INFORMATIOM TEC NO!

O"#

[Project submitted to] | Saba. Mustafa

Memory

TABLE OF CONTENT:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: ................................................................................................ 4 I ALSO ACKNOWLEDGE THE COOPERATION RECEIVED FROM MY FAMILY MEMBERS, CLASSMATES AND FRIENDS TOWARDS THE SUCCESSFUL COMPLETION OF MY TASK.......................................................................................... 4 GROUP DETAIL.............................................................................................................. 5 $%&.......................................................................................................................................% C&.......................................................................................................................................% COMPUTER MEMORY:.................................................................................................. 6 PRIMARY MEMORY:..............................................................................................................6 F'NCTIONS OF PRIMAR# MEMOR#(.......................................................................................) T#PES OF PRIMAR# MEMOR#...............................................................................................) *.RAM + Ra,dom Access Memor-..................................................................................) ..ROM + Read O,/- Memor- .........................................................................................) SECONDARY MEMORY:........................................................................................................7 T#PES OF SECON0AR# MEMOR#..........................................................................................1 Ma2,etic Ta3e.................................................................................................................1 A se4ue,tia/ stora2e de5ice t6at is used for data co//ectio,7 bac8u3 a,d 6istorica/ 3ur3oses. 9ust /i8e audio or 5ideota3e7 com3uter ta3e is made of f/e:ib/e 3/astic ;it6 o,e side coated ;it6 a ferroma2,etic materia/. Ta3es come i, ree/s7 cartrid2es a,d cassettes of ma,- si<ed a,d s6a3es................................................................................................1 Ma2,etic 0is8 [F/o33- 0is87 ard 0is8 etc]......................................................................1 A t-3e of di2ita/ stora2e media7 ma2,etic dis8s i,c/ude t6e 6ard dis8 fou,d i, -our com3uter t6at stores t6e 3ro2rams a,d fi/es -ou ;or8 ;it6 dai/-. Ma2,etic dis8s 3ro5ide ra,dom access. A/so i,c/uded are remo5ab/e 6ard dis8s7 f/o33- dis8s7 <i3 dis8s7 a,d remo5ab/e cartrid2es........................................................................................................1 Ma2,etic 0rum................................................................................................................= 0rum memor- is a ma2,etic data stora2e de5ice a,d ;as a, ear/- form of com3uter memor- ;ide/- used i, t6e *=%>s a,d i,to t6e *=)>s7 i,5e,ted b- "usta5 Tausc6e8 i, *=?. i, Austria................................................................................................................. = MICR [Ma2,etic I,8 C6aracter Reader] ..........................................................................= Ma2,etic I,8 C6aracter Reco2,itio,7 or MICR7 is a c6aracter reco2,itio, tec6,o/o2used 3rimari/- b- t6e ba,8i,2 i,dustr- to faci/itate t6e 3rocessi,2 of c6e4ues. T6e tec6,o/o2- a//o;s com3uters to read i,formatio, @suc6 as accou,t ,umbersA off of 3ri,ted docume,ts............................................................................................................ = C0BROMs......................................................................................................................... = C0BROM @7 a, acro,-m of Ccom3act disc readBo,/- memor-CA is a 3reB3ressed com3act disc t6at co,tai,s data accessib/e to7 but ,ot ;ritab/e b-7 a com3uter for data stora2e a,d music 3/a-bac87 t6e *=D% $#e//o; Eoo8& sta,dard de5e/o3ed b- So,- a,d P6i/i3s...= Pe, 0ri5es........................................................................................................................ =

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CACHE MEMORY: ....................................................................................................... 1 HOW CACHE WORKS:........................................................................................................11 I. FRITEBT RO'" MET O0...............................................................................................*. II. FRITEBEACG MET O0. ...................................................................................................*. STACK MEMORY:...............................................................................................................1!

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Acknowledgement:
All praise to almighty ALLAH Who is the creator of all the creation. We cannot count HIS countless blessings, which HE showers upon us in the shape of health, wealth of Islam, recourses, courage an abilities to perform well on our gi!en tas"s. Special regar s an praise are also for our last #rophet HA$%A& '(HA''A) *#eace +e (pon Him, who taught us the teachings of honesty, integrity an sincerity to our wor" through fair ealings. I con!ey !ery special than"s an pray to my ignifie an honorable teacher miss Saba Mustafa for his sincere, cooperati!e an encouraging attitu e towar s the accomplishment of my gi!en tas".

I also ac"nowle ge the cooperation recei!e from my family members, classmates an frien s towar s the successful completion of my tas".

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Group Detail

NAMES OF GROUP MEMBERS:

'uhamma +asit Wahab Awais Ahma (mer 1han '.Arslan +ashir L.S./++A'2/.0 L.S./++A' 2/.2 L.S./++A'/.22 L.S./++A'2.23

GROUP NUMBER:
5

SECTION:
C

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Computer Memory:
Computer Memory can be classified basically into tow types: 1. Primary Memory 2. Secondary Memory

Primary Memory:
It is also called as the Main Memory or Internal Memory. It stores the data for processing and the Program instructions. It is also the Immediate Access Memory. It is temporary memory and of limited capacity. he standard base capacity for Primary memory starts from !"# $%& 1M%& 2M%& 'M%& 12'M%& 2(!M%& 1)%& 2)%& ")% etc *in multiples of 2+. ,epending on the needs of the user.

Functions of Primary Memory:

1. It holds the -S instructions while the computer is booting. 2. It temporarily holds the input instructions from the input de.ices while the data is being input and processed. /. It stores the results temporarily until it is transferred to the respecti.e output de.ices.

Types of Primary Memory

1. 0AM 1 0andom Access Memory a. Static 0AM b. ,ynamic 0AM 2. 0-M 1 0ead -nly Memory a. P0-M 1 Programmable 0ead -nly Memory b. 2P0-M 1 2rasable Programmable 0ead -nly Memory c. 22P0-M 1 2lectronic 2rasable Programmable 0ead -nly Memory

1. RAM Random Access Memory

It is a read3write memory. ,ata can be stored by addressing one 0AM cell. he data and programming instructions fed .ia the input de.ice are stored in the 0AM temporarily until that program is used. 0AM may be updated. here are 2 types of 0AM a. Static 0AM 1 It retains the stored information until the computer is wor4ing. b. ,ynamic 0AM 1 It retains stored information only until the program is wor4ing and loses the information once the program e5ecution is completed. DRAM s. !RAM Although the e5tra circuitry and incon.enience associated with refreshing may initially ma4e ,0AM memory seem the ob.ious second choice behind S0AM& this is not the case. "sin# !RAM or DRAM )enerally& S0AM is used in smaller memory systems where the added cost of refresh circuitry would greatly add to the cost per bit of storage. ,0AM is used in larger memory systems where the e5tra cost of refresh circuitry is distributed o.er a greater number of bits and is offset by the reduced operating cost associated with ,0AM chips.

$. R%M Read %n&y Memory

It is a permanent memory. he instructions can only be read by the computer. he instructions related to system operations are stored here. hese instructions are written

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%y the manufacturer and cannot be edited by the user. 6hen the system is turned -7& 0-M instructions are instantly e5ecuted and used in operation of all I3- de.ices. here are / types of 0-M a. PROM 8 Programmable 0ead -nly Memory It is a non8.olatile memory. Instructions can be written once by the programmer and then subse9uently read. b. EPROM 1 2rasable Programmable 0ead -nly Memory It is an impro.ement o.er the P0-M chips. Instructions can be rewritten by the programmer using special techni9ues. he instructions are erased using :; light and rewritten. o change the instructions the chip has to be remo.ed from the machine and then put bac4 after the changes ha.e been made. c. EEPROM 1 2lectronic 2rasable Programmable 0ead -nly Memory It is ad.ancement o.er 2P0-M& and the chip need not be ta4en out from the machine. Instead the programming is done using software. hese chips are used in Point8of8sale *P-S+ terminals to record price related information and can be updated as and when needed. <owe.er they are e5pensi.e compared to the normal 0-M chips.

!econdary Memory:
Secondary Memory is memory which stores the data and programming instructions permanently in the computer system for future use. It could be placed within the computer or connected e5ternally. Secondary memory is also called %ac4ing Storage ,e.ices or 25ternal Storage ,e.ices. he storage capacity of Secondary Memory is huge and it is permanent in nature. It can also be regularly updated. ,ata from the Secondary Memory is transferred to the Primary Memory before e5ecution. It is held there temporarily until the e5ecution process is completed and then transferred to the Secondary Memory.

Types of !econdary Memory

1. 2. /. ". (. !. Magnetic ape Magnetic ,is4 =>loppy ,is4& <ard ,is4 etc? Magnetic ,rum MIC0 = Magnetic In4 Character 0eader ? C,80-Ms Pen ,ri.es

Ma#netic Tape
A se9uential storage de.ice that is used for data collection& bac4up and historical purposes. @ust li4e audio or .ideotape& computer tape is made of fle5ible plastic with one side coated with a ferromagnetic material. apes come in reels& cartridges and cassettes of many siAed and shapes

Ma#netic Dis' (F&oppy Dis') *ard Dis' etc+

A type of digital storage media& magnetic dis4s include the hard dis4 found in your computer that stores the programs and files you wor4 with daily. Magnetic dis4s pro.ide random access. Also included are remo.able hard dis4s& floppy dis4s& Aip dis4s& and remo.able cartridges

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Ma#netic Drum
,rum memory is a magnetic data storage de.ice and was an early form of computer memory widely used in the 1B(#s and into the 1B!#s& in.ented by )usta. ausche4 in 1B/2 in Austria

M,CR (Ma#netic ,n' C-aracter Reader+

Magnetic In4 Character 0ecognition& or MIC0& is a character recognition technology used primarily by the ban4ing industry to facilitate the processing of che9ues. he technology allows computers to read information *such as account numbers+ off of printed documents

CD.R%Ms
C,80-M *& an acronym of Ccompact disc read8only memoryC+ is a pre8pressed compact disc that contains data accessible to& but not writable by& a computer for data storage and music playbac4& the 1B'( DEellow %oo4F standard de.eloped by Sony and Philips

Pen Dri es
A :S% flash dri.e consists of flash memory data storage de.ice integrated with a :S% *:ni.ersal Serial %us+ 1.1 or 2.# interfaces. :S% flash dri.es are typically remo.able and rewritable& much smaller than a floppy dis4& and most weigh less than /# g

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Non !olatile Memory

he one thing all forms of 0-M has in common is that they are all non8.olatile. his means that the data contained in the memory is not lost when the computer is turned off or when electrical power is lost. his enables the computer to begin reading instructions and data from this type of memory as soon as it is powered up.

!olatile Memory
%oth S0AM and ,0AM ha.e the disad.antage of being .olatile. his means that any data stored in 0AM is lost if power to the computer is disrupted for any reason. -n the other hand& both types of 0AM ha.e the ad.antage of being fast: hey can be written into and read from with e9ual ease.

Cac"e Memory:
A CP: cache is a cache used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the a.erage time to access memory. he cache is a smaller& faster memory which stores copies of the data from the most fre9uently used main memory locations. As long as most memory accesses are cached memory locations& the a.erage latency of memory accesses will be closer to the cache latency than to the latency of main memory. 6hen the processor needs to read from or write to a location in main memory& it first chec4s whether a copy of that data is in the cache. If so& the processor immediately reads from or writes to the cache& which is much faster than reading from or writing to main memory. In main memory& the speed problem arises because the CP: can process instructions and data faster than they can be fetched from memory. In many cases& high speed performance is re9uired. ,uring a programGs e5ecution& memory reference tends to occur is much localiAed patterns. his characteristic of programs is referred to as the Glocality of reference principleG. o ma4e use of the locality of reference principle& a small high8speed memory can be used to hold Hust the acti.e bloc4s3portions of code or data. hen& rather than fetch the word at the ne5t location from the main memory& it could be fetched much more 9uic4ly from GcacheG. Cache can be .iewed as a buffer memory for the main memory. Cache does not interface directly with the main memory.

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6hat is stored in the cache and also replaced bac4 into main memory is done under direction of the CP:. Caches must be faster than the main memory and feasible because of their small siAe and their o.erall effect on the e5ecution speed of a program.

Interface of CPU, cache and main memory

Cache and Main Memory

*o/ Cac-e 0or's:

%oth the main memory and the cache are di.ided into e9ual8siAe units called bloc4s. he cache usually contains a number of bloc4s of memory words.

6#(

6ache7 i!i e into se!eral slots *8ptimum si9e7 - : 5 wor s, 'ain 'emory7 i!i e into se!eral bloc"s *+loc" si9e ; Slot Si9e, <umber of Slot = <umber of +loc"

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6hen a particular memory word is to be referenced& the CP: first searches the cache. G<itG occurs when the word is in the cache and the word is used as intended. GMissG occurs when the word is not in the cache and the bloc4 of main memory containing the word re9uired is brought into the cache *controlled by CP:+.

%ecause of the Glocality8of8referenceG& the ne5t word to be referenced will probably be part of that bloc4 in the cache and be ready when they are needed.

6hen the cache is full& it becomes necessary to implement a GreplacementG algorithm and a miss.

his GreplacementG algorithm decides which bloc4 should be mo.ed out of the cache to ma4e room for the new bloc4. .

7ormally& the bloc4 that will be replaced is the one that will not be accessed 3 needed again for the longest time *cache pro.ides a timer to control this situation+. here are a number of replacement algorithms can be used.

6hen the memory operation is a G02A,G& the word is read directly from cache on a hit. 6hen the memory operation is a G60I 2G& 2 ways to proceed:

i. 0rite.t-rou#- met-od.
Cache and main memory are updated simultaneously. A,;A7 A)2: o 2nsure that the correct information is a.ailable in main memory at all times.

,ISA,;A7 A)2: o Main memory must be accessed on e.ery G60I 2G operationI this will reduce the efficiency of cache.

ii. 0rite.1ac' met-od.

:pdate main memory only when the word that has been modified is replaced from the cache. 2ach word in cache has flag to mar4 words that ha.e been modified.

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A,;A7 A)2: o 7o matter how often a word is updated in cache& it has to be changed in main memory only when it is replaced from the cache. ,ISA,;A7 A)2: o It renders the copy of the data in main memory inconsistent until the modified data is written bac4 to it.

!tac' Memory:
:sed for return8address storage and parameter passing in subroutine call and turn& address and data manipulation and arithmetic operations. A stac4 is an ordered set of storage elements in which data insertions and remo.als are always made at one and called top of the stac4. It used JI>- *last8in& first8out+ data structures. >or computers that use stac4 implementation in a maHor part of the main memory is called a GS AC$ C-MP: 20SG. GP:S<G is the operations of insertion data into a stac4. GP-PG is the operations of remo.al data from a stac4. wo %oolean functions *flags+& G>:JJG and G2MP EG are commonly associated to control the stac4 underflow and stac4 o.erflow. 1. Stac4 o.erflow occurs wheII1 trying to add an element 3 data to a full stac4. 2. Stac4 underflow occurs when trying to remo.e an element , data from an empty stac4. wo implementations of stac4: 1. 0egister8based implementation. 2. 0AM8based implementation.

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