJ,lly' (-PSRR), or forvariationc; in both power sUfoplys (PSRR). For all, PS'RR diq)lays. the horizontal deflec": tion is the power supply voltage. The vertic~l dlf1ectio,n is the chang", in the JP amp input voltage with the output held at zero. ,The displays for +PSRR.'-PSRR, and.!PSRR are given, in figur:es VI-S, VI-9, and VI-IO,' respectively; Since +PSRR represents the dOMinant PSRR it will b~ mddeled. PSRR is t'he change in po"(er supply voltage. (horizontal) divided b) the ch~nge in iriptit vol~age.

VI-19
..,
.

VERT:

0;2 mV/div
HOtHZ: 5 V/div

Figure '1I-7.

Detennination of CMRi{,

VERT:

o. T m~/di v
HORIZ:
5 "/d~v

+PSRR

.v l-?O
,'1.
1..........;~.IIib..,.,.
.~

'

.... -.~.~ ~,,--::~.~-;~-, ....

---

"' L'

~.

'

r
i

VfRT:
0.1 mV/div HORIZ: 5 V/div

f
/1
~:

Figure VI-~.

-PSRR

0.1 mV/div . HORIZ: 5 'I/div

VERT:

Figure VI-IO. .:!:PSRR

I

.. VI-21

---~,.-.

---

..-.~ ... ~,.~...

"

'~'.,.~~" ... -.~-~

+PSRk

= 0.3 10 mV V =
b)

3.33 x 10 4 ~ 90 dB

Frum Data Sheets

The manufacturer specification sheets (figure VI-5) 1ist typic.'ll PSRR ac;:
:~
a~;

jo ~V1V

3.33 x 10 4

and lhe maximum PSRR

150 1~V7V

6.67 x 10 3

5)

Input Currents a) From ~;e~$ul'ement

The T~ktronix 577-1/8 displays i-nplJt bias current of the op amp (vtrtical) as a function uf commOR mode vo)tage (horiz~ntaJ). Figure VI-ll yields the inpu~ current into the noninverting input a~d figure VI-12 yields the input current into,the inverting input. At zero input voitage. both input currents are about 17 nA. T~e slopes of the input current lines suggest a linear resistance of about:
,R 1N

15 V 8M

1.875 x

'lO~ ,ohms

,f

Offset current may be obtained from the photograph shown in figure V!-13 which disp,lays both input ~urrents on an expanded scale with no zero ref~rence voltage. The offset current is the vertical distance between the two traces or about 1.2 nA.

,j'
VI-22

"L~~~.s._\

VERT: 10 nA/diV BORIZ: 5 Vl'div

Figure VI-ll.

Input Current into Noninverting Input

VERT: , 10 nA/div HORIZ: 5 V/div

Input Current', of Invertfna - Inout

.. VI-23

vEIn:
2,nA/div

IfORI/: 5 V/div

Figure VI.., 13.

Measuring Offslt Currpnt (Inverting I~put

is Represented by UpPf'r Tr'itce)' .

--

,I

,.

"

From Data Sneets The manufacturer specification sheet5 (figure VIeS) list Input bias current3s having a typical value of 80 nA and a maximum valu'e of SOD nA. Input offset current has a typical value of 20 nA, and input resistance has a typical \o'alue of 2 megohms. 6) Supply Currents a) From Measurements Power ~upply current as a funr.ti~n power supply voltage for the + and - supply can be obtained from the photograph shown in figure VI-14. The trace suggests a resistance of

b)

~5 V r.SIiiA

= lx

104 ohms

Supply current as a function of output voltage is demonstrated in the photograph shown in figure VI-1S. Th~s characteristic and supply current as a function of load wer~ not ct.osen as aspects to be mOdeled. From Data Sheets The manufacturer specific,ation sheets (figure VIeS) list a typical supply current of 1.7 mAo 7) Input Capacit~ The manufacturer specification she'ets ,(figure VI-,S)
lis~ a typical input capac~tance of 1.4 pF.

b)

8)

Output Res i s tdnc~ ,

The manufacturer specification shpets (figure VIeS) 'list a typical ,output resistance of 75 ohllls. 9) Output Voltage ~wing ,a) From Measur~m .','t The output voltage limits for a supply voltage of t15 volts can be obtained frOIl! the gain display shown i~ figure VI-6., It can he seen frOll this photograph t~~t output voltagt' may s,wing froll! 14 volts

1 '

VI-2S

VERT:
0.5 rnA/r'iv

HORIZ:
5 Vidi v

Figure VI-14.

Power Supply Current as a Function of Supply Voltage

'1

VERT~

O.

m':"'<.fv

HORI :

~igure VI-l5~

Supply Current as

Function of

Outpu~

Voltage

Vi-26
) ~

'.*i"'_

. ..,

"T-" ......

,.1. _

--uk

to -12.5 volts. Therefore, it will be assumed that the Jutput voltage can swing to ~'ithin 1 volt of the + power supply and to within 2.5. volts of the - pOwer supply. b) From Data ~hpets An indication of how far voltage may swing forany supply voltage is given by the "output voltage swing as a function of supply, voltage" plot in the manufacturer specification sheets. This plot indicatp.s that the voltage swing is always about 4 volts less than the sum of the two power supply voltages. 10) Slew Rate Slew rate is give~ in figure VI-5 as 0.5 v91ts per ' . lIIicrosecond. Slew rate C1n ~e measured by setting up t~e op amp in an amplifier configura,tio'n, applying a large, fast rise pulse and measuring the re~ponse rate (in VJlts per microsecond) of t~e amplifier output using an oscilloscope. c. Develop~ent of Model of ~A741DC 1) I~clusion of Offset Voltage Offset voltage m~y b@ inclu~ed in the model by plac ing a voltage source in o~e of the input leads. The value of the voltage sOIJrce is e~ual to the offset voltage and its polarity should be such as to produce tt-c effects displayed in figure VI~4. The inclusion 'Of offset voltage is illustrated in. figure VI-16.

:)oo---......jlf t---[)~_-no
Figur~

VI-lb.

Inclusionof Offset Voltage

VI-Z7

",

2)

Inclusion , of dc Gain

dc open loop ga i n ca'l be .ilC 1uded as a ~o 1tage controlled voltage source as illustrated ill figur.? VI-17.

O-----..t:

'Ito--- - ,
V IN
\I

- O------___________~

'OUT

figure VI-,17. Ideal Gain, Characteristic 3) fregl:ency Response of Gain

!

The frequency shaping network can be developed from the plot of "open loop '.oltage gain as a function of frequency" in figure VI-5. from this plot it can be seen that a pole exists at abou't 3 Hz and another at about 1 MHz. This characteriStic can be simulated through a ~oubl~ application Of network A ot figure VI-Z. Then, To model the first pole at 3 Hz. chOose RA ~ SK.

3 Hz 1

Then.

To mOdel the 'seCond pole a~ )' MHz, choose RA

=5

kn.

V[-28

.i

stt

"

114Hz =

2n (5x 10 3 0) (C p )

C' A = 3.18 x lO-llfardds The composite frequency shaping network can nuw be included into the model, taking care not to load indiv~d'Jal stages as illustrated in figure VI-18.

Skn
+

1O.6uF

S (1. 75XlO ) ~Vo

Your,

Figure VI-18.
4)

Op Amp With Frequency Shaping Network

Conwnon Mode Pejection Ratio , CMRR can be modeled by modifying the offse~ u~itage source. The modification is such as to ~dd a voltage deper.dent voltage term to the source ""hich ~ill produce the results observed in figure . ,VI-7. Th. addit~onalterm wi)l be 0.4 mV for every 16 vc~ts applied to the noni ilvert i ng input: The input stage can now be represe,r,ted' as shown' in-figure VI-l9.

O~. ~----tl'r to-- - O~------------~

.,

Val

lmV -, (2.5 x 10- S )(V

IN

____________________
VI-19.

Fi~ure

Modeling CMRR

L__ , _
tg ntH
, r.l \

, VI-29

t"

ei

5)

Power Supply Rejection Ratio

P~RR may be modeled by adding a third term to the offset voltage source. Since +PSRR was determined to be the dominant component, a volt~~e increase of 0.3 mV for every 10 volts decrease in + power supply must be represented at the input as illustrated in figure VI-20.

Fi'gure VI-2 1'J.

6)

ffodeling PSRR

Input

~ias

Current '

The input bi~s currents may be represented by a constant current source Q of 17 nA in parallel with a resistor of value equal (' 1. 88 x 10' ohms. 1his is illustrated ;1 figure VI-21 .

o~--~~--

____'-__________.____-,______
17nA

1.88

l(

10 9.1

17nA

Figure VI-21.

Addition of Inp~t Bias Effects

VI-30

I..

. .
;.~,/o,a~"'dl~,;~..;.,.~,.._

_ ..... ' '\ .... #_ _ _ ...." .. :~. ~~: . ~ ..... ~..,..

het

; ci *:'t- . ; r_ _
~

Offset Current Offset current is 1.lOdeled by simply unbalancing the two cons hot current sources by the Il3gnitude of the offset currer-to This is achieved by increasing the value of the current generator associated with.the inverting input to 18.2 nA. 8) Supply Current Supply (urrent as a function of supply voltage may be .adeled by two shunt resistors of value 10 kilohms. Supply current as a function of outnut voltage will nJt be modeled. The power supply current , equivalent circuit is shown in figure VI-22.
,

7)

Figure Vl-2Z.
9) (IN' ROUT

Modeling

Pow~r

Supply Current
a~ross

The inputs to ground. 10)

in~ut

should ~~ placed the output lead.

the.

function to a voltage 1 volt les V-. This can cause COMputation aay be preferable. 11) Slew .!,!te Slew rate t~e 10.6 ~F frequency respon~e c .ay ~e achieved by converting.th

be limited through a logic~l a;1dZ.~ volts greater 'than A table or aflalytic function

~l

li.it ing the rahat which ~he .adel could charge. This charging resistor to a nonlinear

, VI,.31
.,
~""~~ ~"""'-~::~~-"-"--"'" -.~-_'" "

. I

..

....

.. ,~.:L ...

:-, ... ........

""'-"

-'--------~.
" ...... .., .....

".""-'-->-....4 ....... .:.

'...._ _

~.:'t'

r;...' __ ... ~

--'.

voltage dependent current source. Th;s current source will behave like a 5 kU resistor if output is not slew rate limited. If the output is slew rate limited, the current sou~ce w~ll saturate to a cons~ant value. The following rules determine if' the output. response is slew rate limitej:
(1)

If t~e differential input voltage times the gain-bandwidth product i~ less tha~ the slew rate th~ response is bandwidth limited.
If the differer.hal input voltage tillles the gain-bandw\~th

(2)

product is greater than the .sl~ rat~ the o~tput is slew ratelim;ted (~ee referen~e VI-9). gain times the
3-aB

The gain-bandwidth product is theproduet of the de bandwidth (in radians) of the a"''''Hfier. tor th~ 7410~:
x

GB

= (l~n)

105)(~

'Iz) (Zn}

3.3 x 106 radian,sls

The inp~~ step vol,tagc at the boundary between slew or network dOMinated response is:

v = .0.5 V. x
jJs

sec. 3.3 x 10 6 radians

O~

15Z V

The vol tage breakpoint' of, thenonl inear, current' source' is:
t (1.

75

x 105) (0. 15Z V)

2.66 'x 104 V

The saturated corrent valu~ of the ,depen~ent current source is:

(0.5. V) (10.6

1 JJS

~F)

5.3 allperes

T,hus the characteristiC

0'

the currtint source is shown ~:t figure VI-23.

VI-32 . ....', ..........'IiIZ.td.tfili'lIIjtliol.'_

i.

...... _ ....:......-~~ ..........

I
v

Fioure VI-23. 12)

Co:wer.iion of 5 kO Resistor to Include Slew Lillitin'g

Co.plete Electrical Hodel The ca.pleted electrical model of the illustrated in figure VI-24. 4. Computer F:xample

~A741DC

is

To demunstr~te the behavior of the MOdel ~A741DC, the martel was put throcgh two verifying tests. One test involved the op amp configured il' ~ unity-gain arrangellent with an inp~t voltage source which is overdriving the amplifie~ (overdriving would be nne possible ,EMP transient upset effect). The other test has a high frequency volt~ge source driving ,the op amp in an open ~ oop conf i gurat i on. The deCl i ne ' in ppen loop ga i, n was cOlipared to the llanufacturer sp~cification ,sheets. , SCEPTRE was used to'test the models.
'

Ihe first test cC:lsisted of .the cir.:uit shown in figure VI-2S. , The sec(l'1d ttst aryangMent is i,l1ustrahd in fjgure VI-Z6. For both tests. the output voltage of the op a~ wa, MOnitored as a function ~f tiN.
"

The SCEPT~E input listin~ (or test 1 is given in figure VI-27. The SCEPTRE output is. shown in figure VI-l8. A clipped sine wave is clearly: visible. ReMOving the voltage 1i~itillg subroutine in the MOdel

VI-33

~ ,."

3 ml (2.5 x 105)(V IN ) (.03 x 10- 3)(15 V _ ~+]

... 0

)-,

5k ..
0
0

75.,
~

1.4pf

..L

~-!!!/I\~ t

YOU;

:>

I '

-0--

tvl ~1rh~ r
' P
o
~

or>0

-.....
or>

0-

VI:
M

1
v~

.:

()/z

j --u
IF VOUT
j

I
I,'

< .... "'"

I

V(+) -IV

THErI V Olfi " V(+r - IV

.;;;.
o

V OUT ' V(-) + Z.5V THEN Vr.~T = ,V(.) + 2.5V

IF

'F. i 9ure VI-24.

Co~pleted Electrical :~d(

,.- i;J
I .

_pi;"','"

','

+15 V
~-.....L.-o

Vou t

-J5 V
500 Hz
~,

I-Figurp. VI-Z5. vA741 Test Circuit

+15 V 0.01. V @ 10 kHz -15 V

V out

. Figut e VI-26.

Test 2

"

. 1 i I

P JLW

. Qt

+-+,~_

Wi. AN ;;:q

~U8F.ROGRAM

fuNCTION FOUTevo.VP.VNi FOUT=VO VS,J=VP-l.O ,VSN=2.5-V .... IF (VO.GT.VSP) FOlJT=VSP IF (VO.LT.VSN) FOUT=VSN IF eVO.GT.VS~.ANO.VO.LT.V~N)
~ETUHN

FOlJT~O

END
CI~CUIT DtSCHIPTIO~

t.LE.MENTS , kSS.l-O=llJ.t:J
kPS~.O-2=lO.E3

CINP.3-0=1.~-12
CINN.O-4=1.4E.~12

JIN.3-4=O
~INP.C;-O=l.HHE.~

lINP.3-5=XleJ.t.-J-~.~t-~oVJIN-30.E-bO(1~.-V~SS))

~INN.O-"=1.8Hf~

JO.~-4=O'

JOFP,S-O=17.E.-u JOFN.4-0=lH.2 "9

E.O.O-6=X2el.75l5VJO) Hl.b-7=5.EJ
Cl.7-0=lO.~E-b

U O-A=X3 (vC 1)

H2.8-9=5.E3
C~.9-0;.:31.Ht::-12

t\OUT.IO-ll=75 E.ouT.O-lo=FQ-UTeVC2.VRSS.VRPSS)
E'>PS.O-l=l~

l'.NPS.2-0=15 JOUT.II-O=O E.INPUT.3-X=X4(.Ol*(SIN(b.2HE4*TIME))) HIN. X-4=50. FUNC'T IUNS OUTPuTS VJOUT.PLOT HUN CONT~OLS ~TOP TI"'E=~.E ... I:. NO

.,

'

Figu~e

VI-?7. Test

Input.

VI-36
, "

..".

J.

41 6

."

't

= '" .
~

..

: ...

:
I

--------------------------------------------------.. =:

I ,

"

, I.

' t .
I

" ...
0

::
~

.,., ..,

':"

....

...

... .. .. "
... ..

...
0

.. .. ..
..., ,...
::0
41 0\ ."

..

,..

.
.

....

..,'"'"..

.:>

.'.

....
;t

... ... . .. .. ...

~
0

- . :: ;
o

.... '!f

6'

..., ~ ...,
c.::
III
I

..,. ,..

,...

c5
;1

.. ..
~

~ ...

. .. '" ..
~

::-

....
0\
~

41 ...

.... u.

.. ': ! ..

!_- .... ! .. ':'!. .. !_.!-.

': ... .. .. ': ...

...
...

..
";:

..
011

":

.. ': :r .:.

---. __ 41 _ _ _ --" . t

";: ...

.. ..
0

.'

': ...

.;.

..
0

': ...

.;

<#

': ...

..

...

: ---~!.----!----! . .. . .. .. ': '" . ... ... .. ... .. .. ..

I
t I

.. - : c;
I

I I

"::

.. "

'!

':

"= ...

It

":

,,. " ...

I

J
J

"

'

VI-37 ,

,."..

"

."

wi 11 P",,"ur.e t he output 0 f f i gur. V1-29. Thl s pI,ot de""ns t ra te s tha t the feedback loop did indeed proijuce unity gain. a. required. input listing for test Z Is I" figure VI-3D, test 2 is show., in figure VI-jl. The peak voltage swl ng 0 f, the output sine wa v, is des ired. Th is can be Seen to be jus t under a volt. Dividing output Voltage by input vOlta!jt' (0.01 volt) yields a Voltage gain of about 100 at 10 kHz. The .. nufacturer Speci. ficatiDn (Open loop Voltaye Gain as a Function of Frequency) indicat~ that gain is )00 ~t JO kHz.
The SCEPTRE The SCEPTRE output for

gi~n

s~eet'

Ine ramping of the dc level in figure VI-31 is due to the of offset Voltage and current in the open-loop analysis of the op amp. Such an ;nstability wnuld.be .'pected if the same test were to be .erfo_d on a real device. Tloe ability to >ee the behaVior of the ,,'1p Ii fi er 'before I t reaches satu .. at ion In about -I o. is an e.amp Ie () f ,he P_r wh i : h compu te r-, aided ""de I i "9 all Ows the ana Iy. t, 5. i\ .. diat fon fffec~ effects

a.

Photoresponse

ionizing photocurrents will act to alter the bia.es and saturate oP-amp stages. Output Voltage will berome someWhat independe~t of the in~ut VOltag,'levels, tranSient be;'avior of the oay then included model. Exper,im'-"tal data for the 741 indicates that at , as part of IeVe Is abOve I .. )OB rads (s i )/sec, the outPoJt vol tagewi II rise at a rapid rate determined by the I'adiat iOll, response of the uutput 'tages of the operational amplifier. 'The output .;!I then s.turate for sam. time, periOd, ,After the radiat lonpul se, the amp Ii fler wi II, co"", ou!, of saturation and recover at the slew rate of the amplifier, E.perimental data

Un~r

~diation,

t~e

rer~tional

are required to amplifier, This behaVior

~scribe the

~e

ihe Photor.s ". "dS .odeled by thr CUI rent generator, IRAO charges dominant pole capac i tor - CI, f as te r than the slew ra t. lim i ted' curre"t SOurce. J I can dI scha rg" the capac; tor.' res u I tis a cJiange in output vo I tage 'ensed as an ,erro r. Ins to ""del the trans lent behavior of an oper. tiona I

IRAD, as illustrated in fiqure VI-32.

t~e

-"y.

Ti,.

VI-J!)
I "

I 'I

", .1 j~

 .. --------------------------.------------------------ ::

... .,.
III

t .

: ,;
III

...

... .. ... .. .. ..
;

... ..
,

.. .. ..
~.
~

..
~

..
~
II
0

..

.,. , ... ..

'" ,

".

~ ., ..

'" , ...

.. ."!'" .. ... .. , ...

..,
: ": ... "

'" "!

...

N I

>
ell

s.. en ..u..
::s

"

i'-

I ,
M

:,1 ,-

:: ...
~ _________________ ~ __

i i ,

"

__

..

..
.;

...
~

..

a .:

..
'-: ...

I . .

...

...

~ III

...

=
.!
<It

..

III

..
.. -:
~ ...

~-.--!---.!-~.-!.-

".

"i

: It

:.

~ ,

-: '01

.':
".

III

.. !----.. .
t

..
III

'"

":

.'

~UtfPR06R'"

FUNCTION FOUT(VO,VP,VNJ FOUT=VO VSP=VP-l.0

VSN=~.5-VN

IF (VO.GT.VSPJ FOUT~VSP IF (VO.lT.VSNJ FCUT~VSN IF (VO.GT.V~P.A~D.VO.lT.VSN) FOUT=Q RETUHN END CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION I:.lEMENTS ' , kSS,I-0=lO.E.3 kPSS,O-2=lO.E3
CINP,3-0=1.4~-12

"

CINN,O-4=1.4E-12 .JIN,3-4=0 EIN~'3-5=Xl(3.E-3~2.5E-5.V.JIN-JO.E-6.(15._VRSSJ' iHNI-',5-0=1.8tiE9 RINN,0-4=1.8ttE'I .JOFP,5-0=17.E-9 .JOFN,4-0=ltt.2E-9 .J0,5-_=0 , EO,0-6~X2(:.75E5V.JOJ kl,6-7=5.EJ Cl,7-0=10.6E-6. El,O-8=X3(VC1' H2,8-Q=5.E3 ,
C2,9-0=31.8E~12

HOUT, 10-11 =75 EQUT,0-10=FOUT(VC2,VRSS,VRPSSJ EPPS,0-1=15 ENPS,2-0=15 .JOUT,11-0=0 HB1,11-4=.001 HEt2, X-3=5'0. E1NPOT,0-X=X_lio (SJN(TIMEJ.14ElJJ,10.) FUNCTIONS OUTPUTS V.JOUT,PlOT HUN CONTROLS STOP T l"'E=,1 .E-2 END

F1!)ure VI-lO.' Test 2 Input

..i
I

1!',.,

10

-------------------------------------------------

...
I
0 0 0

"

"

I I
I I I I

'.:...
I

.;.

"!

,0 I
0 0

...
...

':

I
~.

CI.I CI.I

\It

.
~ ...
...
0 0 0

CL

c::

\It

ex
u
CI.I CI.I
~

CI.I
~

\It

,i
I
I -I I

~. ~

c::

...
~

I,
I
I

,.
f-

t'

..",

... . .. ...
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~ ~

.. .,...
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f t,

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':.
J

-:. 0 0

....
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, , .
:-

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i
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'I I I I I

., :
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I. .,' , t t t

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....

CI.I

g\

.
!

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e,

:
, "

~ __ 4

_ _ ~-- _ _ _ _ -----~--~ _ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ _ ~_~-------~-------

~
9

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u

;;

... ,...
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'"'

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~,'

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~

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co '"

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'7

...
I

co

j'

t
,
"

0,

'C'I,."-''"'::',_

/' '1-',

3.V -

(2~5X

10- )(VJIN) -(O.D] x

10-3)(1~~ -

V+)

V+

Y+

--,
6

1, - - 1.~
<.

0+
.

....- '_ - - - . .

L
Q ).10
2

JIM ( ' )

. -

-1 1"
pF

,V-_

a
4

_L 4

:_~: " T

IB
I

,........,.

(1.75 x 10:),(VJO) .
+

I
<

5k

9 10

75 n

11

J
V 1
+ V

J
1

10.6 "F

I 'V

31.8 p F
V2

<5

V2

Q)J

OUT

V OUT

I!
IF V out;;

IRAD

I
V(+' -l.OV. V(-}+2.SV.

~
THE'; Vout ., V(+)-lV THEN Vout = Vf-}+2.5V

IF -~

but

Figure VI-3'.

r10del :,A741 with Photoresponse

;1. '

aMPlifier. a me~hod must be found to disable the ideal behavior of the aaplifier to allow the output volt~ge to changeindepeodentiy of the input voltage. Manipulations of IRAD will produc(ll t'ne ri~etimes. saturation'times, and falltlmes required by the (IIxperimental data. When a differential input voltage of ~ver 0.152 V is applied across the op amp modc1 input terminal, current source Jl saturati> at 5.3 amps to ~del the slew rate. The transient rise rate of the op amp'ran therefore be defin~d by:

at -

dV _ IRAD - 5.3A

10.6

~F

Thus, the magnitude ~f IRAD will determine the rate of rise of the ampli. fier during an ionizing radiation pulse. By defining dv/dt as t~(II exp,er'mentally determined transient rise rate, IRAO can be qUlntified. When the output tries to rise'a~ove 15~, saturation is si'lIIlllated. HIe tift in saturation ca'l be controlled by proper d~finitil'n of the IRAD pul~e w~jth. After IRAD is set to zero, the output will begin to recovrr It t~~ slew rate as desired. For the 7410C~th)s is 0.5 V/~s. The output will remain in saturation until the voltage on ci drops below is V. The output will then recover at the ,slew rate until normal , , operation is restor~d. Figure VI-33 shows the relationship of the IRAD current, the vo ltagf' on the. capaci tor, and the output voltage. b. Burnut Burnout lIay he si.lIlat~d 'bv pladng a ;lower Ir.onit,oring e~elnent across the sen~itivl! temiMls. This element IIIUSt' be included in a lIar"e,' sud that d rruit oper~t i on wi 11 not be aff.ected unt i1 l .. over' stress wavefo"" is initiated . . The ~ower dissi.,ated by the power sensing element5 may then be IIOnitored by tile method!i discussed for di~des in . chdpter I'I and burnl;,ut pre:j;rted. Due to the IIIllltiple'current pa~hs that can be produced by an over~tress pulse, the Wun!tch expression I1lay no\. be valid for integrated r.ircu~ts. and ~ rorm ~(FAIl) = At'"B wht!re A and B
"

- - - !.---'"/

I I.

VI.-43

VI

0::

::t .. o

Q.

15. 9 ......_ _ _ __

i I

I
'V"
~

;:,.

-J

1"5 -1---

L' ;:,.

..

I
I

I
I

..
I

'I

I SATURATION I ,T I ~1E
I '

"

VI
~

15

-J o ;:,. ,

I,
I I

I
15

W.'JJ

25

' 55

TIrI.

,IS

Fi !Jure VI - 33.

Photorespon!'e Sil11u 1at ;on

, q
,
"

VI-44

i" \'
,J'

are experimental constants may be 1II0re applicable. An example of a power sensing element ~nd its placement across a circult input is sho"'" in figure VJ-34.

JP
,
'

JP

IN

Figure Vl-34.

Use

o~

PoWer Sensing Element

The current and voltage characteristics of the device subject~d to an overstress are .odeled t" 'the,breakd~wn voltag~ a"d resistanc.e tertlls i~cludedin, the p~Wf"r sensing elel!,'!nt. This element then has no, affeoct on noraa I electrical operation but simulates the corrt'ct current and voltage characteristic~ in breakdown. ' Valets' for A. 9. V BO af'ld 'IlB may be detel'lllinedexperimentally by overstress t,sting sagple devices to failure. Approximate values for th,se qucintit;es' uy alsq be obtained froll reference VI-10for .any integrated ci~~uit tec~nologies. c. Neutron and Total Dose Effects The effects of neutrons and total ionizing dose arC! to ,degrade various parallete'rs of the integrated circuit. For instance. neutrons will primCirily dec~ease op~n loop gain. ~ncrease bias current. increase offset CUrrEf'lt. ,and in~rezse offset voltage whtle total i~niling dose will usuall" increase bias currents and offset current. Experimental, data of paral'lteter ,,:~anges at gi ven n uences and doses can be t:'Pfl ected in

I.

Vl-45'

the model by simply changing the appropriate parameter. Simulations with the new parameters will then inditate whether the parameter degradatirns lead to system failu,e.
C.
~IMPllFIED

MODELiNG GF DIGITAL

CIR~lIITS

AND SYSTEMS

lnt,roauetion to S~mpl~fied Digital Modelin~ The ao~l of simplified digital ~odelinq is to ~ prectly ~imulat~ 1 ;'.:l ion the terlllinal characteristics ofa digital i/ltegrat:~(~ Ci'-:':"it of t;me and lIar'ious stilluli including raciation, .. I genp"ul. tI, , 'l' >,ing is done Iotithout direct consic.eration of tht' ;'ltly')ical procesct.'~ :i:.,lvf>d, COl're~t simulation, involve,; m()Jeling the t<:!rmir~l CLJrrent a;''1 v~'lt,1tli' characteristics, the currect ~ogic functioning of th~ devit:l", th~' t'l':oly char~cterist~cs suc~ a~ propayation delay of logic signals and l~r "1 i"Lt~ of radiation on these. Model ing of the terminal current and voitJge rharacteri...tics usually involver the current characteristics as a function of volt~ge for the input terminals and the voltage as a function of logic state and cource or sink current for the output terminals. Proper curreont and voltage charar.ter;stics can be obtained by making a det~iled model of the input .and output circuitry. tfowever, sin<.e the aill' of s1;nplified modeling is to reduce the :',mber of elements, such detailed modeling is gener'ally not done. Inr~ead. elplllents such as nOldinear dej)endent curre:t sources ar@ ,",sed to a~~rol(imate' the desi,'ed current' and yoHagf' respon~t! ot the, tefl,ioaL For MaS circuitry. ,a single capacitor may 'accurate,ly model df'vic.: i'lput charactel'istic:~ whi Ie for'mallY circllit types a simple Thevettin e4uivlle~tcircuit (switched voltage source and constant output r~s~stcr) May provide un adequate Model of the out~ut characteristics. As always, the MOdels chosen should be th@ simplest ones ne.ded to give rpquired results and should b~ consistent with th~ data available. The correct logic functioning of a device ca~ be simulated by, Mdking a d~tailed model ~; the internal circuitry \r~ference 11-11), Such a IIOd~lcan bp. extrl"lllely cOitiplex and can require large amount~', of computer
1.

"

"

VI-46
,
"

./;]

,., ,

j,:'.
-' "' <

. ...

i.a

UP

i5

memory anc central proce!.sor time. Tremendous savings can be realized by simply modeHng the ir.tern~l logic functioning of a cevice b)' a Boolean algebra description of the logic. Computers are p~rticularly efficie~t at handling l~gic operations. Of course, it is necessary to transla~e voltages and currents at the inputs irto loqic one~ and le~o~ for internal processing an~ ~~ convert them bar~ to currents and voltages at the outpu.t. Because a finite amount I)f time is required for signals to proplgate thro~gh logic el~ments, logic circuits do not follow the laws of Boolean algebra instantane'~'usly. Theref'ore. simulatioris should include the i'nternal delay characteristics of a digital crcuit. This ca.1 be ~one t~ro~gh th~ use of electrical elements such ,.s RC netwc'-ks, or through the use of special logic delay elements. P40dels !Ray. a1'so simulate the rise- and falltille chal'.,cteristics '-.:~ a digital chcuit's output ten.dnals. elelllents. This is 1'.:uall_, done through u~e of appropriate.~lectrical Radiation effects can be incl~ded in the simplified models by

caking appropridte .adifications to the electrical model based on experi~ntal data. Modifications may inc'ud~ transient or pennan~nt changes in logic state, variations .in propagation delay and out~ut sink current c-pability, and tran::.ie"~, phOtocurrents at device inputs. Powermonitoring plp'lICn~s can also be included at the device terminals to monitor EMP- ,i nduced-burnout ~ Boolean algebra is net easily implementa,d in SPICE2 ,since the r.ode does ~ot all~ user-defined equations or subroutines. fJr problems of II'Oderate complexity, SrICE2 can still be used b~ !Raking extrelllely simplified .odels of .the internal loy~c gates. However, for IIOr'; complex probl~s, a code which allows a BOOlean processor to be implemented through ;nethods su-:h as fORTkAN subro\,;t i nes is preferable. SCEPTRE and NET-2 a~e especially useful for logic simulations since theynJ~ only allow user-defi-lied equations andsubrouti:'les, but th~y also incorporate logic element! as 110 de ls. The ativanr.ed 'Je~s i on SCEPTRE, call ed SCEPTRE/LOGIC. includes ipowerf"l Boolean processor. loqic netwcrks can

of

YI-47

be dE!scrioed in terms similar to normal SCEPTRE netwol'k descripti<.ns. NET-2 incorporates 'logic ele~ents among its system element~ and can also describe logic networks ;n a fashion similar to normal el~ctricJl networks. 2. Technique c for Simplified Modeling of Digital Ci.-cuits a. T~rminal Models Si.plified ~dels sho~ld correctly simulate the terminal current and ~oltage characteri~tics of the device being modeled so that th~ simplified IIIOdel may be uied with ot.her elements in a circuit analysis code to prttdict syst~1I response. Terminal response can usually be sillulate<i with very few ele:nents. Of course, greater sophistication ~a' be realized 'by lncludlng IIIOr~ elIIIe"lts or ty Jsing Illore complex elements. However, su,h sop:-aist.ceti'Jn increases memory and central processor time requirements. The task of parameterizing terminal models can usually be performed from specification sheets .t,ich typkally give detailed inforltation about the tErmindl characteristics of inteQratpd circuits. Manufacturing tolo:'l"CE.'S for Ie's arl generally better controlled than those for- discreh C(:r.p0nents, so it is' often ;acceptable to use the manufacturer 's typ i ca 1 or worst case data in p,uallK"teriz 1ng ,termi na 1 mode l's. Reference VI-l1 indicates the kin~ of ~etailed inf~rmation available ~n TTL ~~tegrated circuits. Figure VI-35 shows a plot of the input ten,linal vUltage-cu'rrent characterisitc. of a lYrical TTl device. Superimposed on the saMe plnt 1's a represe:ltation of a simplified RI\idel (daihed lin~) which ca" ,be i.,.,lemented using a vCltage:controlled cur'rer.t source defined thrQ~gh a lable or 'a,suhroutine. It has a value of -1 mA for t,ertlli na 1 vo 1tages below, 1.75 vo 1ts :nd ~ va I ue of 40 ~A above 1.7" volts. Such a IIOdel t/ill g~ner311y be sufficiently ac~urate for m'Jst appl icaticns. If such input curves 'were Ilot avai1abl~. they could be easily measured using a curve tracer as 3hown in f i gureVI-16. Similar techniques can be used to model ~')p output charac:teristics with one i~ortant diffp~ence. The outputcharact~ristics depend on the 10g1.c state of thf output, which ill turn d!pe:1':.1s on tIle

I
" - _ . 5._

V' -4B

...
+

,'" I

.1

VI-49

. PI!IIII"---";"-"""~""-""!\I.",,".r;~~A~",,"""""""~,~_-~'_""_''!!_''';_''''"",,,,,,."",-""'i~":'lI"~~'~~~'r~~~41.".J:-'~':~~~
"""'.w",~,~"~,,,_-_,,,,,~,,;,,,,,,~

i:i):;:',.#.",

.~~"~~;::~'!"'I\"~".1''''L'''
...

__ ~,...a;~~~o;>~ ...;-~,,_,,,,,:""""

.c_,..

- -J

:~ 0:: ..J l ... l.6J 'L ~-Uo'

u.I

:-

-...;0::::>
L~

:C

V,

-- '
....

1,~

;J

dl
U

.. ..

I..J Ld t-- ~ '1 ../ l

L"J

n.

W~; ~. Cl

..... -- L4J

--

'"
(""j

en

o
Ll' hJ\tr.J . ' . L'

'

~, ;~

L) . -

VI-50
,'"

','

internal logic ~tates of the d~vice. !-t.lte changt's. ical llL gate.

This g~nerally means that the anal-

yst mllst providE' a means to switc~ the output characteristics as the fiyul'p VI-37 shows the output chilractedstic:; of a typIt appE'ars that the one state output characteristics can The zero stat~

be modeled ~asily b~ a lheverin equivalent circuit. to the point VI-31(b).

Dep~nding on the degree
sl~te ~hE're

chdl'actel';.ics can dlso bE' simulated by a !"heveninequival~nt circuit up the voltage begins to rise rapidly (lO mA in figure

of

accuracy desired, the putput

(on~ r~sistor,

charJcteristics can bp modelt'd by a switched Thevenin voltage source

= 3.9

V, zero state
resisto~.

= ,05

V)plus a single Thevenin

conrolle~

~~itchE'd

resistor, or a voltage

current source to simulate a

piecewise-linear VI-JB.
lo~ ~ta.te

These possibilities are shown in figore

In fiyurt> V[-38{J). the f,ixed resistor WdS chosen to simulate the current sink.'cap.,bility since this is usually more impol'tant In Both the high and low Noll'

TTL th.ln the high state curn'nt source ca;>abili~Y.

st.lte impedances ar-e simulated in the mudel of figul'e V[-J8(b). .Ire only valid fo;' sink c:;urrpnts l('.5s than about case,
'igur~

that fO! both of these simple cases, the output low sLlte chMacteristic,

n'mA.

In the third

Vi-38{c), the resistor is replaced by

l(,'''O

~ voltaQe-control!~d

current s(lurc'p to get away front pt'oblems with nonconstant resistors: , . N~te that fOl' the state, the output cuy't'pnt is' I imHedto 72 mAo
u~fng

It output curves are not available from manufacturer's , .

dat.l, they may be o,btained a curv .. tracer as'sholitn in figurp V.I-:39.
If, dctual 'dPvices are nol avai lable, detai led models may be use,1 to

prrtifct U,e tenllinCiI characteristics.

DeviCl~

input andolltput capacitances are generally not

prop~gation

,"

mndpled, and all capacitive effpcts are included in the t.iIl!P.

delay A

How-ver, it !lay be necessary to include terminal capacitance to

pr~~ent computatior.ll dt'lays in state-'variable codes such asSC,EPTRf.

nominal capacitance value of a few picotarads will ge"erall~ bp accep~ tab Ie for this purDose. The effpcts 'of these capaci tors should be accounted 'or when .ade I i'ng propagat i on de I ay.

-)'

1" l :!

>

..

V :3

:>

23

30

(a)

One State Output Characteristics'

1.2

...

'

1.0

....
VI

.0
'.6

::0.

......
:3

:-

AL
.2

3u
(b)

40 50 1sink ' lilA

6tl

70

eo

Zero St~tr Output Chdracter1~t1cs

Ffgure'VI-37.

Ty..,ical TTL Outrut Charactcri~ttcs

.....
VI-52

-------- --.-

,,"
~ .. -~-'"

'."

'.' ,...

........

,
:!I'
)

U -'.oIk;" :

"

ROUT::: 12.5 J.9V for on~ state [OUT =}.05V for zero state

oh~s

a}

Single Resistor

, ,

[OUT

: : J 3. ,)V for one stl~te

I .05V

140 0hms for one state R ,OUT::: 12.5 ohms for zero state

for zero state

b}

Switchpd Resistor

'

OUT -

- )3.9V for one statp

I .05V

for zero state

JO

) . AlII,Xl [72 '~.(r~~~!) ]

2

V(JO; 190

for one state

i
fnr ,zero state

,f t

I
Ii ~
I

c)

V( JO) " . 1".5 ' VoltaQe Coiltrolled Current Source to Simulatp piecewise Linear Resistor , 72 mA

"

Fit;"re VI-38.

Implementing Output Characteristics

VI-53

.~'

.'.'

Ul.

-=

EXTERNAL POUER SUPPLY

+--1Vcc~

.-

Lf

Vee

1-

o ,-

~--I

e
GND

o B
E (-)

eURVt TRACER
Figure VI-39. Measurement of Device Output Ch'H'(1ctet'ic:t

f~5

..
.J"i

,-- -.-

. . . .' - , . l~_ t~ ......

~.

, , ....

~. '

t ..
.'~

~,

b.

logic Models

Su.b'~uti nes

int(>rnal, logic functions of dig,ital integrate~ circuits follow the iules of Boolean algebra. thp Boolean functions of computpr ianguag~s such as FORTRAN can be used in sUbroutines to simulate proper lO'gic operations. To do this, a thrE.>sholding functi(ln is required tO'convert input currents and voltages to Boolean variables. Th~ logic function is then simulated and the B~olean result transformed back into currents and voltages at the outputs. The input thresholding can be accomplished, very. simply in the subrouti~e by t~e us~ of conditional statements. For instance. if the input voltag~ is gre~ter then 1.75 volts. a logic variablJ might ~e set to the one state .. All such input ~ariablps thus defined as ones or ~erus can be pI'ocessed with logical operators to determine the correct output states .. The values of the output elements can be determi,ed once the proppr output ~tate is known. Propagation delay effects can be . modeled by the ~se of Rr timihg ele~ents in thE.> outp~t stage. Va~iable delay times can be sim~lated by varying the values of the RC elements according to the direction of thp. transitions. runctions sucn as flip-flops and edge detectors can be. sim~lated in. the subroutlnes by retaining previous values of par~me~ers and Jsing them in a new (ubroutine call. Either'poslti~e 6r negdtive edge dptect!,on can be accomplished by looking f')r increasing cr decreasing , .' v',~lu~s of the parampter in question. A thresholding function usually must be In,:luded along with edge'detection to prevrnt false' triggering on "glitches." Examples later in the chapter help illustrat'e the rrocess of logic modeling using subroutines. Z) Logic Eleme~t~ Wrfting subroutines for losie de~criptions of Jarge digital networks becomes a difficult and error-prone task., Two t;odes . offer a way around this problem. SCEPTRE and NEJ-Z. Both of the codes allow the inclusi~n of logic elemen~s (gate~. flip~flops. etc.) in a form
'

Since ,the .

..
"

".

VI-55
,
','
,

...

-~.

close to the normal electrical network ,modpl lng. This capabi 1ity allows t:.@ analyst to describe the electrical and logic networks in the most familiar wa'l. , Thl' concept of a combination of current and voltage MOd~ling and Boolean algebra model,ing is referred to as composite modeling. Figure VI-40 helps illustrate this concept. Two models are actually shown in this figure. To the l~~:. of the solid line is a detailed curr~nt voltage (I/V) model 'of the devicels input protection network. It is i'ncluded to emphc-size that thp compos\t(' model must interface with normal l/V models and circuit elements. To the right of th~ solid line is a composite model of a portion of the C04051, a CMOS analog multiplexer. The first elem~nt of the composite model is capacitor CA. It represent5' the gate capacitance of the input MOS devices. The voltagp arross CA repres~nts the I/V value which will serve as the input to the Boolean simulation. The dashed line box bounds the Boolean model. The dashed connecting line from CA to NOR gate NA indicates a thresholding operation takes place th~re, 'converting from I/V spa~e to Boolean space. A ,'atliation 'input also crosses the' boundary into Boolean space indicating that a thresholding operation can ~lso take place there. For example, dose,rates greater than 1 x 10 9 rads (Si)/se~ might be used to produce a 'one state input to a given' gate. Once'the thresholds are established, t.he Boolean processor performs the operat.ion indicated by the variuus gates and delay elements. The res~lts at tt~ output are transformed back into currents ~nd ~oltJge through ~ controlled ~urrent source. In this case; the output is a C~S transmission gate. 'The current value is controlled by the output voltage and the 1og' c state. 'For a one state the output, resistance is effectively 145 ohms while it is 500 megohms for a zero state. Figure Vl-4l lists the types of logic elements available in SCEPTRE/LOGIC. The AND OR, NAND, and NOR elements allow multiple inputs while the EXCLUSIvE OR allows only two and the INVERTER only one. ' Any Boolean ,x~ression (an adder ~or exampll') with ~r ~ithout feedback
I I

vt-~6

~"...,..,...............____. . . . . """"

. >.J ,:

~.

~.;

,...;a.J

.... ) .

. - .. *

~ '~ " .. ....

)

"I

"

o(

C\

-"" ~.....
Vl.:")'O

t- _

.....

-.J

~L)
lJ

~~

.... >I

'<:t

}----

cu

u..

:::3 t:1'

VI-57
'"

"

,l, _:

Element ------,~

AND OR NAND NOR INVERTER

o
M N

E
X

EXCLUSIVE OR BOOLEAN EXPRESSION

WITH

Z
B

BOOLEAN EXPRESSION FEE{)BACK

Fll P-FlOP

DElAY
.. i

EDGE DETECTOR LOGIC

~ey
TRAN~tSTOR

T
ngure VI-41.

, 1
1

'j

J I

l,

Let ~ers' and Correspc,"d;ng Log;cal Elements for SCEPTRE/LOGIC

VI-5f\

..J
, '

", . .,-' ....... - 4 . . .r~, ~~~::"'A:jt~;:i',4

I
J
can be included without as;emb1ing a collection of gates. The flip-flop . element is a ~-K type with set and rt!~et. This type (an be used to generate allY other flip-flop type with apprt'loriate cOllnections. The delay element can be a delay within a given time step to assure proper sequencinQ or lt can be a gi- en time delay. A delay el~mp.nt can hav.e different delay times for positive and negative traniitions. An e~ge detector is included which can detect either positive or negative edges. TLe logic transistor allows simulation of some of the logic functions of saturated transistors. The logic elements of NET-2, part of. the system element~ incorporated into that code, are shown in figure VI-42. While the listis not a~ extensive as that for SCEPTRE/LOGIC, tt is still possi~le to model logic networ'ks in a straightforward manner. Hme delay elements , . and hysteresis effects are allowed for. The AND, OR, and EOR functions allow multiple inputs. The R~T FLIP-FLOP can accomplish all flip-flop functions if external gating is used. It has d built-in edge detector element. Key DiLAY Element DELAY HYSTERESIS AND OR EXCLUSIVE OR RSTFLIP-FlOP Logic elements in NET-2
,
:

HYST
~ND.

OR EOR RSTFF Figure VI-42.

I
.~

>.

An' example of composite modeli~g is presented later in this chapter. Exa.mple 5 in chapter, vq shows how composit,e modeling can be used tc simulate large circuits. ,

VI-59

"

Ij

! .

.1

,---

,.

Radiation Effe-::ts 1) Neutron and Total Dose Effects The effects of neutrons and total ionizing dose al~ to change the parameter describing the input and ~utput characteristics and the propagatIon delay timp.. These effects can be incorporated by making the appropriate param~ter changes ba~ed on e~perimental measuremen~s. It is pcssible to simulate complete logic failure of a node internal to the device, but this is usually of ,1 ittle interest e)(cept in df:vice failurp analysis. It is usually most imp~rtant to simulate the loss of output current sink capability and the changes in propag-,tion delay time. 2) Dose Rate Effects The effects of ionizing dose rate can be simulated by adding the ~ppropriate photocurr~nt generators to the input and output terminals and by making transient logic state changes intel'nal to ~he dev i CPo The proper va lues of photocurrent and the propel' state changes can be det~rmined experimentally. Terminal photocurrents ~~st be simulated accurately. A device ma~ show no false state chanyes ~hen tested aione,'but may upset in a circuit where termindl photocurrents can interact with other circuit el~ments to produce unwanted signals. 3} EMP Effects The effects of EMP upset are simul~ted by the' normal. electrical model o~ ti,'e device The effects otJ",p-induced burnout can be modeled using a modified version of th'e techniques presented in ,chapter II-. 'A power monitoring elemen~ is ~ncluded at each terminal , to be stud,ied. This elpment does not affect nO""lllal electrical operatiun. It does simulate the ternplal voltage and curl'ent'characteristics when it is driven into ~reakdown. As shpwn in figure VI-43, t~;s oper~tion is characted zec; by a, breakdown vo lt~ge and a sUI'ge res iStance. Th~ pdrameters can be determined experimentally or can be determined from the dat.a presented in reference VI-9,.

c.

I 1
'.~ ' J
';'

VI-60

,. -., .; ;:-.~~.,~:.,.-...-e .

-.0.....,:

r-

::-

c a)

{t
9:
"C

"C

ev

..... .... .....

r-

ev

lSdWV)

E .... en

0.

.s::.

ev
~

~.

.,e
ev .10 .....
"C

.a

ev

..C,

::-

c::a

eLI 'L.

C.)

::-

...

en

Lot..

YI-6t

The power

r~qulred

to fail the

termina~

is defined by

where A

a~~

B are experimentally determined coefficients and t is the

value~ b~

duration of the overstress pulse. actual 'power power. power.

~n

for

A and B anti the breakdown

The
(,)IIIpcU'e,1
t') '''"

vJltage and surge resistance .ay a15c

found in reference Vt-9.

the power monitoring element is

f,lilyre

A Message i.:. printed if the actl;al pown' exceeds trt- f .. i,;!/>, Ex a ",0 1e 0 i 9 i ta 1 Simp I if i eo :'ode 1s

3.

a.

QSN:'4:..00
A silllP1Hie-d lIodel of this
l~

power TTL N,\N()

~Cit.;

.'1)
o~.,, l'
,1 .

be

developed 1n SCEPTRi using a subrvutine to define: the functionclI tion. to any circuit analysis code fi<:u". '/1-44.
_hi~h ~llo's

The tp.chniques used here are speci!ic to SCFr'TRE but can bp the use of subroutines.

"tt'c1

The aanufacturer data sheet for the RSNS4l00 is shown In Data were tClken frOll this sheet and front reference VI 11
4

in paramoterizing the

s;~lifipd ~del. VI-4~.

T~e topolc~ ~xi.um

of

th~ ~~~plified curre~t

MOdfl is sbown in figure

Since the

input

is only

1.18 nt4, the inDut curre!.t w111 Mt be IIOdelcd. Current sources JA and :3 W111 hall. a zero \'al\J@ and ~i 11 sl!rve, to III'!asu:".e tt-. jnput Yoltaqes . .~"the input IIUst bt' IIOdeled. values for JA and JB can be'5pedfied in , '
tablet;, ,The second stage /jeti".s tht' logic state of ttle output based on the voitages
s~;l~:-d

acrf)SS JA -1M JB.

The logic stClte fs

s~t

throuQh Ei which is dt'fin.d by the :ollowing logical stat~nls.

J:= ,VJA aM VJB < O. 8V THEN ,) 3.1V '

If
THE~

VJA or VJ8 ) fl O.3V

o.av

vr-62
,
"

..'

CIIcun "PlI n .... l . nINl . IIIHUt... I ..Ull...1 ..l01 'OlnlY( -IAI. CATtI
. . . . . . . e. . . . . . .

--~

. -.-.-,. . j. .J ~l J.j

-'"

,.... _...1'
.

...

rtN.;"\.. I . '. ,.....

t
!

-~.!
t
!

,. >

.'.1'_ t i.... , ~ ~

....

~ ... ...-.
~-

'

-.......

.. f,., .a.c ..... ,c.v....

_ .

--

_...
, _ _ ,a

--_.,. -- .... _ ...

',-- ...
"
It '4,,1""'RUM[N'~
.
.~

."

............ -.... tt

.. _...................... ....
,.'

f i lJ"r~ V1-44.

~~1I54l (10 f"'nuf.,(turer Spt~c if feat itm :'h.t't'~ (rt'L V1-13)

Vl-~\

..

ClftCUIT TYPES ItSF4~"lOO. ItSIS4l . "SI~4U'. " MU3 . ItSIUlUl

POSITIVf-lAIO "TfS

,>",~,",II'" \Ill
~ .. -...,{..-t

- . . ,..... , ..,. .......... ..

" ........ h . . . . ~ ...... IA

".
\ \ a ..

'"

~" ' . _ . ' .

- -. . _

. . . . . ..,

~--~. . ~

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , ... ' . . ._ _ ... ' . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . <&. . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._

.... - - . . . . . . . .

_tc", ctwKtennln. YCC !t Y, T A 2!t C. N ~ 10

"

'''--'' .. ............. ........... --- ........ -....... fIIMII._... "/'::':'.1'

~

j . . . . . .-

. . . . . ~\ . . . ___

-.

JtI

T(.A~IN~'RUMlNT~ ."' . . . . . . . . . . . t
If

..... _ . . . . . . . . ... ,

~ . . . . . . . . ....H

rlqure VI-44.

RStl54l00 ;l-1nUf.lCturer Speci fttatton Sheet (Concluded)

VI-64

....

-----.

'.'

ex:

.... ....
GI
~

rei. e

VI-oS

The delay stage is composed of fl, RI, and CI. The time Cons tan t RIC I de t. rm i ne s the p"'paga t i on de lay 0 f a s tate change through the iC. In this model, the t i... constant i< conditione lIy al tered by a ' suurout ine to sat i s,f, hOih, the low-to-hi gh propagat ion delay and the
high-to-low prOpagation delay.

The output characteristics are model<d by the last stag. composed of f2, R?, and'JO. f2 is a dependent ,oltage Source equal to the Vollage across capacitor CI, DOing this eliminates any loading of the propagat ion de.lai' stage. R2 i s chosen to app ro!' i... te the 'low s ta te
output impedance characteristics of the gate.

The RSNf4l00 "del was tested USing the Circuit of figure V!-46. 'The purpose of the circuitry connected to the output of the gate is to si the lategate. the loading and fan-out effects of other TTL circuitry driven by

2
~SIG

lN914

3 '~
R3
Ffgure, VI-~6..

C2

~16
R4

C3

6ND

RSN54l00 Test Circuit

VI-(6

---

Thp SCEP1RE test circuit, as input to SCEPTRE, is ~resen~ed in figure VI-47. Proper logic o'peration l~ esta~lis~e~; by the :'\Jbroutine FN2. tion.

S~broutine FCAPl selects the prop~r value of capacitor C~ to model,

The input sig~~~ volt~~e has a wavef(rm WhlCh is demonstrated in This test yields the truth table: 8 Output
1 0

~he propagation delay tlmp for either a high-to-low or low-to-high transifigure VI-48. ,Thp output of the NAND gate in respcnse to the input voltage is given in figure VI-49. Input A
0
~ut

'1 1

which is consistent with the NAND truth table: Input A

0
,~ltB

Output
1
0

1
fl

1 1
0 0

1 1
1S

Propagation delay time, io~-to-high level output, time when the gate outP'Jt ,-ises to 1.5 volts.

defined as that time irom whe"the input signal drc.ps to 1.5 volts to the This time car. be d~termined to be 20 ns froll the simulation runs., This time i5 less then the ma)(im~m
"

propagation delay time found in specificatiofl sheets (60 ns) and compa,re:; f~vorabll to observed propagation delay times. Propagation dp.lay tinie, ,1igh-to-low level output., i~ ,defined is the time'interval froft!' when the 'input volt'age rises to 1. 5 volts to ,th. tilllll! when the output voltage falls to 1.5 volts. tfon sheet MaXimUM of 60 ns. b. CD405l Simulation

produce~ a propagation delay time of 50 ns, which is under'the specific,a1

l

ltte power of composite PIIOdeHng will be! illustrated by modeling a CD4051 ,CMOS ana10g multiplexer using SCEJ'TR,E/lOGIC. The CD405l is predominantly a digital circui,t which has analop' outputs. A

i .
I

"

V167 '

",f.,

--

s C [ P T q[ ~tT.)q~ SI~ULAJIO~ P~03RlN 'IR fQilCE .(APOH~ .. AjOolAlJiiY - .Af~ ~

~E~SI~~

CDC S~l
IO.'l.II~

~/1b

Il/I6/11

If

r~ A LISTING Of USE~ 't,rUA[~ UHIlUE ;0 T~15 V(~SI~ Of ~[PT~( SU~PLY A ClAD CO~Tll~i~G '~E .O~D "OO:U~E~T" AS THE FIMST C~~O
T~f I~PUT

TE.'

:O~PUT[A

"ME
CPA

~J~I~G S~JUP

PH,SE-

.ll!. S[C.

PP
10

O.JOO SEt. O.JOO S~C.

~U"PMOG"AN

.. .. ..
~

Y:JA) / I~PUT ~AN(l (iAT:: _EifEL Sf.:.E:T fO~ U~[ .IT~ 2 I~PJ' ~A~O ba'F , U~C TI O~ , ~i "" It. C J. ., I A-",JA Sa"J-t :a).8
OaJ
E.I.~ ~-l.)

f~20-AMI~lcl.~1
N[TUR~

IfCA.LF.C.)M.8.~[.:IGO TO IJca.Gf.t.l~).i.~E.EIGO Tn ~

f~?-O
ArTUq~

f~la'

"fTu .. ~
tNO

'U~CTIO~ f:.~lca.H.c.OI

UI3IfA_, IC CAPaCITOM SH~Cr '

'TO [STAMLISH tlPaCITOR VALUE Of )1311AL Ie fCAPI_C

l'ca.uE.~lrCa~IO Rf.TU"~

.OJtL
I

tNO D(SC"IPTIO~

i INPUT :'LLNEHT!it

"(\DE~, LOO t'a-""'OU'-3~)J I~PUT ~A~O, GA': a a 1~"'tJT A'

r4'

Ja.a-G~OaO.

J'''"-G~O.O.
JO.OU'-G~Da(l.

,~"I-l:00.

~1.GNO~I~Q'I"Ja.lfJi.).H.).I.I.9.0.1'

~igure

VJ-47.

RSU54l00

scEPTRE Test Circuit

,
~

VJ-68
- ; - , - - - - _ . ' ' - , - ,---~~--.---"----

':
,

"

, ~l.l-OUT-JO. J: UateII ONS.

~UTPUTS

Cl..lGItOaQl (l.l.:'S-).[-U.lOO~,"l~ , El. 6NO-l-.) (yel)

~4('.8.C.O'E.F'-(F~l(A.8'~'D.E'F
~lqCUlr

J2(A.B,C.D'-(FCA~1(A~BtC.~

~JA(AIN).YJ8(8IN'.~J)~Ou,gUT"PlOT
DESCRIPTIO~

~2.2-3430(l.

::LEMENT5 ~ IN-I-Z-GNO-MO)E~ _DO

~2.. 2'"'l~ .. ".1l

U.J":'GNO-1S0. Cl.J-GNO-lS.E-12 .fl.[IN-INaSO.

[51G'~[INaT'A~

ICTINtJ
.

~1.GND-la2.4 ~-2~1.[-l2 ~4.4-5-800.

~.6-5al.

JO.4-l40! ODE QUH 10'41(2. 69[-14. ll.lS)

EZ.GNO-6=l.4 .
~u~CTIONS
,.~[

qU~

O.1.J.J[-1.J.J.1~-7.).S.7.4E-7.0.S.7.5E_7.l.8.E_7.J

C,)NTROLS

~T~P 11M( a 999.~-i ~AXINUM P~INT PJI'4Ti- 100 ~1~lMUN ~TEP 511:: 1.E~1~

JlIIPUTS

!SIc;,PLOT
e:~I'

THE T[RM ' VAl

\
I

Ccl,~PUT[A TIME AT HA"' ....... TlOt.l OF SETUp ;aHASi:CPA l.ll4 SEC. pp. O.~~O SEC. 10 O.~OO SEC.

F1gure VI-47.

RSN54l00 SCEPTRE Test Circuit '('Concluded)

VI-G,9
__ 'M"_,,,,_, _ _
,'"

.'

.t

.., .. ... --------------------------------------------------- .. . I : I : .. .~ -.

I
~

I .
I

I .
I

<>

I I

<>

, I

\OJ 0

!
I

C>

'"

i7'

1-

<>
I
0

.
..'
,t:
0

<>
0

I
1-

'" >

4-

'I'

I , I

- ..., ..... -.
i
1 1 1 1 1

, , , ,

.:..> >
c:.
~,

!r'

g g

.. '
0

,--""

Co!

0
::0~,

' 0

'"
~

. ".

"

... ;:-.
II

10'

-I

;;
~

1
I I

III

..

, -
..

.--~-!---~!-~--j--~ ... W ...

III

. .
.

0 0

, '" ! '" ... .v

, VI -70

-. !
I. III

II!

...

...
0

.. .. - . . _---- . ...
I I I ... <>
0 1

-.
1

.. . ...
1 1

, ... " ~
I I
t

..
..

'" , <> <> ,

Q

I I I 1 1 I I I

<>

::::I

0r-

<>
I
0

.
~

e:

I'

..

:>
Q)

'<:t
I

.:)

;:,

l..

u..

0'1 .....

I I

'" <>

I\>

...

c.

.J.. ,

d.

Ibri ;,I

.. --------- -----------~ -------- - .... _... -- - ------- ------- .

0

...
0

'1 "

...

1 1 1 1 1

1
1
-I

1 -I 1

1 1 -I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

.'". . ". ... ... .'"

0

...
1

1 1 1

cI
0

1 1 1

CO

1 1

.1

...
I
0 0 0

0 .....

QI

.:

1
1 1 1 1

1 I
1

1
1

1
-I

1 1 1 I 1 1 1 I
-I

..'" .., .. ;.
1

... .. '" .. ... '"

I

~
+..I :3 +..I :3
01 +..I
(,!)

>

"'

.
1

.0

...

z c::c z:

CO 0

I 1 I 1 1

,-I

1 1
1

, :
1

... ... .. ... .. ..;

1

.. ;

...

o::r1

..... :::QI
~

- . ... . ... .. .. ... ..

1 1 1
1

... '" ... '" ....'"

1 1

....

::l 0"

LI-

'

l J ~

..
'"

...

i
~

.. ... ..
...

.. ... ..

"!

...

...

..

..
oil

...

;;

iJ

...
1

...
...

Vl-71

1 ",1

r
\

data sheet is given in figure VI-50.

throu~n

Additional

info~tior.

was obtained
op~ned

other data sheets

a~d

through visual ,inspection of an

device. ~ complet~ descript:on of the modeling of this, device. is given in reference 111-5., Figures VI-51 and VI-52 give the cif'cuit diagrc1lR and SCEPTRE listing of t.he
C~4051

composib model.

T~e

particular listing

g:ven is ft'om a~ EMP demonstr.ation run. but,it 1S essentially the same as the listings of the model and circuit description for electrical and photocurrent
demonst~ations

The

on:ydiffer~nces

lie in the

sp~cifica-

tion of the input voltage generators (EA. EB. EC, and EI) aod in the circuit ctescription and the specification of a dose rate fllr the PGO defined plramete, in the in?de1. In general. the mo,~e1 is a str-liylltfot'Ward application of the ct'lftposite modellng concept~ to the circuit topology of the C04051. ,The decoding nt'tworil is iocluded in the' LOGIC model FC111l5l which is called into the SCEPTRE model via the equJtion Q1J. The el,etII@nts in the FC0051 represent a one-for-one substitution of logical' elements'for the functional blocks found in the C04051 decoding network. The vallles for th~ ~elay elements were based on estimates of propagatioll delay of s1miL~r CMOS gates and on the results of detailed modelil19 of CMOS drcuits .. 'The output of FCD05l is used to control 'Ute current source~ JTG thrcll~g~ JT7. " These current sources are essentially variablei-esistors whi ch have beer, mode led as c~rrent sources due to SCEPTRE's aversion to nonconstant're~istance. JTO is'eQuivalent to the trans.ission gate impedance connecting the co~on iniout ternlinal (node CO) with the channel o terminal (node 00). A cons~ant lJalue of transmission gate illlPedance has ~een chllsen for the, "channe 1 on" state: Actually. the i!llpedanc~ varies as a function of current and of total dose. Tomlldel the variation in i!llpedance, JTO could be modeled with an lIV table. However, ttle' nonconstdnt impeddnce was not a siynificant factor "in either theoretical or experimental efforts for which thi's model was develop..d. Consequently, the simpler, ~~nstant impedance formulation was used.

VI-72

,f......

,,:._

.'

-,.

I
I

IMO"'"

,.no".. nD C'IlCUI"

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

CD40518, CD40521t, CD40538 Type. COS/MOS An.log MUlttPlc ,s/oemu. Itlpl ,s lila
Wltttl_ l _ Con_
..

::~ :.:::::;::1:1~~~~;~):::::..:~ ~:~

~ ,~ ... I.f\,( ....., ...., ..
I,).

~l" ...,)_t (o.Ot>: ...., CD.O!oJ

OF,. '........

H.gh I/QIt.Type. 13 1o 20 I.'ull ROI"" C04061B .- 5...... Uh_1 Mul''''....Io.ttu:,'''..... C04O&28 _ 0,"*-" .. 4C,"- Mult..... /OtImuI''''I.... '~D40&38 - tu" 2e""'l Mu1f1tlu.,'P-uh. . . . t
IIIIA ....... RAIINGI. ~"'.!'f ..."""" V~..... . .

10 \/ ..... ttl ~..; ...... ' bIr ... " ... ...0 lIv"\I.,.. '.1 ~ ..,.,.I ~htUl.tft l.It "!II ft.} ;to" "-bt \l001.",'i . ) \' "UO 'w'f ,\' ~IJ ").IJ

C~'"1I('1! ", ... ,.to~ "11',.1\ UJ-' tu

~tt:'.,,~(.o '1"'(""'0.. 1 M"IIiIK.t ,I,. ;......... l~ .... O J .. w

IX'

STI)f4A(;E

'l .... t~"'I.JAt Jo1A ...,"r'fGI

'til'
.

_ to .t!d"c
Y'I.o.'1IGc
4010.eO('

."f,f"."'.'

V (.."

:,.. (1.WtToll~1
~I'"

1'-.1/

1)'" .. \/00 "'SS ;.~ . .If .... u 4!l1" " ' ...11.4.' .... \ Fot ""'~1:' ,f "Ll.O!.V"s"'i. O.".,IV'" 1J~'w'
h~1m

""no "If"

'''''.'

" ........ I, .... t '( \(Ol rAGt

'1..''''''

MAo,,"-"

..... 00

l\in'I. . . . . ' ........., tu

~tHl)ts.s.I" .. "ON

tJ!II \' 10 bt ,(".... "ull.. ' by ,1'9"lI j ,npuh u' 0 to .. !t

.,..,,'..,.. ~ ... "

I~

'''w ......

v It,~ ..... ("'fn.HI\\""lLM'''f'.''.~I...

."!a \.' (.,.

'Iss

.'1"' . . ~ 06
'",.

..

I""... ('k".1

\Iss Of "tt .....(-..-

_ ...........,

o !I> 10 -My
5OJ .....

to'lO.~('I ....... 'WiJII.:.'"

'It

J.;w ' " lIOlu ,''0(' ,,,....... ,.. ,~ . . i

Ott .. r. tU~I'II.t '1 ","*,"C ..

0. ... "' ........1

"'01)"" .
....
200 .....

'.Ju.t''k-.nr , ... ' .... ' ,,,-.. 1"'- full VOO

and "'OO'/E "'''''''''VI!.,.,'''9"'

~""'It

"ql'l... t

,ndII " ,"- "''1),(; ",.t. llf ,,,- ("01" III ~n. IloQ.C 1 ., ~)II.Wf1' lIt...

,lXJ'l'c ! . . . . . . hll .l 0 ' '0 'Of f .... ,h:.:J 10 ,'noc I"...... ~ 'wPM D.'. It! otVICl O'$$'''''TIOII "fPi "t;" .... I .. .c.-'itF . . " .......... l.~.IWI.R.n.I .."".....r, ...,
~ 10

'l"'.~tO

100m.0 I to "'00 .0 ~ V

INI'V', "U .. ' ....... 1: ......fItCt* ....... ,,,"VfS I.I"U Tt ... rM"'uM( ,0uMl~ $OI.DlftINGI 16' t!ll.",-"" W!O ?'I_lftOl"'CMe''''' 10 .......

","'t..-... ,

~......,,,,,,"'

fh," b"'",'11 contrlll'''.lO-r,. "'-

I . ' ..... C .,.....9.,. "h,'''I,,..,,.,.t ,,,-,,,, .. no,., ... "9"'"'' 1 III I l",-,""" IIJ t.
lu"""-' O~ .n;.t COf'''''cl l""" 0' 11\4 S .","","

.tK,

" . ,. .""

,'" 1",.",14..'" ""14&,111)' nom"..1 ... If"ut t'tII :01'..,.,,,, ,Mtf/ft

t)pM'''''' ("ond" . . . ~Id'" __ NIl.., ""'tJDtII.,rM

"'.JIun 1Ito"""'.,pi~
to~1 ry""'.AlJI". fIOr.d

Tto..

Ct>"~1

,\ .. d,"".,"'.'" f..':-an,.... mult,

pM ... .., 1'41""'1) ' ... u n'F\M .. I.-OI1t'O!

.,llf 8

.....1.11"1 .nh,bol .",,.,.,

r,,- t....., bm....

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C04,051 CompoSite rlode1 Listing (Concluded)

YI'-83
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Two important techniques are demonstrLted in the IIV pori1rn of the composite model. They deal with the implementation of the EMP burnout model and the photores~ons~ model. Predictions could be made of t!',e EMP failure thresholds for input, output, and power supply terminals based 0" relatively complex models of the I)N junctions and MaS devices connected to each of the terminals. Such rl0dels are too complex to be cfJ/lsistent with the composite modeling concept whic ... str.esses a limited number of ~lements and simpler functional forms. Also, the goal of the composite model is to simulate terminal performa~ce r~ther th~n to predict failure characteristics. To simplify the modeling of EMP effects, an empirical model can be constructed directly from experimental t~st deta .. u;ing techniques discussed earlier in this chapter'. Tha correct current and voltage responsp. of the termin?ls in breakdown can be simulated using a diode ta~le as shown in figure VI-43. When t~~ elem~nt described by the diode table is pulsed with an EMP ;ignal, it will exhibi~ the propel' termina1 I/Vcharacteristics and, hence, the proper termi na 1 power. The t,ermi na 1 ro\.,e~ can then be used in a modi~ied FBURN subroutine to indicate the terminal failure t!lreshold. The modif~cation to the FBURN subroutine ,involves replacing the functional form
P = Kt- 1/2

\o,th the form

" =

At-B.

L
t.;

The required chal'ge is st-own in the listing of FSURN in figure VI-52. The elements ,.lA, JB. 'Je, and .J! represent the EMP diode elements for the C04051 inputs. The elements JO throughJ7 represent the diode elements for the output.

, ..

, '

<

Both experimental and detailed analyses show that the photoresponse of CMOS multiplexer outputs can be significantly influenced by the secondary photocurrent produced t-y the parasiti'c NPN transistor associated with the NMOS device in the tranSmission gate. The detailed models successfully predict this influence but require an (bers-Moll model of the parasitic transistor. Such a procedure is not consistent with the composite model goals. However, reexamination of the problem indicates a method for including the secondary photocurrent effects without a complete par~sitic transistor model. Consider the diagr~m of the parasitic transistor in figure VI-53. The secondary photocurrent will not be produred until the voltage drop in the bulk resistance, R, exceeds the reverse bias across ~he emitter base junction plus the 0.6V turn-on threshold. Therefore, the minimum amount of photocurrent'which must flow before the sec~ndary photocurrent is generated is:
V + V + 0.6

where I pp ' V, V o ' R' ar~ defined in figure VI-53. The amount of second~ry photocurrent can be calculated, from the expression

= Ipp

0_(1 V + Vo + 0.6) R P

where: ISp = secondary photoc,tlrrent P = COlll'llon emitter current gain If there is not enough primary photocurrent'to produce a secondary ,hotocurrent, the ISp equation 'must bp limited to zero and provision made,for the pr'imary photocurrent or afraC1:ion thareof to flow out of thetermina 1. Equat i o~ QTR in the SCEPTRE mode 1 1.i st i ~g' i IIIp 1cment~ the techni que

_ '

_ _0_ _ _ _

..,
;
,

..

-.--

'" +
,

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, _ ....

..~...

described above. The procedure p;ovides ~ means 'for automatically r.flectil.g the infl'up.nce of secondary photocurrent over a wi'de range of dose rates without unnecessary elements.

R
+

-v
Figure VI-53. Parasitic Transi~tor Schematic for Simplified Secondary Photocurrent Model Development

The results of exercising the composite model of the CD4051 are shown in figures VI-54 through VI-56. Figure VI~54 shows the results of cycling through the multipl~xer channels (channels 0, 4, and 1 are shown) and demonstrates the electrical operation of the model. The o~tput of channel 7 is terminated bY,an inhibit signal. ,Note t~e glitches occurring on channel 7 as other channels are ~e1ected. These are the result uf propagation delay variations in th2 circuitry., They are also observable in electrical .Ileasurements on the C04051. Figu'res 'VI-55 and VI~56 show the output photoresponse simulations for low and high sta:e outputs, ,respective1~. They demonstrate the ~ti1ity'of the SEcondary' photocurrent' moda 1 deve loped above. ~--- . -, Further examples of the application of composite modeling are given in example 5 of ~hapter VII.
"

\~

VI-l.

Pocock', D. N., et al. 273, Mar'ch 1974.

"Simplified Microcircuit Modeling,lI AFWL-TR-73-,

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,

VI-36

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Figure VI-55 .. Composite Hodel Sililulation of C04051 PhotoresponseHigh State O~tput

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C','lposite "odel Simulatinf\ of CD4t:~1 photoresponse

low-State OutPIJt

.. ,-

. -'

....

VI-Z.
1,'1-3
YI-4.

Greenbaum, J. 19&9 R. "Ha linear Hode's of Op ikp," !J.!;:!!"n,cOe!.ign. 19 S~pt~~bpr

r'ocock, 0 N., ft dl. "Modt.>ling of CJrc.:1ts as. nt>nts of larQt> Systt.>lIis," AfIWl-rR-/I'1183. Oecrmber 191!,

Intf~Jratt>d

Corr.~)O

MOdt>lif1~

Rdyrr.on,I, J,. P., !l. N. Pocock, and R. f. Johnson, of Intt.>qratt"d Cl,'cuit:.." MIWl-fR-10-92.

\ ! -5.
VI- 6.

ftlell:Jndt.>r, D. R. a I. "MOS 1\11"lyt ic Modt-l,s ",ith Provis ion tor Rac1id: ion Effects." Af w l-TR-7"-]],', November '97/,

t.>~

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G,..or,bJum,". R. "0 i g' t a) -I C Hodo).s f ... '''''Pute. A'dod Oes. gn; Part J: TTL NAND Gat><.," Oecell"ber .9/3, pp_ 121-125.

tlt"c.!.~nic_~,

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CHAPTER VII EXAMPLES,

A.

INDucm U~?Ef LOGIC CIRCUIT:,

t

ILLUSTRATION

cr

THE EFFECTS OF NEUTRON DEGRADATION, vOSE RATE AND lMPTNinm BURNOUT OI;-OISCRETE

~fEGRAnD

This e~ampJe is a ~~udy of the in~erface latch circuit Shown in r'iqure'VII-!. This ':ircuit is representative of a number of circuits C()~nly seen in SIV (servivability/vulner-ciui "ity) anaJysi,s. The ,interfdce latch circuit inteorfaceos, iO-volt IO!:,ie signals into signals compatib Ie with low pow,.,' TTL logi~.
The modeo! in!eorfdceo latch circuit is a ~mbination of a basic transistor "odeol and a simplified digital logic modeol'. Both of theseo modt'ls were demonstrated as pxampleos in this handbook.

Theo first example runWdS illtendeod to verify theo eoleoctriCdl,behd\lior ' , of thl' latCh. The signa I st>quence used to test the behavio,' of tile latch is shown in figure VII-2. Thp desired behavior of the 'OUT" node was, observed. figure VII-J is the listing Jnd output fo~ this run. What is the "adiation response of this circuit? Computer simulations will give much insight into this problem. Befor~ si~uTations are to be made. the an~lvst Must decide what Possibilities are important and what effects neeod to be con~idered., for the latch Circuit. an electromagnetic pulse may trJvel f~orn' any external pin to the c'ircuit dnd produce fai lur,~: 'ThE.' ;,nal)st must decid~ which pins are to be analyzed as potentia~ hazards. Ionfzing radfation wfll a.fect the two TTL gat@s and producp a Pl'"illar:,',Photocurrent fn the 2N22ZZA. the analyst lIIuSt fi.:.it decide 'if ups,.t h a possibility and which COlllponents'neec.. be consfdpred as upset Possibflftfes. Neutron cOMponents.

Agafn~

ra~iatfon

will degrade the perforllldnce of the semiconductor the analyst Must decide what effects neE.'d to be

VII-l

+5\'

lK

r'OV
0-"-'

54LOIJ

INl

IN2

Figure'lIl-1.

Interface Latch Circuit

~ERST

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Figure VlI-2.

Timing Sequence uf Model Voltage Signals

VI ~-2

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Figure VIl-3.

Co~puter

Verification of Interf ce Latch aehay~ or (Cont i r;ued)

VlI-4

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Computl!r VerHication of Int!!rface Latch Electrical Behavior (Continued) VII-S .

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Computer Verification of Interface Latch Electrical Behavior (Continued)

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simulated, ,whether a simulation is even required, and whic~ components are affected in the simulation. What will happen to the latch when exposed to a neutron f1uence of 14 2 x 10 n/cm ? This question may be answered by a comp'uter s~m1l1ation. The major damaging effect to the 2N2222A tran!O.istor\oti11 be a degradation in the current gain. An estimation Jf the amount rf degradation can be mad~ from the preirradiation gain and fT of the model transistor as:
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, VII-9

'I~

C E P T FORCE

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_'jORAT~RY

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S.~ SI1b 18.18.li.

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Interface Latch

B~havior

Following Neutro.) Exposure

, VII':10

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l/3 + 1.08) Ipp (mA) = 108 (0.3 GHz)-2/5 (75 V)(8 pF 10 V (21.6 + 51/3 )(3.24 x 10- 13 ) .

Note: The data sheet value of f t = 3UO MHz was used instead of the measured yalue of f t = 155 MHz. The ;onizing waveform was chosen tJ be triangular. risinq to the peak value in 20 ns and falling i,l 70 ns. The latch reset nne voltage (ERST), "I~; set high to allow the observation .of a false triggering of th~ latch due to photocurrents. The' photocurrent generator (JPP) was then placed between the collector and base of the transistor and a simulation run made. Observation of the voltage a~ross the collector ~esistor (VR2) indicates that the photocurrent saturated the 2N2222A producing an erroneous lo~ic state. The final result was a falsi! 1atchlng of the output (VJOUT). Figure VII-5 h the computer run for this example. A nuclear burst also produces a powerful elp.ctromagnetic pulse which .may be coupled to a circuit an~ then produce a burnout failure. The latch reset line (E~ST) is to be ~nalyzed , for hardness to electrical .
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The overstress waveform for thh example ;s the double exponential described in chapter II.B.8 in the phot.ocurrent section. The pari!meters describing this waveform are: (lpp) = TOO volts Vpeak.
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C"mputer Results c~ Overstress Simulation

VII-?S

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A power m~nitoring device is n~w requirp.d dt the gate input which w:'l react to an electrical overstress signal. This element will be monitored by F~URN to allow a prediction of failure. Information on the electrical overstress behavior of TTL was obtained from reference VII-1, where the overstress parameters for TTL input are 1i sted as:

A of P '= At-~ = 0.00216 B of P =At- C = 0.689 =7 V

= 16 Q

The power monitoring element was given the characteristic of figurE: VII-7. The that ~nder such overstress conditions, , siilu1ation predicted , an interface latch circuit would suffer failure due to heating in about 9 x 10- 7 seconds' following the initiation of the overstress wa\leform.

1/16n
7V

V'

Figure VII-7.

Power Monitoring Element Characteristics

VII-32

B.

EFFECTS OF NEUTRONS. GAMMA DOSE RATE. AND EMP UPSET ON A POWER

RrGULAToR
The discrete components of .the power regulatl'r in tt'lis examp'lp ;~~:;,ch were not previously modeled. were developed entirely from data si,-'ets or "safe" default values demonstrating that models may be develo~ec1 which do,
,

'

not require measurements. demonstr-lted.

Also, the two transistor model for the SCR is

Figure ViI-8 is a schematic rerresentat;.>n of the power

supply to be analyzed. Th,e power r~gulator represents some special problems for hardness assessment.
.-

First, the power regulator s,imulaiions represent a special

.

mix o~ long and short time' constants imposing a burden on,thp ccmputer

r.~de.

'A long simulation time prnblem also produces the problem'of h~w

to inc 1ude very short 1 i ved phenomenon. 'One sol ut i

0.'

is to use the

.initial conditions feature of the 'code, if available, and then look at a very small sl ice of time. Another possibility is to look. at the behavior of one "piece" of the circuit at a time, avoiding simulation of the whole system. 1. Model Development Bridge Diodes. Zene~ Diodes 'a. Very simple'models for thp. diodes were ,'Jsed since more The diodes
,

co~plex models would add nothing to the simulation results.

,

were described by ideal diode equations. defined by

,

t~e' "safe"
'

default value

(jf

Saturation currents were simply 14 1. ,. 10amperes. The zener

diodes were given the 'a~diticnal parameters, of a breakdown V01~lYi! and a breakdown current chosen as 1 mAo ,b. Transformer , The power supply transformer was given ~erfect flux linkage by definingK (the coupling coefficient) to be). The inductance of the 'primary a:'ld secondary coih wer,e chosen as 1 henfY fQr thh e'xampha

)
. VlJ,-33

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(a) Circuit Schematic

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Figure VII-R.

Power Reoulator

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2N3053 The basic model of a 2N3053 was developed from the data

sheets shown in figure VII-9. The transistor satur2tion current is ideally obtained from a plot of IC where V = "CE' The, best available information is from BE figure 8 of the da~~ sheets. Choosing VBE'= 1,V ~here VeE = 10 V yields a cn11ector current of 240 mA, ,' IS = ,240 jAv = 4.09 )( 10exp .0259 V 18 A

Fi~ure 9 of the data sheets yields a base current of 2.3 mA at V BE = 1 V which allows current gain to be calculated. '

A t"

= ~~ 2." mH = 104

2N3773 The basic transistor mod~l for a 2N3773 was develop~d from the manufacturer's specification sh~ets shown in' figure VII-10. IS' the transistor saturation current, can b,e obtained if IC at V = YCE is'dvai'lab1e. Figure 8 ~f the data sheets, yields the BE best approxi atio~ to this condition. ,At,V BE = 0.8 V, collector current

d.

is 3.2 A.

---ii~..r;--

exp 0.0259 V Figure 20 0 the data sheets yields the base current at V BE = 0.8'V allowing cu rent gain to be calculated.
A
t"

3,2 A 0.8 V

= 1.23

= 3.2 A = 45 71

Q.ol A

Vll-35

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~.T.~ITORl

________________________________________________________________________

2N6Gl, 2N6GG, 2N1613, 2H1711, 2N1893, 2N2102, 2N2270, 2N2405, 2N3053 40366, 4038G, 403G2.41502,

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2N3053 llanufactl.Jrer Specification. Sheet (ref. VIl-2)

VII-36

.....

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2Ne07, 2NeO'), 2N1613, 2"'1711: 2N1893, :!N2102, 2N2270, 2N2405, 2N3053, 403e6,40380, 40302, 41502 Low-Pow.r Silicon N-P-N PI_n_r Tr.nll.to,. Fwru,.,:
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RCA2N2102 it dirlet r.~nl fo, lhe 2N181l. RCA2N?05 il direct r.placeOMnt fc~ lhe 2N189l. All of theM devices II. luppilld ,n lhe JEOEC TO]8 he,met ic pedo. ....

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POIftR

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2N697, 2N699, 2N1613, 2N1711, 2N1893, 2N2102, 2N2210, 2N2405, 2N3053, 40366,40389,40392,41502

.W

.~

t .. , . <'0."'

"'fl

F,~

12 TrDIC.' h,ghcurrent output cIW,.,r.".tH;J fO'

IN''''

F,g. 2J TrlJfc.' h,,,,<u. ;~ .. ~ output c"',...t."",CJ for'2tvr893.

F,~

24 TYIJIL.'

hlgh-cu,,..,,,ro~rpur

c""acr~""'CJ tor

2N2.f05.

F,fI. 25 Trp'c./It,fI/I-cur,.nr output

cIMrtllrt.tIC. for

lN3053.

40389, 40392.

Figure VII-9.

2N3053 fianufacturer Specification Sheet (Continued)

--~-----~

,'J,

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.-..... -. :. ... ':..'--.;;.-_--.-........... -....... - ' .-. ~.....; .. ~ ......;.w...... ... -.-_. ;",_. _~_:r..:;._':_'-::_::_::-,.:.::_:_~--;::---..:...--_.-_.-_.-_-_._-...;.~.~_.,-:"-:.:::-~.'..=:-<~:::..:...

. ,, __ v_ _.. .. ' .................;..--.

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f'

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....----.......

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2N687. 2N6H. 2N1~13, 2NI711. 2N18~3, 2N2102, 2N2270. 2N2405.2N3~53, 40366,40388.40392,41502

~~: -~~-~~~!~-::-:;

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Figure Vil-9.' 2t0053

rt~~lufilct!J~r

5I>ecifi.:at1on Sheet (Continued)

~

V11-39'

2N8t7. 2N809. 2N1&13. 2N1711. 2N1883. 2N21C2 40388.40388.40392.41502

' CttlOCAl

----------.--------------------------------------------------------------I

2N2270,

~~~~F 2N24~$. 2N305S.

. . . 'OMi

oo.aac" ...,JCa

. " . ,_ _ ' . ,. _ _ _ _

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I _ ......

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to",' '''-''\
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Sp~c Ifft,:,. tion
Sheet (Conl hlued)
V11-40.

ffgure VII-,).

lNJOSJ rldnufclc tl,frer

i
, Ill

.\

~" 2N8". ------------------------------------------------------------2N807, 2N1813. 2N1711. 2N1.03. 2N2102. 2N2270, 2N2405, 2N3053. 40388,40380,40302,41502

...

........

..,

........

' " '11 ' ..... ~.~_.. . - , /','''' IN"" J"'~ IN~

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~

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f;igure VII~,)__

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...... _II,.

-.~,., " . , . .

-",

'. " . ,.,...,....--,.;;:" "'''tll. .

,~_,.,
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2113053 nanufacturer Specification Sheet (Concluded)

\'1l-41

'-"

,-...UI.....
.,......--~

2N3773.2N434I.2N825'
" ..................... Ow, ......... ~1NR..... .
0..- .... .. ,............ C - -......_

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-~

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VII-IO.

".,,,.

t!.~1 ..
. ' . 1'1... " -.," .... ., . . . - . , . . , .

..

Figur~

2N3773 r~nuf~cturer Specification Sheet (ref VIl-?)

vn-42

2N377~.

2N4348, 2Ne2Se

~. 5 'tf.-.J

'*' .... ",..,..,. 'trC'l""

:till.]".]

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................
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----

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Figure VII:.1D . 2N3773 rlanufacturer Specfffcatf,oll Sheet (Continued)

,
," I

2N377J, 2N434S, ~Ne251

_

.. .......... .... .... .

r- - - - - - - - - ~ ' .....'wee I!C'."C

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1fHJ46

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Figure VlI-1Q.
'"

.. ..... ......... --., ..

<~~

__

2N3773 tianufacturer Speci Hcation Sh~et (Cor.t1nuea)

'''" \.
VII~44

"

.....,

t.~ .~.'
I,
I ,

2N3773. 2N4348. 2N825Q

r'--'--_ r;;r II .' rn

} . -J....:.:r

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F. ". ~_,."."" r.,,,..., .ru,.li_"'" ,O' 2Nf.J4.

.g.

-r.,,,..., _,.,_"",,,c_ ..,.,."ic.

.,'

..

toT ;zw259.

F." 10

rvP'C" .n",,' , _. . .,,,,t. 'Ot

JNJ"'~

F". 2' .

r""..., irl/lflf ,_.""in'or

1N434

F".

zz. r.,,,;uI i_' ,__i""" 'or

, ZN'ZU.

Figure

Vll~10.

2N3773

I~nufactute~ ~pecification

Sheet

(Concluded~

VII~45

741 Operational ~mplifier The mod~l of the 741 operational amplifier was composed of a voltage controlled voltage source, an o~tput impedance, and voltage swing limiting zener diodes. Values for the voltage source, which mo~eled the open loop gain cf the device, and the output impedance were obtained in ct-apter VI. The op amp composite model is shown in figure VIl-11. e.

+ 00---<10

Viti

.
0

V OUT
~

...
- 0

FigureVII-ll.

741 Operational Amplifier Model

Only the features o.f a model ,which are determined necessary to correctly solve a probiem need be included. For this reason. the model shown in figure '111-11 is sufficient as opposed to the more complex model developed in chapter VI. The 741 model developerl in chapter VI would only add unnece5sary complexity to the power regulator model.

2N5061 The model used for the 2N5061 SCR was the two transistor equivalent circuit. The-fIIOde-lSCR is t;hown in figure VII-l?

f.

t:;

Figure '111-12.

Model 2N5061

VII-46

,
The manufacturer specification sheets for the 2NS061 . (chapter V) ~~e extremely conservative when listing trigger ~onditions prOducing much ambiguity in choJsing parameters. In the model which w~s sel~cted, transistor 1 was chosep with a unity cUrront gain and transistor 2 was choson with a curront gain of 100 which ",clinos to a .valuo of unity at a baso and co11octor curront of 1 ~A. This implies th~t the sum of the two alphas will be unity at an anode 'current of 2 J,lA. This value is reasonably close to the actuCll experimental values.

Tr~nsistor 2 1S based loosely on the 2N22,22A model developed in chapter III. The characteri~tics of transistor 2 are shown in figure ~iI-13. The SPICE gain parame\...I' C2 was c.hosen ~s 1000, a typi~al value. It can be seen that 'he other parameters arD now fixed.
Slope = (Rn 1 fA - .21l 3 'x 10 -11 A) = 23. 1

0..45 V- 0 \)

- (0.0259)(23. 1 1) = 1. 67 EL -

From the 2N2222A model, , IS = 3 ;< 10- 14 ar ~eres

~FM

= 100
~hosen
to

Resister R and capacitor C were second time constant. R ='100 Q C :' 10 nF 2. Simulations

y~eld

a l-micro_-

The first simulation made was simply a verification of correct elect .. ical operatio~. Th~ po~er supply was "turned on" and th~output voltage was monitored. 'The C'omputer results, are 1isted in f'jgure VlI-l~.

-VII-47

\-

.).

J.
I

~,

...

..

,'"

lOG I
1. OE-Ol

!.0[-02
I.OE-03

1.0E-04 I.OF-OS 1.0E-06 1. OE-07 1.0[-08

,I
GATE TRIGGER Cll!?RfI'T

-r/
I

/
liAIN
10,) /

1.0E-09 1.0E-10

f .
J.'

/
1.0E-ll 1.0E-12 'I.!lE-13 1.0[-14 LO[-15 1.0E-16

I <:,\..(\\'t" ~J

Ii

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I
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,
t
t~

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,~,~

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/ /, /

1.0E-Ol

2.0E-Ol 3.0[-014.0E_Ol~OE-016.0E_OI7.0[-018.0[_OI9.0E-Ol

VHf

Figure VII-13.

Characteristics of Transistor 2

VII-48'
.-',
,','

~,;.

\0.-',.

1. ..... ,_ .......

_._ . . . .

)
U]/1b/'~

SPICE lO.?

libSl~7bi

Od.J?O)...

I/liPu T LI S TI '4G

,n.ooo DEG

. t.
liM UIISa1.~-1. ~val5 I~va f-J) 0.001 UII'al.:~l.' U3713 N~N!~~%~5.71 ISE1.?3E-13) U]O,l NPNI~c=IO. ISa 0~E-1~1 lEN OCIS~l.~-I. 8v=~.1 IRV=l.-JI .~OUEl lE"'~ UIIS-I.E1. ~V.I~ IRV-I.-~I .NODEl PSC~ PNPI~F-1 IS-J.E-1.) .~OuEl "'SC~ "'~NliF.130 ISzJ.E-l. C~=1.~3 N=1.b7) VE I4P 1 Ii 0 0 \IT ..... 1 1" SINCO 2!1 ~OO II 01
~T.tAN 1 2 1 .1 2 , I .2 3 I ~I.lU1 1.1 3

, '

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c:.

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P
1'0

'rigurr. VII-14.
\

Power Supply "Turn On"

;'

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Figure VlI-14.

Power Sup~l.V "Tut,n Or." (Concluded)

VII-50

.'.,

W"ttt

. . .:;.i

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oj

'<f~'

...

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.!

For the ~ext simulati~n. the response of the power supply to a neutron fluence of 6 x lOll cm 2 WdS desired. Because the fT of the 2N3773 (200 kHz) is m~ch lower ttlan thefT of the 2N3053 (l00 friHz), thE: 2N3713 will be orders of m~g:1itude more susceptible to neutron dama~e. Therefore, the simulation need only be concprned with the 2N3773 serws pass transistor. At 6 x lOll n/cm 2
1 _
~4I

( 10- 6-) (6 x 10 n) +

2n l200 kHz)

45':IT

fJ 41

=2

The power supply outp~t voltaG~ was ~cnitored with the degraded fJ value T~:e computer simulation of f.igure VII-15 indicat:es that at a' neutron fluence of 6 x lOll n/cm 2 , the power regulator will fail to supp~y 10 volts to a 2-ohm loaJ. Is it true that power regulators should be able to reject an overstress waveform coupled throug~ the transfOrmer? To test this idea, the overstress signal shown in figure VII-16 was applied to the transformer primary. An added complication to this simulation is the inductive behavior of electrolytic capacitors at high frequencies. This . problem was solved w~th th~ additior. of parasitic 'inductors in series with the 100 IJF capacitors. The problem of p;lI'asitics should a~ways be c.onsidered. ' Id~ally, for EMP analysis, the parasitic st"ucture of the transformer should be determined. ' ' ':igure VII-17 is, the computet' simulation of the problem. The output is a simultaneous plo~ of ~he power regul~tor output and tne overstr~ss signal. It can be seen that this partitular ov~rstress signal wculd not upset the power regulator. The final 5imu~~tion is a test to see if an ionizing dose rate of 1 x 10 rad (SO/sec is sufficient to cause the SeH to fire and shut down the power supply.
10

. , VII-51

........---~

..

I."! .'.'

~ 03'1~'7R

SPICE iD.l Itb;t~7bl

~. ~~.10-?~

INPUT L.:STI'IG
~ o o

.MODEL .MOOtL .MODEL .NODlL IPP.ll

~T"AN

.~ODEL QJ~53 NP~IB~=IC" 1~=".09F-lq, ZEN DIIS~I.!-I" ijv=5.1 IfjW.l.E-]) lEN2 OlIS=I.E-14 ~v=15 I~V=l.~-],

.MODEL LIM OlI~:I.~-I' 8V=15 lijv:l.~-31 C.OOI DIIS=I.~-I.) , .NDDEL Qj773 NPNIR~=? 15=1.23E-13)
.~JD~L

PSCk ~NPt~F=1 IS=;.E-141 NSCQ NPNI~f=IJO 15=3.E-14 C~=I.j 1,1=1. 13 0

,7)

liE '4P 1'1 0 0,

... T'!AN 1 19 ~!NIO 2~ ~OO 0,01'

1 2 1

.1 i 0 1 .2 3 4 1 < Ll L2 1
)1 0 3 O"c/Ol )2 J 5 O.. OOl

)3 ) .. .3 C3
~3

c/ .. 04001 4 5 04001 5 17 1/).E-9 17 0100.l-1!

5 I!
~ 6
1~

Jl

Q.H73

7 10 91100 -47 10 II .}DOOO :. 4 7 111 10. E-'" :5 18 0 100.E-6' :4 It 0 0.47E-6 :14,1 9 0 10 11 1.15E:; ~SCR 7, ,14 1 CS'C~ r 13 I.E-'R JJ 13 12 i4 PSCR ':"4 12 13 0 NSCR ~8 15 0 1000 )6 IS 7 Z .. 2 ~T ... Y 1!:1 13 '10C l7 20 16 LIM III 0 16 L IIi4
~L

~~ )~ ~6

~2 I! 8 0 "'JO~J ~'. 20 8 100 ~OuT 21i '" 75

711500'

0 11 ZE ~

7 0 2

.OPTIONS I:LSalOOOo .T~AN I.E-4 l.l-~ .PLfJT TRAN V(7) .E"O

Figure '!II-15.

Power Supply Output After Neutron x!losure

VII-52
~- ~---,-~---~~---T

.... ':.,....,., 1Me,te> 't

"'.'

-~

~---~.~_ .... ~
>.

....

,""r,r. ~) .I

. , ' .. ~ .. ' . ,

1....

. ..........................................................................................................................

r(~"".t" .. i "

I'.'~II:

,,,,". '.

.........

1 , " , 1 " ,
,~

,..... .

"
~

..... ,., ... ,.. .

......... ,..
... I .. ~

','.""

t ~ ......

, .. ,.r .
. . . . . 1'

i'
;'
I

.... , ...... , .. .
""'
....
~

-. I

........, ..... ,.
... ' .. ,1

,',

11 I ...

... '" I., ~

" J., ...... r.

f.o ...
~

.
J
~

... ,,0'

. . . . . {O

." .......... , '."31)."

'.1 . ,"
'
~t

,"'"

j
,

....

.,.1'.' ." ..... " .,. ... "'", ,

(
~

t. I.~t e ... I ..

...... ,.'.:.
~

'.IwO,""
.".Ot ' .,~O ..... J
' .... " . t

to

'.",,,.... ,
' . "'/~t
1

.. ....... ... ..... " ... """Q

.oj'"
...

,.,
w~

t. " .... ~e
,,~

! .
t

, ... ",.",1
~ 'I~r ." ,
'I/II,.? I
II. "1I~f . " ,
II."O~

...._,.1 ,," ... .".<J""'" .... ', .... , ... ., .... '. . . ,',
1 ',"
~.

J.,ll'-/'
I .... I ' ....~

. , .. ,,'11,1

",.If" ~. ,~ ..I ... "

.... 1/"..1
,.. ~ J '" .'J I

If. 'o~

.') J
1 ,

".1

" ,,'1' ~
'.IOt'_,

-.'''.' 1."" ::

1 . . . . . 11. , I .. , . } "

J.f"9MU'

.... 11 '0

... '.Gf'.1
..... OfO' .... O~ ', )

"".'It.?1
').'1 ...

...... 11.-... ... ",

... 'OIll"IJ
')"

..... ""'1\111

'.J." "9.'I.t'.{ ., .... '.0

'1"

',till'''' ~ lit

...
f' ,"

I et 01

..

".1."0"

~,
/

t-

,.J
l

Figure, VII-l?

Power Supply Output; After Neutron Exposure (Concluded)'

"

,., ,

VII-53
....

r.......

"lOOV -

Voltage
. <:
I

U'1

""'"
"',

71 Oll S

Time

Figu~e VII-l~.

Overs~ress

Siqnal and Tabular Representation

r;
~~,- ..

>,

OJ/lhllb

~PI(E

ID.I

Ith~t~Ib'

O~.ll

' .

IIII"u T l I ~ T I lib

II.OUO llr:G C

......................................................................
"'JI.tl liN UII!):I.:-I. H~'I" .... ',h.tl n .. uol UII~" ::I'"
"4,Jllt l

IHV:l.f-]'

IJ.If I J 111"111
UjO~j

(t!

r : , ':>. I I

I., ~ I .1 H -

I]

."vUll ."JOtl
."4JlJtl
."4JlI~l

1II~lIIi~r=IO.

I.,: O~~-I~'
Hv~.1 I~val.f-J'

lf~

OIIS-I.f-l.
IIIP~(~F"I)O

lrllll UII')"I.(-I. i~"I':> IHV=I.I-J' .... .,Col "'1II"(iF _I !"aJ.t-I'"

1~.J.l-I" ct=I.~J

.~Uutl

N'Co/ 110'0> II I) 0
I~

Nt=l.bl'
I.~-"

vt'4 ....

\I

.... lIO
~.It-"

VTo/AIII I I~ Ho/AN I I I I <' 0 I

.,

I) I.Jl-. 1J 1.!>t-" 11'0 0 I j 01 SIIII(O'~ OU 0 O.

0 1. -.

JO S.ll-. 111

< LI
II

.! I II I " J l)"tOI
j '> 0""01 U "'[I,,eOI

J<'
)j
.j

)" .. ., .,."0 I
.,

Cj

II

If 0

10.t'-~

100.~.-"

JI ':>" 1 Q.t11J JI " 1\ 0 UJo'>.t ~ .. 10 It 100 .. lhJT '~O .., I., I II "100 )., 0 If ~ ~f> I IU ~"OO

1.1 '" "

""

1"

~I

10.t-Ii .-" 100.t-f> .::. tt 0 O

."

10 0 I Itt 1'" 0

10000

U.I quill 11 l . h [ ;
1 I" I 0 1J I.l-H . H 'I J i l l . . . self ""t' I i I.' 0 NseM ~M I., 0 1000 J" I., I It "41
~se~
~,,.., I~ IJ.l00 Jl IU If> LIN

't-"

-f~CM

)11 0 1" ll'4 oil I 0 I . O~TlnNS 'ITl"l"IOOOO .T~AN l.t-':> l.tJ .PLuT 'NAill 11111 willi' .f -.U '

Figure VII-H.

Response of Power.Regulator to EMP

VII-55

....

.lI

, ,
1

................. ; I., '.

. '
~

.. ,.......... . .....

\" . ,

oJ,'

f',' ~ ,..

. ". "', ................ .

.. ~"

I ,

'

....

~"..

.......................... ..............................................................................................

.....

"

....... ..... .

. . .

... _., . ,.

. , ..... ...
'

'J

I. ...

'.'." ."
'"

...

I. . . . .

I.J'tI'1

' ... ''1

....... .,.
",'

I.',oj ',)H' ",

.. , ...
-

'."" .

..

:::::;!::
I. ',jl " I

::::::::: ,:"",,. . '.... 1. ......... ... ...,,..... ..... '01'''',. . 1"" ......... ......... ......... ......... .........
1. . . . ' .

..... , ... ......... '.I'U'. '.'.'llt ... ,., ' ...... ,. ' . 1 ......... '.It'I,. .......... .........
...
,~.,

" . ~ .. I .....
J.

.. ,.,. .,. ....... .. ..

.~U

I . I, II ~ I I ~ III ., I

::!:::':;:

1.1111 ~ I

I.HIJ'I

'01'0, .
,~,

1.11"1 1 11',,,
!.HI"II

.. u
,~.

' '.1 ......

,1

::::::::: !::::::::
1,'111"1

1'''\1." I,"IIU '."a." I . . . "

I ....... ,

1.'"1"1

1.'"1"

. '.
"

I.IIHII l.tlll'"

1.1I1t." 1"1""1

1.'"1."

1.11""1 1.1111"'1

. ' t

1.11"'111 l.fI"'1 1 1' . .1 I.flU"

I.IIIf." I.Hl""

e. " .....

1 .... .1

J I I f t I
~

I.fllI'1 . . . U.\;I

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

.'

"

Figure VII-17.

Responsp of Power Regulator to E;;P (Concluded)

VII-56 '

i'

t. ' ....t+r. ~'-,.._._._, _ ~'-'-~~

-.-

>

...

'

Expel'imf'l1tal data T0r this test are in the ferm of the photoqraph shown in figure VII-IS. The photograph represents the anode P:lOtocurrent produce~ at a dose rate of 1 x 10 10 rad ~Si)/s~c. In the test configuration, the anode was supplied with 10 v'Jlts, the gate was grounded, " and the cathode was left open. ,Thf' anode current probe had a response of 5 mV/mA. The peak photocurrent produced is 600 mAo This photocurrent can be included in the thyristor model as a current generator placed between the two transistor collectors (refer to' chapter' V). To p.'oduce the observed 600 rnA of anode 'current, the simple 2N5061 model photocurrent generator would be required to generate one-hal~ of thh value or 300 mAo Thi5 is ~xpre..ised mathematically by:
'

,-

where the parameters refer to the PNP transistcr. To s~e if the SCR will fire at a dose rate of 1 x 10 10 , it was necessary to drtificially set the photocurrent pulse length long enough to charge the arbitrarily Chosen R-C model time constant of 1 microsecond. The si~ulated photocurrent waveform chosen w~sa triangular pu l's~ ri sing to 300 mA in 1 mi crosecond and then fall 1ng to zero i rt microsecond. When making the simulation,' it was discovered that the behavior of the 741 during the transient wou1~- cause the code to'revert to a very small time step, ~ffectively stopping simulation. This problem was alleviated by placing the voltage swing limiting diodes behin~:the 100 ohm res,istor. , The results of th~ simu1ati~n are shown in fig~re ,VII-19. The - 10 ' ' predictrd respon!oe is an SCR firing at a dose rate flf 1 )( 10 rad -(SO/sec.
I

VII-57
, ,

----.

~',.~."""--

~-----

i'lul"('

,r't -1,.

Ul,!u"'"

O~./I.j).

" I 0 to C Iii (,

.. ..
~.~

~.~.~

... *.w

.. , 'l'! l ."h'l'[ L ....,l'! l

W"l('t l

II" :'.11'0 7 I . ' - I . ~., \', I oiV = \ .' - I I t' .. {I,'1 (I\~.I . -\., ~ t , ,', ..... ,"~, "". ::: .. "". , 1 1" .: 1 ,'.tt ... : .')

I~ 10 .. , "~"It<"IO. \ ':>' 0'16 -\04, ... .Illt L It .. (111 ... \..-\ .. ~~ .... I I>I\I.I.~-jl " ..)Pt l It ~ t' (' il .... I .! - H, ~ \I ., \ ~ ~ ~ I t - II .",'tit l ..... r -4 .... ~. I. H ' I \ ... = I.! - I .. I "J;l! I ..... C .. .. I'~I I)" 1,.1.1-1 .. ( " 1 . ..1 "~:I.I\" _ ... ,I '.Olt - .. '\, I 1.0(:-" U \.'" I,' II "WI (II) .! ".. \ ... o (1 \'1 "'INIO t~ .uri D \II vT-4A~ I

:i.' -..

III

n'A~

,.
1\
ll~

('

1
~

\
0
I

..
11
(

I .. I
\ \ \
(1.('

0 \

\ .1

' ..

,I

..
"

" ..
...

lI'oLl,'1

- I I
~

11.1'11 I ll .. t l \ll \ I III .1 - .

,I

JI
~.

J,' t
J I ~ II ,

.. " ... .. ..
1'/
\I

1d d \-.

~ .. '"

I IHlrJ 0 til,' ... 1

,"l" . II .... tlt: ~" (' II it .. ~ ... / III \~" 1.11' ~ Iii II 11'1'1 1 11 I \" In. t -'I :" 114 .\ l V"I." -'"

, ,.. " '1",

.,,'

o
:.:
J

I .. \

. ..
T.. y

\1

" If -to
()

I ()

II

I ~I

~',,:~

, I. I
0

: ... c..

J"
~

I 1.1 I,' I.' I I

I I 1.'-"
I .... ,.... ,
" .... , ~
~

H.

'I'" \I '" I" I

\"

I,I(H' 'I ... ,' I I \ ' I.

I

1/
'"
~l

t4
I'

\1' 1 ,,,
\ h

I"

n t'

.,1'"

I (I~" \11" ... " hI I .'-4." I t -.. I . ! I

..,~tl1 h .... ~." .! .. ,) .

Fi!Jure VII-19.

SCR Tr-ilJlJl'ri nq hy Ion i z i nq Rild i ,\ t ion

VII-59

rIl'S PUR ~ ~W;~,!,~'jAl,If'9 1-wr:':.'W"t"'..\i ; I'RJiI L",'r'i rJ.Ui ::L~ r,' li"':

~........................

I.

'~........."

.... _. ' "

.... "

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . j.,

................. ..

....

... ' .....

",

......................................................................................................................

. i,

{
".

.' '

".-,- ..

,.

::

, fl ,
~,

........ .......
1

II

'-.; -l
... ~ 'f ....

.. ..... ....'- .. ,.
',
~
"

'.

,'t ...

"";"1',',

I.',' .

..... .. .. . ,'",.,.
"
~

. .. f'

.... .... ... .. .

/"

'

.... 'f -,
.,D"'-', -'."j-I.
... , . , - " "

.....

~I

1.

..f ..,.,
' .... ,.,' 'eo. _0 .. '... ,., .... '.)."." , '. ' .. \, .~.
" , \0 ~.

., ... ""W .. ;"1 ..'"

'., " ...

""II'wl

.. ""'-" .........
."1".
-,,,,,, ".. t.

'.

......

" ....... "

...' c: . '.'
by

.. :~~

~igure

VII-19.

~CR T~i9ger~ng

IO~fzihg

Radiation'(Concluded)

~ "

"'"

'"

')impliril'll mOllels l't~qllir,l' "..ldi,'ltiOIlI'l'SpOlIses to be built into the model, T~e inform~ti0n 0n ~hich to base the radiltion response must come from E~pl'l'imelltal datJ. This example illustrates how the transil'nt illl1i::iri4 "esponse fTI::y be I.lui!t int,l the mlH1el tor the 741 operational
,1mp 1 i
~ ie,' , The response At d ~A1410C opl'l'ation amplifier to tran~ient ionizing rad'3t;on is desir~J. Th~' op amp is .in a~ integ~ato, configu~ation as illustrated by figut't? VII-ZO. Ihl' o~ amp model is ShOWll in figUY'e V11-21.

Fsuf
-.

. 100

V out

InF

Figure Vll-20. 'I"tegrator Circuit

.

In ch~pt~,~I.A.5. a method of building in aphotore,sp'o'1se of the l41DC o;lt'rational amplifit'r mpd~1 is dhcussed. The expedmeJ:ltal waveform to bt' duplicatt'd is from a test whe.r~ the ionizing radiatioil caused tht! amplifier output to rist' at a rate ~f I V/~s, saturatt' fbr 10 ~s, and. then rt'covt'r at tht' slt'w rate. To prod~ct' thl' 1 V/~s rise rate. a valut" of IRAD is requirpd w~ich
~atisfies

(see

c~dpter

VI.A.5)

aT ::

dV

1V
~"

-ro. bjj~

IRAD - 5.3 A

t .~~~=~_:"""-~"""';"'_"""" _ _ _""'IIIIIIIiIiiII~iliiiiiiiiiiiii_""IIIIiII __t t __ ..'~

Vlt-61

. ~ ~,;:

3 mV
3
V+

5 (2.5 x 10- )(VJIN) - (.03 x 10- 3 )(15

_ V+)

'.'+

5.

17 nA
JIN (

\)

l
18.2

l ).10
nA
2

V4
<: ..... .....
I

5k

0'1 N

10

75,

11

r
.

,
10.6 IolF

V 1 IAAP

1
V 1
31.8 pF
+

V 2

V 2

~) J

OUT

V OUT

l
o
IF .V out>

1.
V(+) -1.0V, THEr; Vout = V(+)-lV

IF Vout

< Vl-)+2.5V. THEN Vout = V(-)+2.5V

Figure -VII-21.

t10del >lA74l with Photorespon.ie

bt/.......,..; .... ~ '.

An IRAD value of 15.9 amps will meet this condition. When the output yoltage climbs above 15 V, saturation is modeled. However, the 10.6 ~~ capacitor 'charged by IRAD will continue to climb above 15 volts. IRAD must be stopped at the proper tlme so that the 10.6 ~F capac'tor, disc~arging at the slew rate of 0.5 V/~s, will fall below 15 V, 10 ~s after first reaching 15 V, to model the satul'ation d~lay time. Tne amplifier will now recover at the s'ew rate which is desirable. The complete simulation wavef9rm is shown in figure '111-22. ,At time zero, IRAD is set to 15.9 amps. The output will rise at a rate of '1 V/~s and saturatl in 15 ~s. Setting IRAD back to zero in 18.33 ~swill dllow the op amp to recover at the slew rate, coming out of saturation in 25 ~s or 10 ~s after entering saturation. The op amp doe~ not recover completely until 55 ~s following the radiati~n pulse.

---,7
o

I""
18.33

~~
55

l5V

Time.

~s

15

25

Figure '111-22. Op Amp Response The,response of the integrator'may now be investigated. Figur~' '111-23 is the listing for the SCEPTRE run. Figure '111-24 i~ the predicted output response for the integrator. The interesting result of this run is thatfollowirig the rldiation pu'ls'e, the integrator output is only slightly shifted. However, the error is propagated b~ t~e integrator for a time much longer than the amplifier upset tin,.p, What the integrator is driving now becomes i.mpor~ tanto If noerroi is .to be t~lerated. d ~eriously long'upsei'h~s been produced .

l'
. f, j ',", I
1

....

.-',

',ViI-63 '

,','

~UHPROG~AM

F Ou T = \

FUNCTIO~ 'J

FUUT(vG.V~.VN)

vSp=vP-I.O
\I S N = ':'I - V ~! IF 1"(;.bl.II~~i

I~
~,..u

I iJ 0 LT. II S /I;) "-til) T=II ..., ~

fULr=v...,~

IF IvO.GT.iJ~~.A~~.vu.LT.V~~) kfTUkN .
CI~CUIT OtStkl~TIO~

FGUT=O

i:lE.MENTS
k~Sol-\J=lO.tJ

R P SS,O-2=lO.E3
CINP.J-O=1.~t-12 CINN.O-4=1.~E-ll
~IN.J-4=O

RI~P.5-0=1.~H[~ IolINN.O-4=1.~itlt~

E.INP.3-5:-:Xl (J.t:.-J-2.~f-:'~v~IN~JO'.t.-f,O(1"'.-VRS:,))

~OFP.5-0=i'.f:.-9
~OFN'4-0=lrl.2E-':I
~O.5-4=O

O.O-6=x2(1.(~f:.5~V~O) ~1.6-7=TA~Lf I(V~l)

Cl,7-0=lO.6E-.b EI. O-~~.:xJ (lie 11

1ol2.~-9=5.EJ

C2.9-0=JI.~E-12

t:OUT,O-IO=FOUT(IIC2.VHSS.V~~SS)
kOUT,l.O-ll=l~.

JOUT.II-O=O f:.PLU5.0-1=15 ' f:.MtrwS.2-0=1';

~0

0 -') :: 0 0 1

E.5IG,0-A=5. RHUS.A-4=1.f:.5
CHIAS.l1-4=1.E-~

JRAD,0-7=TABlE 2(TIME) FUNCTIONS TA~LE. '1

-5.E.4'-~.)'-2.66E~,-5.J'~.b~E4.~.J.5.E4.~.J

TABLE

OUTPUTS . ESIG,E1NP,E.OUT.VJOUT,PLOT .HUN CONli-(OLS J:.NO

~TOP TIf04E.=~.E-4

O'0'.5E-4.0,.5E-4.1~'~'.bH31E-4~15.9 6~J~E_~'0.1.E_~.0

Fiaure VII~23.

Listinq for :nteqrator Response

~I
.

i.'

VII-64

r~:!:1ii!1l4li
(
~

; 41 *;
J
~.Jl\J

AiX. ;ZUbfJflae .iM4

PZ;:;
.)L,:". "".

ppJijiiu.

uu." .. ec"

Ii

_. _

0 " . . ; 0 .

""

,."

'a_-_--.,

,~,

t
t

t,
" <.'

t.-'

.,

I
!

W_j")Vr

~':t

rlOllr,

1.7,Of~1

1------.-... ___ --. ___________ .. _.. , __ .. _ .. -_ .. -. __ ._. __ .-.. _ .. _. ____ .. _._. ___ ._._. ___ ... ________ .. _1
1
I I,

.!

I
I I

1.r,UOtOOI

I 1-I

I ._1 I

1
I I __ I
I I

1.Z50ful

I I 1-I

1.000t~1. 1-I I I I 1-I' I I I

I I . I

-.1
I I I I __ I I I I I

I I

.~

7.!>00[~0

").

0'1 U'I

....... ,
<

!;.OOOtOO

1-I
I I I 1--

__ I I
I I __ I I I

l.SOOE.~O

I I

O.
T,

1
--I 1 1 1

.!

i
-l.500E00
! -I I

,.

......

-5.000(-00

--I I 1

I 1-I

1 __ I ___ I

-7.501-00 O.

I I
i.OOOE-O;
~.OQ-i)-O!>

I 1

I I I I I I I I I I. I----------------------------~----------------~------___________________________________ ~-------__ II

'.OOOE-a:.

II.000E-05
q ...

1. 0 30~-a..
1.Z00f':l1~

1.~OO[-a..

1.'00E-0~

1.100E-h
Z.OOllE-a.

Figure VII-24.

Predicted Integrator Response

1:1is simulati~n represents a problem which would be difficult to solvp through manual analysi:;. Computer simulation is useful fOI' verifying manual 'analysis as well as solving the more difficult problems.

D.

COMPUTER AIDED ANALYSIS AS A TOOL FOR HARDENING ELECTRONIC'SYSTEMS

This example is an illustratior. of how CO;tpute~ aided analysis was applied to harden an electronic sy~tpm. The circuit whic~ was analyzed is the thi'ee stage amp'Iifier shown in figcr:'t' VII-25. The neutron degradation analysi~ concerned the power transistors n, T4, and 1'5. ,At a 2 neutron fluen~e of 5 x 1011 n/cm , the circuit was 'Shown to be vulnerable. Fai lure was ~eached when the gain at 2 kHz fe,ll below 10, Neutr'on degradation was estimated from information on device f , T To harden this Circuit, piec~part s~bstitutions w~re made until a 2 fluence of 5 x n/cm did no' degr'ade the pe'rformance of amplifier below Jesign limits.

10"

t~e

for the trans'stors'were obtained frc~ ddta sheet infor~ mation. When parameters were not directly. available f,ron' data sheets, defdult values were used. Care was required in n,)~eling transformers TR2 and TRJ and transistors T4 and T5 to avoid an unstable circuit.. Since transistcrs T4 and T5 'are operated near tutoff, thE modelin~ of curren: gain as a function of base emitter voltage is important, such as turns ratio, windin9 inductance, windi'ng rl?5is:ance, coefficient ,ot coupling, and f~equency response were no i., uvailable from t.' e u"ta sh('~t!". The equipment manufacturer was very he,lpful in providing specific-atiom. for these d"vices. The ratio of coil i nductanct? can be i'lpprcx imated from the rated primary and secondar'y impedances or turns ratio dS~

Param~ters

Transforme~ parameter~

,
~ ,
,

,
.

V,I 1.. 66

La. , ... ,,-_ ...... ~.~~~_ ~

"

..

c!)

~!:!

CD

..... '" .....

....
~

0. ;:
c:r:

V'l

...
ttl

en
I QJ QJ

QJ

I-

.t:

'-

U'l

>

.... u.
;

'::::I en

QJ

'" "
'""

,..
~ N

"'O'!l =-

""

.... ;co

-;=-

'"

I
i

..J

Vli..;67-============::_w.=_ .....

The values of inductance are nilt critical :f they are large enough to
presentim~edances ~reater than th~ rated driving suurce impedance within

th\.. requi rpd frequency range. yield

a~

HH!

i nductanct!s were therefore chosen to' The willding resistances

.

inductive reactance

o~

10 times the rated winding impedance at

the low end of the rated transformer pass bands.

.

were taken from the specification sh~ets for the transformers. and the coefficient of coup~ing w~s taken as high a~ possible. to be less than one. was chosen as 0.9. The transformer models are shown
;'1

'

NET-2 requiresK
fiq~! ..e ViI-26 ..
:~r.q'il

A K of 0.99 resulted in all unstable circuit, so K

The thr'ee stage amplif1er was hardened by "epliLing thl'

alld

2N3772 trans i stars' with 2N5427 anti, 2N5038 "rans i stc,,s, . respect iVt :/. ' Tables VII-l and VII-2 give a comparison of the -r.ajoJ parameters inc"'lding cost. Except lor the small decrease in ralt:d power of thp. 2N5 r'ol8
substitut~

(140 watts) compared to that of the 2N3772 (150 watts), the transistors are equally or higher rated in every category. shows the modified clrcuit.

Figure Vll-27

,The freGuency domain capability of NEj-? was used to obtain the transfer chdracteristics of both amplHiers. amp 1 if i ers . The peaked frequency response illustrates one of the major problems in circuit simulation, the lack of data to and transistors. 'circuit
preci~ely

Figure "II-28 shows the

preirradiation frequency response of both the original and hardened

model the circuit.

For this example, the ma~or problems were in modeling the transformers The reactive characteristics of, the transformers affect gain, bandwidth, and phase shift; therefore, the transfornlers affect

s~~bil ity .. Transistor.s T4 a~d T5 also prespnt, flrc.blp~s primarily

transistor current gain is The manufacturer this region.

~ecause they are being operated ~ear cutoff'.,

. specification sheets TheNET-2
"UII

~ strong ,func't i on of co II ector current 03t thi s b i a~..

ar~

rarely adequate to model

rUII

P in

illustrating the list.iny and output for the harde"",d is included as an e)(a~ple

. amplifier is given. in figure VII-29.' This

VII-.68
;
,

. .i

t.
.c..~_.

t;

-.- .. -~~--"'e'

,
i

bil,;!t.~'iM~ .

,,;. ,-

, ','

~",:!j~

6 3
'1

lO;?

'.

L3

.~
.1, .

79.7 mH

COEfFICIENT OF COUPLING BETWFEN EACH CO:_ PAIR IS

k = 0.9

L2
.9.7 mH
3 n 3

(a) TransformerTR2

3 LS
~S

66 n

mH

2 65

~
n

22.3H . 5 6 COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING BETWEEN EACH COIL PfdR IS k = O.g

L4
IT.y.

~
Trans fomer TR3

400' mH 7

(b)

Figure VI,I-2b.

Transformer ilodel for the Three Stage Ar.1plifier

VII-69

,!

TABLE VII-1.

COMPARISON O~ SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE 2N3054 AND THE 2N5427 TRANSISTORS 2N3054
2N542J

UNITS
W

Pf'(case) ,
I

?5 4 55 25 0.5 0.8 0.94

40
7

IC

A V

vCEO

80

P MIN
@I C fTMIN Cost llr 100 Units) TABLE VII-2.

30 '0.5 30 5.96 A MHz

$

COMPARISON OF SPECIFICATIONS FOR THt 2N5038 AND THE 2:~503~' TRANSI STORS 2N3772 2N5038 140 20
90

UNITS
W

PD(case) IC V CEO

150 20 60 15 10 0.2 3.14-15.50

A
V

P MIN
@ IC f,.IIN Cost* 100 Units)
lIrTh~

20 17 60
5.78~13.05

A MHz
$

cost data werp tak~n from the 1~74 catalog of a maJor western di~tributor of electronit components. (he price rllnge shown for the 2N3772 and the 2N'5038 ind;catps the ranq~ from standard JEDEC components to JANTX grade components,.

VII-70
I'

"

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V261j+~

.32
./

26.:'

IN3Q26B (: 3 V ~

lOlr
0.0:
C3

1"

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T4

"i 330 ..

(1

<

n.15

J.r
.;:n~.
~

i. 5 i<. C15 r~f

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RIU 5. E Ir:.

2~.5r..aG

; ;11i::

I ,

i--C---"1 "
3
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CJ

t.. . . ).

P21 , " . "" Ie. 31

"v.l; ..

......

...
, r
680

< 1" .. "")

)0

p(o

~ 18 . -r T5
:',5:~3a

>,m

+ ,,---.'

- I

<'Pl~
.....

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k.

~P;5 $ K7.5:;~;:;
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---.~---'

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Figure VII-27.
~

HarJened Three Stage Amplifier

-.

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---.---:-,. __ "'- "'-":"-.III._ _. . .. M~:liIItiOl

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I gure '1I-29: NET - 2 L!; t lng of Throe Staye Amp I i fl .. rlodel.'( Cont i nOJ.,,1)

V.J J -74
.

'-_.

. '1"-'"

............ _ _ _ _ .__.

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,

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VII-1,S
,'I'
,. _ ............' '''!'
~:

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rt

,,! ,

~,f

tht lise of NFT-:

am~litief

flll' obtJi~linq

tht> ffPqUt>'KY

I'e~-ponse Of

complex

s.,stt>ms, the

Iht> pl,)t i'lCludt>d i" fiqul't> Vl!<'9 h JS

J~tefmined

tht> frequency response of

by Nfl-:.
US:Nt~ ~...I"1rl

E.

'\NA~YSIS

-..-------.----.--.-- ------,._---- -------... -- ir~c:!'pol.ltiof)

PI

or

lARl~E

)UBS'ISltM

irIED AND COMPUTE MODE.LS

subsystems subject to
~:)

The ana:y'>t.

of Msr'Lq l','mpont>nts
~e~t',.ll

In

fluclfJr 1ott>,lpL'ns

tt'cts PllSt' . .

pn'tlll'ms fer the radiathlil efft'd..; quite

lnE' I\H1i-Hion i..;

I'espf'n~t'

of the ('mpldlPnt ... tht'I'l<'t>lvl"'"

intt'l'~lti()r,; be''oIt>f'!; .. ~..,t>r;~
C~~'Jbilitil.'s.

C0mplt>" , Jnd the rlt.llu.lti l )p o ttll'

C()m~'o'ents
Cftt>fl

1',
{"n'
f

tHonl! hUr.,l"
co,,'~'lt''<

1',i,; is espt'cljd ..
.l /,Ir.,l' ilumber \
\~dr3cteri~ti(~.

wt',en the circuIt C"ntains possible states, Jnd it)

Jn~

tt't>l1bdCk.

p.ltt'~,

nonli~t>JI'

irput dnd output

In this inlit'stigJt;on, thrl'e~)S i;lteql.lte,1 (iI'cltits of ~bl

sevPI'al smail s(alt> integr3tel1 (irClJlts
tt>~hniqllt>'"
W(1r.'

loml'ih-

dmuLlted usirq

composite mlhlelinq
(!)
(.?)

Iht>\ inc I ',Ilit>: !\,l.llull Mu!tiplt>Xt>I'/De'1ll'ltiple"el'

3~>()it

RCA C[l40;I, CMO:;. FairChild H.lll'is

FS33~9,

~-Chaflnpl

Mlltorola MC:40:'4, CMOS, 7 8it, Bifluy f./lprde CountPI'

rt1().

(3) '(4)
,(5)

Silicon G,lte, He,'"

Shift

P.~giS.?I'

",.t 0 LlO ,

0105, 'O;plectric.lll,V !solated NOR Gate

of electrical dnd
St"II(
"

'ail'dli ld ;;,\7U Vo1t.:~P Camp,il'atol' the

I'~nge I'ddia~ion

To

dt>m0nstrat~

responses which may

~

bt> inc I uded ina c,'mpas He, !'node 1, , 1he composite models analysis of subsy"tem

r'a I of t he mor~ I ntel't>s t i nq Jspects developed for use iri, thn

of Ule MC140?4 simulation .lre dpscribt'll bel olot ,

d~scussed dbo~e ~ere

I'~spoilse,

'The circuit shown schematically' in

figure VIl-30 was dpsigned specifically to demonstrate the lpplica'tion of' thp modI' I ing techniques. Tnr general'circuit function is that ,of an A)O :onvprter. ; .. ict>t associ,lted with tht> CD405iA,
~~Ildgt>

The

arl",log signa: used in thl" conversion ,is provided by the ,'esistlve vOlltage The
di~i<1er inpu~s

bleaks tht>5 V supplyCD40~1

into

in(re~ents

conll"rted'tu tht>

of

mu!tiplpxer

channel,.

Each

multipl~"er

channel can bl" sell"ctt'd via the CD4051A

vti-76
.....
IL-, '

.' )

r'

,"
, . . '. . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . .' ... I

20 k - 10 k

('j

;,

~
5
2
~

10

10 k 10 k

c. - - - - l l j
J

:(

34 '1

'." C.

1 1 k.
1 ~.

t-,I

II"

1(J

ir..

:x
CL'/.. '

./

c:::

...,
, ...,

1 k

.,

k:,

t }. ~ U. [J(",.

1 k 1 k

.,c

;2 . -::;.
<7

1-

Figure VII-30.
-.

6-Bit AID Converter with 32-Word Storage

r"

;';..-.-1. 4

,'

'

address lin~ 50 that i~s input signal appears on the commowin/C'.t line. The analog si~nal appearing on the commo!) irlout servps as the ,"eft-I"ence for the ~~710 voltdye compara~or. The conv?rsi~n seQuenc~ for transforming the ~A710 reference into' a digital signdl can bejt be understood by examining the cir~uit just after a master reset ~ulse has occurred. The master reset and the clock are, externally appli~d signals which are brought out to simplify ti~i~g when the circuit is tested in a rad;ation environmenl. Th~ master reset produces a low state on dll uutputs of the MCl4024 circuits A, B, andC. The MCI4024 circuit B is configured as an 8 cOllnte'r, and drives the a~dress inputs to the C04051. , Initially', channel 0 of the C04051 is ~~Iected and approximately 0.5 V is a~plied to t~e reference of the ~A710 compa.ator. The outputs of the MC14024 circuit A are c0nnected tn the noninverting input of the comparator through an R-2R resistive networK. Since th' MC14024 circuit A has been re5et, the output of the R-2R network will be essentially ground. The output of the ~A710 will be low. Thus, the gate NORI is enabled ,and NOR2 is disabled. With NORI enabled, the clock ~ignal is ,applied to the clock input of MC14024 cirruit'~. As the MC14024 counts the clock pulses, thp volt~ge output of the R-2R network is incrementeo. When the output of the R-2R network equals or -exceeds the value of ~he reference signal, the AID conversion is complete. The compara~or output goes high, and the gate NORI 1s disabled while NOR2 is enabled. The ~utputs of the MC14024 circuit A represent the binary I!quivalent of the ref.eren~e signa~. The binary numbe~:i~__ ~tored in the 3349DC hex 32':'l;)it shift register. The storage i.s accompHshed by routing' one clock- purse via NOR3 into'the clock termi:'lal of the 33490l.. A subsequent pulse resets MC14024' circuit A and increments the count on c.ircuit B by 1. As a result, channell is sele,cted for t.he C04051. the !-I A710 output goes low, and the conversion cycle starts again. ' Not~ that eight conversion c)cle~ (hencef6rth called oc~aves) are required to cover all the multiple)(,er channels~ At the end of the eighth cycle, MC14024 drcuit B is reset and the cunversion process starts with channel 0 again. The 3~490C can store the results ~f four octaves. At the end of the fourth

-~-- ',

...

'"

".:

"',

octave, MC14024 :ircuit C disables the gates NORt and NORZ, and i~tivates the recirculate of the 33490C. The digital result~ of each c9nversion can th~n be examined by providing an ~xternal clock to the 33490C. ;:igure VII-3l show~ a diagram of tile input circuitry and the first two out~ut stages of th~ MC14C24 model. The elements app~~ring inside the hea~y,solid line are contained in the model. Elements outside on the line are ~sed to exercise the model. Elements between the heavy solid iine and the dashed line model 'the analog characteristics of the input and output terminals. Elements within the dashed line are included in the LOGIC portion of the model. Thresholding between the analog and LOGIC portions of the model is indicated by dashed interconnections. An abbrevia~~d and annotated ver~ion of the SCEPTRE/LOGIC description of' the MC14024 model is shown in figure VII-3?. The simplified mod~l~ for the input circuits (clock and raset) are quite similar. In the case of the clock input, the element JC represents the breakdown characteristics of the input protection network as determined ,experimentally. The element i~ implemented with a table which describes, the I/V characteristic shown in figure VII-33. The ~ower dissipated in , JC as a function of time can be monitored to determine if an electrical overstress pulse will da~age the input. The elements CC and RC simulate the normal input impedance of the circuit. The e:ement JPC simulates the photocurrent produced by the input circuitry. It is described ~y a standard photocurre~t equation including both pro~pt and diffusion components. The application of the analog clock input. to the LOGIC n~twork is , interesting since it simulates the 70 percent noise immun,ity of the clock line. The threshold for transition from low to high is set at 7 volts. The LOGIC flip-flop, ele'llent, BC,';s used to maintain proper.'clock state until the appropriate transition threshold is reached.' The power supply terminal model also has some uni'que c,haracteristiCs. The elements CP, RP, and vi> simulate the normal I/V charac-teristir.s and the breakdown characteristics of the, power supply ~nput ;n much the samp. manner as described above. The photoresponse of the terminal
'

, VII-79
,', ,

en
10
.~

10 L,

CI

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I
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-i
VII-BO '
..... *
, . t)sdW.*

,s

,."

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VI

[-32~

Abbreviated r'1C.14024 SCEP1RE/LOG[C Description

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'111-33.

Simulated Input Breakdown Characteristic of r1C1402L1

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r-Od..-'. . ,

The current source JPS is described by a standard photocurrent equation using an effective junction area to give a proper mdt.ch to e)(p~rimenta lly dpLel'mi ned te~mi nal photocunent. Thf' result i ng value of current thruuqh RB (IRS) is compar~d against two threshold values to determine t~e circuiL respo~se. If IRS i~ greater than 7C ~A' (variable STCH) then the output uf ~ll stages are set high. If IR~ is ~~Jtpr than ~O ~A (variable LTCHP), the LOGIC element SLTCH is triggered. rhe output of SlTCH controh th", val'IP of the analog element JLP,which simulates the hiyh power supply durre~ts drawn when radiation induces, a , latchup in the MC14024. lhe existpnce and tharacteristics of the .Iatchup in this circuit are simUlations of experimental data resulting from ,flash x-ray and LINAC testing. The arrangement of the power supply simulation correctly models ~he pulse width and dose rate dependence of the latchup observations. 'The output tern,inal modE:'l~ simulat~ nonlinear output impedances'by applying appropriate voltage for'high or low states (10 V or 0 V) to th~ voltage dependent current source represented by JL1. The current source Jl rE:'presents the brE:'akdown characteristics of thE:' oUtPllt and the current SLurce JPl rppresE:'nts the output photocurrent response. The photncurrent is of special interest since it is a function of thE:'o~tput voltag~. Figure VIl:-34 is a sL~lE:'m.atic of th~ out.put. invertH cil'cuit including the r.1rasitic NI'N bipolar. transistor Jnd the PN diodE:' lisso~iated with the NMC.) and PMOS dra i ns I'espec't i ve ly. The sE:'condary photocllrrent ~i 11 flow whell the voltage drop i\cr~~s the blllll. resistance RS ~xceeds the output vultJgp plus a di('de drop (,6 V) as indicated in the equation below.

is more complpx.

where ~ = pal'asitic ttansistor yain. This equ~tion with appl'Opridte limiti:lg conditions 15 implt'ment~d in the rurrent source rep,'esented by
JPL

j
I

VI I -B2

'.:~~----'-~-'~"'.~:;':-~'~"~':':==:",~_._~~~~~.J'~.~~_~;'" .. .-,.-..._.'~~~~':,..':~""'-:'.-",-_:-._;"' .. ...,..-_,.. ,---,. ,----::-.:": ......... =.":':.=.:::..::;:1:::1=_314_.2'2'.

~----~--~r-------~O

If'!'

Vo

Figure vl1-34.

CMOS Output Inverter Schei.ldt

SllOW i n(J nlT'a~ i:

."

The LOGIC pOT'tiC'n or the MCI4024 1A01~el is'a stT'i ightforward imp;'" mentation' of' the circuit schEmatic. Each countpr ~tJge is moJ~l~d hy ~ flip-flop with appropriate delay elements to simulate propagation deldYs, Different values can be utilized for low-to-high Jnd high-to-Iow t.ransitions. The valuEs for 'nternal delays w~re develup~d from detailed The eleml:nts designated as Ul, U2, etc .
ana~ys~s of the internal cells.

~re p1ge sensing elements which are used to sirr.Alcit:e the negative ed'1E'

trigger response found in t~e MC14024. When a~lemptinq to simulate d large subsysteu' i'ncorporatillq logic elements, there are pradical considerations involiled in runninf, thE' proLlem which should be dddressed. of a maximum step size. One of 'th~se ~nvolv~~ the s~leLtion
lOW

The step size mU$t be sm.:ill enolJgh to' .i"sure the state. Tlljs is

clock wavefcrmis 3(11:npled d\,;ring both .ft~ .high .,md twice t~e highe~t frequ~r.cy.

i'nalogous to th~ sainpl ing theorem r:!~'uirpment for a 'sampl ing rate of In prJctice, the solutio~s are ~etter behaved if samples .are tak~n fi~e to six time.s during the cJock period.the seco'nd requj rement is brought about by tlte characterist IC:. of the de~ay elements. For a lOGiC model with a propag~tion delay. at least one time step is requir~d to propagate a signal from the input to the

VII-84

'

..,.,.

Iti; . . ii;.;II.*iI~iII;t!l5.i..:;iif";;~\"''''''':'';.:. ' __ n_.........

IIIfI-'-.....-...I1 ...I11III',,'. . .... .b . ___ .........

output of the model. Thus, if there is 3 fee~b&ck 100p co~taining multiple LOGIS models, the solution around,the loop will net hav~ ~ettled until the number of st~ps is 9reater than or equal to th~ number of LOGI~ models in the 1eop. For example, there ar a seven mOdels (NOR2, MC14024D, '13, NOR4, MCl4024B, CD4051, 2nd IS) in the longest feedback loop of ~h AID cnnverter; thus there should be at least seven time steps ,for ea~h of the solution points defined by th~ clock sample requirement, (e.g., 7 steps/sample' * 5 samr1es/~10ck period = 35 steps/clock period). ,The maximum ' step size is at most L10ck3~eriod In the solution of the composite model of the A/D converter, the "Gear" implicit integrLlon routine was used for all runs. The step size for this routine is controlled by the rate of change of electrical signals and the circuit time constants. Since the output,state changrs are re1ati~ely fast and the RC time constants are small, the solution tends to slow ~own consider3bly with each state change. The solution time can be significantly decrpased if t~e capacitive e1e~ents are lemoved from nodes experiencing numerous state ch3nges (e. g., the 14024A clock node,' the NOR1 output node, and the 140240 clock node). The removal of the capacitance'w;l1usually result in' a computational delay, but this need not affect ~olution accuracy if the maximum step size is controlled. The tontro1s based on the ~rop~ga~ion delay element requirements mentioned abovpwere generally s:~ficient,to produce accurate solutions in'the A/o convprter 'example. Fo;", ,comparison. two solutions were perforl:led fora sing1e'conversion octave -- one with capactiances at all nodes and the other with capac~tJnce~ removed from nodes with fr~quent stRte changes. The former required 742 CP (c'e~tra1 processor) se:conds ($125) and the , , latter required 335 CP Sp.ccndoi ($57) on, the CDC 7600 computer facility at the Air Force Weapons Laboratory. The subsystem was test.~d by exposure to a f1as~ x-ray during operation. A'photogr,:iph of b~havior ot ttie suosystam dll,'ing an x-ray burst is shown in figu~'e VII':3S.

VII-8S
I't

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. VI! -H6

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---

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"

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Results of the experi~ental tests ~er~ then comparpd tu a simulated exposure of the subsystem to ionizing radiatIon. One such simulation is shown in figure VII-3fi. Initial comparisons revealed significant aiscr~ pancies. Reexamination of the AID conve~ter model reveal~d the reason for the discrepancy in the pr~diction and ~xp~rimental data. Sinc~ th~ H4000 gates wer~ dielectrically isolated and showed no photoresponse approaching th~ noise margin of the MC1~024 reset, their model~ were extensively simplified. lhe analog output consist~1 of a current source and a parallel fixed vallie resistance rather than the voltage source aild a nonlinear voltage dp;1E:.ldent current source discl;ssetJ earl ier in the example m,,,.1e,l for the Mf14024 outp\Jt. In actual ity, the maximum output cUI'rt:nt of the H4000 devices used in this circuit was 780 ~A. When the no.11inear output impedanc~ was ~imulated correctly, the ~CEPTRE/lOGIC ar1l)sis provide~ excellent agreement with the experimental data. Examination of the results of the comp~site "odeli~g investigation indicates that lhe t~ch,ique is appropriate for analyses of ~ubsystem circuits of significant complexity. The A/~ convert~r required over 2000 electrical and'logical elements. Ihe sulution t~m~~ fbr the models dt>pea~ 10,19 in comparison with some simple discrete comronent circuits, but the costs are not unreasonable when compared to the co~t ot breadboarding and testinq of c;n:uits containing MSI complexity compo!1entc;. Also, the ~ntire conVErsion sequence of the model need not be run to, investigat~ a particular time interval a~d radiation response. The analyst has ar advantaQ,e of controlling time ~n the circu'it simulation -----------which the exrerimental ist does not enjoy.' 'Fu .. therml"re, the analyst can JIIOnitor any node throughout, the d~cuit "tithout modif/ing the 'response with a plobe connection. The cOlllp(\sH~ itodel C~il incorporate nonli.near input/output impedances which may . sig~ificantly affect the overall . circuit reSPJnse and lead to rtsults' which are ul'expected from testing of individual components. rhe effect of such ~mpedances can be handled in a manual analysis but ~nly with considerable complications in the '~omputations.
,

VII-87

_.JJ

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..

..

..

:>

10

1-

15.

20

25
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......

30

3'>

40

45
.

50

(ms)

Figure VII-36.

Res;.l1ts of Cor.;r)uter 1".nalJS1S of flO Converter Photoresponse

(R-2P. ';et"..lOn: (;utPlJtj

;1

f
.

W
.~...-,.

.~..

,.....,

..

!he problem with thp disCrepancy between the initial AID converter p~ediction and the eeperimcntal ~esults is indicative of the general problem with modeling. The pred;ction is only a~ accurat2 as the simulation on whi~h it i~ based. While composite modeling does not provide an ~rror-free ~anate3 for subsystem analysis oroblems, it does provide ~ fotmdl:sm which C3~ help the ~nalvst strcrture an approach to the problem and provide aSslstance in complex ~alc~lations.
F.
REFEREN~fS

Vil-t.

Jenkins, C: R. and D. L. Durgin. "EMP Suceptibi1ity of Integrated Circuits," IEEl Trans. Nuclear Science, NS~22, nco 6, D~cember 1975. RCA Power Devices, RCA Corporation, 1976.

VII-2.

,t
'\

",

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:;

I
-:~

. V11-89
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Boweri, J.C. and S.R. Sedore. SCEPTRE: A Computer Progr3m for Circuit al"d Sy<.temj Analysis, Prentice Hall, En~lewood ClIffs, New Jersey, 10 71. Oehancl", J.J. Electrical (undamentals, Prentice Hall, 1969.

Dive Kar, D.A. arod R.W. Dutton. "ExpE'rimental Study of GUlllanel-Poon Model Pal'ametl"r Corr'e:atiolls for Bipolar Junction Transistors," IEEE Journdl of )olid State CiI'cuits, '101.. SC-12, nco '6, OctobE'f' 1977. Durgin, Q.L., D.R. All"xande,', and R.N. Randall. ','Hardening Options for N~utrcn Effects, final Report)~ Contract DAAC39-75-C-0052, Report HDL-CR-75-052~1, November 1976. Fitzge:-ald, A. E., D. E. Higginbotham, and A. Grabel.' Basic Electrical Engineering, McGraw-Hill Rook Company, 1$67. FitzYI;'rald, A.E., C. Kingsley, and K. Alexander, McGraw-Hi 11 Book COmprt1y, 1971. ' ,
Orego~.

Electr;c Machinery,

::iretrpu, 1.

1976~

~lodp.'ring Thp Bipolar T~ansistor, Tektron;x Inc., Bea\lerton, PraLtic~ of Microelpctronics, John Wiley'~

,
I

::ihandi, S.k. The Theor) and Sons, Inc . 1968.

Greel"baum. J.R, "Digital-IC Models for Computer-Aided Design; Part I: TTL NtlNO Gates." Electronics, D~'cembe,' 1973, pp. 121-125. Gray, P.E . O. DeWitt, A,R, Boothroyd, and J.~. Gibbens. Phsical ,ETE'ctronics a"d Circuit Models Of Transistn.!2. John Wi'ley & ::,?ns, Inc . , :968~-& Sons, Ine.~

-~
I
"

Grove, A. S.

Physir.~ 1967.

anJ Technology of

Semico~ductor

!Jevices, Johr wiley

Hamihon, O.J . f.A. Linl1hclm, and A.H.' MarShak.. Pri'lC,iples ar,d Applications Inc., 1971. of Semiconductl.lr Dl"vi(~_Modeling, Holt, Rlnehclrtand Winston" Jenk i ns, 'c. R. and 0.1.. Durgl'jl. "EMP Su'scept ibi 1f ly vfIntegrated Ci reui t~, II IEEE Tran~ar.tions on Nuclear Science, vo~. NS-22, no. 6, Deeembpr 1975 . . larin, F.9 6 R~diation'Effpcts in Spmiconductor Oevicl"s, John.~iley Inc., 1 8.------

& So~s.

-.
1',

VI'I -90

W, .

'

... a."

,.

linvill, J.G. "l:.Jmped ~';od~ls of Transistors and Diodes. 1I Proc. HiE, vol. 46, June 19~8, pp. 1141-1152: Linvill, J.G. al,d J.F. ~ibbons. Hill, New "Tor"-, N.Y., 1901. T,-ansistors.and Active Circuits, McGraw-,
,a

Mugg-li, R.A. IIProg"am Gives FET Model From Specs. june I, 1973,.

Electronic Design 12.

Notthoff ,J. K. "Technique for ::stimating Drimary Photocurrents in Silicon BIpolar Transisto"s," I,HE Transactions on Nuclear Science" vol. NS-16. no'. 6. Decembe I' 1969. Phillips, A.B. Transistor
E~ginee-ing,

McGraw-Hitl. 1962.

Pucock, D.N., ",t al. March 197~.

":'jmplifi~d

Microcir.:uit MdJeling.1I AFWL-TR-73-272,

Radiation Effects On Semiconductor Devices, 'HDL-DS-77-1, February 1977. Ray, L.D. ~ R.~. Turfler, and D_,R. Alexander. ~iOS Provisions for Radiation Effects. AFWL-T~~75-337,
.~nalytic Nove~ber

Models With 1977.

R'aymond, J.P., et al. "Study of Generalized Model for Semicondl.ctor Radiat{on Response Prediction," Quarterly Repdrt - ECOM-0042J-l, MdY 1965. ',_ , Generalized Model for Semico~~~ctor Radiat'on Response Prt!diction" ECO~i-00423-F, lune 1967. Raymund. J.P., et a1. G~nelaliz~d Model Analysis. o~ lntegrated Circuit Vulnerability, ECOM-0419-F, September 1969.
~od~ls for Use ...,ith SCEPTRE, AFWl::rlf'58-86, Feb,~~ary 1969.

R~ymond, J.P. and R.E. Johnson.

"

Ra:;,~Qnd,J. P. and R. E.Johnson,StudLofGenerallHd, ll;mped Ti'a'1sistllr

Ricketts, L.W. FUlldam~Il'als'of Nuclear Hardening of El~ctro,dc Equipment. Wi ley~Inter:.cience. 1912. Ruwt",.V .. W. The tffl'ct of ~u-S:.ron Radiation on ~npunction 'Iransisto,'s , and SIlIcon Controlled R~ctHlers, Report, No. R\i- R-68-1!, U.S. A"my Missile Command, Redstone Arsenal, Alabama. Sah, C. T., R.N. Noyce, and W. Shockley. "Carrier Gen~ration and (Pcc"nbinatio" ~n 1-'/'1 Junctions and P-N Jurction Ch",act . . ristics," P'uc. IRE. vol. 4~. Septel.,tJer 1957, pp. 12Z8-1243. ' Sokal, N.O."J,.J. Siera~o""ski, Clnd J.J. Sirota. by Computer," ,Flectro.tic Design. July 1967 ..
"1

"01OdeModel is An'alyzed

..,
VII-91
,'.,
10'

I
.~

, I

Sze, S.M.

phys;c~

Jf Scmiconductr Devices,

\oiiley-Interscie~ce, 196~.

WerJlock, B.D. and J.R. R('Ib~rge. Electr'onic CJmponents and MeClSl!r'ement<;., Prentice-H ..dl, Inc., Englewood Cllffs, Ne'fll Jersey, 1969. Wirth, J.L. a"d S.::. ROgHS. "The Transient Rec;ponse Ilf Transistors," IEEE Transactions un Nuclear Science, vol. N~-ll, November 1~64.

VII-92
l

.
,'I'

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OTH':~gl_vfll.~J!!!..AGI.NS:J[2.ilinti_n_u..e_~
NASA ATTN: J. Murphy NASA Lewis Research renter ATTN: M. Saddour NASA Ames Research Cer.er ~TTN: ~. DeYoung DJPARTMENT OF ENERGY Cor,TRACTOR& Lawrence L i vennore Laboratr\r'-' ATTN: Technical infcnnation Department Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory ATTN: J. Freed San'dia Laborato~ies ATT~: E. toppage ATTN: W. DawEos ATTN: J. Hood ATTN: J. Barnum ATTN: R. Gregory DEPARTMeNT OF DEFENSE CD~TRACTORS
Advance~

Burr-Crown Rr,E'lrch Cor, ATTN: H. Smith California Institute of Technology Jet croof'lsion Lab ATTN: ,~. Shumkd ATTN: H. Price Al iN: ,'. Stanley Charles Stark Draper Lab, Inc. ATTN: :,. Schutz ATTN: P. Greiff ATTN: R. Bedingfield ATTN: C. Lai ATTN: R. Ledger Cincinnati Electronics Co~~. IITTN: L. Hal1'lllOnci ATTN: C. ~tump Control Data Corp. ATTN: _I. Meehan

Univer~ity cf Colorado ATTN. Sec. Officer'for E-Systems, Jr,c. ATTN: K. Reis Electronic Industries Association ATTN' J. Hessman

Venditti,

Microdevices, Inc. ATTN: J., Schlageter

Advanced Research and Applications Corp. ATTN: R. Armistead Aerojet Electro-Systems Co. ATTN: T. Hanscome Aerospace Corp. AUN: D. Fresh ATTN: W. Willis ATTti: S. Bower 'Aerospace Industries ~ssoc. of America, I~c. 'ATTN: S. Siegel Batte 111' Memoria I Illst i tute ,ATTN: R. Thatcher

EPf1 Corp.
ATTN: F. Kr:h Exp. and Math. Phy.ics Cnnsultants ATTN: T. Jordan Fairchild Camera and Instrument Corp. ATTN: J. Myers ATTN: R. Marsha 11 Ford Aerospace and Conl!llJnicatior.s Corp. ~TTN: Techni ca I I nfonnat ion Seni cl'~ , ATTN: J. Davison Ford Aerospace and Co".m.nicatiC!.s Cor;J. ATTN: D. Cadle Frank.l in Ins Li tute ATTN: Il. Thoinpson ,'Garrett Corp. ATTN: R. Weir lienera ll"mami cs Corp.' ATTN: W. Hdns-n Genera I Dynami cs Corp. A,!;TN: h. Fields ATTN: O. Wood Ge:teral Lectric Co. ATTN: R. Casey ATTN: J. Peden ATTN: L. Sivo' ATTN: D. Long

'f.
i'

It
~

SMD Corp; ATTN: . R. Pl'ase - ATTN: D. WLtnch , ATTN: D. A.lexander ATTN. P. YoungATTN: R. Antinone Bendix Corp.' IITTN: E. Meeder Boeing Co. ATTN: I\oeing Co. ATTN: ATTN: ATTN: ATTN: D. Eqelkrout W. Rumpza 1. Arimura C. Rosenblrq A. Johnston

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General EI~ctri: CG. Re-p.ltry and Envir('nmental Systen,; Ofv. ATTN' Technical LibrJry ATTN R. Benedict Arrf<. W. Pa t terscn ATTN: J. Palchefsky. Jr. General EleLtric Co. Ordnance Sy<tems ATTN: J. Rei'dl Generdl Llectric Co. Aircraft Engine h:;ir.ess Group ATTN: R. fiel ien
~neral Electric ~o. Aerospace Electron rcs ),Vstems ATTN: W. Pattel'sJn ATTN: D. Cole ATTN: J. Gibsun

Hcn~vwell, Inc. AviorliCs Division ATT",: C. ~frulli

HI :eywell, Inc. Radiation Center II.TIN: Technical Libr .ry

Horll'vwell. Inc. Defense Systems Division An:,: K. Gaspard liuQnes Ai rcra ft' Co. . ATTN: R. McGowan ATTN: J. 'Singletary Hughes Ai,craft Co. EI Segundo Site ATTN: .r. Smith ATTN: W. Scott IBM COtp. ATTN: ATTN: ATTN: H. Mathus T. Martin F. Fietse

General Electric Co. ATTN: D. Pepin General Elee 'Ic Cornpar.J-rEMpn ~ent~r for Aavanced Studies ATTN: DAS I AC ATTN: M. Esplc
~eneral f'ectrlc Company-TEMPU Alpxandria Office .UTN: DASIAC

lIT tlesearcn Il'stitute ATTN: I. Min.ll>~

rn~titute for D~fense Analyses

ATTN: Irtel Corp. ATTN:

fechnlcal Info' ratio.l Serv!~es

General Research Corp. ATTN: Technical Infonnation .Offlce ATTN: R. Hi i I Georgia Institute of Technology ATTN. R.. Curry Georgia lI'stltute of Technology OfficI' of Contract Admil'istration AT'. ;1: H. [lenny Goodyear Aerospacp Cnrp. ATTN:' Security Contrv I St~tion . Grurrman Aerospace Corp. \TTN: J. Ro,)ers GTE Sylvania, Inc. Electron.lcs Systp'"s Grp-Eastern ATTN: C. r"omhlll ATTN: l. Paup I es ATTN: L. Blaisdell GTE
Sylvani~,

M. J:lrdan

IBM Curp. Thonras Watson Res<!arctl Center ATTN: J. Ziegler

Internatlon~1 Tel. and Telegraph Corp. IITTN: Dept. 608 ATTN: A. RIChardson
Inter~11

Inc. ATTN: D. MacDona Id

IPT Corp ATTN:

J. Harrity
L. :icott

Dfv.

JAYCDR ATTN:

Johns Hopkins University ArT~: P. P"rtridge Kaman $clpncps Corp. ATTN: J. Lubell Litton Svstl!tllS, Inc. . ATIN' r.. :Iaddo'!

Inc.

ATTN: ATTN: ATTN: ATTN:

J. Waldron
1/ and V GroUl< H. Ullnran P. FredriCkson

Ha'" f s Corp. ATTN: J. Comell ATTN: C. Anderson HonejWe II, Inc. ATTN: R. Gu'''''

Lockh~ed Missiles and Space Co Inc.

ATTN: f. ATTN: P. ATTN: H. ATTN: . C. Smfttl Bene Phillips Ttlolllpson

Lockheed Missiles and ~pacp Co., Inc. ATTN: J. Crowley ATT~: J. Smith

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foI. (.1, l hleuln Ldh A~TN; P, McKt'nlie Mal'tin M.lri!'lta r"'q... (lrlando lllvI~ io,' AliN: Ii. Cates ATTN: W. J~rurko ATTN: W, grocket" ATTN: ~,Gaynor Martin Mar:t'tta Corp, D.'nvpr DI vis ion ,\TTN: E. Carlpr ""-Donnell
Oollgl.l~
A;~N: ATT~:

PhyslLS :nterna~lo~dl Co, ATTN: lIi vi sill'! 6000 , ATTN: J, Sh(,d ATTN: J. Hunllnqton RI\O Assoda ,~s ATTN: R, ?011 ATTN: C. MacDo'IJld ATTN: S. Roqers Rand Corr.
AT.~N:

C. Crain

ATTN:

r,lrl!. library D. Oohm M. Stitch

Ra,ytheon Co. ATTN: J. Clcclo Raytheon Co. ATTN: A. Van [)oren ATTN: H. <lesrher RCA' Corp. (J()\ernl'1f>nt System~ Olvlsloll ATTN: G. Pruckpr ATTN: V. Mancino RCA Corp. David SJrnoff RE'search CentE'r A1TN: D. O'Connor ATTN: OfficI' N1C3 RCA Corp.
r.o~prnment Svstt'm~ Oivl:;lon Mlss'le and ~urfac" Rddar ATTN: R. KII:lol

"'-:Oonnl'l1 (10U<I"I5 rOl'p, ATTN: J. HoltnQrpm ATTN: O. fitlqel'ald ML['ollnell [)ouqlas Corp. ATTN: [echnlcal Library
~isslon

Rl'sE'arch Curp. ATTN: C. Lon"",ire

Miss Ion Resl'arch Corp, -~dn 1'1"'10 ATTN: J. Ravmond ATTN: R. .'rqer ATTN: ,I. Azan.wii.z AITN: V. va lint foIitrt' Corp. AiTN: M. rttlQ<'ralJ Elpctronics Division A. Chrlstpn~pn

~'torola, 'n~
Gov~r"";;-!lt.

RCA Corp. Camden Complex ATirI: J. Saultz ATTN: E. Van ~eurpn

lirA C"r;l.

AT\N:

Mfot rola, 11I~. S!'n conductor Group ATTN: ,. Clark

~.a l

S","ervl1ll' Phnt, ~olld State Dlv. ATTN: W. Allen

Rpn~salaer Po'ilPrhnlc Institute

ona I Acadt ..., u r Sc I rncp~ Ar,'N: R. Shane

ATTN:
~ .. spar(h

R.

G~tJnann

Nat onal Semiconductor Corp. IITTN: R. Wanq ATTN: A. Lon'ion lInl ers Ity of NI'W "",.Ico Ele trlcal Englneerln,) and C"mf1uter ')cll':1ce Dept. ATTN: H. SOwthward Nor hrolJ Corp. Nnr hrop Research and Tpcnnoloqv Ctr. ATTN: P. [I~r.nberg ATTN' T. Jdck~on ATTN: J. Spour lIor hrop' Corp. EIe trollic Divis Ion ATTN: L. A~d~ca, ~TTN: P. Gardner_ ATTN: D.' JtrohP'l

Trlanqle Institute ATTN: M. ~Imons, Jr.

,Rodwell Internatlon.J1 Corp. ATTN: J. Rel1 ATTN: V. De Martino AT1 i.: Ii. HPs SE'nger ATTN: V. Strahan ATTN: ,r. Ok I RockwPll Internatlunal Corp. Spar" Division ATTN: O. Stevens Pickwell International Corp. ATTN: Tr'C 8AaR ATTN: T. Yates Sand!!,', AS50clatf's,' Inc. ATTN: M. Atti-I ATTN: l. Brodeur

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Anll: ATHI; ATTN: lTTN: ATTN: Si'l(ll>r Co. ATTN:

V. VE'rb i nski
J. r.Jher

r,> I pd,ne fI,an A"rOllaIJt i LU j

AlTN:
re~dS

J. RJwl,nQs

V. CDlld~

~cience Arpli'dtion~. 111(.

W. Chdd,p,
ll. Stribling

lilstr\#llE'f,ts. I,:c. ATTN: A. P"It>tit'r ATTN: R. Stl'hlin

Sc'~ncp ApPlications, Inc.

J. !:rinkl11.'lil

r .

S i n(j0,' Co. Ddtd S" 'pms ATTri: R. SrdpQt'I

TRW D. fpnse and ~rdCt' S',~. Group ATTN: H. Hdid ATTN: P. Guilfoyle ATTN: O. Adams ATTN: R. ~illqs1and un.: A. ! aVE'll:o IITTN: H. 110 Iloway ATTN: R. ~chn i t'der. ATTN: A. Wittelt',
T~ .. Dt>fen~e dnd ~Pd(e S'S. Group San Bernarjino (lperiltions Afl ~: r. Fay nHI: M. Gonlldn ATTN: R. Idttl'r

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SI't'rr,v Rand Corp, Spt'rr, M:Lr~avt' [Iectronic~ ~TT.: [nginperip4 lahorator, S<lL'rry Rand Corp. Sperry Division ATTN: R. Viola ATTN: C. (raiq ,'ITn' P. Mdraffino ATT~: ',' )Cdravilqlione' Sperry R~nd Corp., SI't'rry r Ii qht Sv~ t,,,,,~ ATT~' D. Schow SpE'rry liniVJc ATTN: J. Ind"
~pire

TRW :;,stl'fll'> ~1I1 Eller'l' /lTTN: G. S\.ehar IIITN: D. Hi I Iw rd VO.Hlht Corp

/I TT~.:

ATTN: IITHi:

fl. TOIlllle library

Tp[hni~dl

Ddla lenler

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('orp. ATTN:

W!'\till'lhOllSI> l.,,:tric CJ. 1I1"'OSf'Me' <Hid I!'rtronic \,S!PI11; Ph Ar TN: l. McPh,.,',lln l/E'sti.I'lh,' 51' <)prtriL rorn. lJ"ftn~E' 4,,<1 f leclronir 'v,tf'l" ATTN: d. ~.ll"PJCJ ATTN: n. CriL~i
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SRI International IITTN: A. Whits ~~nj: 1'. Doldn

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