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Lecture 23

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Lecture 23: Common Emitter Amplifier Frequency Response. Millers Theorem.

Well use the high frequency model for the BJT we developed in the previous lecture and compute the frequency response of a common emitter amplifier, as shown below in Fig. 5.71a.

(Fig. 5.71) As we discussed in the previous lecture, there are three distinct region of frequency operation for this and most transistor amplifier circuits. Well examine the operation of this CE

2009 Keith W. Whites

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amplifier more closely when operated in three frequency regimes.

Mid-band Frequency Response of the CE Amplifier

At the mid-band frequencies, the DC blocking capacitors are assumed to have very small impedances so they can be replaced by short circuits, while the impedances of C and C are very large so they can be replaced by open circuits. The equivalent small-signal model for the mid-band frequency response is then

Well define so that at the output

RL = ro || RC || RL Vo = g m RLV

(1) (2)

Using Thvenins theorem followed by voltage division at the input we find

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V =

r r RB VTH = Vsig r + rx + RTH r + rx + RB || Rsig RB + Rsig

(3)

Substituting (3) into (2) we find the mid-band voltage gain Am to be V g m r RB ( ro || RC || RL ) (4) Am o = Vsig r + rx + RB || Rsig RB + Rsig

High Frequency Response of the CE Amplifier

For the high frequency response of the CE amplifier of Fig. 5.71a, the impedance of the blocking capacitors is still negligibly small, but now the internal capacitances of the BJT are no longer effectively open circuits. Using the high frequency small-signal model of the BJT discussed in the previous lecture, the equivalent small-signal circuit of the CE amplifier now becomes:

(Fig. 5.72a)

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Well simplify this circuit a little by calculating a Thvenin equivalent circuit at the input and using the definition for RL in (1):

where it can be easily shown that Vsig is V given in (3) r RB Vsig = Vsig (5.167),(5) r + rx + RB || Rsig RB + Rsig while
Rsig = r || rx + ( RB || Rsig )

(Fig. 5.72b)

(5.168),(6)

Millers Theorem
We can analyze the circuit in Fig. 5.72b through traditional methods, but if we apply Millers theorem we can greatly simplify the effort. Plus, it will be easier to apply an approximation that will arise if we use Millers theorem. You may have seen Millers theorem previously in circuit analysis. It is another equivalent circuit theorem for linear

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circuits akin to Thvenins and Nortons theorems. Millers theorem applies to this circuit topology:

(Fig. 1) The equivalent Millers theorem circuit is

(Fig. 2) where ZA = Zx v 1 B vA and Z B = Zx v 1 A vB

(7),(8)

The equivalence of these two circuits can be easily verified. For example, using KVL in Fig. 1 v A = i A Z x + vB v v (9) or iA = A B Zx while using KVL in the left-hand figure of Fig. 2 gives

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iA =

vA ZA

(10)

Now, for the left-hand figure to be equivalent to the circuit in Fig. 1, then iA in (9) and iA in (10) must be equal. Therefore, v A vB v A = Zx ZA The equivalent impedance ZA can be obtained from this equation as Zv Zx ZA = x A = v A vB 1 vB vA which is the same as (7). A similar result verifies (8). So, for a resistive element Rx, Millers theorem states that Rx Rx and RB = (12),(13) RA = vB vA 1 1 vA vB while for a capacitive element Cx, Millers theorem states that v v C A = C x 1 B and CB = Cx 1 A (14),(15) vA vB

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High Frequency Response of the CE Amplifier (cont.)

Returning now to the CE amplifier equivalent small-signal circuit of Fig. 5.72b, well apply Millers theorem of Figs. 1 and 2 to this circuit and the capacitor C to give

(Fig. 3) where, using (14) and (15), V V C A = C 1 o and CB = C 1 V Vo

(16),(17)

Actually, this equivalent circuit of Fig. 3 is no simpler to analyze than the one in Fig. 5.72b because of the dependence of CA and CB on the voltages Vo and V. However, this equivalent circuit of Fig. 3 will prove valuable for the following approximation. Note from Fig. 5.72b that I L + I = g mV I L = g mV I (18)

Up to frequencies near fH and better, the current I in the small capacitor C will be much smaller than g mV . Consequently, from (18)

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and

I L g mV Vo I L RL = g m RLV

(19) (5.169),(20)

Most often for this type of amplifier, g m RL 1 so that in (22) CB C . But as we initially assumed, the current through C is much smaller than that through the dependent current source g mV , which ultimately led to equation (19). Consequently, we can ignore CB in parallel with g mV and the final high frequency small-signal equivalent circuit for the CE amplifier in Fig. 5.71a is

Using this last result in (16) and (17) we find that g R V C A C 1 + m L = C 1 + g m RL V V 1 C B C 1 + and = C 1 + g R V g R m L m L

(21) (22)

(Fig. 5.72c)

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Lecture 23

where

Cin C + C A = C + C 1 + g m RL

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(5.173),(22)

Based on this small-signal equivalent circuit, well derive the high-frequency response of this CE amplifier. At the input Z Cin (23) V = Vsig Z Cin + Rsig while at the output
Vo = g m RLV

(24)

Substituting (23) into (24) gives

Since Z Cin = ( jCin ) then (25) becomes 1 g m RL jCin Vo = g m RL Vsig = Vsig 1 1 + jCin Rsig + Rsig jCin If we define 1 H = Cin Rsig
1

Vo = g m RL

Z Cin Z Cin

+ Rsig

Vsig

(25)

(26)

(27)

then substitute this into (26) gives Vo g m RL g m RL = = f Vsig 1 + j 1+ j H fH

(28)

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where

fH =

1 H = 2 2 Cin Rsig

(5.176),(29)

You should recognize this transfer function (28) as that for a low pass circuit with a cut-off frequency (or 3-dB frequency) of H. This is the response of a single time constant circuit, which is what we have in the circuit of Fig. 5.72c. What were ultimately interested in is the overall transfer function Vo Vsig from input to output. This can be easily derived from the work weve already done here. Since Vo Vo Vsig = (30) Vsig Vsig Vsig We can use (28) for the first term in the RHS of (30), and use (5) for the second giving Vo r g m RL RB (31) = Vsig 1 + j f r + rx + RB || Rsig RB + Rsig fH We can recognize Am from (4) in this expression giving Vo Am = (5.175),(32) Vsig 1 + j f fH Once again, this is the frequency response of a low pass circuit, as shown below:

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(Fig. 5.72d)

Comments and the Miller Effect

Equation (32) gives the mid-band and high frequency response of the CE amplifier circuit. It is not valid for the low frequency response near fL and lower frequencies, as shown in Fig. 5.71b. It turns out that Cin in (22) is usually dominated by C A = C 1 + g m RL . Even though C is usually much smaller than C its effects at the input are accentuated by the factor 1 + g m RL .

The reason that CA undergoes this multiplication is because it is connected between two nodes (B and C in Fig. 5.72a) that experience a large voltage gain. This effect is called the

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Miller effect and the multiplying factor 1 + g m RL in (22) is called the Miller multiplier.

Because of this Miller effect and the Miller multiplier, the input capacitance Cin of the CE amplifier is usually quite large. Consequently, from (20) the fH of this amplifier is reduced. In other words, this Miller effect limits the high frequency applications of the CE amplifier because the bandwidth and gain will be limited.

Low Frequency Response of the CE Amplifier

On the other end of the spectrum, the low frequency response of the CE amplifier and all other capacitively coupled amplifiers is limited by the DC blocking and bypass capacitors. This type of low frequency response analysis is rather complicated because there is more than a single time constant response involved. In the circuit of Fig. 5.71a there are three capacitors involved, CC1, CC2, and CE. All three of these greatly affect the low frequency response of the amplifier and cant be ignored.

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The text presents an approximate solution in which the low frequency response is modeled as the product of three high pass single time constant circuits cascaded together so that Vo j j j (5.183),(33) Am Vsig j + p1 j + p 2 j + p 3

(Fig. 5.73e) So there isnt a single fL as suggested by Fig. 5.71b but rather a more complicated response at low frequencies as we see in Fig. 5.73e above. Computer simulation is perhaps the best predictor for this complicated frequency response, but an approximate formula for fL is given in the text as 1 1 1 1 + + f L f p1 + f p 2 + f p 3 = 2 CC1RC1 CE RE CC 2 RC 2 (5.184),(5.185),(34) where RC1 , RE , and RC 2 are the resistances seen by CC1 , CE , and CC 2 , respectively, with the signal source Vsig = 0 and the other two capacitors replaced by short circuits.

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Example N23.1. Compute the mid-band small-signal voltage gain and the upper 3-dB cutoff frequency of the small-signal voltage gain for the CE amplifier shown in Fig. 5.71a. Use a 2N2222A transistor and the circuit element and DC source values listed in Example 5.18 in the text. Use 10 F blocking and bypass capacitors.

The circuit in Agilent Advanced Design System appears as:

V_DC SRC2 Vdc=10.0 V

AC
AC AC1 Start=100 Hz Stop=1.0 MHz Step=100 Hz R R2 R=8 kOhm vo C C2 C=10 uF C C1 C=10 uF R R1 R=100 kOhm ap_npn_2N2222A_19930601 Q1 C I_DC C3 SRC4 Idc=1 mA C=10 uF R R4 R=5 kOhm

vi V_AC R SRC1 R3 Vac=polar(1,0) V R=5 kOhm Freq=freq

V_DC SRC3 Vdc=-10.0 V

From the results of the ADS circuit simulation

Whites, EE 320

VCB = 2.03 V ( 400 mV ) = 2.43 V VBE = 0.4 V ( 1.02 V ) = 0.62 V

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From Fig. 9 in the Motorola 2N2222A datasheet (see the previous set of lecture notes) For VCB = 2.43 V Ccb = C 5.8 pF. For VBE = 0.62 V Ceb = C 20 pF.

gm =
From (5.163),
fT

IC 1 mA = = 0.04 S VT 25 mV

gm 0.04 = = 246.8 MHz 2 ( C + C ) 2 ( 20 pF + 5.8 pF )

This value agrees fairly with the datasheet value of 300 MHz.

0 265 from the ADS parts list for this 2N2222A transistor.
Therefore,

r =

gm

265 = 6,625 0.04

From the 2N2222A datasheet, the nominal output resistance at IC = 1 mA is ro 50 k. What about rx? Its so small in value (~ 50 ) that well easily be able to ignore it for the Am calculations compared to r (which is 6,625 as we just calculated). From (4),

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Am =

g m r RB ( ro || RC || RL ) r + rx + RB || Rsig RB + Rsig 2,898.6 = RL

0.02327

Therefore, or in decibels From ADS:

Am = 20 log10 (

Am = 64.24

0.9524

V V Am ) = 36.2 dB

m3 freq= 400.0 Hz dB(vo)=33.632

40 35 dB(vo) 30 25 20 15 10 1E2 1E3

m3

m1 m2 freq= 6.300kHz freq= 84.40kHz dB(vo)=36.053 dB(vo)=33.046 m1 m2

1E4 freq, Hz

1E5

1E6

From this plot, ADS computes a mid-band gain of Am = 36.05 dB, which agrees closely with the predicted value above. From (29),

fH

2 Cin Rsig

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where from (22)

= 20 + 678.3 = 698.3 pF while from (6) Rsig = r || rx + ( RB || Rsig ) Because RB || Rsig = 100 k || 5 k = 4,761.9 is so much larger than rx (on the order of 50 ), we can safely ignore rx. Then, Rsig 6,625 || 4,762 = 2,771 .

Cin = C + C 1 + g m RL = 20 + 5.8 (1 + 0.04 2,898.6 ) pF

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Therefore,

f H 2 698.3 1012 2,771 = 82.25 kHz This agrees very closely with the value of 84.40 kHz predicted by the ADS simulation shown above.

Add a short discussion on the gain-bandwidth product Am f H .