Defects/imperfections in welds - reheat cracking

Job Knowledge

Location of reheat cracks in a nuclear pressure vessel steel The characteristic features and principal causes of reheat cracking are described. General guidelines on best practice are given so that welders can minimise the risk of reheat cracking in welded fabrications.

dentification
!isual appearance
"eheat cracking ma# occur in low allo# steels containing allo#ing additions of chromium and mol#bdenum or chromium$ mol#bdenum and vanadium when the welded component is being sub%ected to post weld heat treatment$ such as stress relief heat treatment$ or has been sub%ected to high temperature service &t#picall# in the range '() to (()*+,. +racking is almost e-clusivel# found in the coarse grained regions of the heat affected .one &/01, beneath the weld$ or cladding$ and in the coarse grained regions within the weld metal. The cracks can often be seen visuall#$ usuall# associated with areas of stress concentration such as the weld toe. +racking ma# be in the form of coarse macro-cracks or colonies of micro-cracks. 0 macro-crack will appear as a 2rough2 crack$ often with branching$ following the coarse grain region$ &Fig. 1a,. +racking is alwa#s intergranular along the prior austenite grain boundaries & Fig. 1b,. 3acro-cracks in the weld metal can be oriented either longitudinal or transverse to the direction of welding. +racks in the /01$ however$ are alwa#s parallel to the direction of welding.

4ig.5a. +racking associated with the coarse grained heat affected .one

4ig.5b. ntergranular morpholog# of reheat cracks 3icro-cracking can also be found both in the /01 and within the weld metal. 3icro-cracks in multipass welds will be found associated with the grain coarsened regions which have not been refined b# subse6uent passes.

+auses
The principal cause is that when heat treating susceptible steels$ the grain interior becomes strengthened b# carbide precipitation$ forcing the rela-ation of residual stresses b# creep deformation at the grain boundaries. The presence of impurities which segregate to the grain boundaries and promote temper embrittlement$ e.g. antimon#$ arsenic$ tin$ sulphur and phosphorus$ will increase the susceptibilit# to reheat cracking. The %oint design can increase the risk of cracking. 4or e-ample$ %oints likel# to contain stress concentration$ such as partial penetration welds$ are more liable to initiate cracks. The welding procedure also has an influence. Large weld beads are undesirable$ as the# produce coarse columnar grains within the weld metal and a coarse grained /01 which is less likel# to be refined b# the subse6uent pass$ and therefore will be more susceptible to reheat cracking.

7est practice in prevention

The risk of reheat cracking can be reduced through the choice of steel$ specif#ing the ma-imum impurit# level and b# adopting a more tolerant welding procedure / techni6ue.

8teel choice
f possible$ avoid welding steels known to be susceptible to reheat cracking. 4or e-ample$ 0 ()9 +lass : is known to be particularl# susceptible to reheat cracking$ whereas cracking associated with welding and cladding in 0()9 +lass ' is largel# unknown. The two steels have similar mechanical properties$ but 0()9 +lass ' has a lower +r content and a higher manganese content. 8imilarl#$ in the higher strength$ creep-resistant steels$ an appro-imate ranking of their crack susceptibilit# is as follows;

5 Cr 1Mo 2.25Cr 1 Mo 0.5Mo B

lower risk

0.5Cr 0.5Mo 0.25V higher risk

Thus$ in selecting a creep-resistant$ chromium mol#bdenum steel$ ).(+r ).(3o ).:(! steel is known to be susceptible to reheat cracking but the :.:(+r 53o which has a similar creep resistance$ is significantl# less susceptible. <nfortunatel#$ although some knowledge has been gained on the susceptibilit# of certain steels$ the risk of cracking cannot be reliabl# predicted from the chemical composition. !arious indices$ including =G5$ >8" and "s$ have been used to indicate the susceptibilit# of steel to reheat cracking. 8teels which have a value of =G5 of less than :$ >8" less than .ero or "s less than ).)'$ are less susceptible to reheat cracking =G5 ? 5)+ @ +r @ '.'3o @ 9.5! - : >8" ? +r @+u @ :3o @ 5)! @ABb @ (Ti - : "s ? ).5:+u @).5C8 @).5)0s @ > @5.598n @ 5.DC8b rrespective of the steel t#pe$ it is important to purchase steels specified to have low levels of impurit# elements &antimon#$ arsenic$ tin$ bismuth$ sulphur and phosphorus,. To avoid weld metal reheat cracking$ it is necessar# to ensure that welding consumables deposit weld metal with appropriatel# low levels of these impurities$ and preferabl# to avoid coarse columnar grains. 4ollowing several instances of weld metal reheat cracking in thick-wall :.:(E+r-5E3o-).:(E! reactor vessels$ impurities in the flu- were identified as being responsible for the cracking$ and an e6uation given for the desired upper limit of these additional impurities. K ? >b @ 7i @ ).)'8b &ppm, The compositional factor K must be less than 5.( to achieve freedom from this form of cracking.

Felding procedure and techni6ue

The welding procedure can be used to minimise the risk of reheat cracking b#

>roducing the ma-imum refinement of the coarse grain /01 Limiting the degree of austenite grain growth Gliminating stress concentrations The procedure should aim to refine the coarse grained /01 b# subse6uent passes. n butt welds$ ma-imum refinement can be achieved b# using a steep-sided %oint preparation with a low angle of attack to minimise penetration into the side-wall$ & Fig 2a,. n comparison$ a larger angle ! preparation produces a wider /01$ limiting the amount of refinement achieved b# subse6uent passes$ & Fig 2b,. Barrow %oint preparations$ however$ are more difficult to weld$ due to the increased risk of lack of side-wall fusion.

4ig.:a. Felding in the flat position - high degree of /01 refinement

4ig.:b. Felding in the hori.ontal/vertical position - low degree of /01 refinement "efinement of the /01 can be promoted b# first buttering the surface of the susceptible plate with a thin weld metal la#er using a small diameter &'.:mm, electrode. The %oint is then completed using a larger diameter &D - D.9mm, electrode$ which is intended to generate sufficient heat to refine an# remaining coarse grained /01 under the buttered la#er. The degree of austenite grain growth can be restricted b# using a low heat input. /owever$ precautionar# measures ma# be necessar# to avoid the risk of h#drogen-assisted cracking and lack-of-fusion defects. 4or e-ample$ reducing the heat input will almost certainl# re6uire a higher preheat temperature to avoid h#drogen-assisted cracking. The %oint design and welding techni6ue adopted should ensure that the weld is free from localised stress concentrations which can arise from the presence of notches. 8tress concentrations ma# be produced in the following situations;

welding with a backing bar

a partial penetration weld leaving a root imperfection internal weld imperfections such as lack of sidewall fusion the weld has a poor surface profile$ especiall# sharp weld toes The weld toes of the capping pass are particularl# vulnerable$ as the coarse grained /01 ma# not have been refined b# subse6uent passes. n susceptible steel$ the last pass should never be deposited on the parent material$ but alwa#s on the weld metal$ so that it will refine the /01. Grinding the weld toes with the preheat maintained has been successfull# used to reduce the risk of cracking in ).(+r ).(3o ).:(! steels.