Anda di halaman 1dari 14

Simple properties of rocks for field-testing

Hardness is the ability of one substance to scratch another substance. Geologists use Moh's Hardness scale, which is an arbitrary scale that ranks minerals based on hardness, on a scale from 1 to 10. Minerals with higher numbers are harder. The average pocket knife has a hardness of about 5.5, a copper penny 3.5 and a human fingernail about 2.5. A field geologist has such tools in his pocket. Hardness above 7 is called gemstone hardness (cannot be scratched by quartz). Some minerals are softer in a certain direction only. 1 Talc 2 Gypsum 3 Calcite 4 Fluorite 5 Apatite 6 Potassium feldspar 7 Quartz 8 Topaz 9 Corundum 10 Diamond, the hardest naturally-occurring substance Density: The density of a mineral is an important natural property, although not easily tested in the field. Heaviest are the gold and platinum metals (density close to 20). Silicates weigh in between 2.5 and 3.5, ores between 4 and 8. Cleavage: the cleavage of a mineral refers to how it breaks. Depending on the crystal structure, some minerals break in a regular, predictable manner, whereas others don't. If a mineral breaks in such a way that it leaves smooth, shiny surfaces, then it is said to have cleavage, and those surfaces are called cleavage surfaces. Cleavage can be perfect, good or merely incipient. The more perfect cleavage is, the thinner the sheets are that can be split off. Among the thinnest are flakes of mica. Such minerals form 'books' and their cleavage planes look pearly lustrous. Fracture: When a mineral is shattered or broken open, fracture surfaces are formed that may not have good cleavage. The appearance of such fracture surfaces is judged conchoidal (rounded), smooth, splintery, hackly, fibrous, even or uneven. Twinning: Twinning can be defined by the appearance of fine parallel lines, called striations, on the cleavage planes of some minerals. Twinning occurs when a mineral repeatedly changes the direction in which it is growing. Transparency: According to its transparency to visible light, a mineral is called water-clear, transparent, translucent or opaque. Between these, there are innumerable intermediate stages. Minerals may be translucent at their edges only.

Lustre: Lustre refers to the way a mineral reflects light. It is independent of colour and can occur in various qualities. If a mineral reflects light in a similar way as a metal, it is said to have metallic lustre. Other types of lustre are: glassy (vitreous), pearly, silky, resinous, greasy, waxy and earthy. The degree of lustre is described as splendent, shining, glistening, glimmering, matt, dull. Colour: Variety of colour is the most striking characteristic of minerals, and in many cases it is their natural colour (yellow sulphur, red cinnabar, green malachite, blue azurite, etc). But alien atoms in small quantities can cause changes in the natural colours of crystals. Some minerals occur in an amazing variation of hues (fluorspar is transparent, white, wine-yellow, honey-yellow to green, blue and violet) Special light effects: Light is reflected and diffracted by regularly intercalated foreign substances, by fine fractures or by twinning. Labradorescence is a magnificent play of colours like in the blue labradorite. Opalescence is the reflection of light as bright rainbow colours when an opal is turned. Streak: the colour of a powdered mineral on a white underlay, like pyrite crystals having greenish-black powder on their naturally yellow crystals.

Classification of common rock minerals.


A mineral is an inorganic, natural solid which is found in nature. Its atoms are arranged in definite patterns (an ordered internal structure) and it has a specific chemical composition that may vary within certain limits. A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals. Native elements. Minerals consisting of a single element. o Platinum. Pt. density 21.46, hardness 4-4.5. Found as granules in sand from some igneous rocks. Most noble of metals. o Gold. Au. Density 19.3, hardness 2.5-3. Often found in association with pyrite, chalco pyrite and arsenopyrite in quartz veins. When found in streams, the gold is in small flat particles of varying sizes. It is very ductile (heat and electricity) and malleable. Used for ornaments because of its malleability. o Silver Ag. Density 10-11, harness 2.5-3. o Copper. Cu. Density 8.95, hardness 2.5-3. First used for making tools, later mixed with tin to make bronze. o Tin. Sn. o Sulfur. S. Density 2.07, hardness 1.5-2.5. o Graphite. C. Density 2.09-2.21, hardness 1-2. Found in compact masses, large deposits. Its high melting point and electrical conductivity makes it suitable for high temperature electrodes. It is used as a dry lubricant in high temperature applications. o Diamond. C. Density 3.50, hardness 10. Lustrous, transparent, colourless, yellow or green. Brittle and hard. o Also: mercury Hg (density 13.59), Arsenic As (density 5.63, hardness 3.5), Antimony Sb (density 6.61, hardness 3-3.5), Oxides (-O). Oxides are common in geochemical environments poor in silica. Silicates form easily from a magma, so if silica is used up in a magma chamber, then the oxides remain to be formed. Their structure is complex: octahedral and dodecahedral crystals. Very stable against weathering, but dissolving slowly in hydrochloric acid (HCl).

Magnetite (lodestone). Fe3O4. Density 5.17, hardness 6. Magnetic iron oxide. Large deposits are segregated from igneous magmas at high temperatures and are mined near the surface as iron ores. Can contain chromium or manganese. o Maghemite. Fe2O3. Iron sesquioxide. Magnetic. o Hematite. Fe2O3. Iron sesquioxide, ferric iron oxide. Non-magnetic. o Ilmenite group ATiO3.: Ilmenite FeTiO3, titanic iron ore, a black sand containing 36.8% iron and 31.6% titanium, is the principal ore for titanium, but is hard to melt. Ilmenite is part of basic igneous rocks such as gabbro and norite. perovskite CaTiO3, stibiconite SbSb2(O,OH,H2O)7, betafite, o Hydrous oxides of iron, limonites Limonite. FeO[OH].nH2O. Density 5.26, hardness 5-6. Rust. Non-magnetic. Oxidized iron minerals. Is an important iron ore, found in many shapes and colours, from ochre to blood red. Goethite. HFeO2. Non-magnetic o Aluminium oxides. Alumina. Al2O3. Aluminium sesquioxide, Beauxite. A mixture of various oxides such as boehmite, diaspore, hydrargillite, alumogel, etc., mixed with iron hydroxides which impart the red colour. Corundum. Al2O3. Aluminium oxide. Density 4-4.1, hardness 9. An important mineral, used as precious stone (red ruby and blue sapphire), and its greyish variety as emery for abrasive and refractory products. o Spinel group AB2O4. Spinel. Magnesium-aluminium oxide. MgAl2O4. Density 3.55, hardness 7.5-8. Also: hercynite, galaxite, gahnite, chrysoberyl, franklinite, trevorite, alexandrite. o Cuprite. Cu2O. Density 6.14, haardness 3.5-4. Copper ore. Octahedral crystals, dark red. o Also: Tenorite (CuO), rutile (TiO2), Cassiterite (SnO2), Pyrolusite (MnO2) Psilomelane (Ba,H2O)Mn5O10, Manganite (MnO(OH), anatase (octahedrite), brookite, wolframite (Mn,Fe)WO4, columbite, euxenite, Uraninite (UO2), curite, gummite,brucite (Mg(OH)2, Hydroxides (-OH) o Gibbsite. Aluminium hydroxide. Al(OH)3. Found in aluminium ore. o Brucite. Magnesium hydroxide. Mg(OH)2. One of magnesium's ores. Carbonates (-CO3) metal-ion solid solutions. Usually medium or low hardness. Soluble in hydrochloric acid (HCl) o Calcite. Density 2.71, hardness 3. Most common, most abundant of all minerals. It has many forms of crystallisation (up to 700 forms!). Fine-grained, dissolves easily in rainwater, especially when loaded with carbon dioxide in the form of carbonic acid (H2CO3). Stalactites, stalacmites, etc. Limestone. CaCO3. Marble. (metamorphic). CaCO3. Limestone in a metamorphic crystalline (or granular) state, and capable of taking a polish. Used in sculpture and architecture. Aragonite CaCO3. Orthorhombic crystals. o Dolomite. Calcium Magnesium carbonate. (Ca,Mg)CO3. CaMg(CO3)2. Is the chief source of magnesium. Used for agricultural fertiliser, steel manufacturing, and as a filler in paint, putty and rubber. Marble composed of dolomite has beautiful colours. o Ankerite CaFe(CO3)2.

Also: Magnesite (MgCO3), breunerite, mesitite, smithsonite (ZnCO3), siderite (FeCO3), sphaerocobaltite (CoCO3), rhodochrosite/ dialogite (MnCO3), strontianite (SrCO3), witherite (BACO3), cerussite (PbCO3), Azurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2, Malachite Cu2CO3(OH)2, rosasite, aurichalite, and many more.... Sulfides (-S) o Pyrite (Fool's Gold). FeS2. A yellow lustrus form of irondisulphide. o Galena. Lead sulfide. PbS. o Cinnabar. Mercury sulfide. HgS. o Also: Chalcocite, covellite, bornite, argentite, sphalerite, marmatite, wutzite, chalcopyrite, tetrahydrite, tennantite,pyrrhotite, niccolite, metacinnabarite, stibnite, bismuthinite, marcasite, hauerite, cobaltite, ullmanite, arsenopyrite, molybdenite, skutterudite, proustite, pyrargyrite, bournonite, cannizarite, sartorite, realgar, orpiment. Sulfates (-SO4) o Gypsum. CaSO4.2H2O. Density 2.31, hardness 2. A hydrated form of calcium sulphate, occurring naturally and used in the building industry and to make plaster of Paris. Easily identified because it can be scratched by fingernail and is light. Also: selenite, sericolite, alabaster. o Barite. Barium sulfate. BaSO4. o Also: Thenardite Na2SO4, Celestine SrSO4, anglesite PbSO4, jarosite KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6, brochantite, linarite, leadhillite, lanarkite Pb2SO5, alunite KAL3(SO4)2(OH)6, hanksite, chalcanthite, melanterite, goslarite, epsomite MgSO4, morenosite NiSO4, pickeringite, halotrichite, coquimbite, alunogen Al2(SO4)3.16H2O, copiapite, soda-alum, potash-alum, ammonia-alum, uranopilite, zippeite, johannite. Phosphates (-PO4) o Apatite. Ca5F(PO4)3. Density 3.1, hardness 5. A naturally occurring crystalline mineral of calcium phosphate and fluoride, used in the manufacture of fertilisers. A fairly common mineral found in pegmatites, metamorphic and igneous rock, and in ore veins. o Also: lithiophilite Li,MnFePO4, xenotime YPO4, monazite CePO4, linbethenite Cu2(OH)PO4,olivenite CU2(OH)AsO4, adamite Zn2(OH)AsO4, cornetite Cu3(OH)3PO4, descloizite, brazilianite, crandallite, and many others. Halides (-Cl, -F) o Chlorites (-Cl) Halite (Salt). NaCl. Rock-salt. Sylvite. KCl. Potassium salt, occurs in compact masses. Karnallite. KMgCl3.6H2O. milk white or reddish granular masses. o Fluorides Fluorite. Calcium fluoride. CaF2. Density 3.18, hardness 4, isometric crystals. Very wide range of colours. Also: cryolite, atacamite, cotunnite, nadorite. Silicates (SiO2) (-SiO4) (-Si3O8) (-SiO3). Arranged by heavy element content (the Bowen series) o Olivine. Density 3.27-3.37, hardness 6.5-7. Ultrabasic. (Fe,Mg,Mn) silicates in solid solution. olivine = forsterite + fayalite. Density 3.3-4.4. Tetrahedral structure. Green. Resistant to weathering but susceptible to metamorphism. Much of the Earth is made out of this mineral, and it is a major component of the mantles of other terrestrial planets. It is usually a greenish crystal, often found as inclusions in basaltic lavas. Large crystals are called chrysolite and are used for jewellery. Foresterite. Mg2SiO4. light-green Fayalite. Fe2SiO4. dark-green or black. o Inosilicates

Pyroxene. Ultrabasic. (Ca,Fe,Mg,Na,Al,Ti) silicates in solid solution. White. Density 2.8-3.7. Common in meteorites. 10% of crust. Single chain tetrahedral structure. Moderately resistant to weathering. Diopside. (Ca,Mg)SiO3 = wollastonite + enstatite in solid solution Wollastonite (metamorphic). CaSiO3 Enstatite. MgSiO3 Augite. A complex calcium magnesium aluminous silicate occurring in many igneous rocks. (Fassaite, bronzite, capholite) Hypersthene. A rock-forming greenish mineral of magnesium iron silicate, harder than hornblende. Also: hedenbergite CaFeSi2O6, Johannsenite CaMnSi2O6, spodumene LiAlSi2O6. (triphane, kunzite, hiddenite), Amphibole. Basic. (Ca,Mg,Fe,Al,Na)7-8 (Si,Al)8O22(OH,F,O)2. Density 2.8-3.7. Double chain tetrahedral structure. 7% of crust. Horneblende. (Ca,Na,K)2-3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)9O22(OH,F)2 Also: tremolite Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2, actinolite,glaucophane, crocidolite, riebeckite, Also: wollastonite CaSiO3, pectolite, rhodonite (Mn,Ca)SiO3, babingtonite, prehnite, bavenite, Tektosilicates Feldspar. (Aluminum silicates). Ultrabasic to intermediate. (K,Na,Ca,Al) silicates in solid solution. Density 2.6-2.8, 60% of crust. Framework-tetrahedral structure. Hard. Glassy or pearly looking, light colour. Moderately resistant to weathering and metamorphism. Plagioclase feldspars Anorthite. CaAl2Si2O8. Plagioclase calcium feldspar. Ultrabasic. White to medium gray with striations. Albite. NaAlSi3O8. Plagioclase sodium feldspar. Intermediate. White. Also: danburite, sodalite, haueyinite, lazurite (lapis lazuli), scapolite, wernerite. Othoclase feldspars K-feldspar. KAlSi3O8. Orthoclase (Microcline) potassium feldspar. Intermediate. Density 2.56. Hardness 6. Light cream to salmon pink. Used in ceramics and glass making. Also: Adularia, Sanidine, Microcline. Feldspathoid group: nepheline (Na,K)AlSiO4, analcite NaAlSi2O6.H2O, leucite KALSI2O6 Zeolites: natrolite, scolecite, thomsonite, mesolite, dachiardite, forestite, laumontite, mordenite, arduinite, ferrierite, heulandite, stilbite, and many more. Mica. Basic to acidic. (K,Mg,Fe,Al) silicates. Black. Density 2.76-3.2. Common in igneous rocks. 4% of crust. Is a sheet silicate with properties of talcum/ formica. Any of a group of silicate minerals with a layered structure. Biotite. Basic. K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2. a black, dark brown or green micaceous mineral occurring as a constituent of metamorphic and igneous rocks. Muscovite. Acidic. KAl3Si3O10(OH)2. A silver-grey form of mica ('white mica') with a sheetlike crystalline structure, giving a pearly lustre, used in the manufacture of electrical equipment, etc. Also: fuchsite, alurgite Also: paragonite, phlogopite, lepidolite, chrysocolla CuSiO3.2H2O, Chlorite group. Are similar to the micas, lamellar, dark green or blue green. Serpentine. Mg3Si2O5(OH)4. A soft rock mainly of hydrated magnesium silicate, usually dark green (a chlorite) and sometimed mottled or spotted like a serpent's skin, taking a high polish and used as a decorative material.

o o o

Chrysotile. Asbestos serpentine with exceptionally long fibres. Colour white, greenish, silky lustre. Used for buildings, insulation and high temperature applications. Also: kaemmererite, penninite, clinochlore, antigorite, Zircon. Zr(SiO4). Density 4.6-4.7. Hardness 7.5. Trigonal crystal., prismatic pyramid. Glassy or milky in colour, but may be coloured (rock quartz, smoky quartz, morion quartz, citrine, amethyst). Most abundant and widest disseminated mineral. Essential constituent of volcanic, metamorphic and sedimentary rock. Quartz. Acidic. SiO2. Ionic co-valent bond. Density 2.6. Hard mineral, virtually insoluble in water. Translucent. One of the most important components of granite. Opal, jasper, agate, chalcedony, flint. Tetrahedral structure. Also: Chalcedony, agate, onyx, jasper, tridymite, opal, hyalite, flint, Garnet. A3B2(SiO4)3. Density 3.3-3.5. Tetrahedral structure. A vitreous silicate mineral, especially a transparent deep-red kind used as a gem. Almandine. Fe3Al2(SiO4)3. Common, wine-red. Density 4.25 Also: pyrope. Mg3Al2(SiO4)3, spessartite. Mn3Al2(SiO4)3, grossularite. Ca3Al2(SiO4), andradite Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3, uvarovite. Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3, Clay minerals (hydrous aluminium silicates). Are the end products of weathering. All clay minerals are sheet silicates, each clay type owing its distinctive character to the cations such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg++) or calcium (Ca++), which occupy positions in and between the sheets. Fibrous, open clays, palygorskite. Open and well hydrated clays, not common in soils but are important in lake deposits which have salt-lagoon characteristics. Sepiolite and attapulgite. Two-layer clays. (1:1 clay; Si-Al lattice) fixed distance hydrogen-bonded (-O-OH-) between the silica and alumina sheets. Formed through rapid leaching of silica in volcanic soils (allitic weathering). Consist of a tetrahedral silica and an octahedral alumina layer. These are rich in alumina, have poor cation-exchange capacity, stable structure and swell very little when moistened. Tropical climates, high rainfall, acidic conditions. Kaolinite. Al4Si4O10(OH)8. Absorbs little water but is just right for pottery and ceramics. A fine soft white clay produced by the decomposition of other clays of feldspar, used especially for making porcelain (pipe clay), and in medicines. Also called china clay. The word kao lin means high hill in Chinese. Also: nacrite, dickite. Hydrated 1:1 clays: Halloysite, Al2Si2O5(OH)4.2H2O. A high alumina clay, which has slender tube crystals, and is white coloured. Used for making high quality 'bone' china porcelain and industrial ceramics. Three-layer clays, smectite. (2:1 clays; Si-Al-Si lattice) variable distance (-O-O-) bonded. Formed by slow leaching of silica, consisting of one octahedral alumina layer sandwiched between two tetrahedral silica layers. Have high cationexchange capacity (CEC), but lower than amorphous clays. Weak structure, low water permeability and swells when moistened. Temperate climates, low rainfall, neutral to alkaline soils, especially under grasslands. Expanding lattice clays Montmorillonite. (Al,Mg)8(Si4O10)3(OH)10.12H2O. or Al4(Si4O10)2(OH)4.xH2O. Holds and absorbs large amounts of water. 20% in clay from volcanic weathering. Bentonite: a soft plastic light-coloured clay formed by chemical alteration of volcanic ash. It is composed essentially of montmorillonite and related smectite minerals. Used to bond moulding sands, oil well drilling and to remove colour from oils.

o o o

Also: beidelite hydrous micas Chlorite. Mg10Al2(Si6Al2)O20(OH)16. Absorbs large amounts of water. A green flaky mineral, decomposition product of dark micas and is found in many altered rocks such as schists. (Note that this mineral bears no relationship to the element chloride Cl, but its name relates to its green colour) Illite (muscovite). K2Al4(Si6Al2)O20(OH)4. Vermiculite: Amorphous clays. Formed from easily weatherable materials such as volcanic ashes, lava or basalt. Have high cationexchange capability. Low density, permeable to water and air. Decay of organic matter is slow and humus content high. Tropical climates. Nontronite. Absorbs and holds large amounts of water. 50% in clay from volcanic weathering. Pelagic clays ('red clay'). Aluminium silicates. Any combination of montmorillonite, kaolinite, chlorite with an admixture of silt- and clay-sized grains of quartz, feldspar and other minerals. The chlorite crystal can be modified into an iron-rich form. Deep sea sediments commonly contain this iron-rich form, from which it derives its name 'red clay'. Subsaturite Kyanite (metamorphic). A blue crystalline mineral of aluminium silicate. Topaz. Al2SiO4(OH,F)2. Density 3.6, hardness 8.A transparent or translucent aluminium silicate mineral, usually yellow, used as a gem. Many colours. Staurolite. (Fe,Mg)4Al18Si8O46(OH)2. Density 3.65-3.77, hardness 7-7.5. Crystals cross shaped, dark grey to reddish brown. Sillimanite. Al2SiO5. An aluminium silicate occurring in orthorhombic crystals or fibrous masses. Aillimanite, Andalusite, Kyanite or Dysthene. Also: humite, titanclinohumite, braunite, titanite CaTiSiO5, datolite, dumortierite, howlite, grandidierite, gadolinite, uranophane. Sorosilicates Also: gehlenite Ca2Al2SiO7, cuspidine Ca4Si2O7(F,OH)2, ilvaite, hemimorphite, epidote Ca2(AL,Fe)3Si3O12OH, piedmontite, zoisite, clinozoisite, allanite, orthite,idocrase/ vesuvianite, Cyclosilicates Also: benitoite BaTiSi3O9, eudialyte, taramellite, axinite, beryl Be3Al2Si6O18 (emerald, aquamarine, heliodor, morganite), cordierite, tourmaline, dioptase. Phyllosilicates Talc. Mg3Si4O10(OH)2. Any crystalline form of magnesium silicate that occurs in soft flat plates, usually white or pale green in colour and used as a lubricator. Also: Apophyllite, pyrophillite Al2Si4O10(OH)2, agalmatolite,

Notes: Density in kg/litre or g/cm3

Clay layer structures

The diagrams look at right angles to the sheets making up the main structure of the clay minerals. The silica and associated layers are stacked along the c-axis (up/down). The principal clay minerals are kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite (or mica), and chlorite. The

Notes: Density in kg/litre or g/cm3

Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks (Granites). Igneous rocks are formed by the crystallisation of a magma. The difference between granites and basalts is in silica content and their rates of cooling. A basalt is about 53% SiO2, whereas granite is 73%. o Intrusive, slowly cooled inside the crust. (Plutonic rock = formed in the earth). Large crystals. Granite. (Continental crust) Density 2.7-2.8. High silica content (acidic). = quartz + mica + K-feldspar in solid solution. 60% orthoclase and plagioclase fledspars + 25% quartz + 5% darker minerals (biotite, hornblende). Color from flesh to black. Crystals intermingled. Hard, rigid, tough. Granitic rock is much less common on the other terrestrial planets, a fact having to do with the fractionation (where early crystallizing minerals separate fromt he rest of a magma), a process that takes place uniquely on earth, due to the prevalence of plate tectonics. Granodiorite. An intermediate form between granite and diorite. Diorite. High silica content (acidic) Gabbro. Density? Medium silica content. (intermediate). Similar to granite = quartz + feldspar + pyroxene + amphibole + mica + olivene. A layer of gabbro is found in the ocean crust, unerneath the basalt layer (0.5-2.5km), from 2.5 to 6.3 km deep. The lunar highlands have many gabbros (made largely of potassium feldspar - also known as plagioclase) Peridotite. o Extrusive. cooled rapidly at the surface. Small crystals. Rhyolite. Medium silica content (intermediate). A fine-grained volcanic rock of granitic composition. Dacite. Andesite. (Volcanic arcs) Density >2.8. Low silica content (basic) = sodium feldspar + amphibole. Dark, dense. Basalt. (Ocean crust) Density 2.9. Low silica content. (basic). Dark, dense. = olivene + pyroxene + Ca-Feldspar in solid solution. Basaltic rocks (gabbro & basalt) are made up of feldspars and other minerals common in planetary crusts. They have been identified as major surface rocks on the dark lunar planes and much of Mars, Venus and the asteroid Vesta. Pyroclastic rocks: debris ejected by volcanoes o Tuff is made of compacted debris from old volcanic ash showers. o Volcanic breccia is composed of angular mineral fragments embedded in a matrix, the product of explosive eruptions. o Ignimbrites are sheets of coalesced fine particles which once flowed at high speed, extremely hot, fluid avalanches.

Notes: Density in kg/litre or g/cm3

Classification of igneous rocks


This diagram shows the makeup of igneous rocks from the various minerals inside a magma chamber. Density increases from bottom right to top left. Intrusive rocks are coarse-grained in texture and crystallise slowly from magma deep in the earth's crust. Extrusive rocks are fine-grained in texture and crystallise quickly from lava on or near the earth's surface. The mineralogy determines the type of rock. Granites and rhyolites consist predominantly of quartz and potash feldspar; gabbros and basalts, predominantly of pyroxene and plagioclase feldspar. Other rock types have intermediate mineral compositions. Note that amphibole = horneblende. Note that the density of the minerals increases from top left (2.6) to bottom right (3.4). Top left: high silica content (acidic); bottom right: low silica content (ultrabasic). The temperature range at which magma solidifies is 1100-700C. (Paul R Pinet in Oceanography, an introduction to Planet Oceanus. 1992.)

The processes inside a magma chamber


As tektonic plates move underneath a continent, they sweep both oceanic sediment and continental sediment downward into the hot mantle, where they heat up violently by processes as yet unknown. The very hot magma is able to melt the continental crust and travel upward through it, cooling in the process. A batch of magma forms, known as a magma chamber, and what happens inside such a batch cauldron is both very complicated, yet simple to understand. When magma is erupted onto the surface, through the vent of a volcano, it can explode into clouds of ash, because of the enormous pressure of compressed gases like carbon dioxide CO2. This is usually what a young volcano does. As gas pressure diminishes with age, lava pours out, first frothy, cooling rapidly to rhyolite and dacite. Later eruptions are more sedate, resulting in outpourings of andesite. Finally the volcano dies, leaving columns of basalt as a hard crater plug behind. But it is not just the gases that make a difference. As material leaves the magma chamber, there will be less of it inside to combine with the remaining elements. As can be seen from the igneous rock classification diagram above, the first minerals to leave a magma chamber are also the lightest, that have segregated to the top of the chamber: rhyolite consisting mainly of quartz and feldspars. At the other end of the scale, basalts

consist mainly of feldspars and pyroxene, which gives it higher density. As the magma chamber cools, while also losing its pressure, it leaves behind inside the earth a chamber full of peridotite, which consists mainly of the mineral olivene. At this stage, there is not enough pressure left to bring this material to the surface. A magma chamber may not make it all the way to the surface, cooling entirely inside the crust instead. The chemical process is now slightly different in that not the lightest minerals are 'leaving' the batch but those that solidify first. The remaining liquid minerals can then still react to form different rocks, but the result is a range of 'intrusive' igneous rocks with compositions matching the extrusive series closely (see diagram above).

The process of forming a rock from a solid solution melt This diagram shows how various minerals are formed from a magma batch with a fixed ratio of two minerals; in this example albite and anorthite. Note that the many elements inside a magma chamber and resultant minerals, complicate this simple example much further. The rectangle shows relative composition horizontally and temperature vertically. The starting mix is 70% liquid albite and 30% liquid anorthite. Cooling starts above point A. Typical of solid solutions, are the two phase curves for each mineral. To the left and above each curve, the mineral is liquid; to the right and below, it is solid. As the liquid cools (black arrows from the top down), it arrives at point A. Here the anorthite starts to precipitate, almost purely. In doing so, it increases the albite concentration, and albite moves from A to C while staying liquid. If albite were to precipitate out, its concentration in the melt would decrease, which would move against temperature (up the curve), and is thus impossible. At point C, all anorthite (30%) has solidified slowly. The mix now moves from C to D, rapidly solidifying the 70% albite, which by this time has increased its concentration to 95%. Several types of rock are formed, one on top of the other, as shown by the right-hand diagram. Note that phase (the liquid/solid boundary) changes not only with temperature but also with pressure, which makes the process of rock formation rather complicated and variable.

Sedimentary rocks

Clastic sedimentary rocks consist of rock and mineral grains derived from the chemical and mechanical breakdown (weathering) of preexisting rock. They contain rock fragments and more commonly, particles of quartz and feldspar. Clastic rocks are further classified on the basis of grain size. Underneath each rock type, the Wentworth Scale of particle sizes is shown. o Conglomerates (> 2mm) consolidated gravel Boulder (>256mm) Cobble (65-256 mm) Pebble (4-64 mm) Granule (2-4 mm) o Sandstones (0.062-2 mm) consolidated sand Very coarse (1.0 - 2.0 mm) Coarse (0.5 - 1 mm) Medium (0.25 - 0.5 mm) Fine (0.125 - 0.25 mm) Very fine (0.0625 - 0.125 mm) o Shales (<0.0062 mm) consolidated mud, rich in organic matter. Silt (0.0039 - 0.0625 mm) Clay (0.0002 - 0.0039 mm) Argillite. A sedimentary rock, composed of clay particles which have been hardened and cemented. Illite (muscovite). K2Al4(Si6Al2)O20(OH)4. is a sedimentary fine-grained rock, equivalent to ordinari mica (muscovite). Colloid (<0.0002 mm) Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed either from minerals that precipitate directly from aqeous (water) solutions or from the accumulation of fossilised remains of organisms which become limestone. o Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) o Anhydrite (CaSO4) o Halite (NaCl) salt o Limestone (CaCO3)

Sediment composition triangle


The diagram shows the range of sedimentary rock types represented as mixtures of three components: calcium (plus magnesium) carbonates, clay minerals (represented by the hypothetical hydrated aluminium and iron oxides as the end member), and silica (silicon dioxide). Sediments and sedimentary rocks have the same ranges of composition. Iron-rich laterites and aluminium-rich beauxites are the products of intense weathering. Sandstones are primarily composed of indurated sandy sediments, in many cases dominantly quartz. Cherts are the sedimentary rock equivalent of biologically deposited siliceous deposits. During the transformation into rock, the amorphous silica, originally deposited by diatoms and radiolarians, is transformed into very hard microcrystalline quartz-rich rock. Argillaceous (from French: argile = clay) rocks are derived from the lithification of clay-rich muds. Sediments or sedimentary rocks rarely, if ever, have compositions represented by the white area of the triangle.

Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks have been chemically altered by heat, pressure and deformation, while buried deep in the earth's crust. These rocks show changes in mineral composition or texture or both. This area of rock classification is highly specialised and complex. Slates are foliated rocks representing low-grade metamorphic alteration of shales (laminated clay). o Argillite is a mudstone, much hardened by pressure. Schists are foliated medium-grade metamorphic rock with parallel layers, vertical to the direction of compaction.. Gneiss are banded rocks consisting of alternating layers of quartz and feldspar, of high metamorphic grade. Quartzites represent metamorphosed sandstone. o Greywacke is a severely hardened sandstone with mica and feldspar, sometimes containing fossils. o Chert is a siliceous rock deposited chemically, often common among greywacke. Marble is metamorphosed limestone, just recrystallised.

Metamorphic rock may be of sedimentary origin or stem from igneous rocks. Rocks formed under high temperatures (basalt, gabbro) are less sensitive to metamorphosis than those solidified at low temperatures (quartz & felspar minerals). The following are causes of metamorphism:

Pressure from sinking deeper while overlaid by other sediments. Pressure from continental collision and consequent folding and overthrusting of the crust (dynamometamorphism). Temperature from sinking deeper, into warmer layers of the crust (metamorphism). Temperature from igneous hot lava running nearby, either overhead or from intrusions (contact or thermal metamorphism). Temperature from steam escaping from hot vents. Repetitive metamorphism (polymetamorphism).

Anda mungkin juga menyukai