Module 10.1
Introduction to Steam Distribution
10.1.1
Condensate
Condensate
Steam
The steam generated in the boiler must be conveyed through pipework to the point where its heat energy is required. Initially there will be one or more main pipes, or steam mains, which carry steam from the boiler in the general direction of the steam using plant. Smaller branch pipes can then carry the steam to the individual pieces of equipment. When the boiler main isolating valve (commonly called the crown valve) is opened, steam immediately passes from the boiler into and along the steam mains to the points at lower pressure. The pipework is initially cooler than the steam, so heat is transferred from the steam to the pipe. The air surrounding the pipes is also cooler than the steam, so the pipework will begin to transfer heat to the air. Steam on contact with the cooler pipes will begin to condense immediately. On start-up of the system, the condensing rate will be at its maximum, as this is the time where there is maximum temperature difference between the steam and the pipework. This condensing rate is commonly called the starting load. Once the pipework has warmed up, the temperature difference between the steam and pipework is minimal, but some condensation will occur as the pipework still continues to transfer heat to the surrounding air. This condensing rate is commonly called the running load. 10.1.2
The Steam and Condensate Loop
The resulting condensation (condensate) falls to the bottom of the pipe and is carried along by the steam flow and assisted by gravity, due to the gradient in the steam main that should be arranged to fall in the direction of steam flow. The condensate will then have to be drained from various strategic points in the steam main. When the valve on the steam pipe serving an item of steam using plant is opened, steam flowing from the distribution system enters the plant and again comes into contact with cooler surfaces. The steam then transfers its energy in warming up the equipment and product (starting load), and, when up to temperature, continues to transfer heat to the process (running load). There is now a continuous supply of steam from the boiler to satisfy the connected load and to maintain this supply more steam must be generated. In order to do this, more water (and fuel to heat this water) is supplied to the boiler to make up for that water which has previously been evaporated into steam. The condensate formed in both the steam distribution pipework and in the process equipment is a convenient supply of useable hot boiler feedwater. Although it is important to remove this condensate from the steam space, it is a valuable commodity and should not be allowed to run to waste. Returning all condensate to the boiler feedtank closes the basic steam loop, and should be practised wherever practical. The return of condensate to the boiler is discussed further in Block 13, Condensate Removal, and Block 14,Condensate Management.
The maximum safe working pressure of the boiler. The minimum pressure required at the plant. Frictional resistance within the pipework (detailed in Module 10.2). Condensation within the pipework as heat is transferred to the environment.
As steam passes through the distribution pipework, it will inevitably lose pressure due to:
! !
Therefore allowance should be made for this pressure loss when deciding upon the initial distribution pressure. A kilogram of steam at a higher pressure occupies less volume than at a lower pressure. It follows that, if steam is generated in the boiler at a high pressure and also distributed at a high pressure, the size of the distribution mains will be smaller than that for a low-pressure system for the same heat load. Figure 10.1.2 illustrates this point.
2.0
Specific volume m / kg
6 8 10 12 14 Pressure bar g Fig. 10.1.2 Dry saturated steam - pressure /specific volume relationship
Generating and distributing steam at higher pressure offers three important advantages:
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The thermal storage capacity of the boiler is increased, helping it to cope more efficiently with fluctuating loads, minimising the risk of producing wet and dirty steam. Smaller bore steam mains are required, resulting in lower capital cost, for materials such as pipes, flanges, supports, insulation and labour. Smaller bore steam mains cost less to insulate. 10.1.3
Having distributed at a high pressure, it will be necessary to reduce the steam pressure to each zone or point of use in the system in order to correspond with the maximum pressure required by the application. Local pressure reduction to suit individual plant will also result in drier steam at the point of use. (Module 2.3 provides an explanation of this). Note: It is sometimes thought that running a steam boiler at a lower pressure than its rated pressure will save fuel. This logic is based on more fuel being needed to raise steam to a higher pressure. Whilst there is an element of truth in this logic, it should be remembered that it is the connected load, and not the boiler output, which determines the rate at which energy is used. The same amount of energy is used by the load whether the boiler raises steam at 4 bar g, 10 bar g or 100 bar g. Standing losses, flue losses, and running losses are increased by operating at higher pressures, but these losses are reduced by insulation and proper condensate return systems. These losses are marginal when compared to the benefits of distributing steam at high pressure.
Pressure reduction
The common method for reducing pressure at the point where steam is to be used is to use a pressure reducing valve, similar to the one shown in the pressure reducing station Figure 10.1.3.
Pressure reducing valve Separator Steam Strainer Steam Safety valve
Trap set Condensate Fig. 10.1.3 Typical pressure reducing valve station
A separator is installed upstream of the reducing valve to remove entrained water from incoming wet steam, thereby ensuring high quality steam to pass through the reducing valve. This is discussed in more detail in Module 9.3 and Module 12.5. Plant downstream of the pressure reducing valve is protected by a safety valve. If the pressure reducing valve fails, the downstream pressure may rise above the maximum allowable working pressure of the steam using equipment. This, in turn, may permanently damage the equipment, and, more importantly, constitute a danger to personnel. With a safety valve fitted, any excess pressure is vented through the valve, and will prevent this from happening (safety valves are discussed in Block 9). Other components included in the pressure reducing valve station are:
! ! ! ! !
The primary isolating valve - To shut the system down for maintenance. The primary pressure gauge - To monitor the integrity of supply. The strainer - To keep the system clean. The secondary pressure gauge - To set and monitor the downstream pressure. The secondary isolating valve - To assist in setting the downstream pressure on no-load conditions.
10.1.4
Questions
1. Distributing steam at high pressure, instead of low pressure, will have the following effect. a | Heat losses from the pipes will be less. b | A lower storage capacity in the high pressure pipes. c | High pressure small bore steam pipes cost less to install and insulate. d | The steam pipes will be smaller creating wet steam. 2. A steam pressure reducing valve is fitted to: a | Prevent the pressure at the plant exceeding its safe working pressure. b | Help dry the steam supply to the plant. c | Reduce the flash steam losses as condensate passes through the plant steam traps. d | Supply the plant with steam at the designed temperature and pressure.
3. The start-up condensate load of a steam main is generally greater than the running load because: a | The pipework and fittings are cold, so steam is required to heat it up to steam temperature. b | The steam space within the pipework has to be charged with steam to the desired running pressure. c | The boiler crown valve or stop valve is opened very slowly and initially there is insufficient pressure to discharge condensate through the steam traps.
d | On initial opening of the crown valve, the steam distribution pressure will be low and the enthalpy of evaporation of low pressure steam is greater than at high pressure so a greater mass of steam will be condensed. " 4. The pressure at which steam is supplied to the plant should be dictated by: a | The boiler operating pressure. b | The steam distribution pressure. c | The maximum allowable safe working pressure of the plant. d | The plant design pressure and temperature. 5. Which of the following results in pressure losses in distribution pipework? a | Sizing the pipes on low pressure instead of high pressure. b | Frictional resistance within and heat loss from the pipe and fittings. c | Sizing the pipes on start-up load of the plant. d | Large steam users. 6. The steam pipe after a pressure reducing valve is likely to be: a | Smaller than the upstream pipe because of the smaller volume of low pressure steam. " b | The same size as the connection to the plant. c | Larger than the upstream pipe because the volume of the low pressure steam is greater. d | The same size as the upstream pipe because the flowrate through each pipe is the same.
1: c, 2: d, 3: a, 4: d, 5: b 6: c
Answers
10.1.5
10.1.6
Module 10.2
Pipes and Pipe Sizing
10.2.1
A 100 mm Schedule 40 pipe has an outside diameter of 114.30 mm, a wall thickness of 6.02 mm, giving a bore of 102.26 mm. A 100 mm Schedule 80 pipe has an outside diameter of 114.30 mm, a wall thickness of 8.56 mm, giving a bore of 97.18 mm.
Only Schedules 40 and 80 cover the full range from 15 mm up to 600 mm nominal sizes and are the most commonly used schedule for steam pipe installations. This Module considers Schedule 40 pipework as covered in BS 1600. Tables of schedule numbers can be obtained from BS 1600 which are used as a reference for the nominal pipe size and wall thickness in millimetres. Table 10.2.1 compares the actual bore sizes of different sized pipes, for different schedule numbers. In mainland Europe, pipe is manufactured to DIN standards, and DIN 2448 pipe is included in Table 10.2.1.
Table 10.2.1 Comparison of pipe standards and actual bore diameters. Nominal size pipe (mm) 15 20 25 32 40 50 Schedule 40 15.8 21.0 26.6 35.1 40.9 52.5 Schedule 80 13.8 18.9 24.3 32.5 38.1 49.2 Bore (mm) Schedule 160 11.7 15.6 20.7 29.5 34.0 42.8 DIN 2448 17.3 22.3 28.5 37.2 43.1 60.3 65 62.7 59.0 53.9 70.3 80 77.9 73.7 66.6 82.5 100 102.3 97.2 87.3 107.1 150 154.1 146.4 131.8 159.3
In the United Kingdom, piping to EN 10255, (steel tubes and tubulars suitable for screwing to BS 21 threads) is also used in applications where the pipe is screwed rather than flanged. They are commonly referred to as Blue Band and Red Band; this being due to their banded identification marks. The different colours refer to particular grades of pipe:
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Red Band, being heavy grade, is commonly used for steam pipe applications. Blue Band, being medium grade, is commonly used for air distribution systems, although it is sometimes used for low-pressure steam systems.
The coloured bands are 50 mm wide, and their positions on the pipe denote its length. Pipes less than 4 metres in length only have a coloured band at one end, while pipes of 4 to 7 metres in length have a coloured band at either end.
Fig. 10.2.1 Red band, branded pipe, - heavy grade, up to 4 metres in length
Fig. 10.2.2 Blue band, branded pipe, - medium grade, between 4-7 metres in length
The Steam and Condensate Loop
10.2.2
Pipe material
Pipes for steam systems are commonly manufactured from carbon steel to ANSI B 16.9 A106. The same material may be used for condensate lines, although copper tubing is preferred in some industries. For high temperature superheated steam mains, additional alloying elements, such as chromium and molybdenum, are included to improve tensile strength and creep resistance at high temperatures. Typically, pipes are supplied in 6 metre lengths.
Pipeline sizing
The objective of any fluid distribution system is to supply the fluid at the correct pressure to the point of use. It follows, therefore, that pressure drop through the distribution system is an important feature.
Liquids
Bernoullis Theorem (Daniel Bernoulli 1700 - 1782) is discussed in Block 4 - Flowmetering. DArcy (DArcy Thompson 1860 - 1948) added that for fluid flow to occur, there must be more energy at Point 1 than Point 2 (see Figure 10.2.3). The difference in energy is used to overcome frictional resistance between the pipe and the flowing fluid.
hf h1 h2
Length (L) Point 1 Fig. 10.2.3 Friction in pipes due to the flow of the fluid Point 2
Bernoulli relates changes in the total energy of a flowing fluid to energy dissipation expressed either in terms of a head loss hf (m) or specific energy loss g hf (J / kg). This, in itself, is not very useful without being able to predict the pressure losses that will occur in particular circumstances. Here, one of the most important mechanisms of energy dissipation within a flowing fluid is introduced, that is, the loss in total mechanical energy due to friction at the wall of a uniform pipe carrying a steady flow of fluid. The loss in the total energy of fluid flowing through a circular pipe must depend on: L D u m r kS = = = = = = The length of the pipe (m) The pipe diameter (m) The mean velocity of the fluid flow (m /s) The dynamic viscosity of the fluid (kg / m s = Pa s) The fluid density (kg / m3) The roughness of the pipe wall* (m) *Since the energy dissipation is associated with shear stress at the pipe wall, the nature of the wall surface will be influential, as a smooth surface will interact with the fluid in a different way than a rough surface.
The Steam and Condensate Loop
10.2.3
All these variables are brought together in the DArcy-Weisbach equation (often referred to as the DArcy equation), and shown as Equation 10.2.1. This equation also introduces a dimensionless term referred to as the friction factor, which relates the absolute pipe roughness to the density, velocity and viscosity of the fluid and the pipe diameter. The term that relates fluid density, velocity and viscosity and the pipe diameter is called the Reynolds number, named after Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912, of Owens College, Manchester, United Kingdom), who pioneered this technical approach to energy losses in flowing fluids circa 1883. The DArcy equation (Equation 10.2.1):
I/X J'
Equation 10.2.1
Where: hf = Head loss to friction (m) f = Friction factor (dimensionless) L = Length (m) u = Flow velocity (m /s) g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m /s) D = Pipe diameter (m) Interesting point Readers in some parts of the world may recognise the DArcy equation in a slightly different form, as shown in Equation 10.2.2. Equation 10.2.2 is similar to Equation 10.2.1 but does not contain the constant 4.
KI I/X J'
Equation 10.2.2
The reason for the difference is the type of friction factor used. It is essential that the right version of the DArcy equation be used with the selected friction factor. Matching the wrong equation to the wrong friction factor will result in a 400% error and it is therefore important that the correct combination of equation and friction factor is utilised. Many textbooks simply do not indicate which friction factors are defined, and a judgement must sometimes be based on the magnitudes quoted. Equation 10.2.2 tends to be used by those who traditionally work in Imperial units, and still tends to be used by practitioners in the United States and Pacific rim regions even when metric pipe sizes are quoted. Equation 10.2.1 tends to be used by those who traditionally work in SI units and tends more to be used by European practitioners. For the same Reynolds number and relative roughness, the Imperial based friction factor will be exactly four times larger than the SI based friction factor. Friction factors can be determined either from a Moody chart or, for turbulent flows, can be calculated from Equation 10.2.3, a development of the Colebrook - White formula.
I
,Q
Equation 10.2.3
Where: f = Friction factor (Relates to the SI Moody chart) kS = Absolute pipe roughness (m) D = Pipe bore (m) Re = Reynolds number (dimensionless)
10.2.4
However, Equation 10.2.3 is difficult to use because the friction factor appears on both sides of the equation, and it is for this reason that manual calculations are likely to be carried out by using the Moody chart. On an SI style Moody chart, the friction factor scale might typically range from 0.002 to 0.02, whereas on an Imperial style Moody chart, this scale might range from 0.008 to 0.08. As a general rule, for turbulent flow with Reynolds numbers between 4 000 and 100 000, SI based friction factors will be of the order suggested by Equation 10.2.4, whilst Imperial based friction factors will be of the order suggested by Equation 10.2.5. SI based friction factors
I | 5H
I | 5H
Equation 10.2.4
Equation 10.2.5
The friction factor used will determine whether the DArcy Equation 10.2.1 or 10.2.2 is used. For SI based friction factors, use Equation 10.2.1; for Imperial based friction factors, use Equation 10.2.2. Example 10.2.1 Water pipe Determine the velocity, friction factor and the difference in pressure between two points 1 km apart in a 150 mm constant bore horizontal pipework system if the water flowrate is 45 m / h at 15C.
9HORFLW\ P V
9HORFLW\
P V
In essence, the friction factor depends on the Reynolds number (Re) of the flowing liquid and the relative roughness (kS /d) of the inside of the pipe; the former calculated from Equation 10.2.6, and the latter from Equation 10.2.7. Reynolds number (Re)
5H
U X'
Equation 10.2.6
Where: Re = Reynolds number r = Density of water u = Velocity of water D = Pipe diameter m = Dynamic viscosity of water (at 15C) From Equation 10.2.6:
5H
5H
10.2.5
The pipe roughness or kS value (often quoted as e in some texts) is taken from standard tables, and for commercial steel pipe would generally be taken as 0.000 045 metres. From this the relative roughness is determined (as this is what the Moody chart requires).
5HODWLYHSLSHURXJKQHVV NV 3LSHURXJKQHVV3LSHERUH '
Equation 10.2.7
N'
V
P P
5HODWLYHURXJKQHVV
The friction factor can now be determined from the Moody chart and the friction head loss calculated from the relevant DArcy Equation. From the European Moody chart (Figure 10.2.4), Re = 93 585: Friction factor (f) = 0.005 Where: kS /D = 0.000 3
0.013 0.012 0.011 0.010 0.009 0.008
0.007
Coefficient of friction f
0.006
0.002
0.005
0.004
0.003
KI
PHWUHVKHDGORVV
The Steam and Condensate Loop
10.2.6
From the USA / AUS Moody chart (Figure 10.2.5), Where: kS /D = 0.000 3 Re = 93 585 Friction factor (f) = 0.02
0.1 0.09
4 5 3 2 1 0 10
0.05
0.04
Coefficient of friction f
0.008 0.006
0.03
0.004 0.002
0.02
0.000 1
0.01
0.000 05
0.009 0.008 10 2 3 4 5 10
4
0.000 01
2 3 4 5 10
5
3 4 5
10
3 4 5
10
3 4 5
10 8
KI KI
PHWUHVKHDGORVV
The same friction head loss is obtained by using the different friction factors and relevant DArcy equations. In practice whether for water pipes or steam pipes, a balance is drawn between pipe size and pressure loss.
The Steam and Condensate Loop
10.2.7
Steam
Oversized pipework means:
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Pipes, valves, fittings, etc. will be more expensive than necessary. Higher installation costs will be incurred, including support work, insulation, etc. For steam pipes a greater volume of condensate will be formed due to the greater heat loss. This, in turn, means that either: - More steam trapping is required, or - Wet steam is delivered to the point of use. The cost of installing 80 mm steam pipework was found to be 44% higher than the cost of 50 mm pipework, which would have had adequate capacity. The heat lost by the insulated pipework was some 21% higher from the 80 mm pipeline than it would have been from the 50 mm pipework. Any non-insulated parts of the 80 mm pipe would lose 50% more heat than the 50 mm pipe, due to the extra heat transfer surface area. A lower pressure might be available at the point of use, which may hinder equipment performance. There is a risk of steam starvation due to an excessive pressure drop. There is a greater risk of erosion, waterhammer and noise due to the inherent increase in steam velocity.
In a particular example:
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As previously mentioned, the friction factor (f) can be difficult to determine, and the calculation itself is time consuming especially for turbulent steam flow. As a result, there are numerous graphs, tables and slide rules available for relating steam pipe sizes to flowrates and pressure drops. One pressure drop sizing method, which has stood the test of time, is the pressure factor method. A table of pressure factor values is used in Equation 10.2.8 to determine the pressure drop for a particular installation.
3 3 /
Equation 10.2.8
Where: F = Pressure factor (Used in Table 10.2.6) P1 = Factor based on the inlet pressure (Taken from Table 10.2.5) P2 = Factor based on the pressure at a distance of L metres (Taken from Table 10.2.5) L = Equivalent length of pipe (m)
10.2.8
Example 10.2.2 Consider the system shown in Figure 10.2.6, and determine the pipe size required from the boiler to the unit heater branch line. Unit heater steam load = 270 kg /h.
P1 = 7 bar g L = 150 m 150 m (original pipe length) + 10 % (allowance for pipe fittings) = 165 m (revised pipe length) P2 = 6.6 bar g
Revised load to supply the heater battery is 270 kg/h + 5.8% = 286 kg/h
Although the unit heater only requires 270 kg /h, the boiler has to supply more than this due to heat losses from the pipe.
If the pipe is less than 50 metres long, add an allowance for fittings of 5%. If the pipe is over 100 metres long and is a fairly straight run with few fittings, an allowance for fittings of 10% would be made. A similar pipe length, but with more fittings, would increase the allowance towards 20%.
Revised boiler load = 270 kg /h + 5.8% = 286 kg /h From Table 10.2.2 (an extract from the complete pressure factor table, Table 10.2.5, which can be found in the Appendix at the end of this Module) F can be determined by finding the pressure factors P1 and P2, and substituting them into Equation 10.2.8.
Table 10.2.2 Extract from pressure factor table (Table 10.2.5) Pressure bar g 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.9 7.0 7.1 Pressure factor (P) 49.76 51.05 52.36 55.02 56.38 57.75
10.2.9
From the pressure factor table (see Table 10.2.2): P1 (7.0 bar g) = 56.38 P2 (6.6 bar g) = 51.05 Substituting these pressure factors (P1 and P2 ) into Equation 10.2.8 will determine the value for F:
)
)
)
3 3 /
P
Equation 10.2.8
Following down the left-hand column of the pipeline capacity and pressure drop factors table (Table 10.2.6 - Extract shown in Table 10.2.3); the nearest two readings around the requirement of 0.032 are 0.030 and 0.040. The next lower factor is always selected; in this case, 0.030.
Table 10.2.3 Extract from pipeline capacity and pressure factor table (Table 10.2.6) Pipe size (DN) Factor 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 (F) Capacity (kg /h) 0.025 10.99 33.48 70.73 127.3 209.8 459.7 834.6 1 367 0.030 12.00 36.78 77.23 137.9 229.9 501.1 919.4 1 480 0.040 14.46 44.16 93.17 169.2 279.5 600.7 1 093 1 790
Although values can be interpolated, the table does not conform exactly to a straight-line graph, so interpolation cannot be absolutely correct. Also, it is bad practice to size any pipe up to the limit of its capacity, and it is important to have some leeway to allow for the inevitable future changes in design. From factor 0.030, by following the row of figures to the right it will be seen that:
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A 40 mm pipe will carry 229.9 kg /h. A 50 mm pipe will carry 501.1 kg /h.
Since the application requires 286 kg /h, the 50 mm pipe would be selected. Having sized the pipe using the pressure drop method, the velocity can be checked if required.
Where:
NJ K UHYLVHGORDG P NJ $WEDUJ PFDOFXODWHGDERYH NJ K [ P NJ[ P V V K[S[ P
P V
Viewed in isolation, this velocity may seem low in comparison with maximum permitted velocities. However, this steam main has been sized to limit pressure drop, and the next smaller pipe size would have given a velocity of over 47 m/s, and a final pressure less than the requirement of 6.6 bar g, which is unacceptable. As can be seen, this procedure is fairly complex and can be simplified by using the nomogram shown in Figure 10.2.9 (in the Appendix of this Module). The method of use is explained in Example 10.2.3. 10.2.10
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Example 10.2.3 Using the data from Example 10.2.2, determine the pressure drop using the nomogram shown in Figure 10.2.7. Inlet pressure = 7 bar g Steam flowrate = 286 kg /h Minimum allowable P2 = 6.6 bar g
0D[LPXPSUHVVXUHGURSSHUP 0D[LPXPSUHVVXUHGURSSHUP
0D[LPXPSUHVVXUHGURSSHUP EDU
Method:
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Select the point on the saturated steam line at 7 bar g, and mark Point A. From point A, draw a horizontal line to the steam flowrate of 286 kg /h, and mark Point B. From point B, draw a vertical line towards the top of the nomogram (Point C). Draw a horizontal line from 0.24 bar /100 m on the pressure loss scale (Line DE). The point at which lines DE and BC cross will indicate the pipe size required. In this case, a 40 mm pipe is too small, and a 50 mm pipe would be used.
20 10 5 Pressure loss bar / 100 m 3 2 1 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01 Steam pressure bar g
um 50% vacu 0 bar g 0.5 1 2 3 5 7 10 A 15 Saturation 20 temperature 30 curve 50 70 100
10
15
20 25 30
D
10
20 30 50
100
500
100 200 300 500 100 0 20 3 0 00 00 50 00 10 000 20 30 000 000 50 000 100 000 Ste am 200 0 flow 00 rat ek g/h
B
Ins i
mm
10.2.11
150 154.05
822 1 369 2 191 983 1 638 2 621 1 142 1 904 3 046 1 669 2 782 4 451 2 183 3 639 5 822 2 691 4 485 7 176 3 195 5 325 8 521 3 700 6 167 9 867 4 194 6 989 11 183 4 681 7 802 12 484 5 686 9 477 15 164 7 625 12 708 20 333
10.2.12
Alternatively the pipe size can be calculated arithmetically. The following information is required, and the procedure used for the calculation is outlined below. Information required to calculate the required pipe size: u = Flow velocity (m /s) vg = Specific volume (m /kg) ms = Mass flowrate (kg /s) V = Volumetric flowrate (m /s) = ms x vg From this information, the cross sectional area (A) of the pipe can be calculated:
&URVVVHFWLRQDODUHD$ LH
S ['
9ROXPHIORZUDWH )ORZYHORFLW\ X X
[ S[X [ S[X
Rearranging the formula to give the diameter of the pipe (D) in metres:
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Example 10.2.4 A process requires 5 000 kg /h of dry saturated steam at 7 bar g. For the flow velocity not to exceed 25 m /s, determine the pipe size. Where:
[Y
NJ V [P NJ
P V
Therefore, using:
&URVVVHFWLRQDODUHD$
S['
' '
3LSHGLDPHWHU' 3LSHGLDPHWHU'
[
PRUPP
[ S[
Since the steam velocity must not exceed 25 m /s, the pipe size must be at least 130 mm; the nearest commercially available size, 150 mm, would be selected. Again, a nomogram has been created to simplify this process, see Figure 10.2.8.
The Steam and Condensate Loop
10.2.13
Example 10.2.5 Using the information from Example 10.2.4, use Figure 10.2.8 to determine the minimum acceptable pipe size Inlet pressure = 7 bar g Steam flowrate = 5 000 kg /h Maximum velocity = 25 m /s Method: o Draw a horizontal line from the saturation temperature line at 7 bar g (Point A) on the pressure scale to the steam mass flowrate of 5 000 kg /h (Point B).
o
From point B, draw a vertical line to the steam velocity of 25 m /s (Point C). From point C, draw a horizontal line across the pipe diameter scale (Point D). A pipe with a bore of 130 mm is required; the nearest commercially available size, 150 mm, would be selected.
600 500 400 300
a te
ve
it loc 5
ym
/s
200 150 C D
Pipe diameter mm
10
20
100
30
50 0 10 50 1
50 40 30 20
10
m ea St
low
te ra
/h kg 0 1 20 0 3 50 1 00 0 20 00 3 0 50 10
50% va
cuum
00 00 2 0 000 B 3 00 50 0 00 10 0 00 0 20 0 00 0 3 00 50 00 00 10 00 00 20
A Saturation temperature curve
0 bar g 0.5 1 2 3 5 7 10 15 20 30
50 70 100
100
500
10.2.14
From point A, project a horizontal line to the left until it intersects the steam mass flowrate scale of 30 000 kg /h (30 t /h) (Point B). From point B, project a line vertically upwards until it intersects 50 m /s on the steam velocity scale (Point C). From Point C, project a horizontal line to the right until it intersects the inside pipe diameter scale.
The inside pipe diameter scale recommends a pipe with an inside diameter of about 120 mm. From Table 10.2.1 and assuming that the pipe will be Schedule 80 pipe, the nearest size would be 150 mm, which has a bore of 146.4 mm. Part 2
o
Using Figure 10.2.7, draw a vertical line from 450C on the temperature axis until it intersects the 50 bar line (Point A). From point A, project a horizontal line to the right until it intersects the steam mass flowrate scale of 30 000 kg /h (30 t /h) (Point B). From point B, project a line vertically upwards until it intersects the inside pipe diameter scale of (approximately) 146 mm (Point C). From Point C, project a horizontal line to the left until it intersects the pressure loss bar/100 m scale (Point D).
The pressure loss bar /100 m scale reads about 0.9 bar /100 m. The pipe length in the example is 200 m, so the pressure drop is:
3UHVVXUHGURS
10.2.15
Using formulae to establish steam flowrate on pressure drop Empirical formulae exist for those who prefer to use them. Equations 10.2.9 and 10.2.10 are shown below. These have been tried and tested over many years, and which appear to give results close to the pressure factor method. The advantage of using these formulae is that they can be programmed into a scientific calculator, or a spreadsheet, and consequently used without the need to look up tables and charts. Equation 10.2.10 requires the specific volume of steam to be known, which means it is necessary to look up this value from a steam table. Also, Equation 10.2.10 should be restricted to a maximum pipe length of 200 metres. Pressure drop formula 1
3 /
'
Equation 10.2.9
Where: P1 = Upstream pressure (bar a) P2 = Downstream pressure (bar a) L = Length of pipe (m) m = Mass flowrate (kg /h) D = Pipe diameter (mm) Pressure drop formula 2 (Maximum pipe length: 200 metres)
'3
Where: DP = Pressure drop (bar) L = Length of pipe (m) vg = Specific volume of steam (m /kg) m = Mass flowrate (kg /h) D = Pipe diameter (mm)
/YJ '
Equation 10.2.10
Summary
o
The selection of piping material and the wall thickness required for a particular installation is stipulated in standards such as EN 45510 and ASME 31.1. Selecting the appropriate pipe size (nominal bore) for a particular application is based on accurately identifying pressure and flowrate. The pipe size may be selected on the basis of: - Velocity (usually pipes less than 50 m in length). - Pressure drop (as a general rule, the pressure drop should not normally exceed 0.1 bar /50 m.
10.2.16
Appendix
Table 10.2.5 Pressure drop factor (F) table Pressure Pressure Pressure bar a factor (F) bar g
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.013 0.0301 0.0115 0.0253 0.0442 0.0681 0.0970 0.1308 0.1694 0.2128 0.2610 0.3140 0.3716 0.4340 0.5010 0.5727 0.6489 0.7298 0.8153 0.9053 1.0250 2.05 2.10 2.15 2.20 2.25 2.30 2.35 2.40 2.45 2.50 2.55 2.60 2.65 2.70 2.75 2.80 2.85 2.90 2.95 3.00 3.10 3.20 3.30 3.40 3.50 3.60 3.70 3.80 3.90 4.00 4.10 4.20 4.30 4.40 4.50 4.60 4.70 4.80 4.90 5.00 5.10 5.20 5.30 5.40 5.50 5.60 5.70 5.80 5.90 6.00 6.10 6.20 6.30 6.40 6.50 6.60 6.70 6.80 6.90 7.00 7.10 7.20 7.30 7.40 7.50
Pressure bar g
7.60 7.70 7.80 7.90 8.00 8.10 8.20 8.30 8.40 8.50 8.60 8.70 8.80 8.90 9.00 9.10 9.20 9.30 9.40 9.50 9.60 9.70 9.80 9.90 10.00 10.20 10.40 10.60 10.80 11.00 11.20 11.40 11.60 11.80 12.00 12.20 12.40 12.60 12.80 13.00 13.20 13.40 13.60 13.80 14.00 14.20 14.40 14.60 14.80 15.00 15.20 15.40 15.60 15.80 16.00 16.20 16.40 16.60 16.80 17.00 17.20 17.40 17.60 17.80 18.00
Pressure bar g
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50 1.55 1.60 1.65 1.70 1.75 1.80 1.85 1.90 1.95 2.00
10.2.17
Table 10.2.6 Pipeline capacity and pressure factor table Pipe size (mm) Factor 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 F Capacity (kg /h)
0.00016 0.00020 0.00025 0.00030 0.00035 0.00045 0.00055 0.00065 0.00075 0.00085 0.00100 0.00125 0.00150 0.00175 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0040 0.0050 0.0060 0.0080 0.0100 0.0125 0.0150 0.0175 0.0200 0.0250 0.0300 0.0400 0.0500 0.060 0.080 0.100 0.120 0.150 0.200 0.250 0.300 0.350 0.400 0.450 0.500 0.600 0.700 0.800 0.900 1.96 2.10 2.39 2.48 2.84 3.16 3.44 4.17 4.71 5.25 6.08 6.86 7.35 8.27 8.58 9.80 10.99 12.00 14.46 16.43 18.14 21.08 24.03 25.99 28.50 34.32 37.72 41.37 43.34 49.93 50.31 55.90 62.28 63.07 72.08 73.28 6.86 7.94 8.99 9.56 10.57 11.98 12.75 13.57 15.17 16.30 18.63 20.75 22.5 26.97 30.40 35.80 39.23 44.13 47.28 53.33 55.78 63.75 70.73 77.23 93.17 104.4 115.7 134.8 152.0 167.7 183.9 220.7 245.2 266.6 283.2 323.6 326.6 362.9 402.1 407.6 465.8 476.6 16.18 17.92 19.31 20.59 23.39 26.52 29.14 31.72 35.95 38.25 40.72 45.97 49.34 56.39 61.30 66.66 80.91 90.23 99.05 116.2 130.4 140.1 157.2 165.6 189.3 209.8 229.9 279.5 313.8 343.2 402.1 456.0 500.2 551.7 622.0 735.5 804.5 841.0 961.1 979.9 1 089 1 201 30.40 34.32 38.19 41.83 43.76 50.75 57.09 62.38 68.04 77.11 81.89 87.57 98.84 103.4 118.2 132.0 143.4 173.1 196.1 215.8 251.5 283.9 302.1 342.0 360.4 411.9 459.7 501.1 600.7 676.7 750.3 872.8 980.7 1 079 1 195 1 427 1 565 1 710 1 802 2 059 2 083 2 314 55.41 62.77 69.31 75.85 80.24 92.68 103.8 113.8 124.1 140.7 148.6 159.8 179.3 188.8 215.8 240.5 262.0 313.8 354.0 392.3 456.0 514.9 547.3 620.6 665.1 760.1 834.6 919.4 1 093 1 231 1 373 1 594 1 804 1 986 2 161 2 599 2 876 3 126 3 261 3 727 90.72 103.0 113.2 124.1 130.0 150.9 170.8 186.7 203.2 230.2 245.2 261.8 295.1 311.1 355.5 391.3 429.8 514.9 578.6 647.3 750.3 845.9 901.9 1 020 1 073 1 226 1 367 1 480 1 790 2 020 2 231 2 599 2 942 3 236 3 494 4 217 4 668 5 057
100
199.1 225.6 249.9 271.2 285.3 333.2 373.1 409.8 445.9 505.4 539.4 577.9 652.8 686.5 784.6 881.7 924.4 1 128 1 275 1 412 1 648 1 863 1 983 2 230 2 360 2 697 2 970 3 264 3 923 4 413 4 855 5 688 6 424 7 110 7 769 9 317
150
598.2 662.0 735.5 804.5 845.3 979.7 1 101 1 207 1 315 1 490 1 579 1 699 1 908 2 017 2 305 2 456 2 767 3 330 3 727 4 148 4 879 5 492 5 867 6 620 6 994 7 993 8 817 9 792 11 622 13 044 14 368 16 672 18 879 20 841
200
1 275 1 437 1 678 1 733 1 823 2 118 2 382 2 595 2 836 3 215 3 383 3 634 4 091 4 291 4 904 5 422 6 068 7 208 8 189 9 072 10 543 11 867 12 697 14 251 15 017 17 163 19 332 20 917 25 254 28 441 31 384 36 532
250
2 329 2 623 2 904 3 172 3 346 3 884 4 338 4 781 5 172 5 861 6 228 6 655 7 493 7 852 8 974 10 090 11 033 13 240 14 858 16 476 19 173 21 576 23 074 25 974 27 461 31 384 34 750 37 697 45 604 51 489 57 373
300
3 800 4 276 4 715 5 149 5 530 6 267 7 057 7 741 8 367 9 482 10 052 10 639 11 999 13 087 14 956 16 503 18 021 21 625 24 469 26 970 31 384 35 307 37 785 42 616 44 194 50 508 56 581 62 522 75 026 85 324
10.84 11.95 12.44 14.56 16.18 17.76 19.31 21.88 23.50 24.96 28.04 29.61 33.83 37.25 40.45 48.55 54.92 60.31 70.12 79.44 81.00 95.62 100.4 114.7 127.3 137.9 169.2 191.2 210.8 245.2 277.0 306.5 334.2 402.1 447.9 487.3 514.9 588.4 600.2 666.9 735.5 750.9 858.1
3.62 4.04 4.46 4.87 5.52 5.84 6.26 7.35 7.51 8.58 9.48 10.34 12.50 14.12 15.69 18.34 20.64 22.20 25.00 26.39 30.16 33.48 36.78 44.16 49.53 52.96 62.28 70.12 77.48 84.13 102.0 112.7 122.7 128.7 147.1 150.0 166.7 185.3 188.8 215.8 218.4
10.2.18
20 25 30
2 1 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01 Steam pressure bar g
15
10
40 50 60 70 80
50% va
cuum
50 70 100
100
500
5 7 10 15 20 30
100 0 2 00 3 00 0 0 5 00 0
0 bar 0.5 1 2 3
10
20 30 50
Insi
mm
10.2.19
m ea St
lo ve 5
ty ci
200
Pipe diameter mm
10
20
100
30 50 0 10 50 1
50 40 30 20
10
/h kg e t ra w 0 flo 1 m 20 0 ea 3 St
50% va
50 10 0 0 20 00 3 0 50 10
2 3
00 2 0 000 3 00 50 0 00 10 0 00 0 20 00 0 30 00 50 00 00 0 1 00 00 0 2 00
5 7 10 15 20 30
50 70
100
100
500
10.2.20
Questions
1. A boiler is operated at 10 bar g and is required to supply 500 kg /h of saturated steam at 9.8 bar g to equipment 110 m away. The pipe run is torturous and contains many fittings adding 20% to the equivalent length. What size pipe should be selected? a | 100 mm nominal bore b | 80 mm nominal bore c | 50 mm nominal bore d | 65 mm nominal bore
2. A 100 mm steam pipe has been selected for a particular steam flowrate with 8.3 bar g at the inlet and 7.7 bar g at the end of the run. Calculations show that, for this flowrate and size of pipe, the pressure at the end of the run will actually be 7.9 bar g. Which of the following is true? a | The steam velocity is higher than expected, and could cause noise b | The pipe has some additional spare capacity for future additional loads c | The resistance to flow is higher than expected d | A larger pipe is required
3. A 40 m long 5 bar g saturated steam pipe is to be sized to carry 850 kg /h of steam. Should the pipe be sized on velocity or pressure drop? a | Pressure drop to limit the steam velocity b | On a velocity over 40 m/s c | On a velocity of about 25 m/s d | Either, provided the steam velocity does not exceed, approximately 5 m /s
4. A 40 m pipe incorporating a number of bends and fittings is to be sized by the velocity method to handle 1 200 kg /h of saturated steam at 4 bar g. What size pipe is required? a | 100 mm b | 80 mm c | 125 mm d | The pipe should be sized on pressure drop, and not by velocity
5. A straight run of pipe 30 m long and carrying saturated steam at 10 bar g is to be sized by the velocity method to pass 20 000 kg /h. What size pipe is required? a | 175 mm b | 150 mm c | 200 mm d | 250 mm
6. From the following, what is the effect of sizing a 100 m long, 8 bar g steam pipe by the velocity method? a | Sizing by velocity takes no account of pressure drop along the pipe b | If the velocity is more than 40 m /s, the pressure drop along the pipe may be very small and in practice a small pipe may be used c | If a low velocity is selected, the chosen pipe will probably be undersized resulting in steam starvation at the plant d | Over a length of 100 m, the noise of steam flow can be unacceptable
1: d, 2: b, 3: c, 4: a, 5: d, 6: a
Answers
10.2.21
10.2.22
Module 10.3
Steam Mains and Drainage
10.3.1
N$
'7
e
Equation 2.5.1
Where: Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W) k = Thermal conductivity of the material (W /m K or W /m C) A = Heat transfer area (m) DT = Temperature difference across the material (K or C) = Material thickness (m) With steam systems, this loss of energy represents inefficiency, and thus pipes are insulated to limit these losses. Whatever the quality or thickness of insulation, there will always be a level of heat loss, and this will cause steam to condense along the length of the main. The effect of insulation is discussed in Module 10.5. This Module will concentrate on disposal of the inevitable condensate, which, unless removed, will accumulate and lead to problems such as corrosion, erosion, and waterhammer. In addition, the steam will become wet as it picks up water droplets, which reduces its heat transfer potential. If water is allowed to accumulate, the overall effective cross sectional area of the pipe is reduced, and steam velocity can increase above the recommended limits.
Piping layout
The subject of drainage from steam lines is covered in the European Standard EN 45510, Section 10.1.14. EN 45510 states that, whenever possible, the main should be installed with a fall of not less than 1:100 (1 m fall for every 100 m run), in the direction of the steam flow. This slope will ensure that gravity, as well as the flow of steam, will assist in moving the condensate towards drain points where the condensate may be safely and effectively removed (See Figure 10.3.1).
30 - 50 metre intervals
Gradient 1:1
Steam Trap set
Gradient 00
1:100
Trap set
Steam
Trap set
Drain points
The drain point must ensure that the condensate can reach the steam trap. Careful consideration must therefore be given to the design and location of drain points. Consideration must also be given to condensate remaining in a steam main at shutdown, when steam flow ceases. Gravity will ensure that the water (condensate) will run along sloping pipework and collect at low points in the system. Steam traps should therefore be fitted to these low points. 10.3.2
The Steam and Condensate Loop
The amount of condensate formed in a large steam main under start-up conditions is sufficient to require the provision of drain points at intervals of 30 m to 50 m, as well as natural low points such as at the bottom of rising pipework. In normal operation, steam may flow along the main at speeds of up to 145 km/h, dragging condensate along with it. Figure 10.3.2 shows a 15 mm drain pipe connected directly to the bottom of a main.
Steam
Flow
Condensate Steam trap set Fig. 10.3.2 Trap pocket too small
Although the 15 mm pipe has sufficient capacity, it is unlikely to capture much of the condensate moving along the main at high speed. This arrangement will be ineffective. A more reliable solution for the removal of condensate is shown in Figure 10.3.3. The trap line should be at least 25 to 30 mm from the bottom of the pocket for steam mains up to 100 mm, and at least 50 mm for larger mains. This allows a space below for any dirt and scale to settle.
Steam
Flow
Pocket Steam trap set Fig. 10.3.3 Trap pocket properly sized
Condensate
The bottom of the pocket may be fitted with a removable flange or blowdown valve for cleaning purposes. Recommended drain pocket dimensions are shown in Table 10.3.1 and in Figure 10.3.4.
Table 10.3.1 Recomended drain pocket dimensions Mains diameter - D Pocket diameter - d1 Up to 100 mm nb d1 = D 125 - 200 mm nb d1 = 100 mm 250 mm and above d1 D / 2 Pocket depth - d2 Minimum d2 = 100 mm Minimum d2 = 150 mm Minimum d2 = D
Steam
D d2
Steam main d1
10.3.3
Because the condensate velocity is higher than normal, the dissipation of kinetic energy is higher than would normally be expected. Water is dense and incompressible, so the cushioning effect experienced when gases encounter obstructions is absent. The energy in the water is dissipated against the obstructions in the piping system such as valves and fittings.
Steam Condensate Steam Slug Steam Fig. 10.3.5 Formation of a solid slug of water
Indications of waterhammer include a banging noise, and perhaps movement of the pipe. In severe cases, waterhammer may fracture pipeline equipment with almost explosive effect, with consequent loss of live steam at the fracture, leading to an extremely hazardous situation. Good engineering design, installation and maintenance will avoid waterhammer; this is far better practice than attempting to contain it by choice of materials and pressure ratings of equipment. Commonly, sources of waterhammer occur at the low points in the pipework (See Figure 10.3.6). Such areas are due to:
o o
Sagging in the line, perhaps due to failure of supports. Incorrect use of concentric reducers (see Figure 10.3.7) - Always use eccentric reducers with the flat at the bottom. Incorrect strainer installation - They should be fitted with the basket on the side. Inadequate drainage of steam lines. Incorrect operation - Opening valves too quickly at start-up when pipes are cold.
Steam Concentric reducer Condensate Steam Riser
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Steam Condensate Strainer with hanging basket Fig. 10.3.6 Potential sources of waterhammer
Condensate
10.3.4
Condensate
Concentric reducer
Installing steam lines with a gradual fall in the direction of flow, and with drain points installed at regular intervals and at low points. Installing check valves after all steam traps which would otherwise allow condensate to run back into the steam line or plant during shutdown. Opening isolation valves slowly to allow any condensate which may be lying in the system to flow gently through the drain traps, before it is picked up by high velocity steam. This is especially important at start-up.
Branch lines
Steam
Steam main
Steam
Branch line
Branch lines are normally much shorter than steam mains. As a general rule, therefore, provided the branch line is not more than 10 metres in length, and the pressure in the main is adequate, it is possible to size the pipe on a velocity of 25 to 40 m/s, and not to worry about the pressure drop. Table 10.2.4 Saturated steam pipeline capacities for different velocities in Module 10.2 will prove useful in this exercise.
10.3.5
(a) Incorrect
(b) Correct
Drop leg
Low points will also occur in branch lines. The most common is a drop leg close to an isolating valve or a control valve (Figure 10.3.10). Condensate can accumulate on the upstream side of the closed valve, and then be propelled forward with the steam when the valve opens again consequently a drain point with a steam trap set is good practice just prior to the strainer and control valve.
Steam Drop leg Isolation valve Strainer Control valve Unit heater Isolation valve Isolation valve
Trap set
Trap set Condensate Fig. 10.3.10 Diagram of a drop leg supplying a unit heater Condensate
10.3.6
1:100 Fall
30 - 50 m
Steam separators
Modern packaged steam boilers have a large evaporating capacity for their size and have limited capacity to cope with rapidly changing loads. In addition, as discussed in Block 3 The Boiler House, other circumstances, such as . . .
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Incorrect chemical feedwater treatment and /or TDS control Transient peak loads in other parts of the plant
. . . can cause priming and carryover of boiler water into the steam mains. Separators, as shown by the cut section in Figure 10.3.12, may be installed to remove this water.
Air and incondensable gases vented
Wet steam in
10.3.7
As a general rule, providing the velocities in the pipework are within reasonable limits, separators will be line sized. (Separators are discussed in detail in Module 12.5) A separator will remove both droplets of water from pipe walls and suspended mist entrained in the steam itself. The presence and effect of waterhammer can be eradicated by fitting a separator in a steam main, and can often be less expensive than increasing the pipe size and fabricating drain pockets. A separator is recommended before control valves and flowmeters. It is also wise to fit a separator where a steam main enters a building from outside. This will ensure that any condensate produced in the external distribution system is removed and the building always receives dry steam. This is equally important where steam usage in the building is monitored and charged for.
Strainers
When new pipework is installed, it is not uncommon for fragments of casting sand, packing, jointing, swarf, welding rods and even nuts and bolts to be accidentally deposited inside the pipe. In the case of older pipework, there will be rust, and in hard water districts, a carbonate deposit. Occasionally, pieces will break loose and pass along the pipework with the steam to rest inside a piece of steam using equipment. This may, for example, prevent a valve from opening / closing correctly. Steam using equipment may also suffer permanent damage through wiredrawing - the cutting action of high velocity steam and water passing through a partly open valve. Once wiredrawing has occurred, the valve will never give a tight shut-off, even if the dirt is removed. It is therefore wise to fit a line-size strainer in front of every steam trap, flowmeter, reducing valve and regulating valve. The illustration shown in Figure 10.3.13 shows a cut section through a typical strainer.
C B
Steam flows from the inlet A through the perforated screen B to the outlet C. While steam and water will pass readily through the screen, dirt cannot. The cap D, can be removed, allowing the screen to be withdrawn and cleaned at regular intervals. A blowdown valve can also be fitted to cap D to facilitate regular cleaning. Strainers can however, be a source of wet steam as previously mentioned. To avoid this situation, strainers should always be installed in steam lines with their baskets to the side. Strainers and screen details are discussed in Module 12.4. 10.3.8
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Pressure rating Pressure rating is easily dealt with; the maximum possible working pressure at the steam trap will either be known or should be established. Capacity Capacity, that is, the quantity of condensate to be discharged, which needs to be divided into two categories; warm-up load and running load. Warm-up load - In the first instance, the pipework needs to be brought up to operating temperature. This can be determined by calculation, knowing the mass and specific heat of the pipework and fittings. Alternatively, Table 10.3.2 may be used.
o
The table shows the amount of condensate generated when bringing 50 m of steam main up to working temperature; 50 m being the maximum recommended distance between trapping points. The values shown are in kilograms. To determine the average condensing rate, the time taken for the process must be considered. For example, if the warm-up process required 50 kg of steam, and was to take 20 minutes, then the average condensing rate would be:
$YHUDJHFRQGHQVLQJUDWH
$YHUDJHFRQGHQVLQJUDWH
o
NJ K
When using these capacities to size a steam trap, it is worth remembering that the initial pressure in the main will be little more than atmospheric when the warm-up process begins. However, the condensate loads will still generally be well within the capacity of a DN15 low capacity steam trap. Only in rare applications at very high pressures (above 70 bar g), combined with large pipe sizes, will greater trap capacity be needed.
Running load - Once the steam main is up to operating temperature, the rate of condensation is mainly a function of the pipe size and the quality and thickness of the insulation. For accurate means of calculating running losses from steam mains, refer to Module 2.12 Steam consumption of pipes and air heaters. Alternatively, for quick approximations of running load, Table 10.3.3 can be used which shows typical amounts of steam condensed each hour per 50 m of insulated steam main at various pressures.
10.3.9
Table 10.3.2 Amount of steam condensed to warm-up 50 m of schedule 40 pipe (kg) Note: Figures are based on an ambient temperature of 20C, and an insulation efficiency of 80% Steam -18C Steam main size (mm) pressure correction bar g 50 65 80 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 factor
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 5 6 7 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 12 17 17 19 21 22 24 27 29 32 34 35 42 9 10 11 12 13 13 14 14 15 16 17 17 19 23 26 29 32 34 37 41 44 49 51 54 64 11 13 14 16 17 18 18 19 20 20 22 23 24 31 35 39 41 46 50 54 59 65 69 72 86 16 19 20 22 24 25 26 27 28 29 31 32 35 45 51 56 62 67 73 79 86 95 100 106 126 22 25 25 30 33 34 35 37 38 40 42 44 47 62 71 78 86 93 101 135 156 172 181 190 227 28 33 36 39 42 43 45 47 50 51 54 57 61 84 97 108 117 127 139 181 208 232 245 257 305 44 49 54 59 63 66 68 71 74 77 84 85 91 127 148 164 179 194 212 305 346 386 409 427 508 60 69 79 83 70 93 97 101 105 109 115 120 128 187 220 243 265 287 214 445 510 568 598 628 748 79 92 101 110 119 124 128 134 139 144 152 160 172 355 302 333 364 395 432 626 717 800 842 884 1 052 94 108 120 131 142 147 151 158 164 171 180 189 203 305 362 400 437 473 518 752 861 960 1011 1062 1265 123 142 156 170 185 198 197 207 216 224 236 247 265 393 465 533 571 608 665 960 1 100 1 220 1 288 1 355 1 610 155 179 197 215 233 242 250 261 272 282 298 311 334 492 582 642 702 762 834 1 218 1 396 1 550 1 635 1 720 2 050 182 210 232 254 275 285 294 307 320 332 350 366 393 596 712 786 859 834 1020 1480 1694 1890 1990 2690 2490 254 296 324 353 382 396 410 428 436 463 488 510 548 708 806 978 1 150 1 322 1 450 2 140 2 455 2 730 2 880 3 030 3 600 1.39 1.35 1.32 1.29 1.28 1.27 1.26 1.25 1.24 1.24 1.23 1.22 1.21 1.21 1.20 1.19 1.18 1.16 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.13
Table 10.3.3 Condensing rate of steam in 50 m of schedule 40 pipe - at working temperature (kg/ h) Note: Figures are based on an ambient temperature of 20C, and an insulation efficiency of 80% Steam -18C Steam main size (mm) pressure correction bar g 50 65 80 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 factor
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 11 12 12 14 15 15 17 20 24 27 29 34 38 41 52 5 6 7 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 21 25 29 32 35 42 46 50 63 7 8 9 10 11 11 12 14 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 23 25 30 34 39 43 51 56 61 77 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 17 18 20 23 24 25 28 31 38 44 50 56 66 72 78 99 10 12 14 16 17 18 19 20 21 21 23 26 29 30 31 35 39 46 54 62 70 81 89 96 122 13 14 16 18 20 21 23 24 25 25 26 30 34 36 37 42 47 56 65 74 82 97 106 114 145 16 18 20 23 24 26 28 30 32 33 36 39 42 44 46 52 58 70 82 95 106 126 134 149 189 19 22 25 28 30 33 35 37 39 41 45 49 52 55 58 66 73 87 102 119 133 156 171 186 236 23 26 30 33 36 39 42 44 47 49 53 58 62 66 69 78 87 104 121 140 157 187 204 220 280 25 28 32 37 40 43 46 49 52 54 59 64 68 72 76 86 96 114 133 155 173 205 224 242 308 28 32 37 42 46 49 52 57 60 62 67 73 78 82 86 97 108 130 151 177 198 234 265 277 352 31 35 40 46 49 53 56 61 64 67 73 79 85 90 94 106 118 142 165 199 222 263 287 311 395 35 39 45 51 55 59 63 68 72 75 81 93 95 100 105 119 132 158 184 222 248 293 320 347 440 41 46 54 61 66 71 76 82 88 90 97 106 114 120 125 141 157 189 220 265 296 350 284 416 527 1.54 1.50 1.48 1.45 1.43 1.42 1.41 1.40 1.39 1.38 1.38 1.37 1.36 1.36 1.35 1.34 1.33 1.31 1.29 1.28 1.27 1.26 1.26 1.25 1.22
10.3.10
Discharge temperature - The steam trap should discharge at, or very close to saturation temperature, unless cooling legs are used between the drain point and the trap. This means that the choice is a mechanical type trap (such as a float, inverted bucket type, or thermodynamic traps). Frost damage - Where the steam main is located outside a building and there is a possibility of sub-zero ambient temperature, the thermodynamic steam trap is ideal, as it not damaged by frost. Even if the installation causes water to be left in the trap at shutdown and freezing occurs, the thermodynamic trap may be thawed out without suffering damage when brought back into use. Waterhammer - In the past, on poorly laid out installations where waterhammer was a common occurrence, float traps were not always ideal due to their susceptibility to float damage. Contemporary design and manufacturing techniques now produce extremely robust units for mains drainage purposes. Float traps are certainly the first choice for proprietary separators as high capacities are readily achieved, and they are able to respond quickly to rapid load increases.
Steam traps used to drain condensate from steam mains, are shown in Figure 10.3.14. The thermostatic trap is included because it is ideal where there is no choice but to discharge condensate into a flooded return pipe. The subject of steam trapping is dealt with in detail in the Block 11, Steam Trapping.
Thermodynamic type Thermostatic type Fig. 10.3.14 Steam traps suitable for steam mains drainage
Steam leaks
Steam leaking from pipework is often ignored. Leaks can be costly in both the economic and environmental sense and therefore need prompt attention to ensure the steam system is working at its optimum efficiency with a minimum impact on the environment. Figure 10.3.15 illustrates the steam loss for various sizes of hole at various pressures. This loss can be readily translated into a fuel saving based on the annual hours of operation.
500 Hole size 12.5 mm
400 300 200 100 0 1 3 4 5 Steam pressure bar g Fig. 10.3.15 Steam leakage rate through holes 2 10 mm
7.5 mm 5 mm 3 mm 10
10.3.11
Summary
Proper pipe alignment and drainage means observing a few simple rules:
o
Steam lines should be arranged to fall in the direction of flow, at not less than 100 mm per 10 metres of pipe (1:100). Steam lines rising in the direction of flow should slope at not less than 250 mm per 10 metres of pipe (1:40). Steam lines should be drained at regular intervals of 30 - 50 m and at any low points in the system. Where drainage has to be provided in straight lengths of pipe, then a large bore pocket should be used to collect condensate. If strainers are to be fitted, then they should be fitted on their sides. Branch connections should always be taken from the top of the main from where the driest steam is taken. Separators should be considered before any piece of steam using equipment ensuring that dry steam is used. Traps selected should be robust enough to avoid waterhammer damage and frost damage.
o o
10.3.12
Questions
1. Which of the following is true of wet steam? a| It can cause waterhammer if allowed to build up b| It can corrode pipes if allowed to continue c| It causes erosion of bends d| All of the above 2. What is the effect of installing a steam main horizontally level? a| None, provided the pipe is drained at 30 - 50 m intervals b| Complete drainage will be less effective, and waterhammer could result c| Larger diameter drain points should be fitted d| Condensate will not reach the drain points 3. Steam pipeline strainers should be fitted with their baskets on the side to: a| Prevent condensate filling the body and being carried over to the equipment being protected b| Provide a greater screening area c| Extend the periods between cleaning the strainer d| Provide more effective removal of the debris
4. Using the velocity method, what size pipe is required to carry 500 kg /h of steam at 6 bar g over a 40 m run with a rising slope? (The specific volume of steam at 6 bar g is 0.272 m /kg a| 40 mm b| 80 mm c| 50 mm d| 65 mm
10.3.13
5.
A correctly sized pilot operated reducing valve has been installed in a pressure reducing station supplying an autoclave, as shown in Figure 10.3.16. What is wrong with the installation?
DN20 pressure reducing valve Safety valve
a| The pipe after the PRV is at a lower pressure, and steam has a higher volume, so the pipe should be larger than 32 mm b| The upstream strainer and isolation valve should be the same size as the reducing valve c| The separator should be one size larger than the pipework to avoid excessive pressure drop d| There is no downstream pressure gauge before the DN32 stop valve 6.
As a minimum, horizontal runs of 150 mm steam main should be drained at intervals of:
a| Every 15 metres via 100 mm bore drain pockets, 100 mm deep b| Every 30 - 50 metres via 150 mm bore drain pockets, 100 mm deep c| Every 15 metres via 100 mm bore drain pockets, 150 mm deep d| Every 30 - 50 metres via 100 mm bore drain pockets, 150 mm deep
10.3.14
1: d, 2: b, 3: a, 4: d, 5: d, 6: d
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Answers
Module 10.4
Pipe Expansion and Support
10.4.1
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Equation 10.4.1
Where: L = Length of pipe between anchors (m) T = Temperature difference between ambient temperature and operating temperatures (C) = Expansion coefficient (mm /m C) x 10-3
Table 10.4.1 Expansion coefficients (a) (mm /m C x 10-3) Material Carbon steel 0.1% - 0.2% C Alloy steel 1% Cr 0.5% Mo Stainless steel 18% Cr 8% Ni <0 12.8 13.7 9.4 0 - 100 13.9 14.5 20.0 Temperature range (C) 0 - 200 0 - 300 0 - 400 0 - 500 14.9 15.8 16.6 17.3 15.2 15.8 16.4 17.0 20.9 21.2 21.8 22.3 0 - 600 17.9 17.6 22.7 0 - 700 23.0
Example 10.4.1 A 30 m length of carbon steel pipe is to be used to transport steam at 4 bar g (152C). If the pipe is installed at 10C, determine the expansion using Equation 10.4.1.