SRI VENKATESWARAA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY VADAKAL

UNIT II Medium access CSMA Ethernet Token ring FDDI - Wireless LAN ridges and S!itches

ETHERNET (802.3): The Ethernet is de"elo#ed in the mid-$%&' () researches at the *ero+ ,alo Alto -esearch Center .,A-C/0 the Ethernet is a !orking e+am#le o1 the more general carrier sense2 multi#le accesses !ith collision detect .CSMA3CD/ local area net!ork technolog)4 The 5carrier sense6 in CSMA3CD means that all the nodes can distinguish (et!een an idle and a (us) link2 and 5collision detect6 means that all the nodes listens as it transmits and can there1ore detect !hen a 1rame it is transmitting has inter1ered .collided/ !ith a 1rame transmitted () another node4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: An Ethernet segment is im#lemented on a coa+ial ca(le o1 u# to 7''m4 this ca(le is similar to the t)#e used 1or ca(le T82 e+ce#t that it t)#icall) has an im#edance o1 7' ohms instead o1 ca(le T8s &7 ohms4 9osts connect to an Ethernet segment () ta##ing into it0 ta#s must (e at least :47 m a#art4 A transcei"er a small de"ice directl) attached to the ta# detects !hen the line is idle and dri"es the signal !hen the host is transmitting4 It also recei"es incoming signals4 The transcei"er is2 in turn2 connected to an Ethernet ada#tor2 !hich is #lugged into the host4

Multi#le Ethernet segments can (e ;oined together () re#eater4 A re#eater is a de"ice that 1or!ards digital signals2 much like an am#li1ier 1or!ards analog signals4 9o!e"er2 no more than 1our re#eaters ma) (e #ositioned (et!een an) #air o1 hosts2 meaning that an Ethernet has a total reach o1 onl) :27''m4 An Ethernet is limited to su##orting a ma+imum o1 $2':< hosts4 Terminators attached to the end o1 each segment a(sor( the signal and kee# it 1rom (ouncing (ack and inter1ering !ith trailing signals4

STANDARDS: There are "arious standards o1 Ethernet are2 10Ba !": The 1irst o1 the #h)sical standards de1ined in the IEEE =':4> model is called $' ase74It is also kno!n as thick net or thick Ethernet4 A segment o1 the original $' ase7 ca(le can (e u# to 7''m long4 10Ba !2: The second im#lementation de1ined () the IEEE=%: series is called $' ase:4It also kno!n as thinnet2 chea#net2 chea#ernet2 thin!ire Ethernet or thin Ethernet4 In this 5$'6 means the net!ork o#erates at $' M(#s2 5 ase6 re1ers to the 1act that the ca(le is used in a (ase (and s)stem and the 5:6 means that a gi"en segment can (e no longer than :''m 10Ba !T: The most #o#ular standard de1ined in the IEEE =':4> series is $' aseT4 It is also kno!n as t!isted #air Ethernet4 The 5T6 stands 1or t!isted #air4 A $' aseT segment is usuall) limited to less than $''m in length4 ACCESS CONTROL: This algorithm is commonl) called the Ethernet s media access control .MAC/4 It is t)#icall) im#lemented in hard!are on the net!ork ada#tor4 FRA#E FORMAT:

,ream(le allo!s the recei"er to s)nchroni?e !ith the signal4 oth the source and destination hosts are identi1ied !ith a <=-(it address4 Each 1rame contains u# to $27'' ()tes o1 data4 A 1rame must contain at least <@ ()tes o1 data2 e"en i1 this means the host has to #ad the 1rame (e1ore transmitting it4 Each 1rame includes a >:-(it C-C4 ADDRESSES: It is usuall) (urned into -AM4 Ethernet addresses are t)#icall) #rinted in a 1orm humans can read as a seBuence o1 si+ num(ers se#arated () colons4 Each num(er corres#onds to $ ()te o1 the @-()te address and is gi"en () a #air o1 he+adecimal digits2 one 1or each o1 the <-(it ni((les in the ()te0 leading 's are dro##ed4 To ensure that e"er) ada#tor gets a uniBue address2 each manu1acturer o1 Ethernet de"ices is allocated a di11erent #re1i+ that must (e #re#-ended to the address on e"er) ada#tor the) (uild4 $NICAST : Addresses are used to send messages to s#eci1ic de"ice4 #$LTICAST : Addresses are used to send messages to grou# o1 de"ices4 BROADCAST : address are ;ust used to send messages in the net!ork !ho are in the need o1 messages can use it4 TRANS#ITTER ALGORITH#: The recei"er side o1 the Ethernet #rotocol is sim#le0 the real smarts are im#lemented at the senders side4 The transmitter algorithm is de1ined as 1ollo!sC When the ada#tor has a 1rame to send and the line is (us)2 it !aits 1or the line to go idle and then transmits immediatel)4

The Ethernet is said to (e a $-#ersistent #rotocol (ecause an ada#tor !ith a 1rame to send transmits !ith #ro(a(ilit) 'DE#DE$ a1ter a line (ecomes idle2 and de1ers !ith #ro(a(ilit) BE$-#4 ecause there is no centrali?ed control it is #ossi(le 1or t!o .or more/ ada#tors to (egin transmitting at the same time2 either (ecause (oth 1ound the line to (e idle or (ecause (oth had (een !aiting 1or a (us) line to (ecome idle4 When this ha##ens2 the t!o .or more/ 1rames are said to collide on the net!ork4 Each sender2 (ecause the Ethernet su##orts collision detection2 is a(le to determine that a collision is in #rogress4 At the moment an ada#tor detects that is 1rame is colliding !ith another2 it 1irst makes sure to transmit a sure to transmit a >:-(it ;amming seBuence and then stops the transmission. Thus2 a transmitter !ill minimall) send %@ (its in the case o1 a collisionC @<-(it #ream(le #lus >:-(it ;amming seBuence4 Ane !a) that an ada#tor !ill send onl) %@-(its !hich is sometimes called a runt 1rame is i1 the t!o hosts are close to each other4 9ad the t!o hosts (een 1arther a#art2 the) !ould ha"e had to transmit longer2 and thus send more (its2 (e1ore detecting the collision4 In 1act2 the !orst-case scenario ha##ens !hen the t!o hosts are at o##osite ends o1 the Ethernet4 To kno! 1or sure that the 1rame it ;ust sent did not collide !ith another 1rame2 the transmitter ma) need to send as man) as 7$: (its4 Not coincidentall)2 e"er) Ethernet 1rame must (e at least 7$: (its .@< ()tes/longC $< ()tes o1 header #lus <@ ()tes o1 data #lus < ()tes o1 C-C4 Where hosts A and are at o##osite ends o1 the net!ork4 Su##ose host A (egins transmitting a 1rame at time t2 as sho!n in .a/4 it takes it one link latenc) .let s denote the latenc) as d/ 1or the 1rame to reach host 4 Thus2 the 1irst (it o1 As 1rame arri"es at at time tFd2 as sho!n in .(/4 Su##ose an instant (e1ore host As 1rame arri"es .i4e42 still sees and idle line/2 host (egins to transmit its o!n 1rame4 s 1rame !ill immediatel) collide !ith A s 1rame2 and this collision !ill (e detected () host .c/4 host !ill send the >:-(it ;amming seBuence2 as descri(ed a(o"e4. s 1rame !ill (e a runt/4 Gn1ortunatel)2 host A !ill not kno! that the collision occurred until s 1rame reaches it2 !hich !ill ha##en one link latenc) later2 at time tF:+d2 as sho!n in .d/4 9ost A must continue to transmit until this time in order to detect the collision4 In other !ords2 host A must transmit 1or :+d should (e sure that it detects all #ossi(le collisions4 Considering that a ma+imall) con1igured Ethernet is :27'' m long2 and that there ma) (e u# to 1our re#eaters (et!een an) t!o hosts2 the round-tri# dela) has (een determined to (e 7$4: microseconds2 !hich on a $'-M(#s Ethernet corres#onds to 7$: (its4 The other !a) to look at this situation is that !e need to limit the Ethernet s ma+imum latenc) to a 1airl) small "alue .e4g42 7$:micro seconds/ 1or the access algorithm to !ork0 hence2 an Ethernets ma+imum length must (e something on the order o1 :27''m4 Ance an ada#tor has detected a collision and sto##ed its transmission2 it !aits certain amount o1 time and tries again4 Each time it tries to transmit (ut 1ails2 the ada#tor dou(les the amount o1 time it !aits (e1ore tr)ing again4 This strateg) o1 dou(ling the dela) inter"al (et!een each retransmission attem#t is a general techniBue kno!n as e+#onential (ack o114 More #recisel)2 the ada#tor 1irst dela)s either ' or 7$4: microseconds2 selected at random4 I1 this e11ort 1ails2 it then !aits '2 7$4:2 $':4<2 or $7>4@ microseconds .selected randoml)/ (e1ore tr)ing again0 this is k+7$4: 1or kE'444:H>-$2 again selected at random4 In general2 the algorithm randoml) selects a k (et!een ' and :Hn-$ and !aits k+7$4: microseconds2 !here n is the num(er o1 collisions e+#erienced so 1ar4 The ada#tor gi"es u# a1ter a

gi"en num(er o1 tries and re#orts a transmit error to the host4 Ada#tor t)#icall) retr) u# to $@ times2 although the (ack o11 algorithm ca#s n in the a(o"e 1ormula at $'4

TOKEN RINGS (802."): IB#% Token -ing has a nearl) identical IEEE standard2 kno!n as =':47 and the later Fi(er Distri(uted Data Inter1ace .FDDI/4 -esilient ,acket -ing .-,-/is a relati"el) recent technolog) 2 and its corres#onding IEEE standard is kno!n as =':4$&4 A ring net!ork consists o1 a set o1 nodes connected in a ring4 Data al!a)s 1lo!s in a #articular direction around the ring2 !ith each node recei"ing 1rames 1rom its u#stream neigh(or and then 1or!arding them to its do!nstream neigh(or4 This ring-(ased to#olog) is in contrast to the Ethernets (us to#olog)4 Like the Ethernet2 ho!e"er2 the ring-(ased to#olog) is "ie!ed as a single shared medium0 it does not (eha"e as a collection o1 inde#endent #oint to #oint links that ;ust ha##en to (e con1igured in a loo#4 Thus2 a ring net!orks shares t!o ke) 1eatures !ith an EthernetC First2 it in"ol"es a distri(uted algorithm that controls !hen each node is allo!ed to transmit and second all nodes t)#icall) see all 1rames2 !ith the node identi1ied in the 1rame header as the destination sa"ing a co#) o1 the 1rame as it 1lo!s #ast4 The most common earl) 1orms o1 ring net!ork !ere all token rings4 The !ord 5token6 comes 1rom the !a) access to the shared ring is managed4 The idea is that a token2 !hich is reall) ;ust a s#ecial seBuence o1 (its2 circulates around the ring0 each node recei"es and then 1or!ards the token4

When a node that has a 1rame to transmit sees the token2 it takes the token o11 the ring .i4e it does not 1or!ard the s#ecial (it #attern / and instead inserts its 1rame into the ring4 Each node along

the !a) sim#l) 1or!ards the 1rame2 !ith the destination node sa"ing a co#) and 1or!arding the message onto the ne+t node on the ring4 When the 1rame makes its !a) (ack around to the sender2 this node stri#s its 1rame o11 the ring .rather than continuing to 1or!ard it/ and reinserts the token4 In this !a)2 some node do!nstream !ill ha"e the o##ortunit) to transmit a 1rame4 The media access algorithm is 1air in the sense that as the token circulates around the ring2 each node gets a chance to transmit4 Nodes are ser"iced in a round-ro(in 1ashion4 The #ro(lem o1 node 1ailure ma) (e addressed () connecting each station into the ring using an electromechanical rela)4 As long as the station is health)2 the rela) is o#en and the station is included in the ring4 I1 the station sto#s #ro"iding the #o!er2 the rela) closed and the ring automaticall) () #asses the station4

Se"eral o1 these rela)s are usuall) #acked into a single (o+2 kno!n as multistation access unit .MSAG/4 This has the interesting e11ect o1 making a token ring actuall) look more like a star to#olog)4

TOKEN RING #EDIA ACCESS CONTROL: The net!ork ada#tor 1or a token ring contains a recei"er and a transmitter4 When a node is neither the source not the destination o1 the data on the ring2 its ada#tor is sim#l) retransmitting the data that its recei"er recei"es4 When none o1 the stations connected to the ring has an)thing to send2

the token circulates around the ring4 As it does so2 an) station that has data to send ma) 5sei?e6 the token2 that is not retransmit it and (egin sending data4 Ance a station has the token2 it is allo!ed to send one or more #ackets4 9o! long a gi"en node is allo!ed to hold the tokenC the token holding time .T9T/I The #riorit) o1 the token changes o"er time due to the use o1 three reser"ation (its in the 1rame header4 The =':47 #rotocol #ro"ides a 1orm o1 relia(le deli"er) using : (its in the #acket trailer2 the A and C (its4 These are (oth ' initiall)4 When a station sees a 1rame 1or !hich it is the intended reci#ient2 is not 1unctioning or a(sent4 I1 the A (it is set (ut not the C (it2 this im#lies that 1or some reason2 the destination could not acce#t the 1rame4 Thus2 the 1rame might reasona(l) (e retransmitted later in the ho#e that (u11er s#ace had (ecome a"aila(le4 The sender can insert the token (ack on to the ring immediatel) 1ollo!ing its 1rame this is called earl) release or a1ter the 1rame it transmits has gone all the !a) around the ring and (een remo"ed this is called dela)ed release4

TOKEN RING #AINTENANCE: Each =':47 token ring has one station designated as a monitor4 The monitor s ;o( is to ensure the health o1 the ring ()2 1or e+am#le2 making sure that the token is not lost4 An) station on the ring can (ecome the monitor2 and there are de1ined #rocedures () !hich the monitor is elected !hen the ring is 1irst connected or on the 1ailure o1 the current monitor4 A health) monitor #eriodicall) announces its #resence !ith a s#ecial control message0 i1 a station 1ails to see such a message 1or some #eriod o1 time2 it !ill assume that the monitor has 1ailed and !ill tr) to (ecome the monitor4 The #rocedures 1or electing a monitor are the same !hether the ring has ;ust come u# or the acti"e monitor has ;ust 1ailed4 When a station decides that a ne! monitor is needed2 it transmits a 5claim token6 1rame2 announcing its intent to (ecome the ne! monitor4 I1 that token circulates (ack to the sender2 it can assume that it is oka) 1or it to (ecome the monitor4 I1 some other station is also tr)ing to (ecome the monitor at the same instant2 the sender might see a claim token message 1rom that other station 1irst4 In this case2 it !ill (e necessar) to (reak the tie using some !ell de1ined rule like 5highest address !ins64 Ane res#onsi(ilit) o1 the monitor is to make sure that there is al!a)s a token some!here in the ring2 either circulating or currentl) held () a station4 It should (e clear that a token ma) "anish 1or se"eral reasons2 such as a (it error2 or a crash on the #art o1 a station that !as holding it4 To detect

a missing token2 the monitor !atches 1or a #assing token and maintains a timer eBual to the ma+imum #ossi(le token rotation time4 This inter"al eBuals Numstation + T9T F -ingLatenc) Where Numstation is the num(er o1 stations on the ring2 and -ingLatenc) is the total #ro#agation dela) o1 the ring4 I1 the timer e+#ires !ithout the monitor seeing a token2 it creates a ne! one4 The monitor also checks 1or corru#ted or or#haned 1rames4 The 1ormer ha"e checksum errors or in"alid 1ormats2 and !ithout monitor inter"ention2 the) could circulate 1ore"er on the ring4 The monitor drains them o11 the ring (e1ore reinserting the token4 An or#haned 1rame is one that !as transmitted correctl) onto the ring (ut !hose6 #arent6 died2 that is 2 the sending station !ent do!n (e1ore it could remo"e the 1rame 1rom the ring4 These are detected using another header (it2 the 5monitor6 (it4 This is ' on transmission and set to $ the 1irst time the #acket #asses the monitor4 I1 the monitor sees a #acket !ith this (its set2 it kno!s the #acket is going () 1or the second time and it drains the #acket o11 the ring4 I1 an) station sus#ects a 1ailure on the ring2 it can send a (eacon 1rame to the sus#ect destination4 ased on ho! 1ar this 1rame gets2 the status o1 the ring can (e esta(lished2 and mal1unctioning stations can (e ()#assed () the rela)s in the MASG4 FRAME FORMAT:

=':47 use di11erential Manchester encoding4 This 1act is used () the 1rame 1ormat2 !hich uses 5illegal6 Manchester codes in the start and end delimiters4 A1ter the start delimiter comes the access control ()te2 !hich includes the 1rame #riorit) and the reser"ation #riorit) mentioned a(o"e4 The 1rame control ()te is a demu+ ke) that identi1ies the higher-la)er #rotocol4 Similar to the Ethernet2 =':47 addresses are <= (its long4 The 1rame also includes a >:-(it C-C4 This is 1ollo!ed () the 1rame status ()te2 !hich includes the A and C (its 1or relia(le deli"er)4 FDDI: Although FDDI is similar to =':47 in man) res#ects2 there are signi1icant di11erences4 For one FDDI runs on 1i(er2 not co##er4 A more interesting di11erence is that an FDDI net!ork consists o1 a dual ring t!o de#endent rings that transmit data in o##osite directions2 the second ring is not used during normal o#eration (ut instead comes into #la) onl) i1 the #rimar) ring 1ails4 That is the ring loo#s (ack on the secondar) 1i(er to 1orm a com#lete ring2 and as a conseBuence2 an FDDI net!ork is a(le to tolerate a single (reak in the ca(le or the 1ailure o1 one station4

Another interesting di11erence is that instead o1 designating one node as a monitor2 all the nodes #artici#ate eBuall) in maintaining the FDDI ring4 Each node maintains an estimate o1 the token rotation time .T-T/ the e+#ected ma+imum time 1or the token to make one com#lete tri# around the ring4 A node then measures the time (et!een successi"e arri"als o1 the token4 I1 too much time ela#ses2 suggesting that the token has (een lost2 the node transmits a 5claim 1rame6 in !hich it includes its current T-T estimate4 The claim ser"es t!o 1unctions4 First2 the claim 1rame is "ote 1or a #articular "alue o1 the T-T4 An) node that !ants to "ote 1or a shorter T-T !ill re#lace that claim 1rame !ith its o!n claim 1rame0 other!ise it !ill acce#t the ne! time and 1or!ard the claim 1rame4 Second2 the claim 1rame is a reBuest 1or authori?ation to regenerate the token4 I1 a claim 1rame makes it all the !a) (ack around to the original sender2 that node kno!s not onl) that the T-T it "oted 1or !as the shortest and has (een acce#ted () all the other nodes2 (ut also that it has (een authori?ed to regenerate the token4 When the token arri"es at a node !ith time to s#are the node can transmit data so long as it does not make the token 1all (ehind schedule2 other!ise the node cannot transmit data4 A shortcoming o1 this (asic scheme is that it cannot guarantee an) #articular node the o##ortunit) to transmit regularl)2 e"en i1 that node has data that is sensiti"e to ;itter2 (ecause an u#stream node could consume all the a&a'(a)(! time4 To account 1or this #ossi(ilit) FDDI de1ines t!o classes o1 tra11icC S)nchronous As)nchronous When a node recei"es a token2 it is al!a)s allo!ed to send s)nchronous data2 !ithout regard 1or !hether the token is earl) or late4 In contrast2 a node can send as)nchronous tra11ic onl) !hen the token is earl)4 WIRELESS: Wireless technologies di11er in "ariet) o1 dimensions2 most nota(l) in ho! much (and!idth the) #ro"ide and ho! 1ar a#art communicating nodes can (e4 Ather im#ortant di11erences include !hich #art o1 the electromagnetic s#ectrum the) use .including !hether it reBuires a license/ and ho! much #o!er the) consume4 Four #rominent !ireless technologiesC J lue tooth J Wi-Fi.more 1ormall) kno!n as =':4$$/ J WiMA*.=':4$@/ J Third generation or >Kcellular !ireless4

The most !idel) used !ireless links toda) are usuall) as)mmetric2 that is2 the t!o end#oints are usuall) di11erent kinds o1 nodes4 ASE STATIAN2 usuall) has no mo(ilit)2 (ut has a !ired .or at least high (and!idth/ connection to the internet or other net!orks4 A 5client node6 is o1ten mo(ile2 and relies on its link to the (ase station 1or all its communication !ith other nodes4 Wireless communication naturall) su##orts #oint to multi#oint communication2 (ecause radio !a"es sent () one de"ice can (e simultaneousl) recei"ed () man) de"ices4 9o!e"er2 it is o1ten use1ul to create a #oint to #oint link a(straction 1or higher la)er #rotocols4 This to#olog) im#lies three Bualitati"el) di11erent le"els o1 mo(ilit)4 The 1irst le"el is no mo(ilit)2 such as !hen a recei"er must (e in a 1i+ed location to recei"e a directional transmission 1rom the (ase station2 as is the case !ith the initial "ersion o1 WiMA*4 The second le"el is mo(ilit) !ithin the range o1 a (ase2 as is the case !ith luetooth4 The third le"el is mo(ilit) (et!een (ases2 as is the case !ith cell #hones and Wi-Fi4 WI*FI (802.11): This section takes a closer look at a s#eci1ic technolog) centered on the emerging IEEE =':4$$ standard2 also kno!n as Wi-Fi4 Wi-Fi is technicall) a trademark2 o!ned () a trade grou# called the Wi-Fi alliance that certi1ies #roduct com#liance !ith =':4$$4 =':4$$ is designed 1or use in a limited geogra#hical area .homes2 o11ice (uildings2 cam#uses/ and its #rimaril) challenge is to mediate access to a shared communication medium in this case2 signals #ro#agating through s#ace4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: =':4$$ run o"er si+ di11erent #h)sical la)er #rotocols4 Fi"e are (ased on s#read s#ectrum radio2 and one on di11used in1rared .and is o1 historical interest onl) at this #oint/4 The 1astest runs at a ma+imum o1 7< M(#s4 The original =':4$$ standard de1ined t!o radio (ased #h)sical la)ers standards2 one using 1reBuenc) ho##ing and the other using direct seBuence4 oth #ro"ide u# to : M(#s4 Then #h)sical la)er standard =':4$$ ( !as added4 Gsing a "ariant o1 direct e+em#t :4<K9? 1reBuenc) (and o1 the electromagnetic s#ectrum4 Then came =':4$$a2 !hich deli"ers u# to 7< M(#s using a "ariant o1 FDM called orthogonal 1reBuenc) di"ision multi#le+ing .AFDM/4 =':4$$ a runs in the licensee+em#t 7K9? (and4 The most recent standard is =':4$$g2 !hich is (ack!ard com#ati(le !ith =':4$$(4 COLLISION AVOIDANCE: A !ireless #rotocol !ait until the link (ecomes idle (e1ore transmitting and (ack o11 should a collision occur4 Consider the situation !here A and C are (oth !ithin range o1 (ut not each other4 Su##ose (oth A and C !ant to communicate !ith and so the) each send it a 1rame4 A and C are una!are o1 each other since their signals do not carr) that 1ar4 These t!o 1rames collide !ith each other at 2 (ut unlike an Ethernet2 neither A or C is a!are o1 this collision4 A and C are said to (e hidden nodes !ith res#ect to each other4

A related #ro(lem called the e+#osed node #ro(lem !here each o1 the 1our nodes is a(le to send and recei"e signals that reach ;ust the nodes to its immediate le1t and right4 For E*C a can e+change 1rames !ith A and C (ut it cannot reach D 2 !hile C can reach and D (ut not A4 Su##ose is sending to A4 Node C is a!are o1 this communication (ecause it hear s transmission4 It !ould (e a mistake2 ho!e"er2 1or C to conclude that it cannot transmit to an)one ;ust (ecause it can hear s transmission4 For e+am#le2 su##ose C !ants to transmit to node D4 This is not a #ro(lem since Cs transmission to D !ill not inter1ere !ith A s a(ilit) to recei"e 1rom 4

=':4$$ addresses these t!o #ro(lems !ith an algorithm called multi#le access !ith collision a"oidance .MACA/4 The idea is 1or the sender and recei"er ot e+change control 1rames !ith each other (e1ore the sender actuall) transmits an) data4 This e+change in1orms all near() nodes that a transmission is a(out to (egin4 S#eci1icall)2 the sender transmits a Request to send .-TS/ 1rame to the recei"er0 the -TS 1rame includes a 1ield that indicates ho! long the sender !ants to hold the medium4 The recei"er then re#lies !ith a clear to send (CTS) 1rame4 This 1rame echoes this length 1ield (ack to the sender4 An) node that sees the -TS 1rame !ill collide !ith each other4 =':4$$ does not su##ort collision detection2 (ut instead the senders reali?e the in !hich case the) each !ait a random amount o1 time (e1ore tr)ing again4 The amount o1 time a gi"en node dela) is de1ined () the same e+#onential (acko11 algorithm used on the Ethernet4 DISTRIB$TION SYSTE# Instead o1 all nodes created eBual2 some nodes are allo!ed to roam and some are connected to a !ired net!ork in1rastructure4 =':4$$ calls these (ase stations access points (AP)2 and the) are connected to each other () a so-called distribution system. A distri(ution s)stem that connects three

access #oints2 each o1 !hich ser"ices the nodes in some region4 Although t!o nodes can communicate directl) !ith each other i1 the) are !ithin reach o1 each other2 the idea (ehind this con1iguration is that each node associates itsel1 !ith one access #oint4 For node A to communicate !ith node E2 1or e+am#le2 A 1irst sends a 1rame to its access #oint .A,-$/2 !hich 1or!ards the 1rame across the distri(ution s)stem to A,-> 2 !hich 1inall) transmits the 1rame to E4

The techniBue 1or selecting an A, is called scanning and in"ol"es the 1ollo!ing 1our ste#sC $4 The node sends a #ro(e 1rame0 :4 All A,s !ithin reach re#l) !ith a #ro(e -es#onse 1rames0 >4 The node selects one o1 the access #oints2 and sends that A, an Association -eBuest 1rames0 <4 The A, re#lies !ith an Association -es#onse 1rame4 ecause the signal 1rom its current A, has !eakened due to the node mo"ing a!a) 1rom it4 Whene"er a node acBuires a ne! A,2 the ne! A, noti1ies the old A, o1 the change "ia the distri(ution s)stem4 9ere in this 1ig42 !here node C mo"es 1rom the cell ser"iced () A,-$ to the cell ser"iced () A,-:4At some #oint2 C #re1ers A,-: o"er A,-$2and so it associates itsel1 !ith that access #oint4 The mechanism ;ust descri(ed is called acti"e scanning since the node is acti"el) searching 1or an access #oint4 A,s also #eriodicall) send a EACAN 1rame that the ca#a(ilities o1 the access #oint0 these include the transmission rates su##orted () the A,4 This is called #assi"e scanning2 and a node can change to this A, (ased on the EACAN 1rame sim#l) () sending an ASSACIATIAN -ELGEST 1rame (ack to the access #oint4 FRAME FORMAT:

The 1rame contains the source and destination node address2 each o1 !hich is <= (its long2 u# to :2>$: ()tes o1 data2 and a >:-(it C-C4 The Control 1ield contains three su(1ields o1 interest C a @-

(it T)#e 1ield that indicates !hether the 1rame carries data2 is an -TS or CTS 1rame2 or is (eing used () the scanning algorithm0 and a #air o1 $-(it 1ields-called ToDS and 4 The =':4$$ 1rame 1ormat is that it contains 1our2 rather than t!o2 address4 ho! these address are inter#reted de#ends on the settings o1 the ToDS and FromDS (its in the 1rame s Control 1ield4 This is to account 1or the #ossi(ilit) that the 1rame had to (e 1or!arded across the distri(ution s)stems2 !hich !ould mean that the original sender is not necessaril) the same as the most recent transmitting node4 Similar reasoning a##lies to the destination address4 In the sim#lest case2 !hen one node is sending directl) to another2 the DS (its are '2 Addr$ identi1ies the target node2 and Addr: identi1ies the source node4 In the most com#le+ case2 (oth DS (its are set to $2 indicating that the message !ent 1rom a !ireless node onto the distri(ution s)stem and then 1rom the distri(ution s)stem to another !ireless node4 With (oth (its set2 Addr$ identi1ies the ultimate destination2 Addr: identi1ies the immediate sender .the one that 1or!arded the 1rame 1rom the distri(ution s)stem to the ultimate destination/2 Addr> identi1ies the intermediate destination .the one that acce#ted the 1rame 1rom a !ireless node and 1or!arded it across the distri(ution s)stem/2 and Addr< identi1ies the original source4 In terms o1 the e+am#le gi"en in 1ig42 Addr$ corres#onds to E2 Addr: identi1ies A,->2 Addr> corres#onds to A,$2 and Addr< identi1ies A4

CONNECTING DEVICES: Net!orking and internet!orking de"ices are classi1ied into 1our categoriesC re#eaters2 (ridges2 routers2 and gate!a)s4

BRIDGES AND LAN SWITCHES: It is a node that 1or!ard 1rames 1rom one Ethernet to the other4 This node !ould (e in #romiscuous mode2 acce#ting all 1rames transmitted on either o1 the Ethernets2 so it could 1or!ard them to the other4 A (ridge is connected (et!een t!o LANs !ith #ort4 ) using the #ort num(er the LANs are addressed4 Connected LANs are kno!n as e+tended LAN LEARNING BRIDGES: ridges maintains a 1or!arding ta(le !hich contains each host !ith their #ort num(er4 9a"ing a human maintain this ta(le is Buite a (urden2 so a (ridge can learn this in1ormation 1or itsel14 The idea is 1or each (ridge to ins#ect the source address in all the 1rames it recei"es4 When a (ridge 1irst (oots2 this ta(le is em#t)0 entries are added o"er time4 Also a timeout is associated !ith each entr) and the (ridge is cards the entr) a1ter a s#eci1ied #eriod o1 time4

SPANNING TREE ALGORITH# I1 the e+tended LAN is ha"ing loo#s then the 1rames #otentiall) loo# through the e+tended LAN 1ore"er4 There are t!o reasons to an e+tended LAN to ha"e a loo# in it4 Ane #ossi(ilit) is that the net!ork is managed () more than one administrator0 no single #erson kno!s the entire con1iguration o1 the net!ork4 Second2 loo#s are (uilt in to net!ork on #ur#ose to #ro"ide redundanc) in case o1 1ailure4 ridges must (e a(le to correctl) handle loo#s4 This #ro(lem is addressed () ha"ing the (ridges run a distri(uted s#anning tree algorithm4

The s#anning tree algorithm !ad de"elo#ed () Digital EBui#ment Cor#oration4 The main idea is 1or the (ridges to select the #orts o"er !hich the) !ill 1or!ard 1rames4 The algorithm selects as 1ollo!s4 Each (ridge has a uniBue identi1ier4 In the a(o"e e+am#le the) are la(eled as $2 :2 > M the algorithm 1irst elects the (ridge !ith smallest ID as the root o1 the s#anning tree4 The root (ridge al!a)s 1or!ards 1rames out o"er all o1 its #orts4 Then each (ridge com#utes the shortest #ath to root and notes !hich o1 its #orts is on this #ath4 This #ort is also elected as the (ridge s #re1erred #ath to the root4 Finall)2 all the (ridges connected to a gi"en LAN elect a single designated (ridge that !ill (e res#onsi(le 1or 1or!arding 1rames to!ard the root (ridge4 Each LANs designated (ridge is the one that is closest to the root2 and i1 t!o or more (ridges are eBuall) close to the root2 then the (ridge !hich ha"ing smallest ID !ins4 In the a(o"e e+am#le2 $ is the root (ridge since it ha"ing the smallest ID4 oth > and 7 are connected to LAN A2 (ut 7 is the designated (ridge since it is closer to the root4 Similarl) 7 and & are connected to LAN 2 (ut 7 is the designated (ridge e"en the) are eBuall) closer to the root since 7 ha"ing smallest ID4

The (ridges ha"e to e+change con1iguration messages !ith each other and then decide !hether or not the) are the root or a designated (ridge (ased on this message4 The con1iguration contains three #ieces o1 in1ormation4 $4 The ID 1or the (ridge that is sending the message :4 The ID 1or !hat the sending (ridge (elie"es to (e the root (ridge >4 The distance2 measured in ho#s2 1rom the sending (ridge to the root (ridge4 Initiall) each (ridge thinks it is the root (ridge2 so the con1iguration message !ill contain the sending and root same ID4 ) recei"ing the con1iguration message 1rom other (ridges the) select the root (ridge4 The selection !ill (e ()2 N It identi1ies a root !ith a smaller ID or N It identi1ies a root !ith an eBual ID (ut !ith a shorter distance or The root ID and distance are eBual2 (ut the sending (ridge has a smaller ID BROADCAST AND #$LTICAST Most LANs su##ort (oth (roadcast and multicast0 then (ridges must also su##ort these t!o 1eatures4 roadcast is sim#le2 each (ridge 1or!ard a 1rame !ith a destination (roadcast address out on each acti"e #ort other that the one on !hich the 1rame !as recei"ed4 In multicasting2 each host deciding 1or itsel1 !hether or not to acce#t the message