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July 23, 2013 8:5 WSPC/INSTRUCTION FILE 00775
International Journal of Modern Physics D

c World Scientic Publishing Company
International Journal of Modern Physics D
Vol. 15, No. 3 (2006) 419-438
BIANCHI TYPE-II COSMOLOGICAL MODELS WITH
CONSTANT DECELERATION PARAMETER
C. P. SINGH and SURESH KUMAR
E-mail: sukuyd@gmail.com, Webpage: https://sites.google.com/site/sureshkumaryd/

Note: This version of the paper matches the version published in International Journal
of Modern Physics D. The denitive version is available with World Scientic.
A special law of variation for Hubbles parameter in anisotropic spacetime models that
yields a constant value of the deceleration parameter is presented. Also, a spatially
homogeneous and anisotropic but locally rotationally symmetric (LRS) Bianchi type-II
cosmological model is studied with a perfect uid and constant deceleration parameter.
Assuming the equation of state p = , where 0 1, and using a special law
of variation for the Hubble parameter, we are able to construct many new solutions
to Einsteins eld equations of LRS Bianchi type-II for four dierent physical models
(dust, radiation, Zeldovich and vacuum). We discuss the solutions with power-law and
exponential expansion and examine a particular class of models. A detailed study of
kinematic, geometrical and observational properties is carried out.
Keywords: Hubbles parameter; deceleration parameter; cosmological models; Bianchi
spacetime.
1. Introduction
In recent years, experimental studies of the isotropy of the Cosmic Microwave Back-
ground Radiation (CMBR) and speculation about the amount of helium formed at
the early stages and many other eects have stimulated much theoretical interest
in anisotropic cosmological models. The interest has been due to the realization
that the standard cosmological models, in very good agreement with the present
day universe, do not give a clear description of the early phase of the evolution
of the universe while a physically realistic description is best given by inhomoge-
neous models. The mathematical simplicity of homogeneous models makes their
study rather attractive. The spatially homogeneous and anisotropic Bianchi models
present a middle way between FriedmannRobertsonWalker (FRW) models and
completely inhomogeneous and anisotropic universes and thus play an important
role in modern cosmology. This is due to the fact that close to the Big Bang singu-
larity, neither the assumption of spherical symmetry nor of isotropy can be strictly
419
420 C. P. Singh and S. Kumar
valid. This stimulates research to obtain exact anisotropic solutions for Einsteins
eld equations and a cosmologically acceptable physical model for the universe.
In investigating the character of the cosmological solutions in relativistic theories
of gravitation, one usually uses the energymomentum tensor of matter in a form
corresponding to a perfect uid. Homogeneous cosmologies with a perfect uid,
satisfying a specic equation of state, are widely used to study the dierent proper-
ties of cosmological models.
Bianchi type-II spacetime models have been widely studied for the simplica-
tion and description of the large-scale behavior of the actual universe. Asseo and
Sol
1
have emphasized the importance of Bianchi type-II universe. LRS Bianchi
type-II spacetimes have already been considered by a number of authors. Lorenz
2
has presented the exact solutions for LRS Bianchi type-II sti matter models in
an electromagnetic eld theory. Hajj-Boutros
3,4
has studied LRS Bianchi type-II
models by a generating technique and has also constructed LRS Bianchi type-II
perfect uid models with an equation of state, which is a function of cosmic time.
Shanthi and Rao
5
have studied the self-creation theory of gravitation. Venkateswarlu
and Reddy
6
have given the cosmological solutions for Bianchi type-II sti uid
models in electromagnetic eld theory.
In this paper, we conne ourselves to a homogeneous but anisotropic LRS model
of Bianchi type-II. This model is characterized by the metric functions R
1
(t), R
2
(t)
and R
3
(t) such that R
1
(t) = R
2
(t) = R
3
(t). The metric functions are functions of
cosmic time only. However, it is not an easy task to construct an exact solution
to Einsteins eld equations due to the non-linearity of the dierential equations
which arise from general relativity. An attempt has been made to formulate a law
of variation for Hubbles parameter in Bianchi type-II spacetime, which yields a
constant value of the deceleration parameter. This law, together with Einsteins
eld equations, leads to a number of new solutions of LRS Bianchi type-II space
time. The law of variation for Hubbles parameter explicitly determines the scale
factors. Explicit forms of energy density, pressure, and expansion scalar are obtained
for various physical models. Therefore, Bermans work is extended to LRS Bianchi
type-II spacetime with less symmetry because it has the advantage of immediately
specifying the scale factors. The physical behavior of the model for dierent cases
has been studied in detail and the nature of the singularity has been claried. The
observational parameters such as the look-back time, proper distance, luminosity
distance and angular diameter distance for this cosmological model have also been
discussed in detail.
2. Model and Field Equations
In an orthonormal frame, the metric for Bianchi type-II spacetime in the LRS case
is given
2
by
ds
2
=
ij
j
,
ij
= diag(1, 1, 1, 1) , (2.1)
Bianchi Type-II Cosmological Models with Constant Deceleration Parameter 421
where the Cartan bases
i
is given by
0
= dt ,
1
= S(t)
1
,
2
= R(t)
2
,
3
= R(t)
3
, (2.2)
where R(t) and S(t) are metric functions. The time independent dierential one-
forms
i
are given by
1
= dy + xdz ,
2
= dz ,
3
= dx. (2.3)
The spatial volume of this model is given by
V
3
= R
2
S . (2.4)
Here, we also dene V = (R
2
S)
1/3
as the average scale factor so that Hubbles
parameter is dened by
H =
V
V
=
1
3
_
2

R
R
+
S
S
_
, (2.5)
where an overdot denotes dierentiation with respect to the cosmic time t.
The eld equations in the case of a perfect uid are
G
ij
= 8T
ij
(2.6)
with
T
ij
= (p + )u
i
u
j
+
ij
p , (2.7)
where
ij
u
i
u
j
= 1; G
ij
is the Einstein tensor; and p are, respectively, the energy
density and the pressure of the uid. We assume that the uid obeys an equation
of state
p = , 0 1 . (2.8)
For LRS Bianchi type-II spacetime (2.1), Einsteins eld equations (2.6) reduce,
in the case of Eq. (2.7), to three non-linear dierential equations:
2

R

S
RS
+
R
2
R
2

1
4
S
2
R
4
= 8 , (2.9)
2

R
R
+
R
2
R
2

3
4
S
2
R
4
= 8p , (2.10)
S
S
+
R
R
+
R

S
RS
+
1
4
S
2
R
4
= 8p . (2.11)
The conservation equation of the energymomentum tensor
T
ij
;j
= 0 (2.12)
leads to
+ ( + p)
_
2

R
R
+
S
S
_
= 0 . (2.13)
3. Law of Variation for Hubbles Parameter
Einsteins eld equations (2.9)(2.11) are a coupled system of highly non-linear dif-
ferential equations and we seek physical solutions to the eld equations for applica-
tions in cosmology and astrophysics. It appears that most
7
of the authors working
in this eld choose the following procedure: solve Einsteins eld equations with a
stress energy tensor of perfect uid type by assuming an equation of state linking
the pressure p and the energy density in order to build analytical models near the
singularity. Another alternative, which was used by Davidson
8
and later by many
others (e.g. Ref. 9), considered models with variable equation of state and deals
essentially with the FriedmannRobertsonWalker metric.
In order to solve the eld equations, we normally assume a form for the matter
content or suppose that spacetime admits Killing vector symmetries. Solutions to
the eld equations may also be generated by applying a law of variation for Hubbles
parameter that was proposed by Berman
10
for the RobertsonWalker metric and
that yields a constant value for the deceleration parameter. The variation of Hub-
bles law as assumed is not inconsistent with observation. Most of the well-known
models of Einsteins theory and BransDicke theory for the RobertsonWalker met-
ric have been considered with a constant deceleration parameter. In the literature,
Berman and Gomide,
11
Johri and Desikan,
12
Singh and Desikan,
13
Pradhan and
Vishwakarma
14
and others have studied cosmological models with a constant decel-
eration parameter.
Our intention in this paper is to extend the work of Berman
10
in LRS Bianchi
type-II spacetime to solve Einsteins eld equations by formulating a similar type
of law of variation for Hubbles parameter that yields a constant value for the
deceleration parameter. Therefore, we assume the law to be examined for a variation
in Hubbles parameter that yields a constant value of deceleration parameter in LRS
Bianchi type-II spacetime is
H =
D
3
(R
2
S)
n
3
, (3.1)
where D and n are constants.
The deceleration parameter q is dened by
q =
V

V
V
2
. (3.2)
From Eqs. (2.5) and (3.1), we get
2

R
R
+
S
S
= D(R
2
S)
n
3
, (3.3)
which on integration gives
R
2
S =
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_3
n
for n = 0 (3.4)
and
R
2
S = C
2
e
Dt
, for n = 0 , (3.5)
where C
1
and C
2
are constants of integration.
The age of the universe, in the rst case, is
_
n
3
Dt
0
+ C
1
_
=
D
3
H
1
0
(3.6)
and in the case of n = 0,
t
0
= log
_
(R
2
S)
0
C
2
_ 1
D
, (3.7)
where the index 0 means its present value and D > 0.
Substituing Eq. (3.4) into (3.2), we get
q = n 1 , (3.8)
which shows that the deceleration parameter is constant for this model. It should
be pointed out that the above law refers to LRS Bianchi type-II spacetime in any
context, i.e. in any theory that is based on LRS Bianchi type-II spacetime.
In the following sections, we obtain the solution of Einsteins eld equations for
LRS Bianchi type-II spacetime with the help of the above solutions.
4. Solution of the Field Equations
Substituting Eq. (2.8) into Eq. (2.13) and integrating, we get
=
C
3
(R
2
S)
1+
, (4.1)
where C
3
is an integration constant.
In view of Eq. (2.8), adding Eqs. (2.9) and (2.11), we get
R
R
+
S
S
+
3

R

S
RS
+
R
2
R
2
= 8(1 ) . (4.2)
Using Eq. (4.1) into Eq. (4.2), we obtain
R
R
+
S
S
+
3

R

S
RS
+
R
2
R
2
=
8(1 )C
3
(R
2
S)
1+
, (4.3)
which can be integrated to give
R
2

S + RS

R = 8(1 )C
3
_
dt
(R
2
S)
+ C
4
, (4.4)
where C
4
Equation (4.4) can be rewritten as
R
R
+
S
S
=
8(1 )C
3
R
2
S
_
dt
(R
2
S)
+
C
4
R
2
S
. (4.5)
In the following subsections, we discuss cosmology for n = 0 and n = 0 by using
dierent values of .
4.1. Cosmology for n = 0
Using Eq. (3.4) into Eq. (4.5) and simplifying, we nd
R
R
+
S
S
=
24(1 )C
3
(n 3)D
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
3
n
(+1)+1
+ C
4
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
3
n
, (4.6)
RS = C
5
exp
_
72(1 )C
3
(n 3){2n 3( + 1)}D
2
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
3
n
(+1)+2
+
3C
4
D(n 3)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
n3
n
_
, (4.7)
where C
5
Dividing Eq. (3.4) by Eq. (4.7), we get
R(t) =
1
C
5
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_3
n
exp
_
72(1 )C
3
(n 3){2n 3( + 1)}D
2
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
2n3(+1)
n
3C
4
D(n 3)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_n3
n
_
. (4.8)
The solution for the other scale factor is given by
S(t) = C
2
5
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
3
n
exp
_
144(1 )C
3
(n 3){2n 3( + 1)}D
2
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
2n3(+1)
n
+
6C
4
D(n 3)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_n3
n
_
. (4.9)
We now present a number of classes of new solutions for dierent physical models
of the universe. The above solutions are relevant during dierent eras of evolution
in general relativity. We rst nd the expressions for scale factors, energy density
and various kinematic quantities such as shear scalar and expansion scalar for the
following four dierent physical models by using Eqs. (4.8) and (4.9) and then
discuss the behavior of solutions more closely.
Case (i). Dust Distribution: (p = 0, = 0)
The dust model corresponds to incoherent matter distribution with p = 0. In this
case, = 0 and therefore Eqs. (4.8) and (4.9) admit solutions for the scale factors as
R(t) =
1
C
5
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_3
n
exp
_
72C
3
n(2n 3)D
2
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_2n3
n
3C
4
D(n 3)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
n3
n
_
, (4.10)
S(t) = C
2
5
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
3
n
exp
_
144C
3
n(2n 3)D
2
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
2n3
n
+
6C
4
D(n 3)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_n3
n
_
. (4.11)
Using Eq. (2.9), the solution for the energy density is given by
8 =

1
(t)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_ 3
n
, (4.12)
where
1
(t) =
96C
3
n
D
2
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_32n
n
+ 4DC
4
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
1
1728
2
C
2
3
n
2
D
2
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_2n3
n
144C
3
C
4
nD
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_n3
n
3C
2
4
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
3
n
1
4
C
8
5
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
15
n
exp
_
576C
3
n(2n 3)D
2
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
2n3
n
+
24C
4
D(n 3)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
n3
n
_
.
The shear scalar is given by
2
=
2
3
_
2D
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
1
72C
3
nD
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
n3
n
3C
4
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
3
n
_
2
.
(4.13)
The above solutions have physical meaning for n < 3/2, which gives the value
q < 1/2 for the deceleration parameter. The reality of energy density depends on
the values of constants C
1
, C
3
, C
4
, C
5
and D. Also, the energy density is a decreasing
function of time for n < 3/2.
Case (ii). Zeldovich Fluid Distribution: (p = )
The astrophysical importance of this distribution is that it describes several impor-
tant cases: e.g. relativistic degenerate Fermi gas and possibly very dense matter.
In this case, = 1 and therefore Eqs. (4.8) and (4.9) admit solutions for the scale
factors as
R(t) =
1
C
5
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_3
n
exp
_
3C
4
D(n 3)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
n3
n
_
, (4.14)
S(t) = C
2
5
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
3
n
exp
_
6C
4
D(n 3)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_n3
n
_
. (4.15)
The pressure and energy density are given by
8p = 8 =

2
(t)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_ 3
n
, (4.16)
where
2
(t) = 4DC
4
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
1
3C
2
4
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
3
n
D
2
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
32n
n
1
4
C
8
5
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
15
n
exp
_
24C
4
D(n 3)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
n3
n
_
.
2
=
2
3
_
2D
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
1
3C
4
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
3
n
_
2
. (4.17)
The above solutions have physical meaning for n < 3, i.e. q < 2. The reality of
energy density depends on the values of constants C
1
, C
4
, C
5
and D.
Case (iii). Disordered Distribution of Radiation: (p = /3)
In this case, = 1/3 and therefore Eqs. (4.8) and (4.9) admit solutions for the scale
factors as
R(t) =
1
C
5
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_3
n
exp
_
24C
3
(n 1)(n 2)D
2
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_2n4
n
3C
4
D(n 3)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
n3
n
_
, (4.18)
S(t) = C
2
5
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
3
n
exp
_
48C
3
(n 1)(n 2)D
2
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
2n4
n
+
6C
4
D(n 3)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
n3
n
_
. (4.19)
Using Eq. (2.9), the solution for energy density is given by
8 = 24p =

3
(t)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_ 3
n
, (4.20)
where
3
(t) = 4DC
4
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
1
D
2
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_32n
n
+
64C
3
n 1
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
1
n
768
2
C
2
3
(n 1)
2
D
2
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_2n5
n
96C
3
C
4
(n 1)D
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_n3
n
3C
2
4
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
3
n
1
4
C
8
5
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
15
n
exp
_
192C
3
(n 1)(n 2)D
2
_
n
3
Dt+C
1
_2n4
n
+
24C
4
D(n 3)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_n3
n
_
.
2
=
2
3
2D
n
3
Dt +C
1
48C
3
(n 1)D
n
3
Dt +C
1
n4
n
3C
4
n
3
Dt +C
1
3
n
2
.
(4.21)
The above solutions have physical meaning for n < 2, i.e. q < 1. The reality of
energy density depends on the values of constants C
1
, C
3
, C
4
, C
5
and D. Also, the
energy density is a decreasing function of time for n < 2.
Case (iv). Absence of Perfect Fluid Distribution: (p = = 0)
In this case, Eq. (4.2) reduces to
R
R
+
S
S
+
3

R

S
RS
+
R
2
R
2
= 0 , (4.22)
R
2

S + RS

R = C
6
, (4.23)
where C
6
Equation (4.23) can be rewritten as
R
R
+
S
S
=
C
6
R
2
S
. (4.24)
Using Eqs. (3.4) in (4.24) and solving with (3.3), we get a solution for the scale
factors as
R(t) =
1
C
7
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_3
n
exp
_
3C
6
D(n 3)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
n3
n
_
, (4.25)
S(t) = C
2
7
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
3
n
exp
_
6C
6
D(n 3)
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_n3
n
_
. (4.26)
2
=
2
3
_
2D
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
1
3C
6
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
3
n
_
2
. (4.27)
The above solutions have physical meaning for n = 3.
Physical behavior of the models:
We now discuss some kinematical and geometrical properties of the solutions
obtained in the above four dierent cases. In each case, the expression for the
expansion scalar is given by
=
D
n
3
Dt + C
1
. (4.28)
We observe that in each case t = 3C
1
/nD is the starting point of the universe.
The spatial volume is zero at t = 3C
1
/nD. lim
t
(R
2
S) = for n > 0 shows the
condition of expansion. The energy density, expansion scalar, measure of anisotropy
and shear scalar all tend to innity at t = 3C
1
/nD. It is also found that one of the
scale factors vanishes while the other diverges at t = 3C
1
/nD. This veries the line
singularity of the metric at the Big Bang event t = 3C
1
/nD. It has been pointed
out by Collins and Wainwright
15
that the shear tensor
ij
plays an important role
in general relativistic cosmology. The shear tensor arises in the decomposition of the
four-vector velocity of the uid. In each case, the shear is non-zero for 0 < t <
and thus the model is anisotropic for all four cases. As time increases, the shear
goes on decreasing continuously and drops to zero as t . The shape of the
models changes uniformly and the rate of change slows down with increasing time.
We also nd that the ratio / does not tend to zero as t , which indicates that
the shear does not tend to zero faster than the expansion scalar. This shows that
the model does not tend to isotropy for large values of t and therefore it remains
anisotropic throughout the evolution. The expansion scalar 0 as t , i.e. the
universe is expanding with increasing time and the rate of expansion is slow with
increasing time. We also observe that the matter-density is decreasing with time
and tends to zero as t . We then conclude that the strong energy conditions of
Hawking and Penrose,
16
+p 0 and + 3p 0, are always veried provided the
constants are taken to be positive. It is also observed from the solutions that the
universe ceases the radiation and matter phases and becomes a sti-matter universe
if C
3
= 0 or R
2
S as we can also see from Eq. (4.3). If the energy density is
also tending to zero, all the other cases reduce to the vacuum model and approach
the Einsteinde Sitter model for which the universe becomes innitely large with
cosmic time. The uid motion is irrotational and acceleration free since rotation
and acceleration vectors turn out to be zero. Thus, the ow of uid is geodesic in
all cases. The integral
_
t
t0
dt
V (t
)
=
3
D(n 1)
_
_
n
3
Dt
+ C
1
_n1
n
_
t
t0
(4.29)
is nite provided n = 1 and therefore a horizon exists in the model. The values of
deceleration parameter in the case of p = and = 3p are in close agreement with
the experimental values.
We now study the consistency of our model with the observational parameters.
We know that as we look back from our position at r = 0 and t = t
0
to some object
at a distance r
1
, we are also looking back to some time t
1
< t
0
. Since r
1
and t
1
are not directly measurable, we measure the physical parameters such as redshift,
proper distance, luminosity distance, angular diameter, etc. Since the various cosmic
measures depend sensitively on the parameters of the models, the physical properties
of the distant objects are also inuenced by these parameters.
17,18
For this purpose,
we now derive some relations in the models for n = 0.
Look-back time:
The time in the past at which the light we now receive from a distant object was
emitted is called the look-back time. We know that for any redshift z, the epoch of
emission is given by
V (t
0
)
V (t)
= 1 + z =
_
n
3
Dt
0
+ C
1
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
3/n
(4.30)
or
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
=
_
n
3
Dt
0
+ C
1
_
(1 + z)
n/3
. (4.31)
Using Eq. (3.6), we can write
_
n
3
Dt
0
+ C
1
_
_
n
3
Dt + C
1
_
=
D
3H
0
[1 (1 + z)
n/3
] (4.32)
or
H
0
(t
0
t) =
1
n
[1 (1 + z)
n/3
] . (4.33)
For small z, we have
H
0
(t
0
t) =
1
n
_
n
3
z
n(n 3)
3
2
2
z
2
+
_
(4.34)
and, with q = n 1, this transforms into
H
0
(t
0
t) =
_
1
3
z
(q 2)
3
2
2
z
2
+
_
. (4.35)
If we take z in Eq. (4.33), we obtain H
0
t
0
= 1/n and for n = 3/2, i.e. q = 1/2
and we get
H
0
(t
0
t) =
2
3
[1 (1 + z)
1/2
] , (4.36)
which gives the well-known Einsteinde Sitter result.
Proper distance d(z):
If an observer at r = 0 and t = t
0
receives the light from a source at any instant
t = t
1
located at r = r
1
with redshift z, then the proper distance between the source
and observer is given by
d(z) = r
1
V (t
0
) , (4.37)
where
r
1
=
_
t0
t1
dt
V (t)
=
1
(n 3)V (t
0
)H
0
_
1 (1 + z)
3n
3
, n = 3 (4.38)
by using Eqs. (4.30) and (3.6).
Hence,
d(z) =
1
(n 3)H
0
_
1 (1 + z)
3n
3
_
. (4.39)
For small z, this becomes
H
0
d =
1
3
z
n
3
2
2
z
2
+ =
1
3
z
(q + 1)
3
2
2
z
2
+ . (4.40)
Now, if n > 3 at t
0
, the observer cannot see any source beyond the proper distance
of the particle horizon. Therefore,
d(z = ) =
1
(n 3)
H
1
0
(4.41)
provided n > 3.
Luminosity distance (d
L
):
This generalizes the inverse-square law of the brightness in static Euclidean space
of an expanding curved space:
d
L
=
_
L
4l
_1
2
= r
1
V (t
0
)(1 + z) , (4.42)
where L is the total energy emitted by the source per unit time and l is the apparent
luminosity of the object. Using Eq. (4.37), we have
d
L
= d(z)(1 + z) . (4.43)
Using Eq. (4.39), we get
d
L
=
1
(n 3)H
0
_
(1 + z) (1 + z)
6n
3
_
. (4.44)
For small z, Eq. (4.44) gives
H
0
d
L
=
1
3
z +
(5 q)
3
2
2
z
2
+ . (4.45)
Luminosity distance vs Redshift
0
1
2
3
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Redshift z
L
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

d
L

i
n

u
n
i
t
s

o
f

1
/
H
0
q=0
q=1
q=3
q=5
q=7
Fig. 1. The luminosity distance is expressed (in units of 1/H
0
) as a function of the redshift z for
q = 0, 1, 3, 5, 7. The relationship is linear for q = 5. For q < 5, d
L
increases fast with z whereas for
q > 5, d
L
increases more slowly with z. All curves merge for small z.
Figure 1 plots d
L
(q, z) as a function of z for various parametric values of q. We note
that all curves start o with the linear Hubble law (cz = H
0
d
L
) for small z, but
then, only the curve for q = 5 staying linear all the way. We also note that for the
same redshift the luminosity distance is larger for lower values of q. Thus, for q = 5,
we have
d
L
=
1
3H
0
z , (4.46)
and for q = 0, we get
d
L
=
1
3H
0
_
z +
5
6
z
2
_
. (4.47)
Angular diameter distance (d
A
):
The angular diameter of a light source of proper distance D at r = r
1
and t = t
1
observed at r = 0 and t = t
0
is given by
=
D
r
1
V (t
1
)
=
D(1 + z)
2
d
L
. (4.48)
The angular diameter distance d
A
is dened as the ratio of the source diameter to
its angular diameter:
d
A
=
D
= r
1
V (t
1
) = d
L
(1 + z)
2
. (4.49)
Applying Eq. (4.44), we obtain
d
A
=
1
(n 3)H
0
_
(1 + z)
1
(1 + z)
n
3
_
, (4.50)
which is determined as a function of z.
4.2. Cosmology for n = 0
Using Eq. (3.5) in Eq. (4.5), we get
R
R
+
S
S
=
8(1 )C
3
C
1+
2
D
e
(1+)Dt
+
C
4
C
2
e
Dt
, (4.51)
RS = C
8
exp
_
8(1 )C
3
( + 1)D
2
C
+1
2
e
(+1)Dt
C
4
DC
2
e
Dt
_
, (4.52)
where C
8
Solving (3.5) and (4.52), we get the following solutions for the scale factors:
R(t) =
C
2
C
8
exp
_
Dt
8(1 )C
3
( + 1)D
2
C
+1
2
e
(+1)Dt
+
C
4
DC
2
e
Dt
_
, (4.53)
S(t) =
C
2
8
C
2
exp
_
16(1 )C
3
( + 1)D
2
C
+1
2
e
(+1)Dt
2C
4
DC
2
e
Dt
Dt
_
. (4.54)
The above solutions have physical meaning provided = 0. We now present
a number of classes of new solutions for dierent physical models of the universe.
We rst nd the expressions for scale factors, energy density and various kinematic
quantities such as shear scalar and expansion scalar for the following four dierent
physical models by using Eqs. (4.53) and (4.54) and then discuss the behavior of
solutions more closely.
Case (i). Zeldovich Fluid Distribution: (p = )
In this case, = 1 and therefore Eqs. (4.53) and (4.54) admit solutions for the scale
factors as
R(t) =
C
2
C
8
exp
_
Dt +
C
4
DC
2
e
Dt
_
, (4.55)
S(t) =
C
2
8
C
2
exp
_
2C
4
DC
2
e
Dt
Dt
_
. (4.56)
The pressure and energy density are given by
8p = 8 =

1
(t)
C
2
e
Dt
, (4.57)
where
1
(t) = 4DC
4
D
2
C
2
e
Dt
3C
2
4
C
2
e
Dt
C
8
8
4C
5
2
exp
_
_
5Dt +
8C
4
DC
2
e
Dt
__
.
2
=
2
3
_
2D
3C
4
C
2
e
Dt
_
2
. (4.58)
The reality of the energy density depends on the values of constants C
2
, C
4
, C
8
and
D.
Case (ii). Disordered Distribution of Radiation: (p = /3)
In this case, = 1/3 and therefore Eqs. (4.53) and (4.54) admit solutions for the
scale factors as
R(t) =
C
2
C
8
exp
_
Dt
12C
3
D
2
C
4/3
2
e
4
3
Dt
+
C
4
DC
2
e
Dt
_
, (4.59)
S(t) =
C
2
8
C
2
exp
_
24C
3
D
2
C
4/3
2
e
4
3
Dt
2C
4
DC
2
e
Dt
Dt
_
. (4.60)
Using Eq. (2.9), the solution for energy density is given by
8 = 24p =

2
(t)
C
2
e
Dt
, (4.61)
where
2
(t) = 4DC
4
D
2
C
2
e
Dt
64C
3
C
1/3
2
e
1
3
Dt
+
96C
3
C
4
DC
4/3
2
e
4
3
Dt
3C
2
4
C
2
e
Dt
768
2
C
2
3
C
5/3
2
D
2
e
5
3
Dt
C
8
8
4C
5
2
exp
_
96C
3
C
4/3
2
D
2
e
4
3
Dt
5Dt
8C
4
DC
2
e
Dt
_
.
2
=
2
3
_
2D +
48C
3
DC
4/3
2
e
4
3
Dt
3C
4
C
2
e
Dt
_
2
. (4.62)
2
, C
3
, C
4
, C
8
and D.
Case (iii). Absence of Perfect Fluid Distribution: (p = = 0)
In this case, using (3.5) in (4.24) and solving with (3.3), we get a solution for the
scale factors as
R(t) =
C
2
C
9
exp
_
Dt +
C
6
DC
2
e
Dt
_
, (4.63)
S(t) =
C
2
9
C
2
exp
_
2C
6
DC
2
e
Dt
Dt
_
. (4.64)
2
=
2
3
_
2D
3C
6
C
2
e
Dt
_
2
. (4.65)
Case (iv). Dust Distribution: (p = 0, = 0)
Since Eq. (4.51) has no physical meaning for = 0, we nd the solutions for this
case as follows:
Using Eq. (3.5) in Eq. (4.5) for = 0, we get
R
R
+
S
S
=
8C
3
C
2
te
Dt
+
C
4
C
2
e
Dt
, (4.66)
RS = C
10
exp
_
8C
3
DC
2
_
t +
1
D
_
e
Dt
C
4
DC
2
e
Dt
_
, (4.67)
where C
10
From Eqs. (3.5) and (4.67), we get solutions for the scale factors as
R(t) =
C
2
C
10
exp
_
Dt +
8C
3
DC
2
_
t +
1
D
_
e
Dt
+
C
4
DC
2
e
Dt
_
, (4.68)
S(t) =
C
2
10
C
2
exp
_
Dt
16C
3
DC
2
_
t +
1
D
_
e
Dt
2C
4
DC
2
e
Dt
_
. (4.69)
The energy density is given by
8 =

3
(t)
C
2
e
Dt
, (4.70)
where
3
(t) = 4D(8C
3
t + C
4
) D
2
C
2
e
Dt
3
C
2
(8C
3
t + C
4
)
2
e
Dt
C
8
10
4C
5
2
exp
_
5Dt
64C
3
DC
2
_
t +
1
D
_
e
Dt
8C
4
DC
2
e
Dt
_
.
2
=
2
3
_
2D
24C
3
t
C
2
e
Dt
3C
4
C
2
e
Dt
_
2
. (4.71)
2
, C
3
, C
4
,
C
10
and D.
Physical behavior of the models for n = 0
For n = 0, we get the deceleration parameter q = 1 for these classes of solutions,
which is consistent with the recent observations of supernovae Ia requiring the
present universe to be accelerating.
19,20
We now discuss the kinematic and geo-
metrical properties of the solutions obtained in the above four dierent cases. In
each case, the expression for the expansion scalar is given by
= D. (4.72)
It is observed that in each case the spatial volume, the two scale factors, energy
density and shear are all constants at t = 0, which shows that the universe starts
evolving with a constant volume and expands with exponential rate and anisotropy.
The scale factors R(t) and S(t) are exponential in t. Furthermore, since D > 0,
the model expands exponentially. The reality of the pressure and density depends
on the values of D and the integration constants. The expansion scalar is constant
for 0 t and therefore the model represents uniform expansion. It is also
observed that the universe ceases the radiation and matter phases and becomes a
sti-matter universe if C
3
= 0 or R
2
S as we can also see from Eq. (4.3).
If the energy density is also tending to zero, all other cases reduce to the vacuum
model and approach the Einsteinde Sitter model for which the universe becomes
innitely large with cosmic time. The shear scalar is non-zero for this interval of
time. Since lim
t
= 0, the model does not approach isotropy for large values

of t. Therefore, the universe remains anisotropic throughout the evolution in all the
cases. As t , one of the scale factors diverges while the other vanishes. The
universe will become innitely large for large values of t. It has also been observed
that lim
t0
2
= constant. Thus, the model approaches homogeneity and matter
is dynamically negligible near the singularity; this agrees with a result given by
Collins.
21
We now study the consistency of our model with observations. We mea-
sure the physical parameters such as redshift, proper distance, luminosity distance,
angular diameter, etc. for n = 0 in the earlier way with the help of Eqs. (3.5) and
(3.7).
Look-back time: H
0
(t
0
t) =
1
3
log
V (t
0
)
C
2
[1 (1 + z)
1
] . (4.73)
For small z, we have
H
0
(t
0
t) =
1
3
log
V (t
0
)
C
2
+
1
3
log(z z
2
+ ) . (4.74)
Proper distance:
d(z) =
1
3H
0
z . (4.75)
This shows linearity with redshift z.
Angular diameter:
d
A
=
1
3H
0
z
1 + z
. (4.76)
Event horizon:
r
E
= V (t
0
)
_
t
t0
dt
V (t)
=
1
3H
0
C
2
. (4.77)
Luminosity distance vs Redshift
0
1
2
3
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Redshift z
L
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

d
L
i
n

u
n
i
t
s

o
f

1
/
H
0
q= -1
Fig. 2. The luminosity distance is expressed as a function of z for q = 1. We notice that the
luminosity distance increases faster with redshift z for q = 1.
That is, if any light source sends a ray of light from beyond this range at time t
0
towards the observer at r = 0, it will never reach the observer. Thus, no observer
beyond a proper distance r
E
at t = t
0
can communicate with another observer.
This limit is called the event horizon.
Luminosity distance:
d
L
=
1
3H
0
(z + z
2
) . (4.78)
5. Conclusion
In this paper, we have made an attempt to formulate a law of variation for Hub-
bles parameter which yields a constant value of the deceleration parameter in LRS
Bianchi type-II spacetime. We have presented an alternative and straightforward
approach to solving Einsteins typical, non-linear eld equations by formulating a
special law of variation for Hubbles parameter. Cosmological models, obeying Ein-
stein equations as well as obeying the constant deceleration parameter, have been
presented and solved for four dierent cases comprising the equation of state. We
have discussed the solutions with power-law and exponential expansion and have
examined particular classes of models (dust, radiation, Zeldovich and vacuum) for
all possible values of n. We have presented a number of new solutions by using the
law of variation for Hubbles parameter given by Eq. (3.1). This simple law leads to
a wide class of solutions since Einsteins eld equations have been solved in a very
simple manner. It might be worthwhile investigating other possibilities that lead
to the solutions to Einsteins eld equations with interesting physical behavior of
the universe. Thus, it is possible in principle to solve Einsteins eld equations for
Bianchi type spacetimes. The law of variation for Hubbles parameter explicitly
determines the scale factors. Explicit forms for scale factors, energy density and
pressure have been obtained for various physical models. The solutions obtained
for n = 0 and n = 0 are interesting as they suggest that a class of solutions may
be presented to other spacetimes with less symmetry. For n = 0, we have a bar-
rel singularity and matter is dynamically negligible near the singularity, and for
n = 0, we have an exponential expansion. There is no real singularity, the density
being nite. All the kinematic and geometrical parameters as well as the evolution
of the universe start with nite values and increase exponentially. Also, for n = 0,
q = 1, this value of deceleration parameter leads to dH/dt = 0, which implies
the greatest value of Hubbles parameter and the fastest rate of expansion of the
universe, which can also be observed from Fig. 2. These classes of solutions are con-
sistent with the recent observations of supernovae Ia
19,20
that require the present
universe to be accelerating. Thus, the condition for an accelerated universe is n 0
and all the physically viable models of the expanding universe only exist for this
condition. Thus, the model of the universe has a singular origin when n = 0 and
a non-singular origin when n = 0. Therefore, in each case it is obvious that all
the kinematic and geometrical parameters as well as the evolution of the universe
start with a singularity at t = 3C
1
/nD for n = 0 and remain regular in nite
region. The rate of expansion slows down with time and nally drops to zero as
t . The matter density tends to zero as t . It is also observed that the
universe remains anisotropic throughout the evolution and the acceleration vector
and rotation turn out to be zero in all cases (dust, radiation, Zeldovich and vac-
uum). The values of the deceleration parameter in the case of p = and = 3p
are in close agreement with experimental values for n = 0. We have shown that the
solutions are consistent with the general theory of relativity by taking the variation
of Hubbles parameter as used in LRS Bianchi type-II models. Finally, it is possible
that the law of Hubble parameter variation presented in this paper may be useful
in studying new solutions to Einsteins eld equations in other alternative theories
also. Thus, we have provided a mechanism to solve a system of non-linear dier-
ential equations by formulating a special law which is consistent with LRS Bianchi
type-II for four dierent eras. We have also discussed in detail the consistency of
our model with observational parameters such as look-back time, proper distance,
luminosity distance, angular diameter and horizon in each case. It has been found
that the luminosity distance quickly increases with redshift for q < 5 in the rst
case, i.e. n = 0 and for q = 1 in the second case, i.e. n = 0.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the referee for his valuable comments and
suggestions.
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International Journal of Modern Physics D

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= 0, the model does not approach isotropy for large values

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