Thermal-Fluids I

Dr. Primal Fernando

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Chapter 16 Mechanisms of heat transfer
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Ph: (850) 410-6323
Mechanismsofheattransfer
Heatcanflowspontaneouslyfromanobjectwithahightemperatureto
anobjectwithalowertemperature.
Heatcanonlybetransferredbetweenobjects,orareaswithinanobject, y j j
withdifferenttemperatures(asgivenbythezerothlawof
thermodynamics),andthen,intheabsenceofwork,onlyinthedirection
ofthecolderbody(asperthesecondlawofthermodynamics).
Thereare3mechanismsofheattransfer
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
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Conduction
Conductionisthetransferofenergyfromthemoreenergeticparticle
of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of ofasubstancetotheadjacentlessenergeticonesasaresultof
interactionsbetweentheparticles.
Conduction takes place in solids liquids and gases Conductiontakesplaceinsolids,liquidsandgases.
Inliquidsandgassesconductionheattransferisduetothecollisions
d diff i f th l l d i th i d ti anddiffusionofthemoleculesduringtheirrandommotion.
Insolids:itisduetothecombinationofvibrationsofmoleculesina
latticeandenergytransportedbyfreeelectrons.
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Rateofheatconduction ate o eat co ductio
Considersteadyheatconductionthrougha
large plane wall largeplanewall,
Area=A
Thi k A Thickness=Ax
Temperaturedifference=AT=T
1
T
2
Experiments have been shown that Experiments have been shown that
the heat transfer rate
A Q
cond

T T T Q
2 1 cond
A =

1
T A

T A

4
x
1
Q
cond
A

x
T
A Q
cond
A
A

x
T
kA Q
cond
A
A
=

Fourierslawofheatconduction
) (W
T
kA Q
A

) (W
x
kA Q
cond
A
=
k Thermalconductivity(Wm
1
K
1
),measureofmaterialsabilityto y ( ), y
conductheat
T A
Temperature gradient, which has a negative slope
x A
Temperaturegradient,whichhasanegativeslope
) / (
2 cond
W
T
k
Q A

) / (
2 cond
m W
x
T
k q
A
Q
A
A
= =
q R t f h t d ti it
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q Rateofheatconductionperunitarea
Simple example Simpleexample
) / (
2 cond
W
T
k
Q A

) / (
2 cond
m W
x
T
k q
A
Q
A
A
= =
2
o
o
m W 4010
m
C
C m
W
1
20 30
401 q
/
) (
=
(

=
m W 4010 / =
(
2
o
o
m 1480
m
C
C m
W
1
20 30
148 q
/
) (
=
(

=
6
Thermalconductorsandthermalinsulators e a co ducto s a d t e a i su ato s
) (W
x
T
kA Q
cond
A
A
=

x A
Toobtainhighheattransfer,usematerialswithhighthermalconductivity
(thermalconductors;highk)andtoreduceheattransferusematerialswith
lowthermalconductivity(thermalinsulators;lowk)
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Thermalconductivityofsomematerials
Diamond 2300 W/m.K, Cu 401 W/m.K, Al 237 W/m.K, Iron 80.2 W/m.K,
Glass 0.78 W/m.K, Brick 0.71 W/m.K, Water 0.613 W/m.K, Air 0.026 W/m.K,
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k in most liquids is k inmostliquidsis
decreasedwith
increasingtemperature
(water is exceptional) (waterisexceptional)
Ingasesandliquidsk
decrease with decreasewith
increasingmolarmass
(inkinetictheory,
I k
M
T
k
Ingaseskincreases
withincreasing
temperature
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Somedefinitionsinshort So e de i itio s i s o t
C
p
(J/kg)=Specificheat;materialsabilitytostorethermalenergy(per
unitmass).
C
p
(J/m
3
)=Heatcapacity;materialsabilitytostorethermalenergy(per
p
p y y gy (p
unitvolume).
k (W/mC)=Thermalconductivity;materialsabilitytoconductsheat. k ( / C) e a co uc i i y; a e ia s a i i y o co uc s ea
o (m
2
/s)=Thermaldiffusivity;howfastheatdiffusesthroughamaterial
C
k
stored heat
conducted heat

o = =
10
p
C stored heat
Measuringthermalconductivityofamaterial
Experiment: Inacertainexperiment,cylindricalsamplesofdiameter5cm
andlength10cmareused.Thetwothermocouplesineachsampleare
placed3cmapart.Afterinitialtransient,theelectricalheaterisobservedto
d 0 4 A 110 V d b h diff i l h d draw0.4Aat110V,andbothdifferentialthermometersreadatemperature
differenceof15C.Determinethethermalconductivityofthematerial.
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Assumptions
Steadystate:temperature y p
donotchange.
Insulatedverywell:heat
lossthroughlateral
surfacesarenegligible.
E ti h t t d b Entireheatgeneratedby
resistanceheateris
conductedthrough
samples. a p e
Theapparatusposses
thermalsymmetry.
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y y
) (W
T
kA Q
A

) (W
x
kA Q
cond
A
=
x Q
d
A

T
x
A
Q
k
cond
A
A
=
VI P VI P
ply power electrical
=
sup
| | W 22 W VA
4 0 110 VI
Q = =

= =
.

| | W 22 W VA
2 2
Q
cond
= = = =
2 2 2
m 00196 0 m 05 0
1
D
1
A . ) . ( = = = t t
m 03 0 W 22 ) )( (
4 4
. ) . ( t t
13
C m W 4 22
C 15 m 00196 0
m 03 0 W 22
k
2
=

= / .
) )( . (
) . )( (
ConversionbetweenSIandEnglishunits g
Heat 1W=3 41214 Btu/h Heat,1W=3.41214Btu/h
Length,1m=3.2808ft
Temperature,1C=1.8F
Thermalconductivity,1W/mC=0.5778Btu/h.ft.F
F ft h
Btu
5778 0
F 8 1 ft 2808 3
h Btu 41214 3
C m
W
1

=
. .
.
) . )( . (
/ .
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f f ) )( (
Convection
Convectionisthemodeofenergytransferbetweenasolidsurfaceandthe
adjacentliquidorgasthatisinmotion,anditinvolvesthecombinedeffects
of conduction and fluid motion ofconductionandfluidmotion.
Thefasterthefluidmotion,greatertheheattransfer
Itcanbedividedintotwoparts,naturalconvectionandforceconvection
Naturalconvection(freeconvection)
Fluidmotioniscausedbybuoyancyforcesthatareinducedbydensity
differencesduetothevariationoftemperatureinthefluid.
Forceconvection
Fluidisforcedflowoverthesurfacebyexternalmeansuchasfan,pump
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y p p
Force and natural (free) convection Forceandnatural(free)convection
Natural convection
Natural convection
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Newtonslawofcoolingg
) ( ) ( W T T hA Q

) ( ) ( W T T hA Q
s s conv
=
h ti h t t f ffi i
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h convection heat transfer coefficien
Measuringconvectionheattransfercoefficient g
Experiment: A2mlong,0.3cmdiameterelectricalwireextendsacrossa
roomat15C,asshowninfigure.Heatisgeneratedinthewireasaresults , g g
ofresistanceheating,andthesurfacetemperatureofthewireismeasuredto
be152C.Also,thevoltagedropandelectriccurrentthroughthewireare
measuredtobe60Vand1.5A,respectively.Disregardinganyheattransfer
byradiation,determinetheconvectionheattransfercoefficientforheat
transferbetweentheoutersurfaceofthewireandtheairintheroom.
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Assumptions
Steady state Steadystate
condition;no
temperature
change change
Radiationheat
transfernegligible.
) (
) ( ) (

= =
T T A
Q
h W T T hA Q
s s
conv
s s conv

2
s
m 01885 0 m 2 m 003 0 DL A . ) )( . ( = = = t t

W 90 A 5 1 V 60 VI P Q
ply power electrical conv
= = = = ) . )( (
sup
C W 9 34
W 90 Q
h
2 conv
/

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C m W 9 34
C 15 152 m 01885 0
W 90
T T A
Q
h
2
2
s s
conv
=

=

/ .
) )( . ( ) (
Radiation
Radiationistheenergyemittedbymatterintheformofelectromagnetic
waves(orphotons).
Itdoesnotrequireamediumtotransferenergy(thisishowenergyofthe
sunreachestheearth.
Itsuffersnoattenuation(weakening)inavacuum.Radiationfromthesunis
attenuatedbytheEarthsatmosphere.
Radiationisvolumetricphenomenon:allsolids,liquidsgasses,absorb,emits
ortransmitradiationtovaryingdegrees.
However,radiationisusuallyconsideredtobeasurfacephenomenonfor
solidsthatareopaquetothermalradiationsuchasmetals,woodandrocks
sincetheradiationemittedbytheinteriorregionsofsuchmaterialcannever
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y g
reachthesurface,andradiationincidentonsuchbodiesisusuallyabsorbed
withinafewmicronsfromthesurface
Th i t f di ti th t b itt d Themaximumrateofradiationthatcanbeemitted
fromasurfaceatanabsolutetemperatureofT
s
is
given by the StefanBoltzmann law givenbytheStefanBoltzmannlaw
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s s rad
T A Q o =
max ,

4 2 8
units SI K m W 10 67 5 t Cons Boltsman Stefan =

) ( / . , tan o
4 2 8
R ft h Btu 10 1714 0 or

. . / .
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Blackbodyradiation y
In physics a black body is an object that absorbs all electromagnetic Inphysics,ablackbody isanobjectthatabsorbsallelectromagnetic
radiationthatfallsontoit.Noradiationpassesthroughitandnoneis
reflected.Itisthislackofbothtransmissionandreflectiontowhich
the name refers These properties make black bodies ideal sources of thenamerefers.Thesepropertiesmakeblackbodiesidealsources of
thermalradiation.
Blackbody is a perfect absorber and perfect emitter Blackbodyisaperfectabsorberandperfectemitter.
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T A Q

4
s s blackbody rad
T A Q o =
,
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Th di ti it b l b di l th Theradiationemitsbyrealbodiesarelessthan
blackbodies
R di ti f l b d
4
T A Q c

Radiation from a real body

4
s s real rad
T A Q co =
,
c is called emissivity of the surface: it is different to surface to
surface, polish surfaces have low emissivities and rough and painted surface, polish surfaces have low emissivities and rough and painted
surfaces have high emissivities.
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When surface of emissivity c and surface area of A is completely Whensurfaceofemissivityc andsurfaceareaofA
s
iscompletely
enclosedbyamuchlargersurfaceatabsolutetemperatureofT
surr
separatedbyagas(suchasair)thatdoesnotintervenewithradiation,the
net rate of radiation heat transfer between these to surfaces is given by, netrateofradiationheattransferbetweenthesetosurfacesisgivenby,
) (
4
surr
4
s s rad
T T A Q = co

) (
surr s s rad
Q
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Combineheattransfercoefficient
Radiation heat transfer to or from a surface surrounded by a gas such Radiationheattransfertoorfromasurfacesurroundedbyagassuch
asairoccursparalleltoconduction(orconvection,ifthereisbulkgas
motion)betweenthesurfaceandthegas.Thus,thetotalheattransfer
is determined by adding the contributions of both heat transfer isdeterminedbyaddingthecontributionsofbothheattransfer
mechanisms.Bysimplicityandconvenience,thisisoftendoneby
definingcombinedheattransfercoefficienth
combined
thatincludesthe
effectsofbothconvectionandradiation.Thetotalheattransferrateto
orfromasurfaceisbyconvectionandradiationisexpressedas,
) ( T T A h Q

) (

= T T A h Q
s s combined total
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Example: Thetotalheattransferrate(byconvectionandradiation)ofa
surfaceisgivenbyfollowingexpression.Deriveandexpressionforthe g y g p p
combinedheattransfercoefficient(h
combined
)
) (

= T T A h Q
s s combined total

s s combined total
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Q Q Q

+
Where;
) (

= T T A h Q
s s combined total

rad con total

Q Q Q + =
Where;
) (
4 4
s s rad
T T A Q

= co

) (

= T T A h Q
s s con conv

) ( ) (
4 4
s s s con s total
T T A T T h A Q

+ = co

) )( ( ) (
2 2
s
2 2
s s s con s total
T T T T A T T h A Q

+ + = co

) )( )( ( ) ( + + + = T T T T T T A T T h A Q
2 2
co

) )( )( ( ) (

+ + + = T T T T T T A T T h A Q
s s s s s con s total
co
{ } ) ( ) )( (

+ + + = T T T T T T A h A Q
s s
2 2
s s con s total
co

{ } ) ( ) )( (

+ + + = T T A T T T T A h Q
s s s
2 2
s s con total
co

) (

= T T A h Q
s s combined total

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{ } ) )( (

+ + + = T T T T A h h
s
2 2
s s con combined
co
Totalheattransferfromabodyy
Heat transfer takes place between objects with different
temperatures and all three modes of heat transfer exists
simultaneously. However, there are many situations when one mode
dominates over others.
Question: How do we know which mode dominates over others?
Neglecting less important ones can usually simplify the calculation
without significant error.
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Simultaneousheattransfermechanisms
Opaquesolids(inside):Heattransferisonlybyconduction
Semitransparentsolids(inside):Heattransferisbyconductionand
radiation
Solidexposedtoliquidorgas(withanothersurface):convectionand
radiation
Stillfluid:Conductionandpossiblybyradiation(nobulkfluidmotion)
Flowingfluid:Convectionandradiation
Vacuum: Heat transfer is only by radiation
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Vacuum:Heattransferisonlybyradiation