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Temperature
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Contents A - Z
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Technical Reference Section
Table of Contents
Z-3
Temperature Measurement
Z-4
Thermocouples
Z-16
Probe Response Times
Z-51
Resistance Temperature Measurement
Z-53
Infrared Temperature Measurement
Z-57
Cryogenic Temperature Measurement
Z-94
Humidity & Dewpoint
Z-100
Electrical Noise Reduction
Z-104
Temperature Control
Z-110
Safety
Z-128
Data Storage and Transmission
Z-149
ITS-90
Z-158
Standards
Z-194
Non-Electric Temperature Measurement
Z-197
Thermocouple Reference Data
Z-198
RTD & Thermistor Reference Data
Z-250
Conversion Charts
Z-259
Z Section Table of Contents

Technical Reference Section......Z-2
Z Section Table of Contents .......Z-3
Frequently Asked
Temperature Questions............Z-4
and Control Glossary................Z-5
Practical Guidelines for
Temperature Measurement....Z-13
Physical Properties of
Thermoelement Materials.......Z-16
OMEGACLAD Sheath
Selection Guide ......................Z-17
Introduction to Practical
Temperature Measurements ...Z-19
Using Thermocouples.............Z-21
Using RTDs............................Z-33
Using Thermistors ..................Z-36
Nicrosil/Nisil Type N
Thermocouple ........................Z-41
The Choice of Sheathing
for Mineral Insulated
Thermocouples.......................Z-45
Temperature Properties of
Some Metals, Elements
and Compounds .....................Z-48
Thermocouple Properties .........Z-49
Metal Sheathed and Exposed
Thermocouple Response
Times in Air ............................Z-51
Metal Sheathed and Exposed
Thermocouple Response
Times in Water .......................Z-52
OMEGA Interchangeable
Thermistor Applications..........Z-53
Resistance Elements
and RTDs ..............................Z-54
Introduction to Infrared
Pyrometers .............................Z-57
Principles of Infrared
Thermometry ..........................Z-59
Infrared Temperature
Measurement: Theory
and Application.......................Z-63
Noncontact Temperature
Measurement: Theory
and Application.......................Z-67
Fiber Optics ..............................Z-70
Handheld Infrared
Thermometers for
All Applications .......................Z-74
Thermocouples.......................Z-76
Microcomputer-Based Infrared
Temperature Transducers......Z-81
Infrared Thermocouples
Extended Temperature
Ranges ...................................Z-84
Infrared Window Data...............Z-86

IR Quick Help ...........................Z-87
Table of Total Infrared
Emissivity ...............................Z-88
Cryogenic Temperature Sensors:
CY7 Series Silicon Diodes .....Z-90
Resolution and Accuracy of
Cryogenic Temperature
Measurements........................Z-94
Heat Wave:
A National Problem ..............Z-100
Dewpoint.................................Z-102
Equilibrium Relative Humidity:
Saturated Salt Solutions.......Z-103
Two-Wire Transmitters
For Temperature
Applications ..........................Z-104
How to Use Ferrite Cores
With Instrumentation ............Z-105
Electromagnetic Compatibility
and CE Conformity ...............Z-106
Low Noise Thermocouple
System .................................Z-108
Introduction to Temperature
Controllers and Selection
Considerations .....................Z-110
Temperature Control:
Tuning a PID Controller........Z-115
Controller Operation ...............Z-118
SSR Thermal Considerations..Z-119
OMEGA PT41 Precision
Clock/Timer/Controller
Functions..............................Z-122
Solid State Relays ..................Z-124
Intrinsic Safety ........................Z-128
Intrinsic Safety Circuit
Design ..................................Z-131
Selecting a Recorder ..............Z-149
Overview of IEEE-488 ............Z-151
ASCII Code Values
and Hexadecimal
Conversion Chart .................Z-154
The RS-232 Standard.............Z-157
Guidelines for Realizing the
ITS-90...................................Z-158
The International Temperature
Scale of 1990 .......................Z-186
International Standard
Codes ...................................Z-194
Application Notes:
Low-Cost Non-Electric
Temperature Gauges ...........Z-197
ITS-90 Thermocouple Direct
and Inverse Polynomials ......Z-198
Tungsten-Rhenium
Thermocouples:
Calibration Equivalents.........Z-202
Z-3
Thermocouple Reference Tables

Revised to ITS-90
Type J, Deg. C .....................Z-203
Type K, Deg. C.....................Z-204
Type E, Deg. C.....................Z-207
Type S, Deg. C.....................Z-208
Type R, Deg. C.....................Z-210
Type B, Deg. C.....................Z-212
Type N, Deg. C.....................Z-214
Type J, Deg. F......................Z-216
Type K, Deg. F .....................Z-218
Type E, Deg. F .....................Z-221
Type T, Deg. F .....................Z-225
Type S, Deg. F .....................Z-225
Type R, Deg. F .....................Z-228
Type B, Deg. F .....................Z-231
Type N, Deg. F .....................Z-237
Type C, Deg. C.....................Z-239
Type C, Deg. F .....................Z-241
Tungsten and Tungsten/
Rhenium:
Thermocouple Tables...........Z-246
CHROMEGA vs. Gold-0.07
Atomic Percent Iron
Thermocouple Table
of Temp. vs.Thermoelectric
Voltage .................................Z-247
Space for Transmitters
in Probe Assembly Heads ....Z-249
Platinum Resistance Temp.
Detector:
Interchangability Tolerance
Chart.....................................Z-250
ITS-90 Polynomial for RTD
Temperature vs. Resistance ..Z-251
RTD Temp. vs. Resistance
Table For European Curve,
Alpha = .00385 .....................Z-252
RTD Temp. vs. Resistance
Table For American Curve,
Alpha = .00392 .....................Z-255
Thermistor
Resistance vs. Temp............Z-256
Resistance vs. Temperature
for Series 700
Linear Thermistor Pairs ........Z-258
Temperature Conversion
Chart Between C and F........Z-259
Conversion Factors for
Physical Units of Measure....Z-261
Ohms Law, Summary ............Z-263
Conversion Factors for
Electrical Units of Measure...Z-264
Frequently Asked Questions

Q. How many feet of T/C wire can I
run?
A. For a specific instrument, check its
specifications to see if there are
any limits to the input impedance.
However as a rule of thumb, limit
the resistance to 100 Ohms
resistance maximum, and this
depends on the gage of the wire;
the larger the diameter, the less
resistance/foot, the longer the run
can be. However, if the
environment is electrically noisy,
then a transmitter may be required
which transmits a 4-20 mA signal
that can be run longer distances
and is more resistant to noise.
Q. Should I use a grounded or
ungrounded probe?
A. It depends on the instrumentation.
If there is any chance that there
may be a reference to ground
(common in controllers with nonisolated inputs), then an
ungrounded probe is required. If the
instrument is a handheld meter,
then a grounded probe can almost
always be used.
Q. What size relay do I need to
control my heaters?
A. This must be calculated from known
parameters. Take the total wattage
of heaters and divide this value in
watts by the voltage rating of the
heaters in volts. The answer will be
in amperes, and solid state and
mechanical relays are rated by
current rating in amperes.
Q. Can I send my 4-20 mA control
output to a chart recorder to
monitor a process input?
A. No. A control output is designed to
control a valve or some equivalent
control device. If you need to send
an analog signal to a recording
device, then choose a controller
that has a retransmission or
recorder output option.
Q. Can I split my one T/C signal to
two separate instruments?
A. No. The T/C signal is a very lowlevel millivolt signal, and should
only be connected to one device.
Splitting to two devices may result
in bad readings or loss of signal.
The solution is to use a dual T/C
probe, or convert one T/C output to
a 4-20 mA signal by using a
transmitter or signal conditioner;
then the new signal can be sent to
more than one instrument.
Q. What are the accuracies and
temperature ranges of the
various thermocouples?
A. They are summarized in the tables

on the first few pages of Section H.
It is important to know that both
accuracy and range depend on
such things as the thermocouple
alloys, the temperature being
measured, the construction of the
sensor, the material of the sheath,
the media being measured, the
state of the media (liquid, solid, or
gas) and the diameter of either the
thermocouple wire (if it is exposed)
or the sheath diameter (if the
thermocouple wire is not exposed
but is sheathed).
Q. Why can't I use ANY multimeter
for measuring temperature with
thermocouples? What errors will
result if I don't use a
thermocouple temperature
meter?
A. The magnitude of the
thermoelectric voltage depends on
the closed (sensing) end as well as
the open (measuring) end of the
particular thermocouple alloy leads.
Temperature sensing instruments
that use thermocouples take into
account the temperature of the
measuring end to determine the
temperature at the sensing end.
Most millivoltmeters do not have
this capability, nor do they have the
ability to do non-linear scaling to
convert a millivoltage measurement
to a temperature value. It is
possible to use lookup tables to
correct a particular millivoltage
reading and calculate the
temperature being sensed.
However, the correction value
needs to be continuously
recalculated, as it is generally not
constant over time. Small changes
in temperature at the measuring
instrument and the sensing end will
change the correction value.
Q. How can I choose between
thermocouples, resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs),
thermistors and infrared devices
when measuring temperature?
A. You have to consider the
characteristics and costs of the
various sensors as well as the
available instrumentation. In
addition: THERMOCOUPLES
generally can measure
temperatures over wide
temperature ranges, inexpensively,
and are very rugged, but they are
not as accurate or stable as RTDs
and thermistors. RTDs are stable
and have a fairly wide temperature
range, but are not as rugged and
inexpensive as thermocouples.
Since they require the use of
Z-4
electric current to make

measurements, RTDs are subject
to inaccuracies from self-heating.
THERMISTORS tend to be more
accurate than RTDs or
thermocouples, but they have a
much more limited temperature
range. They are also subject to selfheating. INFRARED SENSORS
can be used to measure
temperatures higher than any of the
other devices and do so without
direct contact with the surfaces
being measured. However, they are
generally not as accurate and are
sensitive to surface radiation
efficiency (or more precisely,
surface emissivity). Using fiber
optic cables, they can measure
surfaces that are not within a direct
line of sight.
Q. What are the two most often
overlooked considerations in
selecting an infrared temperature
measuring device?
A. The surface being measured must
fill the field of view, and the surface
emissivity must be taken into
account.
Q. What are the best ways of
overcoming electrical noise
problems?
A. 1) Use low noise, shielded leads,
connectors and probes. 2) Use
instruments and connectors that
suppress EMI and RF radiation.
3) Consider using analog signal
transmitters, especially current
transmitters. 4) Evaluate the
possibility of using digitized signals.
Q. If a part is moving, can I still
measure temperature?
A. Yes. Use infrared devices or direct
contacting sensors plus a slip ring
assembly.
Q. Can a two-color infrared system
be used to measure low
emissivity surfaces?
A. Only if at high temperature, say,
above 700C (1300F).
Q. What error will result if the spot
size of the infrared pyrometer is
larger than the target size?
A. It would be indeterminate. The
value would be a weighted average
that wouldnt necessarily be
repeatable.
Q. What readout should be used
with the OS36, OS37 and OS38
units?
A. Using the DP5000, BS6000, or the
HH-200 would be best.
Presenting . . . OMEGAs Temperature

Measurement and Control Glossary
A comprehensive glossary of terms used in the field of temperature measurement and control. A helpful reference
tool for scientists, engineers, and technicians!
Absolute Zero: Temperature at which thermal energy is at a minimum.

Defined as 0 Kelvin, calculated to be 273.15C or 459.67F.
AC: Alternating current; an electric current that reverses its direction at
regularly recurring intervals.
Accuracy: The closeness of an indication or reading of a measurement
device to the actual value of the quantity being measured. Usually
expressed as percent of full scale output or reading.
Adaptor: A mechanism or device for attaching non-mating parts.
ADC: Analog-to-Digital Converter: an electronic device which converts
analog signals to an equivalent digital form, in either a binary code
or a binary-coded decimal code. When used for dynamic
waveforms, the sampling rate must be high to prevent aliasing
errors from occurring.
Address: The label or number identifying the memory location where a
unit of information is stored.
Aliasing: If the sample rate of a function (fs) is less than two times the
highest frequency value of the function, the frequency is
ambiguously presented. The frequencies above (fs/2) will be folded
back into the lower frequencies producing erroneous data.
Alloy 11: A compensating alloy used in conjunction with pure copper
as the negative leg to form extension wire for platinumplatinumrhodium thermocouples Types R and S.
Alloy 200/226: The combination of compensating alloys used with
tungsten vs. tungsten/26%-rhenium thermocouples as extension
cable for applications under 200C.
tungsten/3%-rhenium vs. tungsten/25%-rhenium thermocouples as
extension cable for applications under 200C.
tungsten/5%-rhenium vs. tungsten/26%-rhenium thermocouples as
extension cable for applications under 870C.
ALOMEGA: An aluminum nickel alloy used in the negative leg of a
type K thermocouple (registered trademark of OMEGA
ENGINEERING, INC.).
Alphanumeric: A character set that contains both letters and digits.
Alumel: An aluminum nickel alloy used in the negative leg of a Type K
thermocouple (Trade name of Hoskins Manufacturing Company).
Ambient Compensation: The design of an instrument such that
changes in ambient temperature do not affect the readings of the
instrument.
Ambient Conditions: The conditions around the transducer (pressure,
temperature, etc.).
Ambient Temperature: The average or mean temperature of the
surrounding air which comes in contact with the equipment and
instruments under test.
Ammeter: An instrument used to measure current.
Ampere (amp): A unit used to define the rate of flow of electricity
(current) in a circuit; units are one coulomb (6.25 x 108 electrons)
per second.
Amplifier: A device which draws power from a source other than the
input signal and which produces as an output an enlarged
reproduction of the essential features of its input.
Amplitude: A measurement of the distance from the highest to the
lowest excursion of motion, as in the case of mechanical body in
oscillation or the peak-to-peak swing of an electrical waveform.
Analog Output: A voltage or current signal that is a continuous
function of the measured parameter.
Analog-to-Digital Converter (A/D or ADC): A device or circuit that
outputs a binary number corresponding to an analog signal level at
the input.
Angstrom: Ten to the minus tenth (1010) meters or one millimicron, a
unit used to define the wavelength of light. Designated by the
symbol .
ANSI: American National Standards Institute.
Anti-Reset Windup: This is a feature in a three-mode PID controller
which prevents the integral (auto reset) circuit from functioning
when the temperature is outside the proportional band.
Application Program: A computer program that accomplishes specific
tasks, such as word processing.
ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange. A seven

or eight bit code used to represent alphanumeric characters. It is
the standard code used for communications between data
processing systems and associated equipment.
ASME: American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Assembler: A program that translates assembly language instructions
into machine language instructions.
ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials.
Asynchronous: A communication method where data is sent when it is
ready without being referenced to a timing clock, rather than
waiting until the receiver signals that it is ready to receive.
ATC: Automatic temperature compensation.
Auto-Zero: An automatic internal correction for offsets and/or drift at
zero voltage input.
Automatic Reset: 1. A feature on a limit controller that automatically
resets the controller when the controlled temperature returns to
within the limit bandwidth set. 2. The integral function on a PID
controller which adjusts the proportional bandwidth with respect to
the set point to compensate for droop in the circuit, i.e., adjusts the
controlled temperature to a set point after the system stabilizes.
AWG: American Wire Gage.
Background Noise: The total noise floor from all sources of
interference in a measurement system, independent of the presence
of a data signal.
Backup: A system, device, file or facility that can be used as an
alternative in case of a malfunction or loss of data.
Bandwidth: A symmetrical region around the set point in which
proportional control occurs.
Basic: A high-level programming language designed at Dartmouth
College as a learning tool. Acronym for Beginners All-purpose
Symbolic Instruction Code.
Baud: A unit of data transmission speed equal to the number of bits
(or signal events) per second; 300 baud = 300 bits per second.
BCD, Buffered: Binary-coded decimal output with output drivers, to
increase line-drive capability.
BCD, Parallel: A digital data output format where every decimal digit
is represented by binary signals on four lines and all digits are
presented in parallel. The total number of lines is 4 times the
number of decimal digits.
BCD, Serial: A digital data output format where every decimal digit is
represented by binary signals on four lines and up to five decimal
digits are presented sequentially. The total number of lines is four
data lines plus one strobe line per digit.
BCD, Three-State: An implementation of parallel BCD, which has 0, 1
and high-impedance output states. The high-impedance state is
used when the BCD output is not addressed in parallel connect
applications.
Beryllia: BeO (Beryllium Oxide), a high-temperature mineral insulation
material; toxic when in powder form.
BIAS Current: A very low-level DC current generated by a panel meter
and superimposed on a signal. This current may introduce a
measurable offset across a very high source impedance.
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD): The representation of a decimal number
(base 10, 0 through 9) by means of a 4-bit binary nibble.
Binary: Refers to the base 2 numbering system, in which the only
allowable digits are 0 and 1. Pertaining to a condition that has only
two possible values or states.
Bipolar: The ability of a panel meter to display both positive and
negative readings.
Bit: Acronym for binary digit. The smallest unit of computer
information, it is either 0 or 1.
Blackbody: A theoretical object that radiates the maximum amount of
energy at a given temperature, and absorbs all the energy incident
upon it. A blackbody is not necessarily black. (The name blackbody
was chosen because the color black is defined as the total
absorption of light energy.)
BNC: A quick disconnect electrical connector used to interconnect
and/or terminate coaxial cables.
Z-5
Temperature Measurement and Control Glossary

Boiling Point: The temperature at which a substance in the liquid
phase transforms to the gaseous phase; commonly refers to the
boiling point of water which is 100C (212F) at sea level.
BPS: Bits per second.
Breakdown Voltage Rating: The dc or ac voltage which can be applied
across insulation portions of a transducer without arcing or
conduction above a specific current value.
BTU: British thermal unit. The quantity of thermal energy required to
raise one pound of water at its maximum density, 1 degree F. One
BTU is equivalent to .293 watt hours, or 252 calories. One kilowatt
hour is equivalent to 3412 BTU.
Bulb (Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer): The area at the tip of a liquid-inglass thermometer containing the liquid reservoir.
Burn-In: A long term screening test (either vibration, temperature or
combined test) that is effective in weeding out premature failures
because it simulates actual or worst case operation of the device,
accelerated through a time, power, and temperature relationship.
Burst Proportioning: A fast-cycling output form on a time
proportioning controller (typically adjustable from 2 to 4 seconds)
used in conjunction with a solid state relay to prolong the life of
heaters by minimizing thermal stress.
Bus: Parallel lines used to transfer signals between devices or
components. Computers are often described by their bus structure
(i.e., S-100, IBM PC).
Byte: The representation of a character in binary. Eight bits.
CMV (Common-Mode Voltage): The AC or DC voltage which is

tolerable between signal and ground. One type of CMV is specified
between SIG LO and PWR GND. In differential meters, a second
type of CMV is specified between SIG HI or LO and ANA GND
(METER GND).
Color Code: The ANSI established color code for thermocouple wires
in the negative lead is always red. Color Code for base metal
thermocouples is yellow for Type K, black for Type J, purple for
Type E and blue for Type T.
Common Mode: The output form or type of control action used by a
temperature controller to control temperature, i.e. on/off, time
proportioning, PID.
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio: The ability of an instrument to reject
interference from a common voltage at its input terminals with
relation to ground, usually expressed in dB (decibels).
Communication: Transmission and reception of data among data
processing equipment and related peripherals.
Compensated Connector: A connector made of thermocouple alloys
used to connect thermocouple probes and wires.
Compensating Alloys: Alloys used to connect thermocouples to
instrumentation. These alloys are selected to have similar thermal
electric properties as the thermocouple alloys (however, only over a
very limited temperature range).
Compensating Loop: Lead wire resistance compensation for RTD
elements where an extra length of wire is run from the instrument to
the RTD and back to the instrument, with no connection to the RTD.
Compensation: An addition of specific materials or devices to
counteract a known error.
Compiler: A program that translates a high-level language, such as
Basic, into machine language.
Conductance: The measure of the ability of a solution to carry an
electrical current. (See Equivalent Conductance)
Conduction: The conveying of electrical energy or heat through or by
means of a conductor.
Confidence Level: The range (with a specified value of uncertainty,
usually expressed in percent) within which the true value of a
measured quantity exists.
Conformity Error: For thermocouples and RTDs, the difference
between the actual reading and the temperature shown in published
tables for a specific voltage input.
Connection Head: An enclosure attached to the end of a thermocouple
which can be cast iron, aluminum or plastic within which the
electrical connections are made.
Constantan: A copper-nickel alloy used as the negative lead in Type E,
Type J, and Type T thermocouples.
Continuous Spectrum: A frequency spectrum that is characterized by
non-periodic data. The spectrum is continuous in the frequency
domain and is characterized by an infinite number of frequency
components.
Control Character: A character whose occurrence in a particular
context starts, modifies or stops an operation that affects the
recording, processing, transmission or interpretation of data.
Control Mode: The output form or type of control action used by a
temperature controller to control temperature, i.e., on/off, time
proportioning, PID.
Control Point: The temperature at which a system is to be maintained.
Convection: 1. The circulatory motion that occurs in a fluid at a nonuniform temperature owing to the variation of its density and the action
of gravity. 2. The transfer of heat by this automatic circulation of fluid.
Counts: The number of time intervals counted by the dual-slope A/D
converter and displayed as the reading of the panel meter, before
addition of the decimal point.
CPS: Cycles per second; the rate or number of periodic events in one
second, expressed in Hertz (Hz).
CPU: Central processing unit. The part of the computer that contains
the circuits that control and perform the execution of computer
instructions.
Critical Damping: Critical damping is the smallest amount of damping
at which a given system is able to respond to a step function
without overshoot.
Cryogenics: Measurement of temperature at extremely low values, i.e.,
below 200C.
CSA: Canadian Standards Administration.
Current Proportioning: An output form of a temperature controller
which provides a current proportional to the amount of control
required. Normally, a 4 to 20 milliamp current proportioning
band.
Calender-van Dusen Equation: An equation that defines the

resistance-temperature value of any pure metal that takes the form
of (RT = RO) (1 + AT + BT2) for values between the ice point (0C)
and the freezing point of antimony (630.7C) and the form RT = RO
[1 + AT + BT2 + C (T100)T2] between the oxygen point (183.0C)
and the ice point (0C).
Calibration: The process of adjusting an instrument or compiling a
deviation chart so that its reading can be correlated to the actual
value being measured.
Calorie: The quantity of thermal energy required to raise one gram of
water 1C at 15C.
Cavitation: The boiling of a liquid caused by a decrease in pressure
rather than an increase in temperature.
Celsius (Centigrade): A temperature scale defined by 0C at the ice
point and 100C at the boiling point of water at sea level.
Ceramic Insulation: High-temperature compositions of metal oxides used
to insulate a pair of thermocouple wires. The most common are
Alumina (Al2O3), Beryllia (BeO), and Magnesia (MgO). Their application
depends upon temperature and type of thermocouple. High-purity
alumina is required for platinum alloy thermocouples. Ceramic
insulators are available as single and multihole tubes or as beads.
Ceramic: Polycrystalline ferroelectric materials which are used as the
sensing units in piezoelectric accelerometers. There are many
different grades, all of which can be made in various configurations
to satisfy different design requirements.
Character: A letter, digit or other symbol that is used as the
representation of data. A connected sequence of characters is called
a character string.
Chatter: The rapid cycling on and off of a relay in a control process
due to insufficient bandwidth in the controller.
CHROMEGA: A chromium-nickel alloy which makes up the positive
leg of type K and type E thermocouples (registered trademark of
OMEGA ENGINEERING, INC.).
Clear: To restore a device to a prescribed initial state, usually the zero state.
Clipping: The term applied to the phenomenon which occurs when an
output signal is limited in some way by the full range of an
amplifier, ADC or other device. When this occurs, the signal is
flattened at the peak values, the signal approaches the shape of a
square wave, and high frequency components are introduced.
Clipping may be hard, as is the case when the signal is strictly
limited at some level, or it may be soft, in which case the clipping
signal continues to follow the input at some reduced gain.
Clock: The device that generates periodic signals for synchronization.
Closeness of Control: Total temperature variation from a desired set
point of system. Expressed as closeness of control is 2C or a
system bandwidth with 4C, also referred to as amplitude of
deviation.
CMR (Common-Mode Rejection): The ability of a panel meter to
eliminate the effect of AC or DC noise between signal and ground.
Normally expressed in dB at dc to 60 Hz. One type of CMR is
specified between SIG LO and PWR GND. In differential meters, a
second type of CMR is specified between SIG LO and ANA GND
(METER GND).
Z-6

Current: The rate of flow of electricity. The unit is the ampere (a)
defined as 1 ampere = 1 coulomb per second.
Curve Fitting: Curve fitting is the process of computing the
coefficients of a function to approximate the values of a given data
set within that function. The approximation is called a fit. A
mathematical function, such as a least squares regression, is used
to judge the accuracy of the fit.
Cycle Time: The time, usually expressed in seconds, for a controller to
complete one on/off cycle.
Drift: A change of a reading or a set point value over long periods due
to several factors including change in ambient temperature, time,
and line voltage.
Droop: A common occurrence in time-proportional controllers. It
refers to the difference in temperature between the set point and
where the system temperature actually stabilizes due to the timeproportioning action of the controller.
Dual Element Sensor: A sensor assembly with two independent
sensing elements.
Dual-Slope A/D Converter: An analog-to-digital converter which
integrates the signal for a specific time, then counts time intervals
for a reference voltage to bring the integrated signal back to zero.
Such converters provide high resolution at low cost, excellent
normal-mode noise rejection, and minimal dependence on circuit
elements.
Duplex: Pertaining to simultaneous two-way independent data
communication transmission in both directions. Same as full
duplex.
Duplex Wire: A pair of wires insulated from each other and with an
outer jacket of insulation around the inner insulated pair.
Duty Cycle: The total time to one on/off cycle. Usually refers to the
on/off cycle time of a temperature controller.
Dynamic Calibration: Calibration in which the input varies over a
specific length of time and the output is recorded vs. time.
Damping: The reduction of vibratory movement through dissipation of

energy. Types include viscous, coulomb, and solid.
Data Base: A large amount of data stored in a well-organized manner.
A data base management system (DBMS) is a program that allows
access to the information.
dB (Decibel): 20 times the log to the base 10 of the ratio of two
voltages. Every 20 dBs correspond to a voltage ratio of 10, every
10 dBs to a voltage ratio of 3.162. For instance, a CMR of 120 dB
provides voltage noise rejection of 1,000,000/1. An NMR of 70 dB
provides voltage noise rejection of 3,162/1.
DC: Direct current; an electric current flowing in one direction only and
substantially constant in value.
Deadband: 1. For chart records: the minimum change of input signal
required to cause a deflection in the pen position. 2. For temperature
controllers: the temperature band where heat is turned off upon rising
temperature and turned on upon falling temperature expressed in
degrees. The area where no heating (or cooling) takes place.
Debug: To find and correct mistakes in a program.
Decimal: Refers to a base ten number system using the characters 0
through 9 to represent values.
Default: The value(s) or option(s) that are assumed during operation
when not specified.
Degree: An incremental value in the temperature scale, i.e., there are
100 degrees between the ice point and the boiling point of water in
the Celsius scale and 180F between the same two points in the
Fahrenheit scale.
Density: Mass per unit of volume of a substance, i.e.: grams/cu.cm. or
pounds/cu.ft.
Deviation: The difference between the value of the controlled variable
and the value at which it is being controlled.
Differential Input: A signal-input circuit where SIG LO and SIG HI are
electrically floating with respect to ANALOG GND (METER GND,
which is normally tied to DIG GND). This allows the measurement
of the voltage difference between two signals tied to the same
ground and provides superior common-mode noise rejection.
Differential: For an on/off controller, it refers to the temperature
difference between the temperature at which the controller turns
heat off and the temperature at which the heat is turned back on. It
is expressed in degrees.
Digit: A measure of the display span of a panel meter. By convention, a
full digit can assume any value from 0 through 9, a 12-digit will
display a 1 and overload at 2, a 34-digit will display digits up to 3 and
overload at 4, etc. For example, a meter with a display span of
3999 counts is said to be a 3 34 digit meter.
Digital Output: An output signal which represents the size of an input
in the form of a series of discrete quantities.
Digital-to-Analog Converter (D/A or DAC): A device or circuit to
convert a digital value to an analog signal level.
DIN (Deutsche Industrial Norm): A set of German standards
recognized throughout the world. The 18 DIN standard for panel
meters specifies an outer bezel dimension of 96 x 48 mm and a
panel cutout of 92 x 45 mm.
DIN 43760: The standard that defines the characteristics of a 100 ohm
platinum RTD having a resistance vs. temperature curve specified
by a = 0.00385 ohms per degree.
Discharge Time Constant: The time required for the output-voltage
from a sensor or system to discharge 37% of its original value in
response to a zero rise time step function input. This parameter
determines a low frequency response.
Disk Operating System (DOS): Program used to control the transfer of
information to and from a disk, such as MS DOS.
Displacement: The measured distance traveled by a point from its
position at rest. Peak to peak displacement is the total measured
movement of a vibrating point between its positive and negative
extremes. Measurement units expressed as inches or milli-inches.
Dissipation Constant: The ratio for a thermistor which relates a change
in internal power dissipation to a resultant change of body
temperature.
Echo: To reflect received data to the sender. For example, keys

depressed on a keyboard are usually echoed as characters
displayed on the screen.
Electrical Interference: Electrical noise induced upon the signal wires
that obscures the wanted information signal.
Electromotive Force (emf): The potential difference between the two
electrodes in a cell. The cell emf is the cell voltage measured when
no current is flowing through the cell. It can be measured by means
of a pH meter with high input impedance.
Electronic Industries Association (EIA): A standards organization
specializing in the electrical and functional characteristics of
interface equipment.
EMF: Electromotive force. A rise in (electrical) potential energy. The
principal unit is the volt.
EMI: Electromagnetic interference.
Emissivity: The ratio of energy emitted by an object to the energy
emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature. The emissivity of
an object depends upon its material and surface texture; a polished
metal surface can have an emissivity around 0.2 and a piece of
wood can have an emissivity around 0.95.
Endothermic: A process is said to be endothermic when it absorbs
heat.
End Point (Potentiometric): The apparent equivalence point of a
titration at which a relatively large potential change is observed.
Enthalpy: The sum of the internal energy of a body and the product of
its volume multiplied by the pressure.
Environmental Conditions: All conditions to which a transducer may
be exposed during shipping, storage, handling, and operation.
Eprom: Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. The PROM can be
erased by ultraviolet light or electricity.
Error: The difference between the value indicated by the transducer
and the true value of the measured value being sensed. Usually
expressed in percent of full scale output.
Error Band: The allowable deviations to output from a specific
reference norm. Usually expressed as a percentage of full scale.
Eutectic Temperature: The lowest possible melting point of a mixture
of alloys.
Excitation: The external application of electrical voltage current applied
to a transducer for normal operation.
Exothermic: A process is said to be exothermic when it releases heat.
Expansion Factor: Correction factor for the change in density between
two pressure measurement areas in a constricted flow.
Explosion-Proof Enclosure: An enclosure that can withstand an
explosion of gases within it and prevent the explosion of gases
surrounding it due to sparks, flashes or the explosion of the
container itself, and maintain an external temperature which will not
ignite the surrounding gases.
Exposed Junction: A form of construction of a thermocouple probe
where the hot or measuring junction protrudes beyond the sheath
material so as to be fully exposed to the medium being measured.
This form of construction usually gives the fastest response time.
Z-7

Host: The primary or controlling computer in a multiple part system.
Hysteresis: The difference in output when the measurand value is first
approached with increasing and then with decreasing values.
Expressed in percent of full scale during any one calibration cycle.
See Deadband
Fahrenheit: A temperature scale defined by 32 at the ice point and

212 at the boiling point of water at sea level.
Ferrule: A compressible tubular fitting that is compressed onto a
probe inside a compression fitting to form a gas-tight seal.
Field of View: A volume in space defined by an angular cone extending
from the focal plane of an instrument.
File: A set of related records or data treated as a unit.
Firmware: Programs stored in PROMs.
Flag: Any of various types of indicators used for identification of a
condition or event, for example, a character that signals the
termination of a transmission.
Floppy Disk: A small, flexible disk carrying a magnetic medium in
which digital data is stored for later retrieval and use.
FM: Factory Mutual Research Corporation. An organization which sets
industrial safety standards.
FM Approved: An instrument that meets a specific set of specifications
established by Factory Mutual Research Corporation.
FORTRAN: Formula Translation language. A widely used high-level
programming language well suited to problems that can be
expressed in terms of algebraic formulas. It is generally used in
scientific applications.
Freezing Point: The temperature at which a substance goes from the
liquid phase to the solid phase.
Frequency: The number of cycles over a specified time period over
which an event occurs. The reciprocal is called the period.
Frequency Modulated Output: A transducer output which is obtained
in the form of a deviation from a center frequency, where the
deviation is proportional to the applied stimulus.
Frequency, Natural: The frequency of free (not forced) oscillations of
the sensing element of a fully assembled transducer.
Frequency Output: An output in the form of frequency which varies as
a function of the applied input.
Full Scale Output: The algebraic difference between the minimum
output and maximum output.
Impedance: The total opposition to electrical flow (resistive plus

reactive).
Infrared: an area in the electromagnetic spectrum extending beyond
red light from 760 nanometers to 1000 microns (106 nm). It is the
form of radiation used for making non-contact temperature
measurements.
Input Impedance: The resistance of a panel meter as seen from the
source. In the case of a voltmeter, this resistance has to be taken
into account when the source impedance is high; in the case of an
ammeter, when the source impedance is low.
Insulated Junction: See Ungrounded Junction
Insulation Resistance: The resistance measured between two
insulated points on a transducer when a specific dc voltage is
applied at room temperature.
Integral: A form of temperature control. See Automatic Reset (2)
Interchangeability Error: A measurement error that can occur if two or
more probes are used to make the same measurement. It is caused
by a slight variation in characteristics of different probes.
Interface: The means by which two systems or devices are connected
and interact with each other.
Interrupt: To stop a process in such a way that it can be resumed.
Intrinsically Safe: An instrument which will not produce any spark or
thermal effects under normal or abnormal conditions that will ignite
a specified gas mixture.
IPTS-48: International Practical Temperature Scale of 1948. Fixed
points in thermometry as specified by the Ninth General Conference
of Weights and Measures which was held in 1948.
IPTS-68: International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968. Fixed
points in thermometry set by the 1968 General Conference of
Weights and Measures.
ISA: Instrument Society of America.
Isolation: The reduction of the capacity of a system to respond to an
external force by use of resilient isolating materials.
Isothermal: A process or area that is a constant temperature.
Gain: The amount of amplification used in an electrical circuit.

Galvanometer: An instrument that measures small electrical currents
by means of deflecting magnetic coils.
Ground: 1. The electrical neutral line having the same potential as the
surrounding earth. 2. The negative side of DC power supply. 3.
Reference point for an electrical system.
Grounded Junction: A form of construction of a thermocouple probe
where the hot or measuring junction is in electrical contact with the
sheath material so that the sheath and thermocouple will have the
same electrical potential.
Joule: The basic unit of thermal energy.

Junction: The point in a thermocouple where the two dissimilar metals
are joined.
K: When referring to memory capacity, two to the tenth power (1024 in
decimal notation).
Kelvin: Symbol K. The unit of absolute or thermodynamic temperature
scale based upon the Celsius scale with 100 units between the ice
point and boiling point of water. 0C = 273.15K (there is no degree
() symbol used with the Kelvin scale).
Kilowatt (kw): Equivalent to 1000 watts.
Kilowatt Hour (kwh): 1000 watthours. Kilovolt amperes (kva): 1000
volt amps.
KVA: Kilovolt amperes (1000 volt amps).
Half-Duplex: One way at a time data communication; both devices can

transmit and receive data, but only one at a time.
Handshake: An interface procedure that is based on status/data signals
that assure orderly data transfer as opposed to asynchronous
exchange.
Hardcopy: Output in a permanent form (usually a printout) rather than
in temporary form, as on disk or terminal display.
Hardware: The electrical, mechanical and electromechanical
equipment and parts associated with a computing system, as
opposed to its firmware or software.
Heat: Thermal energy. Heat is expressed in units of calories or BTUs.
Heat Sink: 1. Thermodynamic. A body which can absorb thermal
energy. 2. Practical. A finned piece of metal used to dissipate the
heat of solid state components mounted on it.
Heat Transfer: The process of thermal energy flowing from a body of
high energy to a body of low energy. Means of transfer are:
conduction; the two bodies contact. Convection; a form of
conduction where the two bodies in contact are of different phases,
i.e. solid and gas. Radiation: all bodies emit infrared radiation.
Heat Treating: A process for treating metals where heating to a
specific temperature and cooling at a specific rate changes the
properties of the metal.
Hertz (Hz): Units in which frequency is expressed. Synonymous with
cycles per second.
Hexadecimal: Refers to a base sixteen number system using the
characters 0 through 9 and A through F to represent the values.
Machine language programs are often written in hexadecimal notation.
Hold: Meter HOLD is an external input which is used to stop the A/D
process and freeze the display. BCD HOLD is an external input used
to freeze the BCD output while allowing the A/D process to continue
operation.
Lag: 1. A time delay between the output of a signal and the response
of the instrument to which the signal is sent. 2. A time relationship
between two waveforms where a fixed reference point on one wave
occurs after the same point of the reference wave.
Latent Heat: Expressed in BTU per pound. The amount of heat needed
(absorbed) to convert a pound of boiling water to a pound of steam.
Leakage Rate: The maximum rate at which a fluid is permitted or
determined to leak through a seal.
Limits of Error: A tolerance band for the thermal electric response of
thermocouple wire expressed in degrees or percentage defined by
ANSI specification MC-96.1 (1975).
Linearity: The closeness of a calibration curve to a specified straight
line. Linearity is expressed as the maximum deviation of any
calibration point on a specified straight line during any one
calibration cycle.
Load: The electrical demand of a process expressed as power (watts),
current (amps) or resistance (ohms).
Load Impedance: The impedance presented to the output terminals of
a transducer by the associated external circuitry.
Logarithmic Scale: A method of displaying data (in powers of ten) to yield
maximum range while keeping resolution at the low end of the scale.
Z-8

Loop Resistance: The total resistance of a thermocouple circuit
caused by the resistance of the thermocouple wire. Usually used in
reference to analog pyrometers which have typical loop resistance
requirements of 10 ohms.
LSD (Least-Significant Digit): The rightmost active (non-dummy)
digit of the display.
LS-TTL Compatible: For digital input circuits, a logic 1 is obtained for
inputs of 2.0 to 5.5 V which can source 20 A, and a logic 0 is
obtained for inputs of 0 to 0.8 V which can sink 400 A. For digital
output signals, a logic 1 is represented by 2.4 to 5.5 V with a
current source capability of at least 400 A, and a logic 0 is
represented by 0 to 0.6 V with a current sink capability of at least 16
MA. LS stands for Low-power Schottky.
LS-TTL Unit Load: A load with LS-TTL voltage levels, which will draw
20 A for a logic 1 and 400 A for a logic 0.
NEMA-4: A standard from the National Electrical Manufacturers

Association, which defines enclosures intended for indoor or
outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against
windblown dust and rain, splashing water, and hose-directed water.
Association, which defines explosion-proof enclosures for use in
locations classified as Class I, Groups A, B, C or D, as specified in
the National Electrical Code.
Association, which defines enclosures with protection against dirt,
dust, splashes by non-corrosive liquids, and salt spray.
NEMA-Size Case: An older US case standard for panel meters, which
requires a panel cutout of 3.93 x 1.69 inches.
Network: A group of computers that are connected to each other by
communications lines to share information and resources.
Nibble: One half of a byte.
Nicrosil/Nisil: A nickel-chrome/nickel-silicone thermal alloy used to
measure high temperatures. Inconsistencies in thermoelectric
voltages exist in these alloys with respect to the wire gage.
NMR (Normal-Mode Rejection): The ability of a panel meter to filter
out noise superimposed on the signal and applied across the SIG HI
to SIG LO input terminals. Normally expressed in dB at 50/60 Hz.
Noise: An unwanted electrical interference on the signal wires.
Normal-Mode Rejection Ratio: The ability of an instrument to reject
interference usually of line frequency (5060 Hz) across its input
terminals.
NPT: National Pipe Thread.
Null: A condition, such as balance, which results in a minimum
absolute value of output.
M: Mega; one million. When referring to memory capacity, two to the

twentieth power (1,048,576 in decimal notation).
Manual Reset (Adjustment): The adjustment on a proportioning
controller which shifts the proportioning band in relationship to the
set point to eliminate droop or offset errors.
Manual Reset (Switch): The switch in a limit controller that manually
resets the controller after the limit has been exceeded.
Maximum Operating Temperature: The maximum temperature at
which an instrument or sensor can be safely operated.
Maximum Power Rating: The maximum power in watts that a device
can safely handle.
Mean Temperature: The average of the maximum and minimum
temperature of a process equilibrium.
Measurand: A physical quantity, property, or condition which is measured.
Measuring Junction: The thermocouple junction referred to as the hot
junction that is used to measure an unknown temperature.
Melting Point: The temperature at which a substance transforms from
a solid phase to a liquid phase.
Mica: A transparent mineral used as window material in hightemperature ovens.
Microamp: One millionth of an ampere, 106 amps.
Microcomputer: A computer which is physically small. It can fit on top
of or under a desk; based on LSI circuitry, computers of this type
are now available with much of the power currently associated with
minicomputer systems.
Micron: One millionth of a meter, 106 meters.
Microvolt: One millionth of a volt, 106 volts.
Mil: One thousandth of an inch (.001).
Milliamp: One thousandth of an amp, 103 amps, symbol mA.
Millimeter: One thousandth of a meter, symbol mm.
Millivolt: Unit of electromotive force. It is the difference in potential
required to make a current of 1 millampere flow through a
resistance of 1 ohm; one thousandth of a volt, symbol mV.
Mineral-insulated Thermocouple: A type of thermocouple cable which
has an outer metal sheath and mineral (magnesium oxide)
insulation inside separating a pair of thermocouple wires from
themselves and from the outer sheath. This cable is usually drawn
down to compact the mineral insulation and is available in
diameters from .375 to .010 inches. It is ideally suited for hightemperature and severe-duty applications.
Minor Scale Division: On an analog scale, the smallest indicated
division of units on the scale.
Modem: Modulator/Demodulator. A device that transforms digital
signals into audio tones for transmission over telephone lines, and
does the reverse for reception.
MSD (Most-Significant Digit): The leftmost digit of the display.
Mueller Bridge: A high-accuracy bridge configuration used to measure
three-wire RTD thermometers.
Multiplex: A technique which allows different input (or output) signals
to use the same lines at different times, controlled by an external
signal. Multiplexing is used to save on wiring and I/O ports.
Octal: Pertaining to a base 8 number system.

O.D.: Outside diameter.
Offset: The difference in temperature between the set point and the
actual process temperature. Also referred to as droop.
Ohmmeter: An instrument used to measure electrical resistance.
On/off Controller: A controller whose action is fully on or fully off.
Open Circuit: The lack of electrical contact in any part of the
measuring circuit. An open circuit is usually characterized by rapid
large jumps in displayed potential, followed by an off-scale reading.
Operating System: A collection of programs that controls the overall
operation of a computer and performs such tasks as assigning places
in memory to programs and data, processing interrupts, scheduling
jobs and controlling the overall input/output of the system.
Optical Isolation: Two networks which are connected only through an
LED transmitter and photoelectric receiver with no electrical
continuity between the two networks.
Output: The electrical signal which is produced by an applied input to
the transducer.
Output Impedance: The resistance as measured on the output
terminals of a pressure transducer.
Output Noise: The RMS, peak-to-peak (as specified) ac component of
a transducers dc output in the absence of a measurand variation.
Overshoot: The number of degrees by which a process exceeds the set
point temperature when coming up to the set point temperature.
Parallax: An optical illusion which occurs in analog meters and causes
reading errors. It occurs when the viewing eye is not in the same
plane, perpendicular to the meter face, as the indicating needle.
Parallel Transmission: Sending all data bits simultaneously.
Commonly used for communications between computers and
printer devices.
Parity: A technique for testing transmitting data. Typically, a binary
digit is added to the data to make the sum of all the digits of the
binary data either always even (even parity) or always odd (odd
parity).
Peltier Effect: When a current flows through a thermocouple junction,
heat will either be absorbed or evolved depending on the direction
of current flow. This effect is independent of joule I2 R heating.
Peripheral: A device that is external to the CPU and main memory, i.e.,
printer, modem or terminal, but is connected by the appropriate
electrical connections.
Phase: A time-based relationship between a periodic function and a
reference. In electricity, it is expressed in angular degrees to
describe the voltage or current relationship of two alternating
waveforms.
Phase Difference: The time expressed in degrees between the same
reference point on two periodic waveforms.
N/C (No Connection): A connector point for which there is no internal

connection.
NBS: National Bureau of Standards.
NEC: National Electric Codes.
Negative Temperature Coefficient: A decrease in resistance with an
increase in temperature.
Z-9

Proportioning Control with Integral and Derivative Functions: Three
mode PID controller. A time-proportioning controller with integral
and derivative functions. The integral function automatically adjusts
the system temperature to the set point temperature to eliminate
droop due to the time proportioning function. The derivative
function senses the rate of rise or fall of the system temperature
and automatically adjusts the cycle time of the controller to
minimize overshoot or undershoot.
Protection Head: An enclosure usually made out of metal at the end of
a heater or probe where connections are made.
Protection Tube: A metal or ceramic tube, closed at one end, into
which a temperature sensor is inserted. The tube protects the
sensor from the medium into which it is inserted.
Protocol: A formal definition that describes how data is to be
exchanged.
PSIA: Pounds per square inch absolute. Pressure referenced to a
vacuum.
PSID: Pounds per square inch differential. Pressure difference between
two points.
PSIG: Pound per square inch gage. Pressure referenced to ambient air
pressure.
PSIS: Pounds per square inch standard. Pressure referenced to a
standard atmosphere.
Pulse Width Modulation: An output in the form of duty cycle which
varies as a function of the applied measurand.
Phase Proportioning: A form of temperature control where the power

supplied to the process is controlled by limiting the phase angle of
the line voltage.
PID: Proportional, integral, derivative. A three-mode control action
where the controller has time proportioning, integral (auto reset)
and derivative rate action.
Piezoresistance: Resistance that changes with stress.
Pixel: Picture element. Definable locations on a display screen that are
used to form images on the screen. For graphic displays, screens
with more pixels provide higher resolution.
Platinel: A non-standard, high temperature platinum thermocouple
alloy whose thermoelectric voltage nearly matches a Type K
thermocouple (Trademark of Englehard Industries).
Platinum: A noble metal which in its pure form is the negative wire of
Type R and Type S thermocouples.
Platinum 6% Rhodium: The platinum-rhodium alloy used as the
negative wire in conjunction with platinum-30% rhodium to form a
Type B thermocouple.
positive wire in conjunction with pure platinum to form a Type S
thermocouple.
positive wire in conjunction with pure platinum to form a Type R
thermocouple.
positive wire in conjunction with platinum 6% rhodium to form a
Type B thermocouple.
Platinum 67: To develop thermal emf tables for thermocouples, the
National Bureau of Standards paired each thermocouple alloy
against a pure platinum wire (designated Platinum 2 prior to 1973,
and currently Platinum 67). The thermal emfs of any alloy
combination can be determined by summing the vs. Pt-67 emfs
of the alloys, i.e., the emf table for a Type K thermocouple is derived
from the Chromel vs. Pt-67 and the Alumel vs .Pt-67 values.
Polarity: In electricity, the quality of having two oppositely charged
poles, one positive, one negative.
Port: A signal input (access) or output point on a computer.
Positive Temperature Coefficient: An increase in resistance due to an
increase in temperature.
Potential Energy: Energy related to the position or height above a
place to which fluid could possibly flow.
Potentiometer: 1. A variable resistor often used to control a circuit.
2. A balancing bridge used to measure voltage.
Power Supply: A separate unit or part of a circuit that supplies power
to the rest of the circuit or to a system.
PPM: Abbreviation for parts per million, sometimes used to express
temperature coefficients. For instance, 100 ppm is identical to 0.01%.
Primary Standard (NBS): The standard reference units and physical
constants maintained by the National Bureau of Standards upon
which all measurement units in the United States are based.
Probe: A generic term that is used to describe many types of
temperature sensor.
Process Meter: A panel meter with sizeable zero and span adjustment
capabilities, which can be scaled for readout in engineering units for
signals such as 420 mA, 1050 mA and 15 V.
Program: A list of instructions that a computer follows to perform a
task.
Prom: Programmable read-only memory. A semiconductor memory
whose contents cannot be changed by the computer after it has
been programmed.
Proportioning Band: A temperature band expressed in degrees within
which a temperature controllers time proportioning function is
active.
Proportioning Control Mode: A time proportioning controller where
the amount of time that the relay is energized is dependent upon the
systems temperature.
Proportioning Control plus Derivative Function: A time proportioning
controller with a derivative function. The derivative function senses
the rate at which a systems temperature is either increasing or
decreasing and adjusts the cycle time of the controller to minimize
overshoot or undershoot.
Proportioning Control plus Integral: A two-mode controller with time
proportioning and integral (auto reset) action. The integral function
automatically adjusts the temperature at which a system has
stabilized back to the set point temperature, thereby eliminating
droop in the system.
Radiation: See Infrared

Random Access Memory (RAM): Memory that can be both read and
changed during computer operation. Unlike other semi-conductor
memories, RAM is volatileif power to the RAM is disrupted or
lost, all the data stored is lost.
Range: Those values which a transducer is intended to measure,
specified by upper and lower limits.
Rangeability: The ratio of the maximum flowrate to the minimum
flowrate of a meter.
Rankine (R): An absolute temperature scale based upon the
Fahrenheit scale with 180 between the ice point and boiling point
of water. 459.67R = 0F.
Rate Action: The derivative function of a temperature controller.
Rate Time: The time interval over which the system temperature is
sampled for the derivative function.
Ratiometric Measurement: A measurement technique where an
external signal is used to provide the voltage reference for the dualslope A/D converter. The external signal can be derived from the
voltage excitation applied to a bridge circuit or pick-off supply,
thereby eliminating errors due to power supply fluctuations.
Read Only Memory (ROM): Memory that contains fixed data. The
computer can read the data, but cannot change it in any way.
Real Time: The time interval over which the system temperature is
sampled for the derivative function.
Record: A collection of unrelated information that is treated as a single
unit.
Recovery Time: The length of time which it takes a transducer to
return to normal after applying a proof pressure.
Reference Junction: The cold junction in a thermocouple circuit which is
held at a stable, known temperature. The standard reference
temperature is 0C (32F). However, other temperatures can be used.
Refractory Metal Thermocouple: A class of thermocouples with
melting points above 3600F. The most common are made from
tungsten and tungsten/rhenium alloys, Types G and C. They can be
used for measuring high temperatures up to 4000F (2200C) in
non-oxidizing, inert, or vacuum environments.
Relay (Mechanical): An electromechanical device that completes or
interrupts a circuit by physically moving electrical contacts into
contact with each other.
Relay (Solid State): A solid state switching device which completes or
interrupts a circuit electrically with no moving parts.
Remote: Not hard-wired; communicating via switched lines, such as
telephone lines. Usually refers to peripheral devices that are located
at a site away from the CPU.
Repeatability: The ability of a transducer to reproduce output readings
when the same measurand value is applied to it consecutively,
under the same conditions, and in the same direction. Repeatability
is expressed as the maximum difference between output readings.
Resistance: The resistance to the flow of electric current measured in
ohms (). For a conductor, resistance is a function of diameter,
resistivity (an intrinsic property of the material) and length.
Z-10

Resistance Ratio Characteristic: For thermistors, the ratio of the
resistance of the thermistor at 25C to the resistance at 125C.
Resistance Temperature Characteristic: A relationship between a
thermistors resistance and the temperature.
Resolution: The smallest detectable increment of measurement.
Resolution is usually limited by the number of bits used to quantize
the input signal. For example, a 12-bit A/D can resolve to one part in
4096 (2 to the 12 power equals 4096).
Resonant Frequency: The measurand frequency at which a transducer
responds with maximum amplitude.
Response Time: The length of time required for the output of a
transducer to rise to a specified percentage of its final value as a
result of a step change of input.
Response Time (time constant): The time required by a sensor to
reach 63.2% of a step change in temperature under a specified set
of conditions. Five time constants are required for the sensor to
stabilize at 100% of the step change value.
RFI: Radio frequency interference.
Rheostat: A variable resistor.
Rise Time: The time required for a sensor or system to respond to an
instantaneous step function, measured from the 10% to 90% points
on the response waveforms.
Room Conditions: Ambient environmental conditions under which
transducers must commonly operate.
Root Mean Square (RMS): Square root of the mean of the square of
the signal taken during one full cycle.
RTD: Resistance temperature detector.
Single Precision: The degree of numeric accuracy that requires the

use of one computer word. In single precision, seven digits are
stored, and up to seven digits are printed. Contrast with Double
Precision.
Software: Generally, programs loaded into a computer from external
mass storage but also extended to include operating systems and
documentation.
Source Code: A non-executable program written in a high-level
language. A compiler or assembler must translate the source code
into object code (machine language) that the computer can
understand and process.
Span: The difference between the upper and lower limits of a range
expressed in the same units as the range.
Span Adjustment: The ability to adjust the gain of a process or strain
meter so that a specified display span in engineering units
corresponds to a specified signal span. For instance, a display span
of 200F may correspond to the 16 mA span of a 420 mA
transmitter signal.
Spare: A connector point reserved for options, specials, or other
configurations. The point is identified by an (E#) for location on the
electrical schematic.
Specific Gravity: The ratio of mass of any material to the mass of the
same volume of pure water at 4C.
Specific Heat: The ratio of thermal energy required to raise the
temperature of a body 1 to the thermal energy required to raise an
equal mass of water 1.
Spectral Filter: A filter which allows only a specific band width of the
electromagnetic spectrum to pass, i.e., 4 to 8 micron infrared
radiation.
Spectrum: The resolving of overall vibration into amplitude
components as a function of frequency.
Spectrum Analysis: Utilizing frequency components of a vibration
signal to determine the source and cause of vibration.
Spot Size: The diameter of the circle formed by the cross section of
the field of view of an optical instrument at a given distance.
Spurious Error: Random or erratic malfunction.
SSR: Solid state relay. See Relay, Solid State
Stability: The ability of an instrument or sensor to maintain a
consistent output when a constant input is applied.
Stop Bit: A signal following a character or block that prepares the
receiving device to receive the next character or block.
String: A sequence of characters.
Super Cooling: The cooling of a liquid below its freezing temperature
without the formation of the solid phase.
Super Heating: 1. The heating of a liquid above its boiling temperature
without the formation of the gaseous phase. 2. The heating of the
gaseous phase considerably above the boiling-point temperature to
improve the thermodynamic efficiency of a system.
Surge Current: A current of short duration that occurs when power is
first applied to capacitive loads or temperature dependent resistive
loads such as tungsten or molybdenum heatersusually lasting
not more than several cycles.
Syntax: The rules governing the structure of a language.
SAMA: Scientific Apparatus Makers Association. An association that

has issued standards covering platinum, nickel, and copper
resistance elements (RTDs).
SCR: Silicon controlled rectifier.
Scroll: To move all or part of the screen material up or down, left or
right, to allow new information to appear.
Seebeck Coefficient: The derivative (rate of change) of thermal EMF with
respect to temperature, normally expressed as millivolts per degree.
Seebeck Effect: When a circuit is formed by a junction of two
dissimilar metals and the junctions are held at different
temperatures, a current will flow in the circuit caused by the
difference in temperature between the two junctions.
Seebeck EMF: The open circuit voltage caused by the difference in
temperature between the hot and cold junctions of a circuit made
from two dissimilar metals.
Self-Heating: Internal heating of a transducer as a result of power
dissipation.
Sensing Element: That part of a transducer which reacts directly in
response to input.
Sensitivity: The minimum change in input signal to which an
instrument can respond.
Sensitivity Shift: A change in slope of the calibration curve due to a
change in sensitivity.
Sequential Access: An access mode in which records are retrieved in
the same order in which they were written. Each successive access
to the file refers to the next record in the file.
Serial Transmission: Sending one bit at a time on a single
transmission line. Compare with Parallel Transmission.
Set Point: The temperature at which a controller is set to control a
system.
Settling Time: The time taken for the display to settle within one digit
final value when a step is applied to the meter input.
SI: System Internationale. The name given to the standard metric
system of units.
Signal: An electrical transmittance (either input or output) that
conveys information.
Signal Conditioner: A circuit module which offsets, attenuates,
amplifies, linearizes and/or filters the signal for input to the A/D
converter. The typical output signal conditioner is +2 V dc.
Signal Conditioning: To process the form or mode of a signal so as to
make it intelligible to, or compatible with, a given device, including
such manipulation as pulse shaping, pulse clipping, compensating,
digitizing, and linearizing.
Single-Ended Input: A signal-input circuit where SIG LO (or
sometimes SIG HI) is tied to METER GND. Ground loops are
normally not a problem in AC-powered meters, since METER GND
is transformer-isolated from AC GND.
Tape: A recording medium for data or computer programs. Tape can

be in permanent form, such as perforated paper tape, or erasable,
such as magnetic tape. Generally, tape is used as a mass storage
medium, in magnetic form, and has a much higher storage capacity
than disk storage, but it takes much longer to write or recover data
from tape than from a disk.
Teflon: A fluorocarbon polymer used for insulation of electrical wires
(trademark of DuPont).
Telecommunication: Synonym for data communication. The
transmission of information from one point to another.
TEMPCO: Abbreviation for temperature coefficient: the error
introduced by a change in temperature. Normally expressed in %/C
or ppm/C.
Temperature Error: The maximum change in output, at any measurand
value within a specified range, when the transducer temperature is
changed from room temperature to specified temperature extremes.
Temperature Range, Compensated: The range of ambient
temperatures within which all tolerances specified for Thermal Zero
Shift and Thermal Sensitivity Shift are applicable (temperature
error).
Temperature Range, Operable: The range of ambient temperatures,
given by their extremes, within which a transducer may be
operated. Exceeding compensated range may require recalibration.
Z-11

Terminal: An input/output device used to enter data into a computer
and record the output.
Thermal Coefficient of Resistance: The change in resistance of a
semiconductor per unit change in temperature over a specific range
of temperature.
Thermal Conductivity: The ability of a material to conduct heat in the
form of thermal energy.
Thermal emf: See Seebeck emf
Thermal Expansion: An increase in size due to an increase in
temperature expressed in units of an increase in length or increase
in size per degree, i.e. inches/inch/degree C.
Thermal Gradient: The distribution of a differential temperature
through a body or across a surface.
Thermal Sensitivity Shift: The sensitivity shift due to changes of the
ambient temperature from room temperature to the specified limits
of the compensated temperature range.
Thermal Zero Shift: An error due to changes in ambient temperature
in which the zero pressure output shifts. Thus, the entire calibration
curve moves in a parallel displacement.
Thermistor: A temperature-sensing element composed of sintered
semiconductor material which exhibits a large change in resistance
proportional to a small change in temperature. Thermistors usually
have negative temperature coefficients.
Thermocouple: The junction of two dissimilar metals which has a
voltage output proportional to the difference in temperature
between the hot junction and the lead wires (cold junction) (refer to
Seebeck emf).
Thermocouple Type Material
(ANSI Symbol)
J
Iron/Constantan
K
CHROMEGA/ALOMEGA
T
Copper/Constantan
E
CHROMEGA/Constantan
R
Platinum/Platinum 13% Rhodium
S
Platinum/Platinum 10% Rhodium
B
Platinum 6% Rhodium/Platinum
30% Rhodium
G*
Tungsten/Tungsten 26% Rhenium
C*
Tungsten 5% Rhenium/Tungsten
26% Rhenium
D*
Tungsten 3% Rhenium/Tungsten
25% Rhenium
*Not ANSI symbols
Thermopile: An arrangement of thermocouples in series such that
alternate junctions are at the measuring temperature and the
reference temperature. This arrangement amplifies the
thermoelectric voltage. Thermopiles are usually used as infrared
detectors in radiation pyrometry.
Thermowell: A closed-end tube designed to protect temperature
sensors from harsh environments, high pressure, and flows. They
can be installed into a system by pipe thread or welded flange and
are usually made of corrosion-resistant metal or ceramic material,
depending upon the application.
Thomson Effect: When current flows through a conductor within a
thermal gradient, a reversible absorption or evolution of heat will
occur in the conductor at the gradient boundaries.
Transducer: A device (or medium) that converts energy from one form
to another. The term is generally applied to devices that take
physical phenomena (pressure, temperature, humidity, flow, etc.)
and convert them to electrical signals.
Transmitter (Two-Wire): A device which is used to transmit temperature
data from either a thermocouple or RTD via a two-wire current loop.
The loop has an external power supply and the transmitter acts as a
variable resistor with respect to its input signal.
Triac: A solid state switching device used to switch alternating current
wave forms.
Triple Point: The temperature and pressure at which solid, liquid, and
gas phases of a given substance are all present simultaneously in
varying amounts.
Triple Point (Water): The thermodynamic state where all three phases,
solid, liquid, and gas, may all be present in equilibrium. The triple
point of water is .01C.
True RMS: The true root-mean-square value of an AC or AC-plus-DC
signal, often used to determine power of a signal. For a perfect sine
wave, the RMS value is 1.11072 times the rectified average value,
which is utilized for low-cost metering. For significantly nonsinusoidal signals, a true RMS converter is required.
TTL: Transistor-to-transistor logic. A form of solid state logic which
uses only transistors to form the logic gates.
TTL-Compatible: For digital input circuits, a logic 1 is obtained for inputs

of 2.0 to 5.5 V which can source 40 A, and a logic 0 is obtained for
inputs of 0 to 0.8 V which can sink 1.6 mA. For digital output signals,
a logic 1 is represented by 2.4 to 5.5 V with a current source
capability of at least 400 A, and a logic 0 is represented by 0 to 0.6 V
with a current sink capability of at least 16 mA.
TTL Unit Load: A load with TTL voltage levels, which will draw 40 A
for a logic 1 and 1.6 mA for a logic 0.
Typical: Error within plus or minus one standard deviation (1%) of
the nominal specified value, as computed from the total population.
UL: Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. An independent laboratory that
establishes standards for commercial and industrial products.
Ultraviolet: That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum below blue
light (380 nanometers).
Undershoot: The difference in temperature between the temperature a
process goes to, below the set point, after the cooling cycle is
turned off and the set point temperature.
Ungrounded Junction: A form of construction of a thermocouple
probe where the hot or measuring junction is fully enclosed by and
insulated from the sheath material.
Union: A form of pipe fitting where two extension pipes are joined at a
separable coupling.
Vacuum: A pressure less than atmospheric pressure.
Velocity: The time rate of change of displacement; dx/dt.
Vibration Transducer: Generally, any device which converts
movement, either shock or steady state vibration, into an electrical
signal proportional to the movement; a sensor.
Volt: The (electrical) potential difference between two points in a
circuit. The fundamental unit is derived as work per unit charge
(V = W/Q). One volt is the potential difference required to move one
coulomb of charge between two points in a circuit using one joule
of energy.
Voltage: An electrical potential which can be measured in volts.
Voltmeter: An instrument used to measure voltage.
Watt Density: The watts emanating from each square inch of heated
surface area of a heater. Expressed in units of watts per square
inch.
Wheatstone Bridge: A network of four resistances, an emf source, and
a galvanometer connected such that when the four resistances are
matched, the galvanometer will show a zero deflection or null
reading.
Window: In computer graphics, a defined area in a system not
bounded by any limits; unlimited space in graphics.
Word: Number of bits treated as a single unit by the CPU. In an 8-bit
machine, the word length is 8 bits; in a sixteen-bit machine, it is
16 bits.
Working Standard: A standard of unit measurement calibrated from
either a primary or secondary standard which is used to calibrate
other devices or make comparison measurements.
Zero Adjustment: The ability to adjust the display of a process or
strain meter so that zero on the display corresponds to a non-zero
signal, such as 4 mA, 10 mA, or 1 V dc. The adjustment range is
normally expressed in counts.
Zero Offset: 1. The difference expressed in degrees between true zero
and an indication given by a measuring instrument. 2. See Zero
Suppression
Zero Power Resistance: The resistance of a thermistor or RTD
element with no power being dissipated.
Zero Suppression: The span of an indicator or chart recorder may be
offset from zero (zero suppressed) such that neither limit of the
span will be zero. For example, a temperature recorder which
records a 100 span from 400 to 500 is said to have 400 zero
suppression.
Zero Voltage Switching: The making or breaking of circuit timed such
that the transition occurs when the voltage wave form crosses zero
voltage; typically only found in solid state switching devices.
Z-12

Temperature can be measured via a
diverse array of sensors. All of them
infer temperature by sensing some
change in a physical characteristic.
Six types with which the engineer is
likely to come into contact are:
thermocouples, resistance
temperature devices (RTDs and
thermistors), infrared radiators,
bimetallic devices, liquid expansion
devices, and change-of-state
devices. It is well to begin with a
brief review of each.
Thermocouples consist essentially
of two strips or wires made of
different metals and joined at one
end. As discussed later, changes in
the temperature at that juncture
induce a change in electromotive
force (emf) between the other ends.
As temperature goes up, this output
emf of the thermocouple rises,
though not necessarily linearly.
Resistance temperature devices
capitalize on the fact that the
electrical resistance of a material
changes as its temperature
changes. Two key types are the
metallic devices (commonly referred
to as RTDs), and thermistors. As
their name indicates, RTDs rely on
resistance change in a metal, with
the resistance rising more or less
linearly with temperature.
Thermistors are based on
resistance change in a ceramic
semiconductor; the resistance drops
nonlinearly with temperature rise.
Infrared sensors are noncontacting
devices. As discussed later, they infer
temperature by measuring the thermal
radiation emitted by a material.
Bimetallic devices take advantage of
the difference in rate of thermal
expansion between different metals.
Strips of two metals are bonded
together. When heated, one side will
expand more than the other, and the
resulting bending is translated into a
temperature reading by mechanical
linkage to a pointer. These devices
are portable and they do not require
a power supply, but they are usually
not as accurate as thermocouples
or RTDs and they do not readily
lend themselves to temperature
recording.
Fluid-expansion devices, typified
by the household thermometer,
generally come in two main
classifications: the mercury type and

the organic-liquid type. Versions
employing gas instead of liquid are
also available. Mercury is
considered an environmental
hazard, so there are regulations
governing the shipment of devices
that contain it. Fluid-expansion
sensors do not require electric
power, do not pose explosion
hazards, and are stable even after
repeated cycling. On the other hand,
they do not generate data that are
easily recorded or transmitted, and
they cannot make spot or point
measurements.
Change-of-state temperature
sensors consist of labels, pellets,
crayons, lacquers or liquid crystals
whose appearance changes when a
certain temperature is reached.
They are used, for instance, with
steam traps when a trap exceeds
a certain temperature, a white dot
on a sensor label attached to the
trap will turn black.
Response time typically takes
minutes, so these devices often
do not respond to transient
temperature changes, and accuracy
is lower than with other types of
sensors. Furthermore, the change in
state is irreversible, except in the
case of liquid-crystal displays. Even
so, change-of-state sensors can be
handy when one needs confirmation
that the temperature of a piece of
equipment or a material has not
exceeded a certain level, for
instance for technical or legal
reasons, during product shipment.
The workhorses
In the chemical process industries,
the most commonly used temperature
sensors are thermocouples, resistive
devices and infrared devices. There
is widespread misunderstanding as
to how these devices work and how
they should be used.
Thermocouples: Consider first the
thermocouple, probably the mostoften-used and least-understood of
the three. Essentially, a thermocouple
consists of two alloys joined
together at one end and open at the
other. The emf at the output end (the
open end; V1 in Figure 1a) is a
function of the temperature T1 at the
closed end. As the temperature
rises, the emf goes up.
Z-13
Often the thermocouple is located

inside a metal or ceramic shield that
protects it from a variety of
environments. Metal-sheathed
thermocouples are also available
with many types of outer coatings,
such as polytetrafluoroethylene, for
trouble-free use in corrosive
solutions.
The open-end emf is a function of
not only the closed-end temperature
(i.e., the temperature at the point of
measurement) but also the
temperature at the open end (T2 in
Figure 1a). Only by holding T2 at a
standard temperature can the
measured emf be considered a
direct function of the change in T1.
The industrially accepted standard
for T2 is 0C; therefore, most tables
and charts make the assumption
that T2 is at that level. In industrial
instrumentation, the difference
between the actual temperature at
T2 and 0C is usually corrected for
electronically, within the
instrumentation. This emf
adjustment is referred to as the
cold-junction, or CJ, correction.
Temperature changes in the wiring
between the input and output ends
do not affect the output voltage,
provided that the wiring is of
thermocouple alloy or a
thermoelectric equivalent (Figure
1a). For example, if a thermocouple
is measuring temperature in a
furnace and the instrument that
shows the reading is some distance
away, the wiring between the two
could pass near another furnace
and not be affected by its
temperature, unless it becomes hot
enough to melt the wire or
permanently change its
electrothermal behavior.
The composition of the junction
itself does not affect the
thermocouple action in any way, so
long as the temperature, T1, is kept
constant throughout the junction
and the junction material is
electrically conductive (Figure 1b).
Similarly, the reading is not affected
by insertion of non-thermocouple
alloys in either or both leads,
provided that the temperature at the
ends of the spurious material is the
same (Figure 1c).
A
V1
B
T1
T2
T3
(a)
Figure 1a
T1
F
V1
T1
G
T1
E
T2
(b)
Figure 1b
A
V1
B
B
T1
T3
T2
C
T3
(c)
This ability of the thermocouple to

work with a spurious metal in the
transmission path enables the use
of a number of specialized devices,
such as thermocouple switches.
Whereas the transmission wiring
itself is normally the thermoelectrical
equivalent of the thermocouple alloy,
properly operating thermocouple
switches must be made of goldplated or silver-plated copper alloy
elements with appropriate steel
springs to ensure good contact. So
long as the temperatures at the
input and output junctions of the
switch are equal, this change in
composition makes no difference.
It is important to be aware of what
might be called the Law of
Successive Thermocouples. Of the
two elements that are shown in the
upper portion of Figure 1d, one
thermocouple has T1 at the hot end
and T2 at the open end. The second
thermocouple has its hot end at T2
and its open end at T3. The emf level
for the thermocouple that is
measuring T1 is V1; that for the other
thermocouple is V2. The sum of the
two emfs, V1 plus V2, equals the emf
V3 that would be generated by the
combined thermocouple operating
between T1 and T3. By virtue of this
law, a thermocouple designated for
one open-end reference
temperature can be used with a
different open-end temperature.
RTDs: A typical RTD consists of a
fine platinum wire wrapped around a
mandrel and covered with a
Figure 1c
D
V1
V2
T1
T2
T2
T3
D
A
V1
Figure 1. Assuming that

certain conditions are
met (text), thermocouple
performance is not
affected by temperature
changes in wiring (a), the
composition of
the junction (b), nor
the insertion of
non-thermocouple alloys
in the leads (c). As also
discussed in text,
thermocouple readings
can be additive (d).
T3 = V1+ V2
B
T1
(d)
T2
E
T3
Figure 1d
Z-14
protective coating. Usually, the

mandrel and coating are glass or
ceramic.
The mean slope of the resistance
vs. temperature plot for the RTD is
often referred to as the alpha value
(Figure 2), alpha standing for the
temperature coefficient. The slope of
the curve for a given sensor
depends somewhat on the purity of
the platinum in it.
The most commonly used standard
slope, pertaining to platinum of a
particular purity and composition,
has a value of 0.00385 (assuming
that the resistance is measured in
ohms and the temperature in
degrees Celsius). A resistance vs.
temperature curve drawn with this
slope is a so-called European curve,
because RTDs of this composition
were first used extensively on that
continent. Complicating the picture,
there is also another standard
slope, pertaining to a slightly
different platinum composition.
Having a slightly higher alpha value
of 0.00392, it follows what is known
as the American curve.
If the alpha value for a given RTD is
not specified, it is usually 0.00385.
However, it is prudent to make sure
of this, especially if the temperatures
to be measured are high. This point
is brought out in Figure 2, which
shows both the European and
American curves for the most widely
used RTD, namely one that exhibits
100 ohms resistance at 0C.
Thermistors: The resistancetemperature relationship of a
thermistor is negative and highly
nonlinear. This poses a serious
problem for engineers who must
design their own circuitry. However,
the difficulty can be eased by using
thermistors in matched pairs, in such
a way that the nonlinearities offset
each other. Furthermore, vendors
offer panel meters and controllers
that compensate internally for
thermistors lack of linearity.
Thermistors are usually designated
in accordance with their resistance
at 25C. The most common of these
ratings is 2252 ohms; among the
others are 5,000 and 10,000 ohms.
If not specified to the contrary, most
instruments will accept the 2252
type of thermistor.
Resistance

Temperature Measurement Cont'd
a surface, be sure that the surface
completely fills the field of view. If
the target surface does not at first fill
the field of view, move closer, or use
an instrument with a more narrow
field of view. Or, simply take the
background temperature into
account (i.e., adjust for it) when
reading the instrument.
= .00392
(American Curve)
= .00385
(European Curve)
100
ohms
0C
Temperature
Figure 2. A given RTD embodies either of two standard resistance-vs.-temperature

relationships, often referred to as alpha values. The wise engineer will not use an RTD,
especially for high-temperature measurements, without being aware of its alpha value
Infrared sensors: These measure

the amount of radiation emitted by a
surface. Electromagnetic energy
radiates from all matter regardless
of its temperature. In many process
situations, the energy is in the infrared
region. As the temperature goes up,
the amount of infrared radiation and
its average frequency go up.
Different materials radiate at
different levels of efficiency. This
efficiency is quantified as emissivity,
a decimal number or percentage
ranging between 0 and 1 or 0% and
100%. Most organic materials,
including skin, are very efficient,
frequently exhibiting emissivities of
0.95. Most polished metals, on the
other hand, tend to be inefficient
radiators at room temperature, with
emissivity or efficiency often 20% or
less.
To function properly, an infrared
measurement device must take into
account the emissivity of the surface
being measured. This can often be
looked up in a reference table.
However, bear in mind that tables
cannot account for localized
conditions such as oxidation and
surface roughness. A sometimes
practical way to measure
temperature with infrared when the
emissivity level is not known is to
force the emissivity to a known

level, by covering the surface with
masking tape (emissivity of 95%) or
a highly emissive paint.
Some of the sensor input may well
consist of energy that is not emitted
by the equipment or material whose
surface is being targeted, but
instead is being reflected by that
surface from other equipment or
materials. Emissivity pertains to
energy radiating from a surface,
whereas reflection pertains to
energy reflected from another
source. Emissivity of an opaque
material is an inverse indicator of its
reflectivity substances that are
good emitters do not reflect much
incident energy, and thus do not
pose much of a problem to the
sensor in determining surface
temperatures. Conversely, when one
measures a target surface with only,
say, 20% emissivity, much of the
energy reaching the sensor might
be due to reflection from, e.g., a
nearby furnace at some other
temperature. In short, be wary of
hot, spurious reflected targets.
An infrared device is like a camera,
and thus covers a certain field of
view. It might, for instance, be able
to see a 1-degree visual cone or a
100-degree cone. When measuring
Z-15
Selection guides
RTDs are more stable than
thermocouples. On the other hand,
as a class, their temperature range is
not as broad: RTDs operate from
about -250 to 850C, whereas
thermocouples range from about
-270 to 2,300C. Thermistors have a
more restrictive span, being
commonly used between -40 and
150C, but offer high accuracy in that
range.
Thermistors and RTDs share a very
important limitation. They are
resistive devices, and accordingly
they function by passing a current
through a sensor. Even though only a
very small current is generally
employed, it creates a certain
amount of heat and thus can throw
off the temperature reading. This selfheating in resistive sensors can be
significant when dealing with a still
fluid (i.e., one that is neither flowing
nor agitated), because there is less
carry-off of the heat generated. This
problem does not arise with
thermocouples, which are essentially
zero-current devices.
Infrared sensors, though relatively
expensive, are appropriate when the
temperatures are extremely high.
They are available for up to 3,000C
(5,400F), far exceeding the range of
thermocouples or other contact
devices.
The infrared approach is also
attractive when one does not wish to
make contact with the surface whose
temperature is to be measured.
Thus, fragile or wet surfaces, such as
painted surfaces coming out of a
drying oven, can be monitored in this
way. Substances that are chemically
reactive or electrically noisy are ideal
candidates for infrared
measurement. The approach is
likewise advantageous in measuring
temperature of very large surfaces,
such as walls, that would require a
large array of thermocouples or
RTDs for measurement.
Physical Properties of
Thermoelement Materials
Thermoelement Material
Property
Melting point
(solidus temp.)
C
F
Resistivity
cm
at 0C
at 20C
cmil/ft
at 0C
at 20C
Temperature
coefficient of
resistance, /
C (0 to 100C)
J
Iron
J, C, T
Constantan
T
Copper
K, E
Chromel
K
Alumel
N
Nicrosil
N
Nisil
1490
2715
1220
2228
1083
1981
1427
2600
1399
2550
1420
2590
1330
2425
1860
3380
1850
3362
1769
3216
1927
3501
1826
3319
8.57
9.67
51.5
58.2
48.9
48.9
294.2
294
1.56
1.724
9.38
10.37
70
70.6
421
425
28.1
29.4
169
177
97.4
97.8
32.5
34.6
19.0
19.6
114.3
117.7
18.4
18.9
110.7
114.0
9.83
10.4
59.1
62.4
19.0
17.5
114.5
106
65 x 10-4
-0.1 x 10-4
Coefficient of
thermal expansion 11.7 x 10-6 14.9 x 10-6
in./in. C
(20 to 100C)
Thermal
conductivity
at 100C
Calcm/scm2C
BTUft/hft2F
4.3 x 10-4 4.1 x 10-4
23.9 x 10-4
13.3 x 10-4 12.1 x 10-4
16.6 x 10-6 13.1 x 10-6 12.0 x 10-6
0.162
39.2
0.0506
12.2
0.901
218
0.046
11.1
0.071
17.2
0.0358
8.67
0.0664
16.07
Specific heat at
20C, cal/
gC
0.107
0.094
0.092
0.107
0.125
0.11
8.52
0.12
8.70
Density
g/cm3
lb/in3
7.86
0.284
8.92
0.322
8.92
0.322
Tensile strength
(annealed) MPa
psi
345
50,000
552
80,000
241
35,000
Magnetic attraction
strong
none
none
8.73
0.315
8.60
0.311
0.3078
655
95,000
586
85,000
none
moderate
R
J
Pt13% Rh Pt10% Rh
R,E
B
Platinum Pt30% Rh
15.6 x 10-4 16.6 x 10-4 39.2 x 10-4 13.3 x 10-4
9.0 x 10-6
9.0 x 10-6
9.0 x 10-6
0.088
21.3
0.090
21.8
0.171
41.4
B
Pt6% Rh
20.6 x 10-4
0.032
0.3143
19.61
0.708
19.97
0.721
21.45
0.775
17.60
0.636
20.55
0.743
690
100,000
621
90,000
317
46,000
310
45,000
138
20,000
483
70,000
276
40,000
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
Omegalloy
Nicrosil
Omegalloy
Nisil
Platinum
13% Rhodium
Platinum
10% Rhodium
Pure
Platinum
Platinum
30% Rhodium
Platinum
6% Rhodium
N=Neg
JN,TN
KP,
P=Pos
JP
ENa
TP
EP
ElementNominal Chemical Composition, %
Iron
99.5
b
Carbon
Manganese
b
Sulfur
Phosphorus
b
Silicon
b
Nickel
45
90
b
Copper
55
100
b
Chromium
10
Aluminum
Platinum
Rhodium
Magnesium
ALOMEGA
CHROMEGA
Copper
Constantan
Iron
Nominal Chemical Composition of Thermoelements
KN
NP
NN
RP
SP
RN,
SN
BP
BN
1
95
1.4
84.4
14.2
4.4
95.5
0.15
87
13
90
10
100
70.4
29.6
93.9
6.1
aTypes JN, TN and EN thermoelements usually contain small amounts of various elements for control of thermal emf, with corresponding reductions in the nickel or copper content, or both.
bThemoelectric iron ((JP) contains small but varying amounts of these elements.
Z-16
OMEGACLAD SHEATH
SELECTION GUIDE
APPLICATIONS
U Heat Treating Metal Parts
U Gas or Oil Fired Furnaces
U Fuel Fired Heat Exchangers
U Ceramic Materials Firing
U Powder Metal Sintering
U Steel Carburizing Furnaces
U Vacuum/Atmosphere
Melting & Annealing
U Solid Waste Incinerators
U Heat Process Fluidized Beds
U R&D Tube or Box Furnaces
The metallic sheath on the outside

of an OMEGACLAD probe is used
to protect the internal thermocouple
wires from chemically active
atmospheres. In some cases, even
hot air can damage thermocouple
wires and cause them to
permanently lose calibration.
Selection of the best type of metal
sheath to employ is based on our
customers intended use, the
industry in which they work, and the
country where they are located. For
instance, the most common
OMEGA metal sheaths are 304
stainless steel and Inconel 600.
These are accepted in most
industries, including food
processing. Stainless steel 304 is a
common alloy, readily available and
low in the cost of both materials and
manufacture. Some industries,
however, such as petroleum,
medical, nuclear, aircraft, and power
generation, have their own
standards and may require more
complicated and expensive alloys.
Listed below are the sheath materials
that OMEGA Engineering uses to
make OMEGACLAD. Any materials
not on this list must be customized;
direct inquiries will have to made to
OMEGA South for pricing, availability
and size limitations.
304 Stainless Steel
OMEGA SUPERCLAD
OMEGA Engineering uses a lowcarbon version of 304 stainless,

called 304L, mainly because it is
easier to weld. In general, it is
interchangeable with plain 304.
This alloy has excellent resistance

to air at high temperatures. It has an
aluminum oxide layer on the surface
that prevents further oxidation. This
oxidation resistance allows
thermocouple probes to operate for
extended periods before EMF drift
decalibrates the thermocouple. It
is also popular for its resistance to
hydrogen gas and its high strength
at high temperatures. Because of
form limitations and difficulty in
processing, it is more expensive
than any of the alloys discussed
above.
Applications:
Food & beverage processing
Chemical processing
Dairy
Hospital equipment
Pharmaceutical equipment
Nuclear reactor equipment
Containers for mild corrosives
Temperature limitations: up to
1,600F for cyclic processes.
Use Inconel 600 for extended use
around or above 1,650F
Inconel 600
This high nickel and chromium
content alloy is more expensive
than most stainless steels. It is good
for extended use at high
temperatures and resists corrosion
by most simple acids and very pure
water.
Applications:
Furnace components
Chemical & food processing
Nuclear power generation
Caustic chemicals
Temperature limitations:
up to 2,100F
Z-17
Applications:
Furnace components
Gas turbine industry
Catalytic converter components
Aerospace jet & rocket engines
Refractory anchors
Waste incinerators
Approx. 2,220F
Also is acceptable in heated
hydrogen, 2000F
SUPER OMEGACLAD SHEATH
THERMOCOUPLE
WIRE
CERAMIC
INSULATION
310 Stainless Steel
321 Stainless Steel
Hastelloy-X
This is commonly used at higher

temperatures because it resists
scaling up to 1,900F. It is stronger
and resists air attack better than
304SS at these higher
temperatures. Also good in fossil
fuel gases at elevated
temperatures.
This alloy is similar to 304 stainless

except that it incorporates titanium.
It is intended for welded
components that are exposed to
high temperatures, and is especially
well suited to long exposure to air
and combustion atmospheres of
around 800F.
This alloy is expensive due to the

addition of iron, chromium and
molybdenum. It has very good high
temperature strength and good
oxidation resistance. It is a relatively
old alloy, less costly and with better
performance than some newer
alloys.
Applications: (Higher temperatures)

Air heaters
Baking equipment
Chemical processing equipment
Furnace parts
Heat exchangers and electric
power equipment (that does not
come in contact with sulphur)
Petroleum refining
Applications:
Aircraft exhausts & manifolds
Jet engine parts
Stack liners
Welded equipment
Chemical processing equipment
Applications:
Gas Turbines for power
generation
Aerospace applications
Industrial furnaces
Boiler & pressure vessels
up to 1,600F
up to 2,150F
up to 1,900F
316 (& 316L) Stainless Steel

Better corrosion resistance to most
chemicals, salts, and acids than
most stainless steels due to the
addition of molybdenum. It has good
resistance to sulphur- or chlorinebearing liquids.
Applications:
Marine trim exteriors
Chemical and food processing
Petroleum refining equipment
Pharmaceutical equipment
Paper & pulp
Textile finishing
up to 1,600F continuously in air or
in cyclic corrosive environments,
slightly higher in air.
Thermocouple Wire Stripper for OMEGACLAD wire. See PST Series Strippers in Section H.
Z-18
Practical Temperature Measurements*
I. C. Sensor
V or I
R
RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE
VOLTAGE
TEMPERATURE
Advantages
Thermistor
Disadvantages
RTD
TEMPERATURE
VOLTAGE
or CURRENT
Thermocouple
TEMPERATURE
T
TEMPERATURE
Self-powered
Simple
Rugged
Inexpensive
Wide variety
Wide temperature
range
Most stable
Most accurate
More linear than
thermocouple
High output
Fast
Two-wire ohms
measurement
Most linear
Highest output
Inexpensive
Non-linear
Low voltage
Reference required
Least stable
Least sensitive
Expensive
Current source required
Small R
Low absolute
resistance
Self-heating
Non-linear
Limited temperature
range
Fragile
Current source required
Self-heating
T<200C
Power supply required
Slow
Self-heating
Limited configurations
Figure 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPLICATION NOTES-PRACTICAL TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS
Page
Common Temperature Transducers ....................................................................................Z-19
Introduction ...........................................................................................................................Z-20
Reference Temperatures ...................................................................................................Z-21
The Thermocouple ................................................................................................................Z-21
Reference Junction............................................................................................................Z-22
Reference Circuit...............................................................................................................Z-23
Hardware Compensation...................................................................................................Z-24
Voltage-to-Temperature Conversion ..................................................................................Z-25
Practical Thermocouple Measurement ...............................................................................Z-27
Noise Rejection .................................................................................................................Z-27
Poor Junction Connection..................................................................................................Z-29
Decalibration......................................................................................................................Z-29
Shunt Impedance ..............................................................................................................Z-29
Galvanic Action..................................................................................................................Z-30
Thermal Shunting ..............................................................................................................Z-30
Wire Calibration .................................................................................................................Z-30
Diagnostics ........................................................................................................................Z-31
Summary ...........................................................................................................................Z-32
The RTD .................................................................................................................................Z-33
History ...............................................................................................................................Z-33
Metal Film RTD's ...............................................................................................................Z-33
Resistance Measurement..................................................................................................Z-34
3-Wire Bridge Measurement Errors...................................................................................Z-35
Resistance to Temperature Conversion.............................................................................Z-35
Practical Precautions.........................................................................................................Z-36
*Courtesy Hewlett Packard Company
Z-19
TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPLICATION NOTES-PRACTICAL TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS
The Thermistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-36
Linear Thermistors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-37
Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-37
Monolithic Linear Temperature Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-37
Appendix A-The Empirical Laws of Thermocouples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-37
Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-38
Thermocouple Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-38
Base Metal Thermocouples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-38
Standard Wire Errors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-39
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-40
INTRODUCTION
Synthetic fuel research, solar energy conversion and
new engine development are but a few of the burgeoning disciplines responding to the state of our dwindling
natural resources. As all industries place new emphasis
on energy efficiency, the fundamental measurement of
temperature assumes new importance. The purpose of
this application note is to explore the more common
temperature monitoring techniques and introduce pro
cedures for improving their accuracy.
We will focus on the four most common temperature transducers: the thermocouple, the RTD, the
thermistor and the integrated circuit sensor. Despite the
widespread popularity of the thermocouple, it is frequently misused. For this reason, we will concentrate
primarily on thermocouple measurement techniques.
Appendix A contains the empirical laws of thermocouples which are the basis for all derivations used
herein. Readers wishing a more thorough discussion of
thermocouple theory are invited to read REFERENCE
17 in the Bibliography.
For those with a specific thermocouple application, Appendix B may aid in choosing the best type
of thermocouple.
Throughout this application note, we will emphasize
the practical considerations of transducer placement,
signal conditioning and instrumentation.
Early Measuring Devices - Galileo is credited with
inventing the thermometer, circa 1592.1 In an open
container filled with colored alcohol he suspended a
long narrow-throated glass tube, at the upper end of
which was a hollow sphere. When heated, the air in
the sphere expanded and bubbled through the liquid.
Cooling the sphere caused the liquid to move up the
tube1 Fluctuations in the temperature of the sphere
could then be observed by noting the position of the
liquid inside the tube. This "upside-down" thermometer was a poor indicator since the level changed
with barometric pressure and the tube had no scale.
Vast improvements were made in temperature
measurement accuracy with the development of the
1
Refer to Bibliography 1,2,3.
Florentine thermometer, which incorporated sealed

construction and a graduated scale.
In the ensuing decades, many thermometric scales
were conceived, all based on two or more fixed points
One scale, however, wasn't universally recognized until the early 1700's, when Gabriel Fahrenheit, a Dutch
instrument maker, produced accurate and repeatable
mercury thermometers. For the fixed point on the low
end of his temperature scale, Fahrenheit used a mixture of ice water and salt (or ammonium chloride). This
was the lowest temperature he could reproduce, and he
labeled it "zero degrees". For the high end of his scale,
he chose human blood temperature and called it 96
degrees.
Why 96 and not 100 degrees? Earlier scales had
been divided into twelve parts. Fahrenheit, in an apparent quest for more resolution divided his scale into
24, then 48 and eventually 96 parts.
The Fahrenheit scale gained popularity primarily
because of the repeatability and quality of the thermometers that Fahrenheit built.
Around 1742, Anders Celsius proposed that the
melting point of ice and the boiling point of water be
used for the two benchmarks. Celsius selected zero
degrees as the boiling point and 100 degrees as the
melting point. Later, the end points were reversed and
the centigrade scale was born. In 1948 the name was
officially changed to the Celsius scale.
In the early 1800's William Thomson (Lord Kelvin),
developed a universal thermodynamic scale based
upon the coefficient of expansion of an ideal gas. Kelvin
established the concept of absolute zero and his scale
remains the standard for modern thermometry.
The conversion equations for the four modern
temperature scales are:
C = 5/9 (F - 32) F= 9/5 C + 32
K = C + 273.15 R= F + 459.67
The Rankine Scale (R) is simply the Fahrenheit
equivalent of the Kelvin scale, and was named after an
early pioneer in the field of thermodynamics, W.J.M.
Rankine.
Z-20
Reference Temperatures
We cannot build a temperature divider as we can a
voltage divider, nor can we add temperatures as we
would add lengths to measure distance. We must rely
upon temperatures established by physical phenomena
which are easily observed and consistent in nature. The
International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) is
based on such phenomena. Revised in 1968, it
establishes eleven reference temperatures.
Since we have only these fixed temperatures to use
as a reference, we must use instruments to interpolate
between them. But accurately interpolating between
these temperatures can require some fairly exotic
transducers, many of which are too complicated or
expensive to use in a practical situation. We shall limit
our discussion to the four most common temperature
transducers: thermocouples, resistance-temperature
Metal A
+
eAB
eAB = SEEBECK VOLTAGE

Figure 3
All dissimilar metals exhibit this effect. The most
common combinations of two metals are listed in
Appendix B of this application note, along with their
important characteristics. For small changes in
temperature the Seebeck voltage is linearly proportional
to temperature:
eAB = T
Where , the Seebeck coefficient, is the constant of
proportionality.
detectors (RTDs), thermistors, and integrated

circuit sensors.
IPTS-68 REFERENCE TEMPERATURES

EQUILIBRIUM POINT
Triple Point of Hydrogen

Liquid/Vapor Phase of Hydrogen
13.81
17.042
-259.34
-256.108
at 25/76 Std. Atmosphere

Boiling Point of Hydrogen
20.28
-252.87
Boiling Point of Neon

Triple Point of Oxygen
27.102
54.361
-246.048
-218.789
Boiling Point of Oxygen

Triple Point of Water
90.188
273.16
-182.962
.01
Boiling Point of Water

Freezing Point of Zinc
373.15
692.73
100
419.58
Freezing Point of Silver

Freezing Point of Gold
1235.08
1337.58
961.93
1064.43
Measuring Thermocouple Voltage - We cant

measure the Seebeck voltage directly because we must
first connect a voltmeter to the thermocouple, and the
voltmeter leads themselves create a new
thermoelectric circuit.
Lets connect a voltmeter across a copper-constantan
(Type T) thermocouple and look at the voltage output:
J3
Fe
Cu
+
Cu
+
Cu
V1
J1
Fe
J2
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
Table 1
Cu
Cu
Cu
V3
THE
THERMOCOUPLE
When two wires composed of dissimilar metals are
+
V1
J3
Cu
J1
+
V1
joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated, there

is a continuous current which flows in the thermoelectric
circuit. Thomas Seebeck made this discovery in 1821.
Metal A
Metal B
V2
J2
+
Cu
J1
V2
J2
V3 = 0
MEASURING
JUNCTION VOLTAGE WITH A DVM
Figure 4
Metal C
Metal B
THE SEEBECK EFFECT
Figure 2
If this circuit is broken at the center, the net open
circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a function of the
junction temperature and the composition of the two
metals.
We would like the voltmeter to read only V1, but by

connecting the voltmeter in an attempt to measure the
output of Junction J1, we have created two more
metallic junctions: J2 and J3. Since J3 is a copper-tocopper junction, it creates no thermal EMF (V3 = 0), but
J2 is a copper-to-constantan junction which will add an
EMF (V2) in opposition to V1. The resultant voltmeter
reading V will be proportional to the temperature
difference between J1 and J2. This says that we cant
find the temperature at J1 unless we first find the
temperature of J2.
Z-21
The Reference Junction
Cu
+
Cu
Cu
Cu
V2
+
V1
+
V1
J1
J1
V2
Voltmeter
J2
J2
T=0C
Ice Bath
EXTERNAL REFERENCE JUNCTION

Figure 5
The copper-constantan thermocouple shown in

Figure 5 is a unique example because the copper wire
is the same metal as the voltmeter terminals. Lets use
an iron-constantan (Type J) thermocouple instead of the
copper-constantan. The iron wire (Figure 6) increases
the number of dissimilar metal junctions in the circuit, as
both voltmeter terminals become Cu-Fe thermocouple
junctions.
One way to determine the temperature of J2 is to

physically put the junction into an ice bath, forcing its
temperature to be 0C and establishing J2 as the
Reference Junction. Since both voltmeter terminal
junctions are now copper-copper, they create no
thermal emf and the reading V on the voltmeter is
proportional to the temperature difference between J1
and J2.
V3
-+
Now the voltmeter reading is (see Figure 5):

V = (V1 - V2) (tJ1 - tJ2)
If we specify TJ1 in degrees Celsius:
TJ1 (C) + 273.15 = tJ1
V1 = V
if V3 = V4
J4
i.e., if
TJ3 = TJ4
JUNCTION VOLTAGE CANCELLATION

Figure 7
If both front panel terminals are not at the same
temperature, there will be an error. For a more precise
measurement, the copper voltmeter leads should be
extended so the copper-to-iron junctions are made on
an isothermal (same temperature) block:
Cu
Isothermal Block
J3
Cu
+
Fe
Fe
V2
Cu
Voltmeter
Fe
V1
-+
Voltmeter V4
We use this protracted derivation to emphasize that

the ice bath junction output, V2, is not zero volts. It is a
function of absolute temperature.
By adding the voltage of the ice point reference
junction, we have now referenced the reading V to 0C.
This method is very accurate because the ice point
temperature can be precisely controlled. The ice point is
used by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) as the
fundamental reference point for their thermocouple
tables, so we can now look at the NBS tables and
directly convert from voltage V to Temperature TJ1.
Cu
then V becomes:
V = V1 - V2 = [(TJ1 + 273.15) - (TJ2+ 273.15)]
= (TJ1 - TJ2) = (TJ1 - 0)
V = TJ1
J3
J3
Cu
J4
T1
TREF
J1
Cu
Ice Bath
REMOVING JUNCTIONS FROM DVM TERMINALS

Figure 8
Fe
J4
J2
Ice Bath
IRON-CONSTANTAN COUPLE
Figure 6
The isothermal block is an electrical insulator but a

good heat conductor, and it serves to hold J3 and J4 at
the same temperature. The absolute block temperature
is unimportant because the two Cu-Fe junctions act in
opposition. We still have
V = (T1 - TREF)
Z-22
Reference Circuit
Lets replace the ice bath with another isothermal
block
This is a useful conclusion, as it completely eliminates

the need for the iron (Fe) wire in the LO lead:
Isothermal Block
Cu
HI
LO
Cu
J1
J3
J4
Fe
Voltmeter
Cu
Fe
Cu
Fe
J3
J4
J REF
TREF Isothermal Block
TREF
ELIMINATING THE ICE BATH

Figure 9a
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Figure 11
The new block is at Reference Temperature TREF, and

because J3 and J4 are still at the same temperature, we
can again show that
V = (T1-TREF)
This is still a rather inconvenient circuit because we
have to connect two thermocouples. Lets eliminate the
extra Fe wire in the negative (LO) lead by combining the
Cu-Fe junction (J4) and the Fe-C junction (JREF).
We can do this by first joining the two isothermal
blocks (Figure 9b).
Cu
HI
Again, V = (TJ1 - TREF), where is the Seebeck

coefficient for an Fe-C thermocouple.|
Junctions J3 and J4, take the place of the ice bath.
These two junctions now become the Reference
Junction.
Now we can proceed to the next logical step: Directly
measure the temperature of the isothermal block (the
Reference Junction) and use that information to
compute the unknown temperature, TJ1.
Block Temperature = TREF
Fe
Cu
J1
J3
LO
Cu
J4
Fe
J REF
V = (TJ1 - TJREF )
Now we call upon the law of intermediate metals (see
Appendix A) to eliminate the extra junction. This
empirical law states that a third metal (in this case,
iron) inserted between the two dissimilar metals of a
thermocouple junction will have no effect upon the
output voltage as long as the two junctions formed by
the additional metal are at the same temperature:
=
Metal A
Metal C
Isothermal Connection
Thus the low lead in Fig. 9b:
Cu
Becomes:
Fe
Cu
TREF
TREF
LAW OF INTERMEDIATE METALS

Figure 10
+
V1
J1
Cu
RT
EXTERNAL REFERENCE JUNCTION-NO ICE BATH

Figure 12
We havent changed the output voltage V. It is still
Metal C
Fe
Voltmeter
Isothermal Bloc k @ TREF
Metal B
J3
J4
JOINING THE ISOTHERMAL BLOCKS

Figure 9b
Metal A
J1
A thermistor, whose resistance RT is a function of

temperature, provides us with a way to measure the
absolute temperature of the reference junction.
Junctions J3 and J4 and the thermistor are all assumed
to be at the same temperature, due to the design of the
isothermal block. Using a digital multimeter under
computer control, we simply:
1) Measure RT to find TREF and convert TREF
to its equivalent reference junction
voltage, VREF , then
2) Measure V and subtract VREF to find V1,
and convert V1 to temperature TJ1.
This procedure is known as Software Compensation
because it relies upon the software of a computer to
compensate for the effect of the reference junction. The
isothermal terminal block temperature sensor can be
any device which has a characteristic proportional to
absolute temperature: an RTD, a thermistor, or an
integrated circuit sensor.
It seems logical to ask: If we already have a device
that will measure absolute temperature (like an RTD or
thermistor), why do we even bother with a thermocouple
that requires reference junction compensation? The
Z-23
single most important answer to this question is that the

thermistor, the RTD, and the integrated circuit
transducer are only useful over a certain temperature
range. Thermocouples, on the other hand, can be used
over a range of temperatures, and optimized for various
atmospheres. They are much more rugged than
thermistors, as evidenced by the fact that
thermocouples are often welded to a metal part or
clamped under a screw. They can be manufactured on
the spot, either by soldering or welding. In short,
thermocouples are the most versatile temperature
transducers available and, since the measurement
system performs the entire task of reference
compensation and software voltage to-temperature
conversion, using a thermocouple becomes as easy as
connecting a pair of wires.
Thermocouple measurement becomes especially
convenient when we are required to monitor a large
number of data points. This is accomplished by using
the isothermal reference junction for more than one
thermocouple element (see Figure 13).
A reed relay scanner connects the voltmeter to the
various thermocouples in sequence. All of the voltmeter
and scanner wires are copper, independent of the type
of thermocouple chosen. In fact, as long as we know
what each thermocouple is, we can mix thermocouple
types on the same isothermal junction block (often
called a zone box) and make the appropriate
modifications in software. The junction block
temperature sensor RT is located at the center of the
block to minimize errors due to thermal gradients.
Software compensation is the most versatile
technique we have for measuring thermocouples. Many
thermocouples are connected on the same block,
copper leads are used throughout the scanner, and the
technique is independent of the types of thermocouples
chosen. In addition, when using a data acquisition
system with a built-in zone box, we simply connect the
thermocouple as we would a pair of test leads. All of the
conversions are performed by the computer. The one
disadvantage is that the computer requires a small
amount of additional time to calculate the reference
junction temperature. For maximum speed we can use
hardware compensation.
Fe
Cu
Fe
HI
LO
Voltmeter
Pt - 10% Rh
Isothermal Block
(Zone Box)
ZONE BOX SWITCHING

Figure 13
Hardware Compensation
Rather than measuring the temperature of the
reference junction and computing its equivalent voltage
as we did with software compensation, we could insert
a battery to cancel the offset voltage of the reference
junction. The combination of this hardware
compensation voltage and the reference junction
voltage is equal to that of a 0C junction.
The compensation voltage, e, is a function of the
temperature sensing resistor, RT. The voltage V is now
referenced to 0C, and may be read directly and
converted to temperature by using the NBS tables.
Another 2name for this circuit is the electronic ice point
reference. These circuits are commercially available for
use with any voltmeter and with a wide variety of
thermocouples. The major drawback is that a unique ice
point reference circuit is usually needed for each
individual thermocouple type.
Figure 15 shows a practical ice point reference circuit
that can be used in conjunction with a reed relay
scanner to compensate an entire block of thermocouple
inputs. All the thermocouples in the block must be of the
same type, but each block of inputs can accommodate
a different thermocouple type by simply changing gain
resistors.
Fe
Fe
Cu
Fe
Cu
Cu
T
v
Pt
All Copper Wires
Cu
RT
Fe
T
Fe
Cu
Cu
+
RT
Cu
e
0C
Refer to Bibliography 6.
HARDWARE COMPENSATION CIRCUIT

Figure 14
Z-24
OMEGA TAC-Electronic Ice Point and

Thermocouple Preamplifier/Linearizer Plugs
into Standard Connector
OMEGA Electronic Ice Point Built into Thermocouple Connector -MCJ
Cu
Fe
Cu
OMEGA Ice Point Reference Chamber.

Electronic Refigeration Eliminates Ice Bath
C
RH
PRACTICAL HARDWARE COMPENSATION

Figure 15
The advantage of the hardware compensation circuit
or electronic ice point reference is that we eliminate the
need to compute the reference temperature. This saves
us two computation steps and makes a hardware
compensation temperature measurement somewhat
faster than a software compensation measurement.
HARDWARE COMPENSATION
SOFTWARE COMPENSATION
Fast
Restricted to one thermocouple
type per card
Requires more computer

manipulation time
Versatile - accepts any thermocouple
TABLE 2
Voltage-To-Temperature Conversion
We have used hardware and software compensation
to synthesize an ice-point reference. Now all we have to
do is to read the digital voltmeter and convert the
voltage reading to a temperature. Unfortunately, the
temperature-versus-voltage relationship of a
thermocouple is not linear. Output voltages for the more
common thermocouples are plotted as a function of
temperature in Figure 16. If the slope of the curve (the
Seebeck coefficient) is plotted vs. temperature, as in
Figure 17, it becomes quite obvious that the
thermocouple is a non-linear device.
A horizontal line in Figure 17 would indicate a
constant , in other words, a linear device. We notice
that the slope of the type K thermocouple approaches a
constant over a temperature range from 0C to 1000C.
Consequently, the type K can be used with a multiplying
voltmeter and an external ice point reference to obtain a
moderately accurate direct readout of temperature. That
is, the temperature display involves only a scale factor.
This procedure works with voltmeters.
By examining the variations in Seebeck coefficient,
3
Z-25
80
E
Type
Metals
+
60
Millivolts
Integrated Temperature
Sensor
we can easily see that using one constant scale factor

would limit the temperature range of the system and
restrict the system accuracy. Better conversion accuracy
can be obtained by reading the voltmeter and consulting
the National Bureau of Standards Thermocouple
Tables3 in Section T of the OMEGA TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK - see Table 3.
T = a0 +a1 x + a2x2 + a3x3 . . . +anxn
where
T = Temperature
x = Thermocouple EMF in Volts
a = Polynomial coefficients unique to each
thermocouple
n = Maximum order of the polynomial
As n increases, the accuracy of the polynomial
improves. A representative number is n = 9 for 1C
accuracy. Lower order polynomials may be used over a
narrow temperature range to obtain higher system
speed.
Table 4 is an example of the polynomials used to
convert voltage to temperature. Data may be utilized in
packages for a data acquisition system. Rather than
directly calculating the exponentials, the computer is
programmed to use the nested polynomial form to save
execution time. The polynomial fit rapidly degrades
outside the temperature range shown in Table 4 and
should not be extrapolated outside those limits.
K
E
J
K
R
40
20
S
T
500
Chromel vs. Constantan

Iron vs. Constantan
Chromel vs. Alumel
Platinum vs. Platinum
13% Rhodium
Platinum vs. Platinum
10% Rhodium
Copper vs. Constantan
1000 1500 2000
Temperature C
THERMOCOUPLE TEMPERATURE
vs.
VOLTAGE GRAPH
Figure 16
mV
Seebeck Coefficient mV/C
100
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.30
1.40
80
E
J
60
Linear Region
(SeeText)
40
K
20
R
S
500
500
1000
Temperature C
1500
.00
.01
.02
0.00
1.70
3.40
5.09
6.78
8.47
10.15
11.82
13.49
15.16
16.83
18.48
20.14
21.79
23.44
0.17
1.87
3.57
5.26
6.95
8.63
10.31
11.99
13.66
15.33
16.99
18.65
20.31
21.96
23.60
0.34
2.04
3.74
5.43
7.12
8.80
10.48
12.16
13.83
15.49
17.16
18.82
20.47
22.12
23.77
.03
.04
.05
.06
.07
.08
TEMPERATURES IN DEGREES C (IPTS 1968)
0.51
2.21
3.91
5.60
7.29
8.97
10.65
12.32
13.99
15.66
17.32
18.98
20.64
22.29
23.93
TYPE J
Nickel-10% Chromium(+)
TYPE R
Nickel-10% Chromium(+)
Versus
Constantan(-)
1.02
2.72
4.42
6.11
7.79
9.47
11.15
12.83
14.49
16.16
17.82
19.48
21.13
22.78
24.42
1.19
2.89
4.58
6.27
7.96
9.64
11.32
12.99
14.66
16.33
17.99
19.64
21.30
22.94
24.59
1.36
3.06
4.75
6.44
8.13
9.81
11.49
13.16
14.83
16.49
18.15
19.81
21.46
23.11
24.75
1.53
3.23
4.92
6.61
8.30
9.98
11.65
13.33
14.99
16.66
18.32
19.97
21.63
23.27
24.92
1.70
3.40
5.09
6.78
8.47
10.15
11.82
13.49
15.16
16.83
18.48
20.14
21.79
23.44
25.08
TYPE E THERMOCOUPLE
Table 3
TYPE K
Iron(+)
Versus
0.85
2.55
4.25
5.94
7.62
9.31
10.98
12.66
14.33
15.99
17.66
19.31
20.97
22.62
24.26
.10
Constantan(-)
TYPE S
TYPE T
Platinum-13% Rhodium(+) Platinum-10% Rhodium(+)
Copper(+)
Versus
Versus
Versus
Versus
Nickel-5%(-)
(Aluminum Silicon)
0C to 1370C
0.7C
8th order
Platinum(-)
Platinum(-)
Constantan(-)
0C to 1750C
1C
9th order
-160C to 400C
0.5C
7th order
-100C to 1000C
0.5C
9th order
0C to 760C
0.1C
5th order
a1
0.104967248
-0.048868252
0.226584602
0.263632917
0.927763167
0.100860910
a2
17189.45282
19873.14503
24152.10900
179075.491
169526.5150
25727.94369
a3
-282639. 0850
-218614.5353
67233.4248
-48840341.37
-31568363.94
-767345.8295
a4
12695339.5
11569199.78
2210340.682
1.90002E + 10
8990730663
78025595.81
a5
-448703084.6
-264917531.4
-860963914.9
-4.82704E + 12
-1.63565E + 12
-9247486589
a6
1.10866E + 10
2018441314
a7
-1. 76807E + 11
a0
0C to 1000C
0.5C
8th order
4.83506E + 10
7.62091E + 14
1.88027E + 14
6.97688E + 11
-1. 18452E + 12
-7.20026E + 16
-1.37241E + 16
-2.66192E + 13
3.94078E + 14
a8
1.71842E + 12
1.38690E + 13
3.71496E + 18
6.17501E + 17
a9
-9.19278E + 12
-6.33708E + 13
-8.03104E + 19
-1.56105E + 19
2.06132E + 13
1.69535E + 20
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION EQUATION: T = a0 +a1 x + a2x2 + . . . +anxn

NESTED POLYNOMIAL FORM: T = a0 + x(a1 + x(a2 + x (a3 + x(a4 + a5x)))) (5th order)
where x is in Volts, T is in C
NBS POLYNOMIAL COEFFICIENTS
Table 4
The calculation of high-order polynomials is a timeAll the foregoing procedures assume the
consuming task for a computer. As we mentioned
thermocouple voltage can be measured accurately and
before, we can save time by using a lower order
easily; however, a quick glance at Table 3 shows us that
polynomial for a smaller temperature range. In the
thermocouple output voltages are very small indeed.
software for one data acquisition system, the
Examine the requirements of the system voltmeter:
thermocouple characteristic curve is divided into eight
THERMOCOUPLE
SEEBECK
DVM SENSITIVITY
sectors, and each sector is approximated by a thirdTYPE
COEFFICIENT
FOR 0.1C
order polynomial.*
(V/C) @ 20C
(V)
Temp.
E
J
K
R
S
T
CURVE DIVIDED INTO SECTORS

Figure 18
62
51
40
7
7
40
6.2
5.1
4.0
0.7
0.7
4.0
REQUIRED DVM SENSITIVITY
Voltage
Ta = bx + cx + dx
mV
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.30
1.40
2000
SEEBECK COEFFICIENT vs. TEMPERATURE

Figure 17
TYPE E
0.68
2.38
4.08
5.77
7.46
9.14
10.82
12.49
14.16
15.83
17.49
19.15
20.80
22.45
24.10
.09
Table 5
Even for the common type K thermocouple, the
voltmeter must be able to resolve 4 V to detect a
0. 1C change. The magnitude of this signal is an open
invitation for noise to creep into any system. For this
reason, instrument designers utilize several
fundamental noise rejection techniques, including tree
switching, normal mode filtering, integration and
guarding.
* HEWLETT PACKARD 3054A.
Z-26
PRACTICAL THERMOCOUPLE MEASUREMENT

Noise Rejection
C
DVM
C
+
Signal
(20 Channels)
C
Tree
Switch1
HI
=
Noise
Sour ce
Signal
DVM
20 C
+
Signal
DVM
HI
Noise ~
Source
HI
~
Stray capacitance to noise
source is reduced nearly
20:1 by leaving Tree
Switch 2 open.
Next 20 Channels
C
Tree
Switch2
~
=
TREE SWITCHING
Figure 19
Tree Switching - Tree switching is a method of

organizing the channels of a scanner into groups, each
with its own main switch.
Guarding - Guarding is a technique used to reduce

interference from any noise source that is common to
both high and low measurement leads, i.e., from
common mode noise sources.
Without tree switching, every channel can contribute

noise directly through its stray capacitance. With tree
switching, groups of parallel channel capacitances are
in series with a single tree switch capacitance. The
result is greatly reduced crosstalk in a large data
acquisition system, due to the reduced interchannel
capacitance.
Lets assume a thermocouple wire has been pulled

through the same conduit as a 220 Vac supply line. The
capacitance between the power lines and the
thermocouple lines will create an AC signal of
approximately equal magnitude on both thermocouple
wires. This common mode signal is not a problem in an
ideal circuit, but the voltmeter is not ideal. It has some
capacitance between its low terminal and safety ground
(chassis). Current flows through this capacitance and
through the thermocouple lead resistance, creating a
normal mode noise signal. The guard, physically a
floating metal box surrounding the entire voltmeter
circuit, is connected to a shield surrounding the
thermocouple wire, and serves to shunt the interfering
current.
Analog Filter - A filter may be used directly at the

input of a voltmeter to reduce noise. It reduces
interference dramatically, but causes the voltmeter to
respond more slowly to step inputs.
Integration - Integration is an A/D technique which
essentially averages noise over a full line cycle; thus,
power line related noise and its harmonics are virtually
eliminated. If the integration period is chosen to be less
than an integer line cycle, its noise rejection properties
are essentially negated.
Since thermocouple circuits that cover long distances
are especially susceptible to power line related noise, it
is advisable to use an integrating analog-to-digital
converter to measure the thermocouple voltage.
Integration is an especially attractive A/D technique in
light of recent innovations which allow reading rates of
48 samples per second with full cycle integration.
VIN
Z-27
VOUT
ANALOG FILTER
Figure 20
220 VAC Line
Distributed
Capacitance
HI
LO
Distributed
Resistance
Without Guard
DVM
HI
LO
Without Guard
Guard
DVM
GUARD SHUNTS INTERFERING WITH CURRENT

Figure 21
Each shielded thermocouple junction can directly
HI
contact an interfering source with no adverse effects,
R
since provision is made on the scanner to switch the
LO
guard terminal separately for each thermocouple
Guard
channel. This method of connecting the shield to guard
serves to eliminate ground loops often created when
Noise Current
the shields are connected to earth ground.
Figure 24
The dvm guard is especially useful in eliminating
noise voltages created when the thermocouple junction
Notice that we can also minimize the noise by
comes into direct contact with a common mode noise
minimizing
Rs. We do this by using larger thermocouple
source.
wire that has a smaller series resistance.
S
To reduce the possibility of magnetically induced

noise, the thermocouple should be twisted in a uniform
manner. Thermocouple extension wires are available
commercially in a twisted pair configuration.
240 VRMS
Figure 22
In Figure 22 we want to measure the temperature at
the center of a molten metal bath that is being heated
by electric current. The potential at the center of the
bath is 120 V RMS. The equivalent circuit is:
HI
RS
LO
120VRMS
Noise Current
Figure 23
Practical Precautions - We have discussed the

concepts of the reference junction, how to use a
polynomial to extract absolute temperature data, and
what to look for in a data acquisition system, to
minimize the effects of noise. Now lets look at the
thermocouple wire itself. The polynomial curve fit relies
upon the thermocouple wires being perfect; that is, it
must not become decalibrated during the act of making
a temperature measurement. We shall now discuss
some of the pitfalls of thermocouple thermometry.
Aside from the specified accuracies of the data
acquisition system and its zone box, most measurement
errors may be traced to one of these primary sources:
1. Poor junction connection
2. Decalibration of thermocouple wire
3. Shunt impedance and galvanic action
4. Thermal shunting
5. Noise and leakage currents
6. Thermocouple specifications
7. Documentation
The stray capacitance from the dvm Lo terminal to

chassis causes a current to flow in the low lead, which
in turn causes a noise voltage to be dropped across the
series resistance of the thermocouple, Rs. This voltage
appears directly across the dvm Hi to Lo terminals and
causes a noisy measurement. If we use a guard lead
connected directly to the thermocouple, we drastically
reduce the current flowing in the Lo lead. The noise
current now flows in the guard lead where it cannot
affect the reading:
Z-28
Poor Junction Connection

There are a number of acceptable ways to connect
two thermocouple wires: soldering, silver-soldering,
welding, etc. When the thermocouple wires are
soldered together, we introduce a third metal into the
thermocouple circuit, but as long as the temperatures
on both sides of the thermocouple are the same, the
solder should not introduce any error. The solder does
limit the maximum temperature to which we can subject
this junction. To reach a higher measurement
temperature, the joint must be welded. But welding is
not a process to be taken lightly.3 Overheating can
degrade the wire, and the welding gas and the
atmosphere in which the wire is welded can both diffuse
into the thermocouple metal, changing its
characteristics. The difficulty is compounded by the very
different nature of the two metals being joined.
Commercial thermocouples are welded on expensive
machinery using a capacitive-discharge technique to
insure uniformity.
Robert Moffat in his Gradient Approach to

Thermocouple Thermometry explains that the
thermocouple voltage is actually generated by the
section of wire that contains the temperature gradient,
and not necessarily by the junction.4 For example, if we
have a thermal probe located in a molten metal bath,
there will be two regions that are virtually isothermal
and one that has a large gradient.
In Figure 26, the thermocouple junction will not
produce any part of the output voltage. The shaded
section will be the one producing virtually the entire
thermocouple output voltage. If, due to aging or
annealing, the output of this thermocouple were found
25C
200
300
400
500
500C
Metal Bath
Fe
C
Solder (Pb, Sn)
GRADIENT PRODUCES VOLTAGE

Figure 26
Junction: Fe - Pb, Sn - C = Fe - C
SOLDERING A THERMOCOUPLE
Figure 25
to be drifting, then replacing the thermocouple junction

alone would not solve the problem. We would have to
replace the entire shaded section, since it is the source
of the thermocouple voltage.
A poor weld can, of course, result in an open

connection, which can be detected in a measurement
situation by performing an open thermocouple check.
This is a common test function available with
dataloggers. While the open thermocouple is the
easiest malfunction to detect, it is not necessarily the
most common mode of failure.
Decalibration
Decalibration is a far more serious fault condition than
the open thermocouple because it can result in a
temperature reading that appears to be correct.
Decalibration describes the process of unintentionally
altering the physical makeup of the thermocouple wire
so that it no longer conforms to the NBS polynomial
within specified limits. Decalibration can result from
diffusion of atmospheric particles into the metal caused
by temperature extremes. It can be caused by high
temperature annealing or by cold-working the metal, an
effect that can occur when the wire is drawn through a
conduit or strained by rough handling or vibration.
Annealing can occur within the section of wire that
undergoes a temperature gradient.
3 Refer
to Bibliography 5
Refer to Bibliography 9
5 Refer to Bibliography 7
100C
Thermocouple wire obviously cant be manufactured

perfectly; there will be some defects which will cause
output voltage errors. These inhomogeneities can be
especially disruptive if they occur in a region of steep
temperature gradient. Since we dont know where an
imperfection will occur within a wire, the best thing we
can do is to avoid creating a steep gradient. Gradients
can be reduced by using metallic sleeving or by careful
placement of the thermocouple wire.
Shunt Impedance
High temperatures can also take their toll on
thermocouple wire insulators. Insulation resistance
decreases exponentially with increasing temperature,
even to the point that it creates a virtual junction.5
Assume we have a completely open thermocouple
operating at a high temperature.
The leakage Resistance, RL, can be sufficiently low to
complete the circuit path and give us an improper
voltage reading. Now lets assume the thermocouple is
not open, but we are using a very long section of small
diameter wire.
Z-29
RL
To DVM
LEAKAGE RESISTANCE
Figure 27
RS
RS
RL
To DVM
RS
T1
T2
RS
VIRTUAL JUNCTION
Figure 28
If the thermocouple wire is small, its series resistance,

RS, will be quite high and under extreme conditions RL
< < RS. This means that the thermocouple junction will
appear to be at RL and the output will be proportional to
T1 not T2.
High temperatures have other detrimental effects on
thermocouple wire. The impurities and chemicals within
the insulation can actually diffuse into the thermocouple
metal causing the temperature-voltage dependence to
deviate from published values. When using
thermocouples at high temperatures, the insulation
should be chosen carefully. Atmospheric effects can be
minimized by choosing the proper protective metallic or
ceramic sheath
Galvanic Action
The dyes used in some thermocouple insulation will
form an electrolyte in the presence of water. This
creates a galvanic action, with a resultant output
hundreds of times greater than the Seebeck effect.
Precautions should be taken to shield thermocouple
wires from all harsh atmospheres and liquids.
Thermal Shunting
No thermocouple can be made without mass. Since it
takes energy to heat any mass, the thermocouple will
slightly alter the temperature it is meant to measure. If
the mass to be measured is small, the thermocouple
must naturally be small. But a thermocouple made with
small wire is far more susceptible to the problems of
contamination, annealing, strain, and shunt impedance.
To minimize these effects, thermocouple extension wire
can be used. Extension wire is commercially available
wire primarily intended to cover long distances between
the measuring thermocouple and the voltmeter.
Extension wire is made of metals having Seebeck
coefficients very similar to a particular thermocouple
type. It is generally larger in size so that its series
resistance does not become a factor when traversing
long distances. It can also be pulled more readily
through a conduit than can very small thermocouple
wire. It generally is specified over a much lower

temperature range than premium grade thermocouple
wire. In addition to offering a practical size advantage,
extension wire is less expensive than standard
thermocouple wire. This is especially true in the case of
platinum-based thermocouples.
Since the extension wire is specified over a narrower
temperature range and it is more likely to receive
mechanical stress, the temperature gradient across the
extension wire should be kept to a minimum. This,
according to the gradient theory, assures that virtually
none of the output signal will be affected by the
extension wire.
Noise - We have already discussed line-related noise
as it pertains to the data acquisition system. The
techniques of integration, tree switching and guarding
serve to cancel most line-related interference.
Broadband noise can be rejected with the analog filter.
The one type of noise the data acquisition system
cannot reject is a dc offset caused by a dc leakage
current in the system. While it is less common to see dc
leakage currents of sufficient magnitude to cause
appreciable error, the possibility of their presence
should be noted and prevented, especially if the
thermocouple wire is very small and the related series
impedance is high.
Wire Calibration
Thermocouple wire is manufactured to a certain
specification, signifying its conformance with the NBS
tables. The specification can sometimes be enhanced
by calibrating the wire (testing it at known
temperatures). Consecutive pieces of wire on a
continuous spool will generally track each other more
closely than the specified tolerance, although their
output voltages may be slightly removed from the center
of the absolute specification.
If the wire is calibrated in an effort to improve its
fundamental specifications, it becomes even more
imperative that all of the aforementioned conditions be
heeded in order to avoid decalibration.
Z-30
Documentation - It may seem incongruous to speak

of documentation as being a source of voltage
measurement error, but the fact is that thermocouple
systems, by their very ease of use, invite a large number
of data points. The sheer magnitude of the data can
become quite unwieldy. When a large amount of data is
taken, there is an increased probability of error due to
mislabeling of lines, using the wrong NBS curve, etc.
Since channel numbers invariably change, data
should be categorized by measureand, not just channel
number.6 Information about any given measureand,
such as transducer type, output voltage, typical value
and location, can be maintained in a data file. This can
be done under computer control or simply by filling out
a pre-printed form. No matter how the data is
maintained, the importance of a concise system should
not be underestimated, especially at the outset of a
complex data gathering project.
Diagnostics
Most of the sources of error that we have mentioned
are aggravated by using the thermocouple near its
temperature limits. These conditions will be
encountered infrequently in most applications. But what
about the situation where we are using small
thermocouples in a harsh atmosphere at high
temperatures? How can we tell when the thermocouple
is producing erroneous results? We need to develop a
reliable set of diagnostic procedures.
Through the use of diagnostic techniques, R.P. Reed
has developed an excellent system for detecting faulty
thermocouples and data channels.6 Three components
of this system are the event record, the zone box test,
and the thermocouple resistance history.
MARCH 18 EVENT RECORD

10:43 Power failure
10:47 System power returned
11:05 Changed M821 to type K thermocouple
13:51 New data acquisition program
16:07 M821 appears to be bad reading
Figure 29
We look at our program listing and find that measurand
#M821 uses a type J thermocouple and that our new data
acquisition program interprets it as a type J. But from the
event record, apparently thermocouple M821 was
changed to a type K, and the change was not entered into
the program. While most anomalies are not discovered
this easily, the event record can provide valuable insight
into the reason for an unexplained change in a system
measurement. This is especially true in a system
configured to measure hundreds of data points.
If the thermocouple lead resistance is much greater

than the shunting resistance, the copper wire shunt
forces V = 0. In the normal unshorted case, we want to
measure TJ, and the system reads:
V (TJ - TREF)
But, for the functional test, we have shorted the terminals
so that V=0. The indicated temperature TJ is thus:
0 = (TJ - TREF)
TJ = TREF
Thus, for a dvm reading of V = 0, the system will
indicate the zone box temperature. First we observe the
temperature TJ (forced to be different from TREF), then
we short the thermocouple with a copper wire and
make sure that the system indicates the zone box
temperature instead of TJ.
TREF
Cu
Fe
Cu
+
v
Copper Wire Short

C
TJ
Cu
Voltmeter
Cu
Zone Box
Isothermal Block
SHORTING THE THERMOCOUPLE AT THE TERMINALS

Figure 30
Event Record - The first diagnostic is not a test at all,

but a recording of all pertinent events that could even
remotely affect the measurements. An example would be:
Zone Box Test - A zone box is an isothermal terminal

block of known temperature used in place of an ice bath
reference. If we temporarily short-circuit the
thermocouple directly at the zone box, the system
should read a temperature very close to that of the zone
box, i.e., close to room temperature.
This simple test verifies that the controller, scanner,

voltmeter and zone box compensation are all operating
correctly. In fact, this simple procedure tests everything
but the thermocouple wire itself.
Thermocouple Resistance - A sudden change in the
resistance of a thermocouple circuit can act as a
warning indicator. If we plot resistance vs. time for each
set of thermocouple wires, we can immediately spot a
sudden resistance change, which could be an indication
of an open wire, a wire shorted due to insulation failure,
changes due to vibration fatigue, or one of many failure
mechanisms.
For example, assume we have the thermocouple
measurement shown in Figure 31.
We want to measure the temperature profile of an
underground seam of coal that has been ignited. The
wire passes through a high temperature region, into a
cooler region. Suddenly, the temperature we measure
rises from 300C to 1200C. Has the burning section of
the coal seam migrated to a different location, or has
the thermocouple insulation failed, thus causing a short
circuit between the two wires at the point of a hot spot?
Z-31
To Data
Acquisition
System
T1
T = 1200C
switched on and the voltage across the resistance is

measured again. The voltmeter software compensates
for the offset voltage of the thermocouple and
calculates the actual thermocouple source resistance.
Special Thermocouples - Under extreme conditions,
we can even use diagnostic thermocouple circuit
configurations. Tip-branched and leg-branched
thermocouples are four-wire thermocouple circuits that
allow redundant measurement of temperature, noise,
voltage and resistance for checking wire integrity. Their
respective merits are discussed in detail in REF. 8.
T = 300C
BURNING COAL SEAM

Figure 31
If we have a continuous history of the thermocouple
wire resistance, we can deduce what has actually
happened.
Only severe thermocouple applications require such

extensive diagnostics, but it is comforting to know that
there are procedures that can be used to verify the
integrity of an important thermocouple measurement.
Time
t1
Leg-Branched Thermocouple
THERMOCOUPLE RESISTANCE vs. TIME

Figure 32
The resistance of a thermocouple will naturally
change with time as the resistivity of the wire changes
due to varying temperature. But a sudden change in
resistance is an indication that something is wrong. In
this case, the resistance has dropped abruptly,
indicating that the insulation has failed, effectively
shortening the thermocouple loop.
Tip-Branched Thermocouple
Figure 34
Summary
T1
TS
Short
CAUSE OF THE RESISTANCE CHANGE

Figure 33
The new junction will measure temperature Ts, not T1.
The resistance measurement has given us additional
information to help interpret the physical phenomenon
detected by a standard open thermocouple check.
Measuring Resistance - We have casually
mentioned checking the resistance of the thermocouple
wire as if it were a straightforward measurement. But
keep in mind that when the thermocouple is producing a
voltage, this voltage can cause a large resistance
measurement error. Measuring the resistance of a
thermocouple is akin to measuring the internal
resistance of a battery. We can attack this problem with
a technique known as offset compensated ohms
measurement.
As the name implies, the voltmeter first measures the
thermocouple offset voltage without the ohms current
source applied. Then the ohms current source is
In summary, the integrity of a thermocouple system

can be improved by following these precautions:
Use the largest wire possible that will not
shunt heat away from the measurement area.
If small wire is required, use it only in the region
of the measurement and use extension wire for
the region with no temperature gradient.
Avoid mechanical stress and vibration which
could strain the wires.
When using long thermocouple wires, connect
the wire shield to the dvm guard terminal and use
twisted pair extension wire.
Avoid steep temperature gradients.
Try to use the thermocouple wire well within its
temperature rating.
Use a guarded integrating A/D converter.
Use the proper sheathing material in hostile
environments to protect the thermocouple wire.
Use extension wire only at low temperatures and
only in regions of small gradients.
Keep an event log and a continuous record of
thermocouple resistance.
Z-32
THE RTD
History
The same year that Seebeck made his discovery
about thermoelectricity, Sir Humphrey Davy announced
that the resistivity of metals showed a marked
temperature dependence. Fifty years later, Sir William
Siemens proffered the use of platinum as the element in
a resistance thermometer. His choice proved most
propitious, as platinum is used to this day as the
primary element in all high-accuracy resistance
thermometers. In fact, the Platinum Resistance
Temperature Detector, or PRTD, is used today as an
interpolation standard from the oxygen point
(-182.96C) to the antimony point (630.74C).
Platinum is especially suited to this purpose, as it can
withstand high temperatures while maintaining excellent
stability. As a noble metal, it shows limited susceptibility
to contamination.
The classical resistance temperature detector (RTD)
construction using platinum was proposed by C.H.
Meyers in 1932.7 He wound a helical coil of platinum on
a crossed mica web and mounted the assembly inside
a glass tube. This construction minimized strain on the
wire while maximizing resistance.
A more rugged construction technique is shown in

Figure 37. The platinum wire is bifilar wound on a glass
or ceramic bobbin. The bifilar winding reduces the
effective enclosed area of the coil to minimize magnetic
pickup and its related noise. Once the wire is wound
onto the bobbin, the assembly is then sealed with a
coating of molten glass. The sealing process assures
that the RTD will maintain its integrity under extreme
vibration, but it also limits the expansion of the platinum
metal at high temperatures. Unless the coefficients of
expansion of the platinum and the bobbin match
perfectly, stress will be placed on the wire as the
temperature changes, resulting in a strain-induced
resistance change. This may result in a permanent
change in the resistance of the wire.
There are partially supported versions of the RTD
which offer a compromise between the bird-cage
approach and the sealed helix. One such approach
uses a platinum helix threaded through a ceramic
cylinder and affixed via glass-frit. These devices will
maintain excellent stability in moderately rugged
vibrational applications.
Typical RTD Probes
MYERS RTD CONSTRUCTION

Figure 35
Thick Film Omega Film Element

Thin Film Omega TFD Element
Although this construction produces a very stable

element, the thermal contact between the platinum and
the measured point is quite poor. This results in a slow
thermal response time. The fragility of the structure
limits its use today primarily to that of a laboratory
standard.
Another laboratory standard has taken the place of
Meyers design. This is the bird-cage element proposed
by Evans and Burns.8 The platinum element remains
largely unsupported, which allows it to move freely
when expanded or contracted by temperature
variations.
Strain-induced resistance changes over time and
temperature are thus minimized, and the bird-cage
becomes the ultimate laboratory standard. Due to the
unsupported structure and subsequent susceptibility to
vibration, this configuration is still a bit too fragile for
industrial environments.
7 Refer
8
to Bibliography 12
Glass sealed Biflar Winding
TYPICAL RTDs
FIgures 36 and 37
Metal Film RTDs

In the newest construction technique, a platinum or
metal-glass slurry film is deposited or screened onto a
small flat ceramic substrate, etched with a lasertrimming system, and sealed. The film RTD offers
substantial reduction in assembly time and has the
further advantage of increased resistance for a given
size. Due to the manufacturing technology, the device
size itself is small, which means it can respond quickly
to step changes in temperature. Film RTDs are
presently less stable than their hand-made
counterparts, but they are becoming more popular
because of their decided advantages in size and
production cost. These advantages should provide the
impetus for future research needed to improve stability.
Z-33
Metals - All metals produce a positive change in

resistance for a positive change in temperature. This, of
course, is the main function of an RTD. As we shall
soon see, system error is minimized when the nominal
value of the RTD resistance is large. This implies a
metal wire with a high resistivity. The lower the resistivity
of the metal, the more material we will have to use.
temperature measurement.
A ten ohm lead impedance implies 10/.385 26C
error in measurement. Even the temperature coefficient
of the lead wire can contribute a measurable error. The
classical method of avoiding this problem has been the
use of a bridge.
Table 6 lists the resistivities of common RTD

materials.
METAL
_________
Gold
Silver
Copper
Platinum
Tungsten
Nickel
RESISTIVITY OHM/CMF
(cmf = circular mil foot)
___________________
Au
Ag
Cu
Pt
w
Ni
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Figure 39
Table 6
Because of their lower resistivities, gold and silver are
rarely used as RTD elements. Tungsten has a relatively
high resistivity, but is reserved for very high temperature
applications because it is extremely brittle and difficult
to work.
Copper is used occasionally as an RTD element. Its
low resistivity forces the element to be longer than a
platinum element, but its linearity and very low cost
make it an economical alternative. Its upper
temperature limit is only about 120C.
The common values of resistance for a platinum RTD

range from 10 ohms for the bird-cage model to several
thousand ohms for the film RTD. The single most
common value is 100 ohms at 0C. The DIN 43760
standard temperature coefficient of platinum wire is =
.00385. For a 100 ohm wire, this corresponds to + 0.385
ohms/C at 0C. This value for is actually the average
slope from 0C to 100C. The more chemically pure
platinum wire used in platinum resistance standards
has an of +.00392 ohms/ohm/C.
100 RTD
Lead
R=5
EFFECT OF LEAD RESISTANCE

Figure 38
DVM
Resistance Measurement
R=5
The bridge output voltage is an indirect indication of

the RTD resistance. The bridge requires four connection
wires, an external source, and three resistors that have
a zero temperature coefficient. To avoid subjecting the
three bridge-completion resistors to the same
temperature as the RTD, the RTD is separated from the
bridge by a pair of extension wires:
The most common RTDs are made of either platinum,

nickel, or nickel alloys. The economical nickel derivative
wires are used over a limited temperature range. They
are quite non-linear and tend to drift with time. For
measurement integrity, platinum is the obvious choice.
Lead
Z
RTD
13.00
8.8
9.26
59.00
30.00
36.00
Both the slope and the absolute value are small

numbers, especially when we consider the fact that the
measurement wires leading to the sensor may be
several ohms or even tens of ohms. A small lead
impedance can contribute a significant error to our
DVM
RTD
Figure 40
These extension wires recreate the problem that we
had initially: The impedance of the extension wires
affects the temperature reading. This effect can be
minimized by using a three-wire bridge configuration:
DVM
A
C
3-WIRE BRIDGE
Figure 41
If wires A and B are perfectly matched in length, their
impedance effects will cancel because each is in an
opposite leg of the bridge. The third wire, C, acts as a
sense lead and carries no current.
The Wheatstone bridge shown in Figure 41 creates a
non-linear relationship between resistance change and
bridge output voltage change. This compounds the
already non-linear temperature-resistance characteristic
of the RTD by requiring an additional equation to convert
bridge output voltage to equivalent RTD impedance.
Z-34
The error term will be small if Vo is small, i.e., the

bridge is close to balance. This circuit works well with
devices like strain gauges, which change resistance
value by only a few percent, but an RTD changes
resistance dramatically with temperature. Assume the
RTD resistance is 200 ohms and the bridge is designed
for 100 ohms:
4-Wire Ohms - The technique of using a current

source along with a remotely sensed digital voltmeter
alleviates many problems associated with the bridge.
+
i =0
i
100 W RTD
DVM
i =0
4-WIRE OHMS MEASUREMENT

Figure 42
The output voltage read by the dvm is directly portional
to RTD resistance, so only one conversion equation is
necessary. The three bridge-completion resistors are
replaced by one reference resistor. The digital voltmeter
measures only the voltage dropped across the RTD and
is insensitive to the length of the lead wires.
The one disadvantage of using 4-wire ohms is that we
need one more extension wire than the 3-wire bridge.
This is a small price to pay if we are at all concerned
with the accuracy of the temperature measurement.
RTD = Rg
R1
VS
+
-
VO
R2
R3
Figure 43
3-Wire Bridge Measurement Errors

If we know VS and VO, we can find Rg and then solve for
temperature. The unbalance voltage Vo of a bridge built
with R1 = R2 is:
VO= VS
R3
R3 + Rg
1
VS
2
()
If Rg = R3, VO= 0 and the bridge is balanced. This can

be done manually, but if we dont want to do a manual
bridge balance, we can just solve for Rg in terms of VO:
Rg = R3
Rg
VO
RL
R3
Figure 44
Again we solve for Rg:
9 Refer
4Vo
- R
(
V + 2V )
(Vs + 2V )
S
3V
200
VO
2.0066V
100
Figure 45
Since we dont know the value of RL, we must use
equation (a), so we get:
6 - 1.9868 = 199.01 ohms

Rg = 100
6 + 1.9868
The correct answer is of course 200 ohms. Thats a
temperature error of about 2.5C.
Unless you can actually measure the resistance of RL
or balance the bridge, the basic 3-wire technique is not
an accurate method for measuring absolute
temperature with an RTD. A better approach is to use a
4-wire technique.
Resistance to Temperature
Conversion
The RTD is a more linear device than the
thermocouple, but it still requires curve-fitting. The
Callendar-Van Dusen equation has been used for years
to approximate the RTD curve:9
T -
T -1
T
)(
100) (100 )(100) ]
3
VS - 2VO
+
-
Vs - 2Vo
+
-
[ (
(
V + 2V )
RL
Rg = R3
6V
T -1
RT=R0+R0 T--
100
This expression assumes the lead resistance is zero. If

Rg is located some distance from the bridge in a 3-wire
configuration, the lead resistance RL will appear in
series with both Rg and R3:
V3
2
1
-
to Bibliography 11 and 13.
Where:
RT = Resistance at Temperature T
Ro = Resistance at T = 0C
= Temperature coefficient at T = 0C
(typically +0.00392//C)
= 1.49 (typical value for .00392 platinum)
= 0
T>0
0. 11 (typical) T < 0
The exact values for coefficients , , and are
determined by testing the RTD at four temperatures and
solving the resultant equations. This familiar equation
was replaced in 1968 by a 20th order polynomial in
order to provide a more accurate curve fit.
The plot of this equation shows the RTD to be a more
linear device than the thermocouple:
Z-35
THE THERMISTOR
12
.390
.344
.293
Equivalent Linearities
Type S Thermocouple
vs.
Platinum RTD
200
400
600
Like the RTD, the thermistor is also a temperature

sensitive resistor. While the thermocouple is the most
versatile temperature transducer and the PRTD is the
most stable, the word that best describes the thermistor
is sensitive. Of the three major categories of sensors,
the thermistor exhibits by far the largest parameter
change with temperature.
Resistance Temperature
Coefficient - RTD
Type S v/C Seebeck Coefficient
16
Thermistors are generally composed of

semiconductor materials. Although positive temperature
coefficient units are available, most thermistors have a
negative temperature coefficient (TC); that is, their
resistance decreases with increasing temperature. The
negative T.C. can be as large as several percent per
degree Celsius, allowing the thermistor circuit to detect
minute changes in temperature which could not be
observed with an RTD or thermocouple circuit.
800
Temperature, C
Figure 46
Practical Precautions
The price we pay for this increased sensitivity is loss

of linearity. The thermistor is an extremely non-linear
device which is highly dependent upon process
parameters. Consequently, manufacturers have not
standardized thermistor curves to the extent that RTD
and thermocouple curves have been standardized.
The same practical precautions that apply to

thermocouples also apply to RTDs, i.e., use shields
and twisted-pair wire, use proper sheathing, avoid
stress and steep gradients, use large extension wire,
keep good documentation and use a guarded
integrating dvm. In addition, the following precautions
should be observed.
An individual thermistor curve can be very closely

approximated through use of the Steinhart-Hart
equation:18
Construction - Due to its construction, the RTD is

somewhat more fragile than the thermocouple, and
precautions must be taken to protect it.
v or R
Self-Heating - Unlike the thermocouple, the RTD is

not self-powered. A current must be passed through the
device to provide a voltage that can be measured. The
current causes Joule (I2R) heating within the RTD,
changing its temperature. This self-heating appears as
a measurement error. Consequently, attention must be
paid to the magnitude of the measurement current
supplied by the ohmmeter. A typical value for selfheating error is 12C per milliwatt in free air. Obviously,
an RTD immersed in a thermally conductive medium
will distribute its Joule heat to the medium, and the error
due to self-heating will be smaller. The same RTD that
rises 1C per milliwatt in free air will rise only 110 C per
milliwatt in air which is flowing at the rate of one meter
per second.10
RTD
Thermocouple
T
Figure 47
1
T = A + BlnR + C (In R)3
To reduce self-heating errors, use the minimum ohms

measurement current that will still give the resolution
you require, and use the largest RTD you can that will
still give good response time. Obviously, there are
compromises to be considered.
where:
T = Degrees Kelvin
Thermal Shunting - Thermal shunting is the act of

altering the measurement temperature by inserting a
measurement transducer. Thermal shunting is more a
problem with RTDs than with thermocouples, as the
physical bulk of an RTD is greater than that of a
thermocouple.
Small RTD
Large RTD
Fast Response Time

Low Thermal Shunting
High Self-Heating Error
Slow Response Time

Poor Thermal Shunting
Low Self-Heating Error
R = Resistance of the thermistor

A,B,C = Curve-fitting constants
Thermal EMF - The platinum-to-copper connection that

is made when the RTD is measured can cause a
thermal offset voltage. The offset-compensated ohms
technique can be used to eliminate this effect.
10 Refer
Thermistor
to Bibliography 6.
Z-36
A, B, and C are found by selecting three data points on

the published data curve and solving the three
simultaneous equations. When the data points are
chosen to span no more than 100C within the nominal
center of the thermistors temperature range, this
equation approaches a rather remarkable .02C curve
fit.
Somewhat faster computer execution time is achieved
through a simpler equation:
B
T= - C
In R-A
where A, B, and C are again found by selecting three
(R,T) data points and solving the three resultant
simultaneous equations. This equation must be applied
over a narrower temperature range in order to approach
the accuracy of the Steinhart-Hart equation.
Linear Thermistors
MONOLITHIC LINEAR
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
A recent innovation in thermometry is the integrated
circuit temperature transducer. It is available in both
voltage and current-output configurations. Both supply
an output that is linearily proportional to absolute
temperature. Typical values are 1 A/K and 10 mV/K.
Except for the fact that they offer a very linear output
with temperature, these devices share all the
disadvantages of thermistor devices and thus have a
limited temperature range. The same problems of selfheating and fragility are evident, and they require an
external power source.
These devices provide a convenient way to produce
an analog voltage proportional to temperature. Such a
need arises in a hardware thermocouple reference
junction compensation circuit (see Figure 15).
A great deal of effort has gone into the development

of thermistors which approach a linear characteristic.
These are typically 2- or 4-leaded devices requiring
external matching resistors to linearize the
characteristic curve. The modern data acquisition
system with its computing controller has made this kind
of hardware linearization unnecessary.
+
i = 1 A/K
10mv/
K
10k
Measurement
The high resistivity of the thermistor affords it a
distinct measurement advantage. The four-wire
resistance measurement is not required as it is with
RTDs. For example, a common thermistor value is 5000
ohms at 25C. With a typical T.C. of 4%/C, a
measurement lead resistance of 100 produces only a
.05C error. This error is a factor of 500 times less than
the equivalent RTD error.
To DVM
To DVM
A
CURRENT SENSOR
VOLTAGE SENSOR
Figure 48
Disadvantages - Because they are semiconductors,

thermistors are more susceptible to permanent
decalibration at high temperatures than are RTDs or
thermocouples. The use of thermistors is generally
limited to a few hundred degrees Celsius and
manufacturers warn that extended exposures even well
below maximum operating limits will cause the
thermistor to drift out of its specified tolerance.
APPENDIX A
Thermistors can be made very small which means

they will respond quickly to temperature changes. It also
means that their small thermal mass makes them
especially susceptible to self-heating errors.
Thermistors are a good deal more fragile than RTDs
or thermocouples and they must be carefully mounted
to avoid crushing or bond separation.
11
The Empirical Laws of

Thermocouples11
The following examples illustrate the empirically
derived laws of thermocouples which are useful in
understanding and diagnosing thermocouple circuits.
Z-37
APPENDIX B
+
Fe
Cu
Cu
--
Thermocouple Characteristics
Fe
Tl
Over the years, specific pairs of thermocouple alloys

have been developed to solve unique measurement
problems. Idiosyncrasies of the more common
thermocouples are discussed here.
Isother mal Block

T1
THE LAW OF INTERMEDIATE METALS
We will use the term standard wire error to refer to

the common commercial specifications published in the
Annual Book of ASTM Standards. It represents the
allowable deviation between the actual thermocouple
output voltage and the voltage predicted by the tables in
NBS Monograph 125.
Inserting the copper lead between the iron and

constantan leads will not change the output voltage V,
regardless of the temperature of the copper lead. The
voltage V is that of an Fe-C thermocouple at
temperature T1.
Fe
Noble Metal Thermocouples - The noble metal

thermocouples, types B, R, and S, are all platinum or
platinum-rhodium thermocouples and hence share
many of the same characteristics.
Fe
T
v
C
--
Diffusion - Metallic vapor diffusion at high

temperatures can readily change platinum wire
calibration; therefore, platinum wires should only be
used inside a non-metallic sheath such as high-purity
alumina. The one exception to this rule is a sheath
made of platinum, but this option is prohibitively
expensive.
C
Isother mal Block
T1
Stability - The platinum-based couples are by far the

most stable of all the common thermocouples. Type S is
so stable that it is specified as the standard for
temperature calibration between the antimony point
(630.74C) and the gold point (1064.43C).
THE LAW OF INTERIOR TEMPERATURES

The output voltage V will be that of an Fe-C couple at
Temperature T, regardless of the external heat source
applied to either measurement lead.
Type B - The B couple is the only common

thermocouple that exhibits a double-valued ambiguity.
C
C
T
v
Fe
Fe
--
T
Fe
Isother mal Block

T1
Pt
Due to the double-valued curve and the extremely low

Seebeck coefficient at low temperatures, Type B is
virtually useless below 50C. Since the output is nearly
zero from 0C to 42C, Type B has the unique
advantage that the reference junction temperature is
almost immaterial, as long as it is between 0 and
40C. Of course, the measuring junction temperature is
typically very high.
THE LAW OF INSERTED METALS
The voltage V will be that of an Fe-C thermocouple at

temperature T, provided both ends of the platinum wire
are at the same temperature. The two thermocouples
created by the platinum wire (FePt and Pt -Fe) act in
opposition.
Double-Value Region
All of the above examples assume the measurement

wires are homogeneous; that is, free of defects and
impurities.
12
42
T, C
Base Metal Thermocouples

Unlike the noble metal thermocouples, the base metal
couples have no specified chemical composition. Any
combination of metals can be used which results in a
voltage vs. temperature curve fit that is within the
standard wire errors. This leads to some rather
interesting metal combinations. Constantan, for example,
is not a specific metal alloy at all, but a generic name for
a whole series of copper-nickel alloys. Incredibly, the
Constantan used in a type T (copperConstantan)
thermocouple is not the same as the Constantan used in
the type J (iron -Constantan) couple.12
Z-38
ASTM STANDARD WIRE

ERRORS14
Type E - Although Type E standard wire errors are not

specified below 0C, the type E thermocouple is ideally
suited for low temperature measurements because of
its high Seebeck coefficient (58 V/C), low thermal
conductivity and corrosion resistance.
The Seebeck coefficient for Type E is greater than all
other standard couples, which makes it useful for
detecting small temperature changes.
Type J - Iron, the positive element in a J couple, is an
inexpensive metal rarely manufactured in pure form. J
thermocouples are subject to poor conformance
characteristics because of impurities in the iron. Even
so, the J couple is popular because of its high Seebeck
coefficient and low price.
The J couple should never be used above 760C due
to an abrupt magnetic transformation that can cause
decalibration even after the instrument cools.
170 C
871
8.5 C
4.4
1
/2 % Slope
TYPE B 24 AWG
v=
1.4
T1
Cu
/4 %
(T1 _ T2)
TYPE R,S 24 AWG
_
Cu
Voltmeter
T2 (Ambient Reference)
871 C
316
Cu
4.4 C
TYPE T
Type T - This is the only couple with published

standard wire errors for the temperature region below
0C; however, type E is actually more suitable at very
low temperatures because of its higher Seebeck
coefficient and lower thermal conductivity.
Type T has the unique distinction of having one
copper lead. This can be an advantage in a specialized
monitoring situation where a temperature difference is
all that is desired.
The advantage is that the copper thermocouple leads
are the same metal as the dvm terminals, making lead
compensation unnecessary.
Types K & Nicrosil-Nisil - The Nicrosil-Nisil
thermocouple, type N, is similar to type K, but it has
been designed to minimize some of the instabilities in
the conventional Chromel-Alumel combination.
Changes in the alloy content have improved the
order/disorder transformations occurring at 500C, and
a higher silicon content in the positive element improves
the oxidation resistance at elevated temperatures. A full
description with characteristic curves is published in
NBS Monograph 161.13
Tungsten - Tungsten-rhenium thermocouples are
normally used at high temperature in reducing or
vacuum environments, but never in an oxidizing
atmosphere because of the high reaction rates. Pure
tungsten becomes very brittle when heated above its
recrystallization temperature (about 1200C). To make
the wire easier to handle, rhenium alloys are used in
both thermocouple legs. Types G (tungsten vs. tungsten
26% rhenium), C (tungsten 5% rhenium vs. tungsten
26% rhenium) and D (tungsten 3% rhenium vs.
tungsten 25% rhenium) thermocouples are available in
bare wire forms as well as complete probe assemblies.
All materials conform to published Limits of Error.

14
13
1482 C
3.7 C
Cu
538
1.7
1
/2 %
TYPE E 8 AWG
101
371 C
59 93
2%
1.2
2.8 C
.8
3
/4 %
TYPE T 14 AWG
277
760 C
5.7 C
2.2
3
/4 %
TYPE J 8 AWG
At high temperatures,
small thermocouple wire
is affected by diffusion,
impurities, and
inhomogeneity more so
than large wire. The
standard wire errors
reflect this relationship.
277
1260
9.5
2.2
3
/4 %
TYPE K 8 AWG
Note that each NBS wire error specification carries with it a

wire size. The noble metal thermocouples (B, R, and S) are
specified with small (24 ga.) wire for obvious cost reasons.
Z-39
1260
C
1093
982
AWG DIA, MILS DIA, mm
2.2C
34 %
Wire Size AWG
24
or
28 20 14
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
Error
9.5C
0C
277C
871
TYPE K
TEMPERATURE RANGE vs. WIRE SIZE vs. ERROR
TYPE
B
E
J
K
N (AWG
14)
N (AWG
28)
R
S
T
W-Re
METAL
+
Platinum 6% Rhodium
Nickel 10% Chromium
Iron
Nickel I0% Chromium
Nicrosil
Nicrosil
Platinum13% Rhodium
Platinum 10% Rhodium
Copper
Tungsten 5% Rheniurn
STANDARD
COLOR CODE
+
/DOUBLE FOOT
20 AWG
128
102
81
64
51
40
32
25
20
16
13
SEEBECK COEFFICIENT
S(V/C) @ T (C)
C
STANDARD
WIRE ERROR
(SEE APPENDIX B)
0.2
600
4.4 to 8.6
3.3
2.6
2.1
1.6
1.3
1
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
NBS SPECIFIED
MATERIAL RANGE
(C)
0 to 1820*
Constantan
Constantan
Violet
White
Red
Red
0.71
0.36
58.5
50.2
0
0
1.7 to 4.4
1.1 to 2.9
-270 to 1000
- 210 to 760
Nickel
Nisil
Yellow Red
0.59
39.4
39
0
600
1.1 to 2.9
-270 to 1372
0 to 1300
Nisil
26.2
-270 to 400
Platinum
0.19
11.5
600
1.4 to 3.8
-50 to 1768
Platinum
Constantan
Tungsten 26% Rhenium
0.19
0.30
10.3
38
600
0
1.4 to 3.8
0.8 to 2.9
-50 to 1768
-270 to 400
19.5
600
Blue
Red
0 to 2320
* Type B double-valued below 42C - curve fit specified only above 130C
Material range is for 8 AWG wire; decreases with decreasing wire size
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Thermocouple Well: Lower
gradient, protects wire and allows
user to change thermocouple
without interrupting process.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Connector: Composed of same metals as thermocouple, for

minimum connection error.
12.
13.
14.
Exposed
Ungrounded
Grounded
15.
16.
Exposed Junction: Wires unprotected, faster response.

Ungrounded Junction: Best protection, electronically isolated.
Grounded Junction: WIres protected, faster response.
17.
18.
Thermocouple Washers:
Couple built into washer;
convenient mounting.
Charles Herzfeld, F.G. Brickwedde: Temperature - Its

Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, Vol. 3, Part 1,
Reinhold, New York, 1962.
Robert P. Benedict: Fundamentals of Temperature, Pressure and
Flow Measurements, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1969.
Manual on the Use of Thermocouples in Temperature Measurement,
ASTM Special Publication 470A, Omega Press, Stamford,
Connecticut 06907, 1974.
Thermocouple Reference Tables, NBS Monograph 125, National
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., 1979. Also, TemperatureMillivolt Reference Tables-Section T, Omega Temperature
Measurement Handbook, Omega Press, Stamford Connecticut
06907,1983.
H. Dean Baker, E.A. Ryder, N.H. Baker: Temperature Measurement in
Engineering, Omega Press, Stamford, Connecticut 06907, 1953.
Temperature Measurement Handbook, Omega Engineering, Inc.,
Stamford, Connecticut.
R.L. Anderson: Accuracy of Small Diameter Sheathed
Thermocouples for the Core Flow Test Loop, Oak Ridge National
Laboratories, ORNL-54011 (available from National Information
Service), April, 1979.
R. R Reed: Branched Thermocouple Circuits in Underground Coal
Gasification Experiments, Proceedings of the 22nd ISA International
Instrumentation Symposium, Instrument Society of America, 1976.
R.J. Moffat: The Gradient Approach to Thermocouple Circuitry, from
Temperature - Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry,
Reinhold, New York, 1962
R.P. Reed: A Diagnostics-Oriented System for Thermocouple
Thermometry, Proceedings of 24th ISA International Instrumentation
Symposium, Instrument Society of America, 1978.
Harry R. Norton: Handbook of Transducers for Electronic Measuring
Systems, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
C.H. Meyers: Coiled Filament Resistance Thermometers, NBS
Journal of Research, Vol. 9, 1932.
Bulletin 9612, Rev. B: Platinum Resistance Temperature Sensors,
Rosemount Engineering Co., 1962.
Burley, Powell, Burns & Scroger: The Nicrosil vs. Nisil Thermocouple:
Properties and Thermoelectric Reference Data, NBS Monograph 161,
U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, D.C., 1978
J.P Tavener: Platinum Resistance Temperature Detectors - State of the
Art, Measurements & Control, Measurements & Data Corporation,
Pittsburgh, PA., April, 1974.
J.P. Evans and G.W. Burns: A Study of Stability of High Temperature
Platinum Resistance Thermometers, in Temperature - Its Measurement
and Control in Science and Industry, Reinhold, New York, 1962.
D.D. Pollock: The Theory and Properties of Thermocouple Elements,
ASTM STP 492, Omega Press, Stamford, Connecticut 06907, 1979.
YSI Precision Thermistors, Yellow Springs Instruments, Yellow Springs,
Ohio, 1977.
* Hewlett Packard Company makes no warranty as to the

accuracy or completeness of the foregoing material and
disclaims any responsibility therefor. (Editors Note:
Thermocouple data which conform to ITS-90 are given in
ITS-90 Thermocouple Direct and Inverse Polynomials.)
OMEGA ENGINEERING, INC. gratefully acknowledges the
HEWLETT PACKARD COMPANY for permission to reproduce
Application Note 290-Practical Temperature Measurements.
Z-40
Nicrosil/Nisil Type N
Thermocouples
The Nicrosil/Nisil Type N thermocouple offers better
stability than existent base-metal Types E, J, K and T.
It is now available and in widespread use worldwide.
DR. NOEL A. BURLEY
T he
ANSI standard base-metal ther mocouples,

designated E, J, K and T (Ref. 1), show inherent
ther moelectric instability related to time- and/or
temperature-dependent instabilities in several of their
physical, chemical, nuclear, structural and electronic
properties. This paper reviews the major thermoelectric
properties of the new nickel-base thermocouple system
Nicrosil versus Nisil (designated type N), in which very
high thermoelectric stability has been achieved by a
judicious choice of elemental component
concentrations.
INSTABILITY OF CONVENTIONAL
BASE-METAL THERMOCOUPLES
There are three principal characteristic types and
causes of thermoelectric instability in the standard
base-metal thermoelement materials:
1. A gradual and generally cumulative drift in thermal
EMF on long exposure at elevated temperatures. This is
observed in all base-metal thermoelement materials
and is majnly due to compositional changes caused by
oxidation, in particular internal oxidation (Figures 1 and
2), and to neutron irradiation which can produce
transmutation in nuclear reactor environments.
2. A short-term cyclic change in thermal EMF on
heating in the temperature range about 250 to 650C,
which occurs in types KP (or EP) and JN (or TN and
EN). This kind of EMF instability is thought to be due to
some form of structural change like magnetic shortrange order (Figures 3 and 4).
3. A time-independent perturbation in thermal EMF in
specific temperature ranges. This is due to compositiondependent magnetic transformations which perturb the
thermal EMFs in type KN in the range of about 25 to
225C (Figure 5), and in type JP above about 730C.
ULTRA-HIGH STABILITY OF
NICROSILINISIL (TYPE N)
THERMOCOUPLE
Nicrosil and Nisil thermocouple alloys (Ref. 2) show
greatly enhanced thermoelectric stability (Ref. 3)
relative to the other standard base-metal thermocouple
alloys because their compositions (Table 1) are such as
to virtually eliminate or substantially reduce the causes
of thermoelectric instability described above. This is
achieved primarily by increasing component solute
concentrations (chromium and silicon) in a base of
nickel above those required to cause a transition from
internal to external modes of oxidation, and by selecting
solutes (silicon and magnesium) which preferentially
oxidize to form a diffusion-barrier, and hence oxidation
inhibiting films.
The thermal EMF instabilities of the short-term cyclic
kind occurring in KP and JN alloys have virtually been
eliminated in nicrosil (NP) by setting the chromium
content at 14.2 weight-%.
The increase in the silicon content of nisil (NN) to 4.4
weight-% has suppressed the magnetic transformation
of this new alloy to below room temperature.
Virtual freedom from nuclear transmutation effects is
achieved by eliminating such elements as manganese,
cobalt and iron from the specified compositions of both
alloys.
The ver y high ther moelectric stability of the
Nicrosil/Nisil (type N) thermocouple is illustrated in
Figures 1 and 2. The influence of thermoelement
conductor cross-sectional area upon the thermal-EMF
constancy of Nicrosil/Nisil is shown in Figure 6.
Z-41
300
#8K
(KP/KN)
100
#8K
200
(KP/KN) #14K
0
#14 NIC/NIS
(KP/JN)
(KP/JN)
200
100
#8 NIC/NIS
#14 E
#8E
0
200
#8K
4
(JP/JN)
#8J
THERMAL EMF DRIFT (uv)
600
CALIBRATION TEMPERATURE 497C
#14 J
800
250
#14
0
NIC/NIS
#10 NIC/NIS
#14 E
#8 E
0
200
0
#8K
4
#12 NIC/NIS
100
2
0
200
0
#8K
4
100
2
#14 NIC/NIS
500
0
300
#8J
1000
#8K
200
CALIBRATION TEMPERATURE 777C

#16 NIC/NIS
100
1500
#14 J
0
0
300
600
900
1200
DRIFT (C)
(JP/JN)
100
400
1500
200
EXPOSURE TIME AT 777C (h)

AT
600
800
1000
1200
EXPOSURE TIME (h)

1077C,
1152C,
1202C
FIGURE 2. Long-term thermal-EMF drifts in air,

at three constant aging (and calibration) temperatures for Nicrosil/Nisil T/Cs in five wire
gauges (#). Corresponding thermal-EMF drifts
for 8 AWG (#8) type K T/Cs at two of these
temperatures are also given. The drifts are
changes from EMF output values existent after
80 hours of exposure at the constant aging temperature (Ref. 3).
FIGURE 1. Long-term thermal-EMF drifts in air,

at two calibration temperatures, for 14 AWG (#14)
Nicrosil/Nisil (N) and E, J and K T/Cs. ThermalEMF drifts for 8 AWG (#8) E and J T/Cs are also
given. The drifts are changes from EMF output
values existent after 20 hrs of exposure at constant aging temperature of 777C (Ref. 3).
As Figure 2 shows, 8 AWG type K thermocouples

appear to be markedly more unstable as temperatures
progressively exceed about 1050C. In contrast, it is
clear from Figure 6 that type N thermocouples, in a
range of wire sizes finer than 8 AWG, can be used
reliably for extended periods of time at temperatures up
to at least 1200C. Indeed, it has recently been
400
demonstrated (Ref. 4) that, in oxidizing atmospheres,

the ther moelectric stability of the Nicrosil/Nisil
thermocouple, in wire sizes not finer than 10 AWG, is
about the same as that of the noble-metal
thermocouples of ANSI types R and S up to about
1200C.
Z-42
Type N Thermocouples
PROMULGATION AS A STANDARD
No new ther mocouple will sur vive for
universal adoption and use unless it is formally
promulgated by national standards authorities
around the world. It is for tunate that the
Nicrosil/Nisil thermocouple system is in vigorous
process of being so promulgated.
0.2
0.6
30 Days
0.5
0.1
S (uV/C)
0.05
0.4
0
0.05
0.3
The ASTM, through its Committee E-20 on

Temperature Measurement, has shown
considerable interest in Nicrosil versus Nisil, and
has kept matters relating to the development,
availability and use of the new thermocouple
under continual review.
5 min
0.1
45 min
3 Days
0.2
0.2
7h
0.1
45 min
ground state
0
200
400
600
3 Days
30 Days
0.3
800
200
400
600
TEMPERATURE
(C)
FIGURE 3 (Left). Changes in the Seebeck coefficient

(S) of a typical type KP thermoelement vs. platinum on
initial heating, as a function of constant aging temperature for the indicated times (Ref. 3).
FIGURE 4 (Right). Similar changes of a type JN thermoelement (Ref. 3).
TABLE.1- NOMINAL COMPOSITIONS OF ANSI

STANDARD BASE-METAL THERMOELEMENT
ALLOYS, AND NICROSIL AND NISIL ALLOYS
ALLOY
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (WEIGHT-%)
ANSI (1)
Cr Si
Mn
Al
Co Mg Cu Ni Fe
DESIGNATION
(+)KP, EP
9.5 0.4
bal
(-)KN
1.0 3.0 2.0 0.4 0.015
bal
(+)JP
0.3
bal
(-)JN, EN, TN
1.0
0.5
54 44 0.5
(+)TP
(+)NP (nicrosil)
(-)NN (nisil)
100
14.2 1.4
4.4
0.10
bal
bal
TABLE 2-VARIANTS OF TYPE KN

ALLOY
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (WEIGHT-%)
Mn
Al
Si
co
Ni
KN1
3.02
1.90
1.19
0.41
balance
KN2
1.67
1.25
1.56
0.72
balance
KN3
2.50
1.00
balance
KN4
0.43
2.39
0.23
balance
Z-43
Recently, relevant subcommittees of ASTM

E-20 have produced several publications
containing information on the properties and
characteristics of the Nicrosil versus Nisil
thermocouple. A document quoting several of the
EMF-temperature tables from NBS Monograph
161 (Ref. 2) was published (Ref. 6) for
information. A formal ASTM Standard (E1223) is
promulgated, while Type N data is now included
in ASTM Standard E230. Again, in the recently
published third edition of the ASTM Manual on
the Use of Thermocouples (Ref. 8), various
properties and characteristics of Nicrosil versus
Nisil are summarized.
Based mainly on the above information,
several crucial actions now have been taken by
the supreme standardizing bodies in several
important countries:
1. The Instrument Society of America (ISA),
in October 1983, promulgated the Nicrosil/Nisil
system as a U.S. Standard Ther mocouple
bearing the letter-designation type N.
2. The British Standards Institute (BSI) has
recently promulgated a standard on the type N
thermocouple identified as B.S.4937: Part 8.
3. The Japan Society for the Promotion of
Science, through its Committee TC19
(Temperature), is nearing the conclusion of its
deliberation on type N, leading to the issue of a
Japan Industrial Standard (JIS).
These actions have ensured that the type N
ther mocouple and its allied pyrometric
instrumentation and ancillary circuitry elements
are now commercially available in a number of
major countries around the world.
DISCUSSION
The various types of ther moelectric
instability described in this paper can cause
substantial changes in thermoelectromotive force
and, hence, calibration in ANSI-standard letterdesignated base-metal thermocouples types E,
J, K and T. In the case of Nicrosil/Nisil, however,
thermoelectric instability due to these causes is
REFERENCES
1. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Standard MC96.1-1975, Instrument Society of
America (1976), pp. vi and 1.
2. N.A. Burley, et al., U.S. National Bureau of
Standards Monograph 161, NBS* Washington
(1978).
3. N.A. Burley, et al., Temperature, Its
Measurement and Control in Science and Industry,
vol. 5, part 2, Instrument Society of America (1982),
p. 1159.
4. N.A. Burley, Proc. 11th IMEKO Conference
(Sensors), Houston, TX, 1988, p. 155.
5. R.L. Powell, et al., U.S. National Bureau of
Standards Monograph 125, NBS* Washington
(1974).
6. American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), Annual Book of Standards, vol. 14.01
(1983), p. 859.
7. ASTM Standard E 1223-87.
8. Manual on the Use of Thermocouples in
Temperature Measurement, ASTM Special
Technical Publication 470 B (1981).
9. N.A. Burley, et al., The Nicrosil versus Nisil Type N
Thermocouple: A Commercial Reality, Australian
Department of Defence Report MRL-R-903 (1983).
360
400
440
480
DEVIATION (uV)
40
520
KN2
0
KN1
KN3
40
80
KN4
120
40
120
80
160
TEMPERATUREDEVIATION (K)
60
320
200
240
TEMPERATURE (C)
FIGURE 5. Deviations of the measured values

of the thermal EMFs of several type KN thermoelements vs. platinum from reference table
values (Ref. 5). Variants of type KN are given
in Table 2.
WIRE GAUGE (A W G)
16
250
14
12
10
8
6
200
5
1202C
4
150
1152C
3
100
DRIFT (C)
Use of type N thermocouples in several countries

has already demonstrated a number of advantages:
enhanced pyrometric accuracy, improved product
quality and performance, lower reject rates, enhanced
energy utilization, lower pyrometric maintenance costs,
and improved productivity.
TEMPERATURE (K)
280
virtually eliminated or substantially attenuated over the

entire temperature range up to 1230C. ANSI-standard
base-metal thermocouples types E, J, K and T can,
therefore, be regarded as obsolescent. Their
replacement by Nicrosil/Nisil thermocouples would lead,
in most cases, to demonstrable technological and
economic advantages for science and industry at large.
Indeed, the enhanced calibration stability and longevity
of the type N thermocouple, taken into account with its
ability to operate at considerably higher upper operating
temperatures than conventional base-metal
thermocouples, make it ideally suited to scientific,
technological and industrial applications where
temperature measurements are critical.
1077C
50
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0
1.0
LOG CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
FIGURE 6. Relationship between total thermalEMF drift (after 1000 hrs of exposure in air at
each of three test temperatures) and crosssectional area of Nicrosil/Nisil T/C wires. The
drifts are changes from EMF output values existent after 80 hours of exposure (Ref. 3).
THE AUTHOR
*The NBS is now NIST (National Institute of Standards and

Technology).
Reproduced with permission of H.L. Daneman, Box 31056,

Sante Fe, NM 87594
Z-44
DR. NOEL A. BURLEY, D.App.Sc., C. Eng., F.I.M., F.A.I.M.,

is General Manager, Research and Development, for BellIRH Pty., Ltd., an Australian company specializing in the
manufacture of electrical and electronic components,
instruments and sensors. It has considerable expertise and
established reputation in temperature control. Contact Dr.
Burley at Bell-IRH Pty., Ltd., 32 Paramatta Rd., Lidcombe
NSW 2141, Sydney, Australia, phone: 02 648 5455.
The Choice Of Sheathing

For MineraI Insulated Thermocouples
H.L. Daneman, P.E.
Chemical isolation of wires from the

surrounding atmosphere.
Shielding of thermoelements from
sources of electrical interference.
Protection of the wires and
insulation from damage due to shock.
Flexibility of the final assembly allowing
bending.
For two decades, people have credited

MIMS construction with a greater
capability than deserved. Quite frequently,
this form has shown less stability, less
durability and lower temperature limits
than corresponding unsheathed elements.
The nickel bearing MIMS thermocouples
used above 400C (750F) are especially
vulnerable to calibration instability and
shortened lifetime - factors which bear
heavily on thermocouple use and
selection.
HYSTERESIS
Thermoelectric hysteresis is one
contributor toward calibration instability.
Hysteresis is a form of short-range
order/disorder phenomenon occurring
between 200 and 600C (peaking at
400C) for Ni-Cr alloys such as Type K. It
is evidenced by a calibration change of
several degrees as the thermocouple
temperature is cycled within this
temperature band. Type N thermocouples
exhibit hysteresis of up to 5C when
heated and cooled between 200 and
1000C (peaking around 750C). At
900C hysteresis is 2 to 3C. If the type K
thermocouple, for example, will be used
below 500C, hysteresis can be reduced
by annealing overnight at 450C.
OXIDATION
Another phenomenon affecting calibration
is oxidation. Ni-Cr-AI alloys (e.g.,
Chromel*) have limited life in air above
500C because of oxidation. A special
form of oxidation is so-called green rot
which is preferential oxidation of Cr in
atmospheres with low oxygen content
(e.g., sheaths in which the volume of air is
limited and stagnant). Nicrosil resists
oxidation up to about 1,250C (2,300F)
and does not exhibit green rot.
Several new sheath materials called
Nicrobell (**) consist of Nicrosil with 1.5%
or 3.0% niobium. Nicrobell A is
particularly formulated to be resistant to
oxidation. Another new oxidation resistant
sheath material called Nicrosil + (***)
consists of Nicrosil plus 0.15%

magnesium. It is reported (ref. 4) to exhibit
less spalling and probably have a longer
life than some Nicrobell version(s) tested.
due to metal fatigue. On heating to 900C,

the thermal expansion of Nisil differs from
SS 304 by 0.4% of length. Nicrosil has
only 0.05% difference in thermal
expansion compared to Nisil (the leg most
likely to fracture). A sheath of Nicrosil,
Nicrosil + or Niobell would therefore induce
less metal fatigue in either leg of the Type
N thermocouple than would stainless
steel.
Nicrosil, itself, does not have satisfactory

resistance to reducing atmospheres, such
as encountered in most combustion or
many heat treating processes. Other
adaptations of Nicrosil for use as sheath
material (such as Nicrobells B, C and D)
can be expected to deal with typical
nonoxidizing atmospheres.
COMPOSITION
Composition changes in SS sheathed
couples are generally greater than in
Inconel (****) sheathed couples. In tests
performed by Anderson, et al., the KN leg
showed an increase in chromium but a
decrease in aluminum. These changes in
composition contributed the major portion
of the resulting change in calibration of the
thermocouple.
Most stainless steels have from 1 to 2% of
manganese. Type 304 has 2%
manganese. Others have manganese
concentrations varying from 1% to 10%.
Inconel has up to 1% Mn. As a rule of
thumb, each 1% of Mn in the sheath
material contributes -10C calibration shift
for 1,000 hours at 1,100C. According to
Bentley, at 1,200C, Type N in a 3 mm
diameter SS sheath drifted -24C in 1,000
hours.
CONTAMINATION
A third influence on calibration stability is
contamination. The idea behind the
mineral-insulated, integrally designed,
metal-sheathed thermocouple is that the
uniform compression of finely divided
mineral oxides (typically MgO) insulation
surrounding the wires and filling the
sheath would seal the internal volume,
thereby eliminating contamination. The
volume of the insulation compressed by
swaging, rolling or drawing is on the order
of 85% of solid material. This is useful,
permitting the tubing to be bent and also
permitting the manufacture of smaller
diameter assemblies. It does, however,
permit the intrusion of gas such as water
vapor or air. It also permits vapor diffusion
of elements composing the wires or
sheath. Bentley and Morgan determined
that the vapor-phase diffusion of Mn
(manganese) through the MgO insulation
has the greatest influence on
thermocouple decalibration.
HUMIDITY
There is a multiple effect of water vapor
within the sheath. It is rapidly absorbed in
the MgO, reducing the insulation
resistance. Humidity intrusion can ruin a
MIMS thermocouple assembly in as short
a time as a few minutes. In lesser
amounts, it destroys a protective oxide
coating on Nickel-Chromium alloys,
subjecting them to more rapid
deterioration. The changes due to water
METAL FATIGUE
Metal fatigue is another cause of
shortened thermocouple life. Differing
temperature coefficients of linear
expansion between sheaths and wires
causes strain during heating or cooling.
These strains result in eventual fracture
+25
Type K
(Inconel)
0
DRIFT (C)
INTRODUCTION
The mineral-insulated integrally metalsheathed (MIMS) form of thermocouple
consists of matched thermocouple wires
surrounded by insulating material (typically
MgO) compacted by rolling, drawing or
swaging until the sheath is reduced in
diameter. The advantages of MIMS
thermocouples are:
Type N
(310 SS)
Type N
(Inconel)
Type K
(310 SS)
25
50
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
ElapsedTime (h)
Figure 1. Drift of 3 mm diameter stainless steel sheathed and Inconel 600 sheathed type K and
Nicrosil vs. Nisil thermocouples in 1200C in vacuum. The dips in the drift curve are the result of
the "in-place inhomogeneity test" where the samples were extracted from the furnace by 5 cm.
Z-45
20
1.6 mm Bare Wire

3 mm OD Mineral Insulated
Metal Sheathed Thermocouple
1100C
Insitu Drift (C)
10
NCR
0
SS
-10
-20
0
1000
2000
3000
Time (h)
Figure 2. The insitu drift in type N thermocouples with tips held at 1100C. Curves refer to
mineral insulated metal sheathed thermocouples with 3mm OD sheaths of 310 stainless steel
(SS) or Nicrosil (NCR) and 1.6mm bare wire thermocouples in air. The range in drift for the
latter is also indicated.
vapor can be sufficiently severe as to

make affected couples useless by
reducing insulation resistance. This
reduced resistance can result in
misleading temperature readings,
premature failure or even erroneous
readings after open circuiting.
Water vapor can be introduced during
thermocouple fabrication or repair, or even
by changes in atmospheric pressure
during air shipment or during long periods
of storage (e.g., six months) at
construction sites. Care must be taken of
hermetic seals during shipment and
installation.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Although not mentioned above , there is
some relationship between the diameter
of these thermocouple materials and
stability and longevity at elevated
temperatures. The surface of the
brickwork on which electrical heaters are
supported becomes conductive at
elevated temperatures. This leads to flow
of electrical currents through
thermocouple sheaths to ground, perhaps
through the measuring instrument.
The temptation to use the finest sheathed
thermocouples (as fine as 1 mm) should
be resisted for higher temperature or
corrosive industrial environments.
Stainless steel is a poorer sheath for
mineral-insulated, metal-sheathed
thermocouples than either Inconel 600 or
modified Nicrosil when used with Ni-Cr
thermocouples such as Type K or Type N.
The modified Nicrosil sheathed
thermocouples offer improved oxidation
resistance up to 1,100C (1,200 to
1,250C for Type N), reduced failures due
to differential thermal expansion, improved
ductility and the elimination of the drift
problems caused by the vapor diffusion of

manganese from stainless steels or
Inconel.
Considering the current state of supply of
the newer materials, one could well
choose a low manganese (0.3% or less)
Inconel sheathed Type K MIMS
thermocouple until such time as modified
Nicrosil sheathed Type K or N and
appropriate supporting data become
readily available.
(*) CHROMEL is a trademark of the
Hoskins Manufacturing Co.
(**) NICROBELL is a trademark of
NICROBELL Pty. Ltd. NICROBELL
sheath alloys are patented in a number
of countries including the USA
(***) NICROSIL + is a trademark of
Pyrotenax Australia Pty. Ltd.
(****) INCONEL is a trademark of the
International Nickel Co.
Reproduced with the permission of:
H.L. Daneman
P.O. Box 31056
Sante Fe, NM 87594
REFERENCES
1. Anderson, R. L., Ludwig, R.L.,FAILURE
OF SHEATHED THERMOCOUPLES
DUE TO THERMAL CYCLING,
Temperature, (1982) pp 939-951
2. Anderson, R. L., Lyons, J. D.,
Kollie, T G., Christie, W. H., Eby, R.,
DECALIBRATION OF SHEATHED
THERMOCOUPLES, Temperature,
(1982) pp 977-1007
3. Bentley, R. E., NEW-GENERATION
TEMPERATURE PROBES, Materials
Australasia, April (1987), pp. 10-13
4. Bentley, R. E., THEORY AND
PRACTICE OF THERMOELECTRIC
THERMOMETERY, 2nd Edition, CSIRO
Div. of Applied Physics, (1990) 152
pages.
Z-46
5. Bentley, R.E., private communication,

11/22/90
6. Burley, N. A., HIGHLY STABLE
NICKEL-BASE ALLOYS FOR
THERMOCOUPLES, J. of the
Australian Institute of Metals, May
(1972), pp 101-113
7. Burley, N. A., Burns, G. W., Powell,
R. L., NICROSIL AND NISIL:
THEIR DEVELOPMENT AND
STANDARDIZATION, Inst. Physical
Conf. Ser. No. 26, (1975), pp 162-171
8. Burley, N. A., Jones, T.P.,
PRACTICAL PERFORMANCE OF
NICROSIL-NISIL THERMOCOUPLES,
Inst. Physical Conf. Ser. No. 26, (1975),
pp 172-180
9. Burley, N. A., Powell, R. L., Burns,
G. W., Scroger, M. G., THE NICROSIL
VS NISIL THERMOCOUPLE:
PROPERTIES AND
THERMOELECTRIC DATA, NBS
Monograph 161, April (1978), pp 1-156
10.Burley, N. A., THE NICROSIL VS
NISIL THERMOCOUPLE: THE FIRST
TWO DECADES, (1986) private
communication
11. Burley, N. A., N-CLAD-N: A NOVEL
ADVANCED TYPE N
INTEGRALLY-SHEATHED
THERMOCOUPLE OF ULTRA-HIGH
THERMOELECTRIC STABILITY, High
Temperatures-High Pressures, (1986)
pp 609-616
12.Burley, N. A., NICROSIL/NISIL TYPE N
THERMOCOUPLE, Measurements &
Control, April (1989), pp 130-133
13.Burley, N. A., ADVANCED
INTEGRALLY SHEATHED TYPE N
THERMOCOUPLE OF ULTRA-HIGH
THERMOELECTRIC STABILITY,
Measurement, Jan-Mar 1990, pp 3641
14.Daneman, H. L., THERMOCOUPLES,
Measurements & Control, June (1988),
pp 242-243
15.Frank, D.E., AS TEMPERATURES
INCREASE, SO DO THE
PROBLEMS!, Measurements &
Control, June (1988), p 245
16.Hobson, J. W., THE INTRODUCTION
OF THE NICROSIL/NISIL
THERMOCOUPLES IN AUSTRALIA,
Australian Journal of Instrumentation
and Control, October (1982), pp 102104
17.Hobson, J. W., THE K TO N
TRANSITION - BUILDING ON
SUCCESS, Australian Journal of
Instrumentation and Control, (1985) pp
12-15
18.Northover, E. W., Hitchcock, J. A., A
NEW HIGH-STABILITY NICKEL
ALLOY, Instrument Practice,
September (1971), pp 529-531
19.Paine, A., TYPE N AND K MIMS
T/CS, fax LNA5195, 11/23/90
20.Wang, T P., Starr, C. D., NICROSILNISIL THERMOCOUPLES IN
PRODUCTION FURNACES, ISA
(1978) Annual conference, pp 235-254
21.Wang, T. P., Starr, C. D., EMF
STABILITY OF NICROSIL-NISIL AT
500C, ISA (1978) Annual conference,
pp 221-233
Material Selection Guide

This chart is a guide to selection of thermocouple sheath and thermowell materials according to process fluid. It includes factors such as catalytic
reaction, contamination and electrolysis. However, there are many instances where factors other than these must be considered. It is recommended
that such special applications be submitted to OMEGA ENGINEERING for recommendations.
These recommendations are only guides based on the most economical material selection. OMEGA ENGINEERING cannot be held responsible if
these recommendations are not satisfactory for specific applications.
SUBSTANCE
CONDITIONS
Acetate Solvents
Acetic Acid
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Acetic Anhydride
Acetone
Acetylene
Alcohol Ethyl
"
"
Alcohol Methyl
"
"
Aluminum
Aluminum Acetate
Aluminum Sulphate
"
"
"
"
"
"
Ammonia
Ammonium Chloride
Ammonium Nitrate
"
"
Ammonium Sulphate
"
"
"
"
Aniline
Amylacetate
Asphalt
Crude or Pure
10% - 70F
50% - 70F
50% - 212F
99% - 70F
99% - 212F
212F
70F
212F
70F
212F
Molten
Saturated
10% - 70F
Saturated 70F
10% - 212F
Saturated 212F
All concentrations 70F
5% - 70F
10% - 212F
Saturated 212F
Barium Carbonate
Barium Chloride
"
"
"
"
Barium Hydroxide
Barium Sulphite
Benzaldehyde
Benzene
Benzine
70F
5% - 70F
Saturated 70F
Aqueous - Hot
Benzol
Boracic Acid
Bromine
Butadiene
Butane
Butylacetate
Butyl Alcohol
Butylenes
Hot
5% Hot or Cold
70F
Butyric Acid
" "
Calcium Bisulfite
Calcium Chlorate
"
"
Calcium Hydroxide
"
"
"
"
Carbolic Acid
Carbon Dioxide
"
"
Carbon Tetrachloride
Chlorex Caustic
Chlorine Gas
"
"
"
"
Chromic Acid
"
"
"
"
Citric Acid
" "
" "
Coal Tar
Coke Oven Gas
Copper Nitrate
Copper Sulphate
Core Oils
Cottonseed Oil
5% - 70F
5% - 150F
70F
Dilute 70F
Dilute 150F
10% - 212F
20% - 212F
50% - 212F
All 212F
Dry
Wet
10% - 70F
70F
70F
Dry 70F
Moist 70F
Moist 212F
5% - 70F
10% - 212F
50% - 212F
15% - 70F
15% - 212F
Concentrated 212F
Hot
Creosols
Creosote Crude
Cyanogen Gas
Dowtherm
Epsom Salt
Ether
Hot and Cold

70F
RECOMMENDED
METAL
Monel or Nickel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
430 Stainless Steel
430 Stainless Steel
Monel
304 Stainless Steel
304, Monel, Nickel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
Cast iron
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
Monel
Steel (C1018)
Phosphor Bronze,
Monel, Nickel
304 Stainless Steel
Monel
Monel
316 Stainless Steel
Steel (C1018)
Nichrome
Steel (C1018)
304 Stainless Steel
Steel (C1018),
Monel, Inconel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
Tantalum
Brass, 304
304 Stainless Steel
Monel
Copper
Steel (C1018),
Phosphor Bronze
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
317 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
Steel (C1018), Monel
Aluminum,Monel,Nickel
Monel
316SS, 317SS
317 Stainless Steel
Hastelloy C
Hastelloy C
304 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
317 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
Aluminum
304, 316
304, 316
316 Stainless Steel
Steel (C1018),
Monel, Nickel
304 Stainless Steel
Steel (C 1018),
Monel, Nickel
304 Stainless Steel
Steel (C1018)
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
SUBSTANCE
Ethyl Acetate
Ethyl Chloride
Ethylene Glycol
Ethyl Sulphate
Ferric Chloride
"
"
"
"
Ferric Sulphate
Ferrous Sulphate
Formaldehyde
Freon
Formic Acid
"
"
Gallic Acid
" "
Gasoline
Glucose
Glycerine
Glycerol
Heat Treating
Hydrobromic Acid
Hydrochloric Acid
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Hydrocyanic Acid
Hydrofluoric Acid
Hydrogen Peroxide
"
"
Hydrogen Sulphide
Iodine
Kerosene
Lactic Acid
" "
" "
Lacquer
Latex
Lime Sulphur
Linseed Oil
Magnesium Chloride
"
"
Magnesium Sulphate
Malic Acid
Mercury
RECOMMENDED
METAL
Monel
304 Stainless Steel
Steel (C1018)
Monel
316 Stainless Steel
Tantalum
Tantalum
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
Steel (C1018)
316 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
Monel
Monel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
446 Stainless Steel
Hastelloy B
Hastelloy C
Hastelloy B
Hastelloy C
Hastelloy B
Hastelloy B
Hastelloy B
316 Stainless Steel
Hastelloy C
316 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
Tantalum
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
Tantalum
316 Stainless Steel
Steel (C1018)
Steel (C1018), 304,
Monel
304 Stainless Steel
Monel
Nickel
Monel
316 Stainless Steel
Steel (C1018) , 304,
Monel
Steel (1020)
304, Nickel
Carpenter #20
CONDITIONS
70F
70F
1% - 70F
5% - 70F
5% - Boiling
5% - 70F
Dilute 70F
5% - 70F
5% - 150F
5% - 70F
5% - 150F
70F
70F
70F
48% - 212F
1% - 70F
1% - 212F
5% - 70F
5% - 212F
25% - 70F
25% - 212F
70F
212F
Wet and dry
70F
70F
5% - 70F
5% - 150F
10% - 212F
70F
70F
5% - 70F
5% - 212F
Cold and Hot
Cold and Hot
Methane
70F
Milk
Mixed Acids
(Sulphuric and Nitric
- all temp. and %)
Molasses
Muriatic Acid
Nap
Natural Gas
Neon
Nickel Chloride
Nickel Sulphate
Nitric Acid
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
Nitrobenzene
Nitrous Acid
Oleic Acid
Oleum
Oxalic Acid
" "
Oxygen
"
Palmitic Acid
Petroleum Ether
PhenoI
Pentane
Phosphoric Acid
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
70F
70F
70F
70F
70F
Hot and Cold
5% - 70F
20% - 70F
50% - 70F
50% - 212F
65% - 212F
Concentrated - 70F
Concentrated - 212F
70F
70F
70F
5% - Hot and Cold
10% - 212F
70F
Liquid
Steel (C1018), 304,

Monel, Nickel
Tantalum
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
Tantalum
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
Monel
Steel (C1018)
304 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
Hastelloy C
Hastelloy B
1% - 70F
5% - 70F
10% - 70F
10% - 212F
30% - 70F
Z-47
SUBSTANCE
CONDITIONS
Picric Acid
Potassium Bromide
Potassium Carbonate
Potassium Chlorate
Potassium Chloride
"
"
Potassium Hydroxide
"
"
"
"
Potassium Nitrate
"
"
Potassium
Permanganate
Potassium Sulphate
"
"
Potassium Sulphide
Propane
Pyrogallic Acid
Quinine Bisulphate
Quinine Sulphate
Resin
Rosin
Sea Water
Salommoniac
Salicylic Acid
Shellac
Soap
Sodium Bicarbonate
"
"
Sodium Bisulphate
Sodium Carbonate
"
"
Sodium Chloride
"
"
"
"
"
"
Sodium Fluoride
Sodium Hydroxide
Sodium Hypochlorite
Sodium Nitrate
Sodium Peroxide
Sodium Phosphate
Sodium Silicate
Sodium Sulphate
Sodium Sulphide
Sodium Sulphite
Steam
Stearic Acid
Sulphur Dioxide
"
"
Sulphur
"
Sulphuric Acid
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Tannic Acid
Tar
70F
70F
1% - 70F
70F
5% - 70*F
5% - 212F
5% - 70F
25% - 212F
50% - 212F
5% - 70F
5% - 212F
Tartaric Acid
"
"
Tin
Tolvene
Trichloroethylene
Turpentine
Varnish
Vegetable Oils
Vinegar
Water
"
Whiskey, Wine
Xylene
Zinc
Zinc Chloride
Zinc Sulphate
"
"
"
"
5% - 70F
5% - 70F
5% - 212F
70F
RECOMMENDED
METAL
304 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
316 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel

304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
Dry
316 Stainless Steel
Dry
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
Molten
304 Stainless Steel
Monel
Monel
Nickel
304 Stainless Steel
70F
304 Stainless Steel
All concentrations 70F 304 Stainless Steel
5% - 150F
304 Stainless Steel
Monel
5% - 70F
304 Stainless Steel
5% - 150F
304 Stainless Steel
5% - 70F
316 Stainless Steel
5% - 150F
316 Stainless Steel
Saturated - 70F
316 Stainless Steel
Saturated - 212F
316 Stainless Steel
5% - 70F
Monel
304 Stainless Steel
5% still
316 Stainless Steel
Fused
317 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
Steel (C1018)
Steel (C1018)
70F
304 Stainless Steel
70F
316 Stainless Steel
150F
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
Moist Gas - 70F
316 Stainless Steel
Gas - 575F
304 Stainless Steel
Dry - Molten
304 Stainless Steel
Wet
316 Stainless Steel
5% - 70F
Carp. 20, Hastelloy B
5% - 212F
10% - 70F
10% - 212F
50% - 70F
50% - 212F
90% - 70F
90% - 212F
Hastelloy D
70F
304 Stainless Steel
Steel (C1018), 304,
Monel, Nickel
70F
304 Stainless Steel
150F
316 Stainless Steel
Molten
Cast Iron
Aluminum, Phosphor
Bronze, Monel
Steel (C1018)
304 Stainless Steel
304 Stainless Steel
Steel (C1018), 304,
Monel
304 Stainless Steel
Fresh
Copper, Steel (C1018),
Monel
Salt
Aluminum
304, Nickel
Copper
Molten
Cast Iron
Monel
5% - 70F
304 Stainless Steel
Saturated - 70F
304 Stainless Steel
25% - 212F
304 Stainless Steel
Melting Temperatures Very High

Temperature
of Some Important
Metals
Sheath Materials
Approximate melting points are given only as a guide for
material selection since many factors including
atmosphere, type of process, mounting, etc., all affect the
operating maximum.
Tungsten ............
6000
..................... Rhenium
Sheath
Material
Molybdenum
Rec.
Useful
Temp.
Melting
Point
Environmental Conditions
4000F
4730F
Not
Rec.
Fair
Fair
Good
Oxidizing
Hydrogen
Inert
Vacuum
Tantalum
4500F
5425F
Not
Rec.
Not
Rec.
Not
Rec.
Good
Platinum
3050F
3223F
Very
Good
Poor
Poor
Poor
Tantalum............
Molybdenum .......
Niobium ........... .
(Columbium)
Chromium ....... ...
Titanium ............
Zirconium ...........
Iron...................
Cobalt ...............
Nickel ...............
5000
..................... Osmium
..................... Iridium
4000
..................... Rhodium
..................... Platinum
..................... Vanadium
3000
..................... Palladium
Beryllium ...........
Manganese .........
....................
Stainless
....................} Steels
....................
.................... Cast Irons
Uranium ............
Copper ..............
2000
................Gold (24 Karat)
Silver ................
Brasses
Magnesium.........
Zinc...................
Lead .................
Bismuth .............
Tin....................
Indium ..............
Thermometry Fixed Points

THERMOELECTRIC
FIXED POINT
18 Karat
12 Karat
10 Karat
Gold Alloys
.........Aluminum Silver
Solders
1000
........ Cadmium
500
Gallium .............
Common
...................... Solders
Mercury .............
0F
Boiling point of oxygen

Sublimation point of carbon dioxide
Freezing point of mercury
Ice Point
Triple point of water
Boiling point of water
Triple point of benzoic acid
Boiling point of naphthalene
Freezing point of tin
Boiling point of benzophenone
Freezing point of cadmium
Freezing point of lead
Freezing point of zinc
Boiling point of sulfur
Freezing point of antimony
Freezing point of aluminum
Freezing point of siIver
Freezing point of gold
Freezing point of copper
Freezing point of palladium
Freezing point of platinum
MELTING POINTS FROM

THE PRACTICAL INTERNATIONAL
TEMPERATURE SCALE IPTS-68
-183.0 C
- 78.5
- 38.9
0
0.01
100.0
122.4
218
231.9
305.9
321.1
327.5
419.6
444.7
630.7
660.4
961.9
1064.4
1084.5
1554
1772
-297.3 F
-109.2
- 38
32
32
212
252.3
424.4
449.4
582.6
610
621.5
787.2
832.4
1167.3
1220.7
1763.5
1948
1984.1
2829
3222
Extension Grade Wires for Platinum

and Tungsten-Rhenium Alloys
+ Copper
Compensating alloys made into extension
wire for tungsten-rhenium thermocouples
and platinum-rhodium thermocouples
closely match the emf of the
thermocouples over limited range
Pt/Rh
Hot
Junction
Lead
Junctions
Alloy No. 11
Pt.
Z-48
The alloy 405/426 combination is used with

Tungsten 5% Re vs Tungsten 26% Re.
Tungsten vs Tungsten 26% Re.
Tungsten 3% Re vs Tungsten 25%.
The Combination copper/alloy #11 is used
with platinum-rhodium alloys vs pure platinum.
Thermoelectric
Alloy Property
Data
ALLOY or
DESIGNATION
Pure Metals
Iron
Nickel
Molybdenum
Aluminum (H-P)
Copper
Gold
Silver
Tungsten
Rhenium
Platium Ref
Rhodium
Platinum
Pt- 6%Rh
Pt-10%Rh
Pt-13% Rh
Pt-20% Rh
Pt-30% Rh
Pt-40% Rh
Nickel Alloys
Constantan
CHROMEGA P
ALOMEGA
Compensating
Alloys
Alloy #11
Alloy #200
Alloy #203
Alloy #205
Alloy #225
Alloy #226
Alloy #260
Changes in
Thermocouple
Resistance
with Increasing
Temperature
N=Neg, P=Pos
99.9+%
99.98%
99.9+%
99.99+%
99.98%
99.999%
99.99%
99.99%
99.99%
99.999+%
99.99%
66
39
42
17.4
9.44
13.4
9.3
42
61.2
33.0
60
.0062
37
.0064
31
.0036
15
.0038
9.24 .0041
13.17 .0039
8.83 .0038
33
.0036
117
59.13 .00386
25.8 .0029
.0065
.0068
.0047
.0044
.0043
.0040
.0041
.0048
.00393
.0046
90
100
250
16.3
76
46
52
285
360
60
275
34
48
120
6.8
32
19
24
80
170
24
120
2
2
2
5
1.5
1.5
1.5
2
2
40
36
16
60
46
36
46
3
10
38
16
1536
1452
2610
660
1083
1063
960.8
3410
3170
1769
1966
7.9
8.9
10.2
2.71
8.93
19.30
10.5
19.3
20.0
21.45
12.42
94%Pt- 6%Rh
90% Pt-10% Rh
87% Pt-13% Rh
80% Pt-20% Rh
70% Pt-30% Rh
60% Pt-40% Rh
101
114
119
124
116
108
95
111
114
116
112
101
.0020
.0017
.0016
.0014
.0014
.0014
85
95
105
140
160
190
37
46
48
72
74
78
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
34
32
32
32
26
26
1810
1830
1840
1870
1910
1920
20.51
19.95
19.55
18.65
17.52
16.54
150 80
165 95
170 85
2 32
2 27
2 32
1270
1430
1400
8.86
8.73
8.60
55% Cu-45% Ni
315 294
90% Ni-10% Cr
- 425
95% Ni-2% Mn-2% Al
- 177
Tungsten Alloys
Tungsten-3% Re
Tungsten-5% Re
Tungsten-25% Re
Tungsten-26% Re
1. Percent purity or composition column refers to

matching thermocouple grade alloy.
RESISTIVITY TEMP COEEF.

TENSILE
cmil/ft OF RESISTANCE STRENGTH ELONGATION Melting
(at 0C)
(0-100C)
(psi x 1000) (percent)
point Density
0
C
(g/cm3)
Hard Annld Hard Annld
Hard Annld Hard Annld
PERCENT PURITY
or
Notes
composition
(1)
.0019
.0016
.0015
.0013
.0013
.0013
.00003 .00002
.00032 .00032
.00188 .00188
97% W- 3% Re
95% W- 5% Re
75% W-25% Re
74% W-26% Re
55
70
165
170
320
320
300
300
180
200
210
200
10
10
10
10
3410
3350
3130
3120
Pt alloys
Tungsten
Tungsten- 3% Re
Tungsten- 5% Re
Tungsten-25% Re
Tungsten-26% Re
Tungsten-26% Re
30
470
470
510
180
160
750
.0014
.0003
.0012
-
105
-
50
-
2
-
30
-
1090
1430
1400
1410
1370
1450
1520
19.4
19.4
19.7
19.7
8.91
8.73
8.60
8.58
8.88
8.85
7.42
Ratio of Resistance at Temperature Indicated to Resistance at 0C (32F)

N=Neg
P=Pos
0C
20C
200C
400C
600C
800C 1000C 1200C 1400C 1500C
Thermoelements (32F)
(68F)
(392F) (752F) (1112F) (1472F) (1832F) (2192F) (2552F) (2732F)
JP
JN, TN, EN
TP
KP, EP
KN
NP
NN
RP
SP
RN, SN
BP
BN
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.13
0.999
1.11
1.01
1.05
1.01
1.07
1.03
1.03
1.06
1.03
1.03
2.46
0.996
1.86
1.09
1.43
1.02
1.13
1.31
1.33
1.77
1.26
1.40
4.72
0.994
2.75
1.19
1.64
1.07
1.27
1.60
1.65
2.50
1.51
1.78
7.84
1.02
3.70
1.25
1.82
1.08
1.39
1.89
1.95
3.18
1.76
2.14
12.0
1.056
4.75
1.30
1.98
1.08
1.55
2.16
2.23
3.81
1.98
2.47
13.07
1.092
5.96
1.37
2.15
1.10
1.68
2.41
2.50
4.40
2.20
2.78
1.43
2.32
2.66
2.76
4.94
2.41
3.08
2.90
3.01
5.42
2.62
3.37
3.01
3.13
5.66
2.73
3.51
Resistance of Thermocouples, ohms per foot at 20C ( 68F)
Awg.
No.
Diameter
in.
KN
KP,EP
TN,JN,EN
TP
JP
NP
NN
RN, SN
RP
SP
BP
BN
16
20
24
30
36
0.0508
0.0320
0.0201
0.0100
0.0050
0.0683
0.173
0.438
1.77
7.08
0.164
0.415
1.05
4.25
17.0
0.1113
0.287
0.728
2.94
11.8
0.00402
0.0102
0.0257
0.1032
0.4148
0.0276
0.0699
0.1767
0.710
2.86
.2230
.5664
1.436
5.800
23.20
.08458
.2148
.5445
2.20
8.800
0.0247
0.0624
0.1578
0.6344
2.550
0.0456
0.1149
0.4656
2.965
12.25
0.0445
0.1125
0.2847
1.144
4.600
0.0447
0.1130
0.2859
1.149
4.620
0.0414
0.1046
0.2647
1.064
4.277
Z-49
Thermocouple
Types
Trade Names of Alloys

ANSI DESIGNATION
Iron-Constantan (ANSI Symbol J) The Iron-Constantan

J curve thermocouple with a positive iron wire and a
negative Constantan wire is recommended for reducing
atmospheres. The operating range for this alloy
combination is 1600F for the largest wire sizes. Smaller
size wires should operate in correspondingly lower
temperatures.
Copper-Constantan (ANSI Symbol T) The CopperConstantan T curve thermocouple, with a positive copper
wire and a negative Constantan wire, is recommended for
use in mildly oxidizing and reducing atmospheres up to
750F. They are suitable for applications where moisture is
present. This alloy is recommended for low temperature
work since the homogeneity of the component wires can
be maintained better than with other base metal wires.
Therefore, errors due to inhomogeneity of wires in zones of
temperature gradients are greatly reduced.
CHROMEGA -ALOMEGA (ANSI Symbol K) The
CHROMEGA-ALOMEGA K curve thermocouple with a
positive CHROMEGA wire and a negative ALOMEGA
wire is recommended for use in clean oxidizing
atmospheres, The operating range for this alloy is 2300F
for the largest wire sizes. Smaller wire sizes should operate
in correspondingly lower temperatures.
ALLOY (Generic or Trade Names)
JP
JN, EN, or TN
KP or EP
KN
TP
RN or SN
RP
SP
Iron
Constantan, Cupron, Advance
CHROMEGA, Tophel, T1, Thermokanthal KP
ALOMEGA, Nial, T2, Thermokanthal KN
Copper
Pure Platinum
Trade Names: Advance T - Driver Harris Co., CHROMEGA and ALOMEGA - OMEGA Engineering, Inc., Cupron, Nial and
Trophel -Wilbur B. Driver Co., Thermokanthal KP and Thermokanthal KN -The Kanthal Corporation.
ANSI LETTER DESIGNATIONS -Currently thermocouple and extension wire is ordered and specified by an ANSI letter
designation. Popular generic and trade name examples are CHROMEGA/ALOMEGA -ANSI Type K: Iron/Constantan ANSI Type J: Copper/Constantan - ANSI Type T CHROMEGA/Constantan -ANSI Type E: Platinum/Platinum 10% Rhodium
- ANSI Type S: Platinum/Platinum 13% Rhodium -ANSI Type R. The positive and negative legs are identified by letter suffixes
P and N, respectively, as listed in the tables.
CHROMEGA-Constantan (ANSI Symbol E) The

CHROMEGA-Constantan thermocouple may be used for
temperatures up to 1600F in a vacuum or inert, mildly
oxidizing or reducing atmosphere. At sub-zero
temperatures, the thermocouple is not subject to corrosion.
This thermocouple has the highest emf output of any
standard metallic thermocouple.
ANSI Symbol
70
T
E
J
K
N*
60
K
Millivolts
Platinum-Rhodium Alloys (ANSI Symbols S, R and B)

Three types of noble-metal thermocouples are in common
use; they are: 1) a positive wire of 90% platinum and 10%
rhodium used with a negative wire of pure platinum, 2) a
positive wire of 87% platinum and 13% rhodium used with
a negative wire of pure platinum, and 3) a positive wire of
70% platinum and 30% rhodium used with a negative wire
of 94% platinum and 6% rhodium. They have a high
resistance to oxidation and corrosion. However, hydrogen,
carbon and many metal vapors can contaminate a
platinum-rhodium thermocouple. The recommended
operating range for the platinum-rhodium alloys is 2800F,
although temperatures as high as 3270F can be
measured with the Pt-30% Rh vs. Pt-6% Rh alloy
combination.
80
50
N*
40
G*
C*
30
T
20
R S
B
10
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
Temperature (Fahrenheit)
Tungsten-Rhenlum Alloys Three types of tungstenrhenium thermocouples are in common use for measuring
temperatures up to 5000F. These alloys have inherently
poor oxidation resistance and should be used in vacuum,
hydrogen or inert atmospheres.
Copper vs. Constantan

CHROMEGA vs. Constantan
Iron vs. Constantan
CHROMEGA vs. ALOMEGA
OMEGALLOY
Nicrosil-Nisil
G* Tungsten vs. Tungsten 26%
Rhenium
C* Tungsten 5% Rhenium vs.
D* Tungsten 3% Rhenium vs.
R Platinum 13% Rhodium vs.
Platinum
S Platinum 10% Rhodium vs.
Platinum
B Platinum 30% Rhodium vs.
Platinum 6% Rhodium
*Not an ANSI Symbol
Resistance Vs. Wire Diameter

AWG
No.
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
24
26
30
32
34
36
38
40
44
50
56
Type K
Type J
Type T
Type E
Type S
Iron/
Copper/
CHROMEGA
Pt/
Diameter CHROMEGA
inches ALOMEGA Constantan Constantan Constantan PT110%Rh
0.162
0.023
0.014
0.012
0.027
0.007
0.128
0.037
0.022
0.019
0.044
0.011
0.102
0.058
0.034
0.029
0.069
0.018
0.081
0.091
0.054
0.046
0.109
0.028
0.064
0.146
0.087
0.074
0.175
0.045
0.051
0.230
0.137
0.117
0.276
0.071
0.040
0.374
0.222
0.190
0.448
0.116
0.032
0.586
0.357
0.298
0.707
0.185
0.0201
1.490
0.878
0.7526
1.78
0.464
0.0159
2.381
1.405
1.204
2.836
0.740
0.0100
5.984
3.551
3.043
7.169
1.85
0.0080
9.524
5.599
4.758
11.31
1.96
0.0063
15.17
8.946
7.66
18.09
4.66
0.0050
24.08
14.20
12.17
28.76
7.40
0.0039
38.20
23.35
19.99
45.41
11.6
0.00315
60.88
37.01
31.64
73.57
18.6
0.0020
149.6
88.78
76.09
179.20
74.0
0.0010
598.4
355.1
304.3
716.9
185
0.00049 2408
1420
1217
2816
740
*Increase the resistance by 19% for nickel plated, type RTD wire
Type R
Type RX/SX
Type C
Pt/
Copper
W5%Re/
PT113%Rh Alloy11**
W26%Re
0.007
0.003
0.009
0.011
0.004
0.015
0.018
0.007
0.023
0.029
0.011
0.037
0.047
0.018
0.058
0.073
0.028
0.092
0.119
0.045
0.148
0.190
0.071
0.235
0.478
0.180
0.594
0.760
0.288
0.945
1.91
0.727
2.38
3.04
1.136
3.8
4.82
1.832
6.04
7.64
2.908
9.6
11.95
4.780
15.3
19.3
7.327
24.4
76.5
18.18
60.2
191
72.7
240
764
302.8
1000
**Maximum Resistance of reviewed wire
Z-50
Type CX
Alloy 405
Alloy 426
0.014
0.023
0.037
0.058
0.093
0.146
0.238
0.371
0.941
1.503
3.800
5.94
9.57
15.20
24.98
38.30
95.00
380.0
1583
Type G
W/
W26%Re
0.008
0.012
0.020
0.031
0.049
0.078
0.126
0.200
0.560
0.803
2.03
3.22
5.10
8.16
12.9
20.6
51.1
204
850
Not ANSI symbol
Type D
W3%Re/
W25%Re
0.009
0.015
0.022
0.035
0.055
0.088
0.138
0.220
0.560
0.890
2.26
3.60
5.70
9.10
15.3
23.0
56.9
227
945
Type BX
Copper/
Copper*
0.000790
0.001256
0.001998
0.00318
0.00505
0.00803
0.01277
0.02030
0.05134
0.08162
0.2064
0.3282
0.5218
0.8296
1.3192
2.098
5.134
20.64
86.38
Comparison of Time Constant* vs. Overall

Outside Diameter of Bare Thermocouple Wires
or Grounded Junction Thermocouples In Air
Time constants calculated for air at
room temperature and atmospheric
pressure moving with velocity of
65 feet per second for thermocouples
shown in Figures #1 and #2.
* The Time Constant or Response TIme is defined

as the time required to reach 63.2% of an instantaneous
temperature change.
1.1
2.1
1.0
2.0
.9
1.9
.8
1.8
.7
1.7
.6
1.6
Time constant of
thermocouple made with
exposed, butt welded
0.001 in. dia. wire
= .003 sec.
.5
.4
.3
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
.2
1.1
.1
1/64 in.
1/32 in.
1.0
0.0
.002 .004 .006 .008 .010 .012 .014 .016 .018 .020 .022 .024 .026 .028 .030 .032 .034
.001
WIRE OR SHEATH DIAMETER - INCHES D
D
GROUNDED
Junction
Fig. #2
BARE WIRE
Butt Welded
Fig. #1
BEADED-TYPE UNGROUNDEDThermocouple
TYPE
Fig. #3
Thermocouple
Fig. #4
Because of space limitations,

time constant curve is divided
into 4 separate curves.
11.0
110
10.0
100
9.0
90
8.0
80
7.0
70
6.0
60
5.0
50
4.0
40
3.0
30
20
2.0
1.8 sec.
10
1.0
.03125
.0625
.09375
.125
.15625
.1875
.21875
.250
.28125
.3125
.375
1/32
1/16
3/32
1/8
5/32
3/16
7/32
1/4
9/32
5/16
3/8
WIRE OR SHEATH DIAMETER - INCHES D
Note:
These comparisons apply to either bare butt-welded or grounded junction thermocouples. If the thermocouples are the beaded type or
ungrounded, the time constant is longer. These times are only approximate and are provided for comparison purposes only. Multiply values
from Time Constants by 1.5 for junctions shown in Fig. #3 and Fig. #4.
Z-51
TIME CONSTANT - SECONDS
Figure M Sheath Diameter 132" to 38 "
Time constant of thermocouple made

with exposed butt welded 0.001 inch
dia. wire = .003 sec.
For beaded-type and ungrounded

junctions (Figures #3 or #4), multiply
time constants by 1.5.
1.2
Metal Sheathed
Thermocouple Probe
Time Response Study in Water
2.25
.250
Ungrounded
2.00
1.75
Time in Seconds
1.50
1.25
.188
1.00
Grounded
.75
.125
.50
.25
.040
.05
.062
Exposed
.15
.10
Probe Diameter in Inches
Z-52
.20
.25
OMEGA Interchangeable
Thermistor Applications
variable
resistor
for battery
control
thermistor
variable
resistor
for battery
control
thermistor
variable resistor
for setting desired
temperature
relay
high gain
amplifier
thermistor
thermistor
Fig. 1
Fig. 6
Fig. 4
room
temperature
oven
#1
variable
resistor
for battery
control
variable
resistor
for battery
control
reference
thermistor
slave
thermistor
selector
switch
oven
#2
variable resistor
for adjusting slave
temperature slightly
above or below
temperature
refrigerator
chamber
difference
#2
difference
#1
relay
high gain
amplifier
master
thermistor
pressure
chamber
Fig. 5
Fig. 2
Fig. 7
thermistor
1000 ohms at 25C
meter coil
2150 ohms
at 25C
resistor
1000 ohms
at 25C
Thermistors can be used in a variety of ways. Here are a

few typical applications. If you have questions concerning
these or other thermistor uses, we will be happy to
discuss them.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT-A thermistor in one
leg of a Wheatstone bridge circuit will provide precise
temperature information. Accuracy is limited in most
applications only by the readout device. See Figure 1.
Since lead length between thermistor and bridge is not
normally a limiting factor, this basic system can be
expanded to measure temperature at several locations
from a central point. Thermistor interchangeability and
large resistance change eliminate any significant error
from switches or lead length. See Figure 2.
METER COMPENSATION - The coil resistance of a
meter movement changes with temperature, making the
meter temperature dependent. Using the thermistors
property of a high negative temperature coefficient, the
coil can be compensated so total resistance due to
temperature rise is essentially constant, allowing the
meter to be used over a wide temperature range with
minimal error. See Figure 3.
DIFFERENTIAL THERMOMETERS-For accurate
indication of temperature differential, two thermistors can
be used in a Wheatstone bridge circuit. Thermistor
interchangeability simplifies circuit design and reduces
the number of components. See Figure 4.
can be placed at various points and the difference

between these temperatures and the original
temperature monitored at a convenient location.
Measuring air temperature at different elevations with
reference to ground temperature is useful for temperature
inversion data and geological studies. See Figure 5.
TEMPERATURE CONTROL-A system can be designed
using a thermistor with a known temperature/ resistance
curve to form one leg of an AC bridge and a variable
resistor calibrated in temperature to form another leg.
When the resistor is set to a desired temperature, bridge
unbalance occurs. This unbalance is fed into an amplifier
which actuates a relay to provide a source of heat or
cold. When the thermistor senses the desired
temperature, the bridge is balanced, opening the relay
and turning off the heat or cold. See Figure 6.
MASTER-SLAVE CONTROL-Occasionally there is a
need to control one temperature with respect to another,
such as a product going through a series of baths. The
first bath acts as a master and uses a thermistor to sense
temperature. Succeeding baths, also using thermistors,
are slaves. When these thermistors are placed in the
controller bridge, the slave baths can be kept at a
temperature relative to the master bath.
The master bath can be controlled with the system
described earlier. The master-slave controller can be
used for as many baths as necessary. See Figure 7.
To measure heat loss in a piping network, thermistors

Z-53
Resistance Elements and RTDs

David J. King
INTRODUCTION
Resistance elements come in many
types conforming to different standards,
capable of different temperature
ranges, with various sizes and
accuracies available. But they all
function in the same manner: each has
a pre-specified resistance value at a
known temperature which changes in a
predictable fashion. In this way, by
measuring the resistance of the
element, the temperature of the
element can be determined from
tables, calculations or instrumentation.
These resistance elements are the
heart of the RTD (Resistance
Temperature Detector). Generally, a
bare resistance element is too fragile
and sensitive to be used in its raw form,
so it must be protected by incorporating
it into an RTD. A
Resistance Temperature Detector is
a general term for any device that
senses temperature by measuring the
change in resistance of a material.
RTDs come in many forms, but usually
appear in sheathed form. An RTD
probe is an assembly composed of a
resistance element, a sheath, lead wire
and a termination or connection. The
sheath, a closed end tube, immobilizes
the element, protecting it against
moisture and the environment to be
measured. The sheath also provides
protection and stability to the transition
lead wires from the fragile element
wires.
Some RTD probes can be combined

with thermowells for additional
protection. In this type of application,
the thermowell may not only add
protection to the RTD, but will also seal
whatever system the RTD is to
measure (a tank or boiler for instance)
from actual contact with the RTD. This
becomes a great aid in replacing the
RTD without draining the vessel or
system.
Thermocouples are the old tried and
true method of electrical temperature
measurement. They function very
differently from RTDs but generally
appear in the same configuration: often
sheathed and possibly in a thermowell.
Basically, they operate on the Seebeck

effect, which results in a change in
thermoelectric emf induced by a
change in temperature. Many
applications lend themselves to either
RTDs or thermocouples.
Thermocouples tend to be more
rugged, free of self-heating errors and
they command a large assortment of
instrumentation. However, RTDs,
especially platinum RTDs, are more
stable and accurate.
RESISTANCE ELEMENT
CHARACTERISTICS
There are several very important
details that must be specified in order
to properly identify the characteristics
of the RTD:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Material of Resistance
Element (Platinum,
Nickel, etc.)
Temperature Coefficient
Nominal Resistance
Temperature Range of
Application
Physical Dimensions or
Size Restrictions
Accuracy
1. Material of Resistance Element

Several metals are quite common for
use in resistance elements and the
purity of the metal affects its
characteristics. Platinum is by far the
most popular due to its linearity with
temperature. Other common materials
are nickel and copper, although most of
these are being replaced by platinum
elements. Other metals used, though
rarely, are Balco (an iron-nickel alloy),
tungsten and iridium.
2. Temperature Coefficient
The temperature coefficient of an
element is a physical and electrical
property of the material. This is a term
that describes the average resistance
change per unit of temperature from ice
point to the boiling point of water.
Different organizations have adopted
different temperature coefficients as
their standard. In 1983, the IEC
(International Electrotechnical
Commission) adopted the DIN
(Deutsche Institute for Normung)
standard of Platinum 100 ohm at 0C
with a temperature coefficient of
0.00385 ohms per ohm degree
centigrade. This is now the accepted
standard of the industry in most
countries, although other units are
widely used. A quick explanation of
how the coefficient is derived is as
follows: Resistance at the boiling point
(100C) =138.50 ohms. Resistance at
ice point (0C) = 100.00 ohms. Divide
the difference (38.5) by 100 degrees
and then divide by the 100 ohm
Z-54
nominal value of the element. The

result is the mean temperature
coefficient (alpha) of 0.00385 ohms per
ohm per C.
Some of the less common materials
and temperature coefficients are:
Pt TC
Pt TC
Pt TC
Pt TC
Copper TC
Nickel TC
Nickel TC
=
=
=
=
=
Balco TC
=
Tungsten TC =
.003902 (U.S. Industrial

Standard)
.003920 (Old U.S.
Standard)
.003923 (SAMA)
.003916 (JIS)
.0042
0.00617 (DIN)
.00672 (Growing
Less Common in U.S.)
.0052
0.0045
Please note that the temperature

coefficients are the average values
between 0 and 100C. This is not to
say that the resistance vs. temperature
curves are truly linear over the
specified temperature range.
3. Nominal Resistance
Nominal Resistance is the prespecified resistance value at a given

temperature. Most standards, including
IEC-751, use 0C as their reference
point. The IEC standard is 100 ohms at
0C, but other nominal resistances,
such as 50, 200, 400, 500, 1000 and
2000 ohm, are available.
4. Temperature Range of Application
Depending on the mechanical
configuration and manufacturing
methods, RTDs may be used from
-270C to 850C. Specifications for
temperature range will be different, for
thin film, wire wound and glass
encapsulated types, for example.
5. Physical Dimensions or Size
Restrictions
The most critical dimension of the
element is outside diameter (O.D.),
because the element must often fit
within a protective sheath. The film type
elements have no O.D. dimension. To
calculate an equivalent dimension, we
need to find the diagonal of an end
cross section (this will be the widest
distance across the element as it is
inserted into a sheath).
Resistance Elements and RTDs Contd

FIGURE 1. LOCATION OF THIN FILM ELEMENT IN CYLINDRICAL SHEATH
WALL THICKNESS
DIAGONAL OF ELEMENT
Vibration Resistance: 50 g @ 500C;

200 g @ 20C; at frequencies from 20
to 1000 cps.
THICKNESS OF ELEMENT
W
OD
Permissible deviations from basic

values
Temperature
C
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
650
Class A
Deviation
ohms
C
0.24
0.55
0.14
0.35
0.06
0.15
0.13
0.35
0.20
0.55
0.27
0.75
0.33
0.95
0.38
1.15
0.43
1.35
0.46
1.45
Class B
Temperature
Deviation
C
ohms
C
-200
056
1.3
-100
0.32
0.8
0
0.12
0.3
100
0.30
0.8
200
0.48
1.3
300
0.64
1.8
400
0.79
2.3
500
0.93
2.8
600
1.06
3.3
650
1.13
3.6
700
1.17
3.8
800
1.28
4.3
850
1.34
4.6
For example, using an element that is
10 x 2 x 1.5 mm, the diagonal can be
found by taking the square root of (22 +
1.52). Thus, the element will fit into a
2.5 mm (0.98") inside diameter hole. For
practical purposes, remember that any
element 2 mm wide or less will fit into a
10,000 hours at maximum temperature

(1 year, 51 days, 16 hours continuous).
W = WIDTH OF ELEMENT
1/ " O.D. sheath with 0.010" walls,

8
generally speaking. Elements which are
1.5 mm wide will typically fit into a
sheath with 0.084" bore. Refer to Figure
1.
6. Accuracy
IEC 751 specifications for Platinum
Resistance Thermometers have
adopted DIN 43760 requirements for
accuracy. DIN-IEC Class A and Class B
elements are shown in the chart on this
page.
7. Response Time
50% Response is the time the
thermometer element needs in order to
reach 50% of its steady state value.
90% Response is defined in a similar
manner. These response times of
elements are given for water flowing
with 0. 2 m/s velocity and air flowing at
1 m/s. They can be calculated for any
other medium with known values of
thermal conductivity. In a 1/4" diameter
sheath immersed in water flowing at
3 feet per second, response time to
63% of a step change in temperature is
less than 5.0 seconds.
8. Measurement Current and Self
Heating
Temperature measurement is carried
out almost exclusively with direct
current. Unavoidably, the measuring
current generates heat in the RTD. The
permissible measurement currents are
determined by the location of the
element, the medium which is to be
measured, and the velocity of moving
media. A self-heating factor, S, gives
the measurement error for the element
in C per milliwatt (mW). With a given
value of measuring current, I, the
milliwatt value P can be calculated from
P = I2R, where R is the RTDs
resistance value. The temperature
measurement error T (C) can then be
calculated from T = P x S.
RESISTANCE ELEMENT
SPECIFICATIONS
Stability: Better than 0.2C after
Z-55
Temperature Shock Resistance: In

forced air: over entire temperature
range. In a water quench: from 200 to
20C.
Pressure Sensitivity: Less than 1.5 x
10-4 C/PSI, reversible.
Self Heating Errors & Response
Times: Refer to specific Temperature
Handbook pages for the type of
element selected.
Self Inductance From Sensing
Current: Can be considered negligible
for thin film elements; typically less than
0.02 microhenry for wire wound
elements.
Capacitance: For wire wound elements:
calculated to be less than 6 PicoFarads;
for film-type elements: capacitance is too
small to be measured and is affected by
lead wire connection. Lead connections
with element may indicate about 300 pF
capacitance.
LEAD WIRE
CONFIGURATIONS
As stated previously, a Resistance
Temperature Detector (RTD) element
generally appears in a sheathed form.
Obviously, all of the criteria applicable to
resistance elements also apply here,
but rather than element size, the
construction and dimensions of the
entire RTD assembly must be
considered. Since the lead wire used
between the resistance element and the
measuring instrument has a resistance
itself, we must also supply a means of
compensating for this inaccuracy. Refer
to Figure 2 for the 2-wire configuration.
BLACK
R2
RE
RED
ELEMENT
R1
FIGURE 2. 2-WIRE
CONFIGURATION (STYLE 1)
The circle represents the resistance
element boundaries to the point of
calibration. 3- or 4-wire configuration
must be extended from the point of
calibration so that all uncalibrated
resistances are compensated.
The resistance RE is taken from the

resistance element and is the value
that will supply us with an accurate
temperature measurement.
Unfortunately, when we take our
resistance measurement, the
instrument will indicate
RTOTAL:
Where
RT = R1 + R2 + RE
This will produce a temperature
readout higher than that actually
being measured. Many systems can
be calibrated to eliminate this. Most
RTDs incorporate a third wire with
resistance R3. This wire will be
connected to one side of the
resistance element along with lead
2 as shown in Figure 3.
This configuration provides one
connection to one end and two to
the other end of the sensor.
Connected to an instrument
designed to accept 3-wire input,
compensation is achieved for lead
resistance and temperature change
in lead resistance. This is the most
commonly used configuration.
BLACK R
3
BLACK
R2
RE
RED
ELEMENT
R1
provided to each end of the sensor.

This construction is used for
measurements of the highest
precision.
BLACK R
4
BLACK R
3
case.
Still another configuration, now rare,
is a standard 2-wire configuration
with a closed loop of wire alongside
(Figure 5). This functions the same
as the 3-wire configuration, but uses
an extra wire to do so. A separate
pair of wires is provided as a loop to
provide compensation for lead
resistance and ambient changes in
lead resistance.
RE
RED R
BLACK R
4
RED R
1
ELEMENT
RE
RED
ELEMENT
FIGURE 4. 4-WIRE
With the 4-wire configuration, the
instrument will pass a constant
current (I) through the outer leads, 1
and 4.
The voltage drop is measured
across the inner leads, 2 and 3. So
from V = IR we learn the resistance
of the element alone, with no effect
from the lead wire resistance. This
offers an advantage over 3-wire
configurations only if dissimilar lead
wires are used, and this is rarely the
FIGURE 3. 3-WIRE
If three identical type wires are used
and their lengths are equal, then R1
= R2 = R3. By measuring the
resistance through leads 1, 2 and
the resistance element, a total
system resistance is measured (R1
+ R2 + RE ). If the resistance is also
measured through leads 2 and 3 (R2
+ R3), we obtain the resistance of
just the lead wires, and since all
lead wire resistances are equal,
subtracting this value (R2 + R3) from
the total system resistance (R1 + R2
+ RE) leaves us with just RE, and an
accurate temperature measurement
has been made. A 4-wire
configuration is also used. (See
Figure 4.) Two connections are
Z-56
BLACK
LEAD RESISTANCE LOOP
FIGURE 5. 2-WIRE
CONFIGURATION PLUS LOOP
(STYLE 4)
R3
R2
R1
Introduction to
Infrared Pyrometers
Why should I use an infrared pyrometer to measure
temperature in my application?
Infrared pyrometers allow users to measure temperature in
applications where conventional sensors cannot be employed.
Specifically, in cases dealing with moving objects (i.e., rollers,
moving machinery, or a conveyer belt), or where non-contact
measurements are required because of contamination or
hazardous reasons (such as high voltage), where distances
are too great, or where the temperatures to be measured are
too high for thermocouples or other contact sensors.
Emissivity (), a major but not uncontrollable factor in IR

temperature measurement, cannot be ignored. Related to
emissivity are reflectivity (R), a measure of an objects ability
to reflect infrared energy, and transmissivity (T), a measure of
an objects ability to pass or transmit IR energy. All radiation
energy must be either emitted (E) due to the temperature of
the body, transmitted (T) or reflected (R). The total energy, the
sum of emissivity, transmissivity and reflectivity is equal to 1:
E + T + R = 1.0
What should I consider about my application when selecting

an infrared pyrometer?
The critical considerations for any infrared pyrometer include
field of view (target size and distance), type of surface being
measured (emissivity considerations), spectral response
(for atmospheric effects or transmission through surfaces),
temperature range and mounting (handheld portable or
fixed mount). Other considerations include response time,
environment, mounting limitations, viewing port or window
applications, and desired signal processing.
R
E
Hot
Source
T
Infrared
Pyrometer
FIELD OF VIEW
What is meant by Field of View, and why is it important?
The field of view is the angle of vision at which the instrument
operates, and is determined by the optics of the unit. To
obtain an accurate temperature reading, the target being
measured should completely fill the field of view of the
instrument. Since the infrared device determines the average
temperature of all surfaces within the field of view, if the
background temperature is different from the object
temperature, a measurement error can occur (figure 1).
Object A
Object B
Total infrared radiation reaching pyrometers
The ideal surface for infrared measurements is a perfect

radiator, or a blackbody with an emissivity of 1.0. Most objects,
however, are not perfect radiators, but will reflect and/or
transmit a portion of the energy. Most instruments have
the ability to compensate for different emissivity values,
for different materials. In general, the higher the emissivity
of an object, the easier it is to obtain an accurate temperature
measurement using infrared. Objects with very low emissivities
(below 0.2) can be difficult applications. Some polished, shiny
metallic surfaces, such as aluminum, are so reflective in the
infrared that accurate temperature measurements are not
always possible.
Wall
Figure 1: Field of view
Most general purpose indicators have a focal distance

between 20 and 60". The focal distance is the point at which
the minimum measurement spot occurs. For example, a unit
with a distance-to-spot size ratio of 120:1, and a focal length
of 60" will have a minimum spot size of 0.5" at 60" distance.
Close-focus instruments have a typical 0.1 to 12" focal length,
while long-range units can use focal distances on the order
of 50'. Many instruments used for long distances or small
spot sizes also include sighting scopes for improved focusing.
Field of view diagrams are available for most instruments to
help estimate spot size at specific distances.
EMISSIVITY
What is emissivity, and how is it related to infrared
temperature measurements?
Emissivity is defined as the ratio of the energy radiated by
an object at a given temperature to the energy emitted by
a perfect radiator, or blackbody, at the same temperature.
The emissivity of a blackbody is 1.0. All values of emissivity
fall between 0.0 and 1.0.
Z-57
Reflectivity is usually a more important consideration than

transmission except in a few special applications, such as
thin film plastics. The emissivity of most organic substances
(wood, cloth, plastics, etc.) is approximately 0.95. Most rough
or painted surfaces also have fairly high emissivity values.
FIVE WAYS TO DETERMINE EMISSIVITY

There are five ways to determine the emissivity of the
material, to ensure accurate temperature measurements:
1. Heat a sample of the material to a known temperature,
using a precise sensor, and measure the temperature using
the IR instrument. Then adjust the emissivity value to force
the indicator to display the correct temperature.
2. For relatively low temperatures (up to 500F), a piece of

masking tape, with an emissivity of 0.95, can be measured.
Then adjust the emissivity value to force the indicator to
display the correct temperature of the material.
3. For high temperature measurements, a hole (depth of which
is at least 6 times the diameter) can be drilled into the object.
This hole acts as a blackbody with emissivity of 1.0. Measure
the temperature in the hole, then adjust the emissivity to force
the indicator to display the correct temperature of the material.
4. If the material, or a portion of it, can be coated, a dull
black paint will have an emissivity of approx. 1.0. Measure
the temperature of the paint, then adjust the emissivity to
force the indicator to display the correct temperature.
5. Standardized emissivity values for most materials are
available (see pages 114-115). These can be entered into
the instrument to estimate the materials emissivity value.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT THROUGH GLASS

I want to measure the temperature through a glass or quartz
window; what special considerations are there?
Transmission of the infrared energy through glass or quartz
is an important factor to be considered. The pyrometer must
have a wavelength where the glass is somewhat transparent,
which means they can only be used for high temperature.
Otherwise, the instrument will have measurement errors
due to averaging of the glass temperature with the desired
product temperature.
MOUNTING
How can I mount the infrared pyrometer?
SPECTRAL RESPONSE
What is spectral response, and how will it affect my readings?
The spectral response of the unit is the width of the infrared
spectrum covered. Most general purpose units (for
temperatures below 1000F) use a wideband filter in the 8 to
14 micron range. This range is preferred for most
measurements, as it will allow measurements to be taken
without the atmospheric interference (where the atmospheric
temperature affects the readings of the instrument). Some
units use wider filters such as 8 to 20 microns, which can be
used for close measurements, but are distance-sensitive
against longer distances. For special purposes, very narrow
bands may be chosen. These can be used for higher
temperatures, and for penetrations of atmosphere, flames,
and gases. Typical low band filters are at 2.2 or 3.8 microns.
High temperatures above 1500F are usually measured with
2.1 to 2.3 micron filters. Other bandwidths that can be used
are 0.78 to 1.06 for high temperatures, 7.9 or 3.43 for limited
transmissions through thin film plastics, and 3.8 microns to
penetrate through clean flames with minimum interference.
The pyrometer can be of two types, either fixed-mount or

portable. Fixed mount units are generally installed in one
location to continuously monitor a given process. They
usually operate on line power, and are aimed at a single
point. The output from this type of instrument can be a local
or remote display, along with an analog output that can be
used for another display or control loop.
Battery powered, portable infrared guns are also available;
these units have all the features of the fixed mount devices,
usually without the analog output for control purposes.
Generally these units are utilized in maintenance, diagnostics,
quality control, and spot measurements of critical processes.
RESPONSE TIME
What else should I take into account when selecting and
installing my infrared measurement system?
First, the instrument must respond quickly enough to process
changes for accurate temperature recording or control.
Typical response times for infrared thermometers are in
the 0.1 to 1 second range. Next, the unit must be able to
function within the environment, at the ambient temperature.
Other considerations include physical mounting limitations,
viewing port/window applications (measuring through glass),
and the desired signal processing to produce the desired
output for further analysis, display or control.
Z-58
Thermometry
W. R. Barron, Williamson Corporation
Temperature measurement can be

divided into two categories: contact and
noncontact. Contact thermocouples,
RTDs, and thermometers are the most
prevalent in temperature measurement
applications. They must contact the
target as they measure their own
temperature and they are relatively slow
responding, but they are inexpensive.
Noncontact temperature sensors
measure IR energy emitted by the
target, have fast response, and are
commonly used to measure moving and
intermittent targets, targets in a vacuum,
and targets that are inaccessible due
to hostile environments, geometry
limitations, or safety hazards. The cost
is relatively high, although in some
cases is comparable to contact devices.
Infrared radiation was discovered in
1666 by Sir Isaac Newton, when he
separated the electromagnetic energy
from sunlight by passing white light
through a glass prism that broke up the
beam into colors of the rainbow. In
1800, Sir William Herschel took the next
step by measuring the relative energy of
each color. He also discovered energy
beyond the visible. In the early 1900s,
Planck, Stefan, Boltzmann, Wien, and
Kirchhoff further defined the activity
of the electromagnetic spectrum and
developed quantitative data and equations
to identify IR energy.
This research makes it possible to define
IR energy using the basic blackbody
emittance curves (See Figure 1). From
this plot it can be seen that objects (of a
temperature greater than -273C) emit
radiant energy in an amount proportional
to the fourth power of their temperature.
The concept of blackbody emittance
is the foundation for IR thermometry.
There is, however, the term emissivity
that adds a variable to the basic laws of
physics. Emissivity is a measure of the
ratio of thermal radiation emitted by a
1200F
0.8
El = 1 - tl - rl
This emissivity coefficient fits into Plancks
equation as a variable describing the
object surface characteristics relative
to wavelength. The majority of targets
measured are opaque and the emissivity
coefficient can be simplified to:
0.7
0.6
0.5
El = 1 - rl
1000F
0.4
Exceptions are materials like glass,

plastics, and silicon, but through proper
selective spectral filtering it is possible
to measure these objects in their
opaque IR region.
0.3
0.2
VISIBLE
THEORY AND FUNDAMENTALS
Therefore:
RADIATION EMITTANCE (W/cm2/mm-1)
The fundamentals of IR thermometry

are an important prerequisite for
specifying an accurate monitoring
system. Unfortunately, many users
do not take the time to understand
the basic guidelines, and consequently
reject the concept of noncontact
temperature measurement as inaccurate.
0.1
600F
0
0
10
WAVELENGTH (mm)
BLACKBODY RADIATION
CHARACTERISTICS
STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW Q = sT4
WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW l M = K/T
PLANCK'S LAW Ql = Cl -5 (ec2 / lT-1) -1
Figure 1: As shown in curves representing the

distribution of energy emitted by blackbodies
ranging in temperature from 600F to 1200F,
the predominant radiation is in the IR region
of 0.5-14 m, well beyond the visible region.
graybody (non-blackbody) to that of a

blackbody at the same temperature.
(A graybody refers to an object that has
the same spectral emissivity at every
wavelength; a non-graybody is an object
whose emissivity changes with
wavelength, e.g. aluminum.)
L
E = GB
LBB
The law of conservation of energy states
that the coefficient of transmission,
reflection, and emission (absorption)
of radiation must add up to 1:
tl + rl + al = 1
and the emissivity equals absorptivity:
El = al
Z-59
There is typically a lot of confusion

regarding emissivity error, but the user
need remember only four things:
IR sensors are inherently colorblind.
If the target is visually reflective (like a
mirror), beware you will measure not
only the emitted radiation, as desired,
but also reflected radiation.
If you can see through it, you need to
select IR filtering (e.g., glass is
opaque at 5m).
Nine out of ten applications do not require
absolute temperature measurement.
Repeatability and drift-free operation
yield close temperature control.
If the surface is shiny, there is an
emissivity adjustment that can be made
either manually or automatically to correct
for emissivity error. It is a simple fix
for most applications. In cases where
emissivity varies and creates processing
problems, consider dual- or multiwavelength radiometry to eliminate the
emissivity problem.
DESIGN ELEMENTS
IR thermometers come in a wide variety
of configurations pertaining to optics,
electronics, technology, size, and
protective enclosures. All, however,
have a common chain of IR energy in
and an electronic signal out. This basic
chain consists of collecting optics, lenses,
and/or fiber optics, spectral filtering, and
a detector as the front end. Dynamic
processing comes in many forms, but
can be summarized as amplification,
thermal stability, linearization, and
signal conditioning. Normal window
From an applications standpoint, the

primary characteristic of the optics is
the field of view (FOV), i.e., what is the
target size at a prescribed distance?
A very common lens system, for example,
would be a 1 in. dia. target size at a
15 in. working distance. Using the inverse
square law, by doubling the distance
(30 in.) the target area theoretically
doubles (2 in. dia.). The actual definition
of target size (area measured) will vary
depending upon the supplier, and it
is price dependent. Other optical
configurations vary from small spot
(0.030 in dia.) for close-up pinpoint
measurement, to distant optics (3 in.
at 30 ft) for distant aiming. It is important
to note that working distance should not
affect the accuracy if the FOV is filled by
the target. In one technique for measuring
FOV, the variable is signal loss vs.
diameter. A strict rule is a 1% energy
reduction, although some data are
presented at half power, or 63.2%
Alignment (aiming) is another optical
factor. Many sensors lack that
capability; the lens is aligned to the
surface and measures surface temperature.
This works with sizable targets, e.g.,
paper web, where pinpoint accuracy
is not required. For small targets that
use small-spot optics, and for distant
optics used in remote monitoring, there
are options of visual aiming, aim lights,
and laser alignment.
Selective spectral filtering typically
uses short-wavelength filters for hightemperature applications (>1000F,
and long-wavelength filters for low
temperatures 50F). This obviously
fits the blackbody distribution curves,
and there are some technological
advantages. For example, high
temperature/short wavelength uses
a very thermally stable silicon detector,
and the short-wavelength design
minimizes temperature error due to
emissivity variations. Other selective
filtering is used for plastic films (3.43 m
and 7.9 m), glass (5.1 m), and flame
insensitivity (3.8 m).
A variety of detectors are used to

maximize the sensitivity of the sensor.
As shown in Figure 2, PbS has the
greatest sensitivity, while the thermopile
has the least sensitivity. Most detectors
are either photovoltaic, putting out
a voltage when energized, or
photoconductive, changing resistance
when excited. These fast-responding,
high sensitive detectors have a tradeoff
thermal drift that can be overcome in
many ways, including temperature
compensation (thermistors) circuitry,
temperature regulation, auto null
circuitry, chopping (AC vs. DC output),
and isothermal protection. Drift-free
operation is available in varying degrees
and is price dependent.
106
PbS
105
RELATIVE SENSIVITY
glass is usable at the short wavelength,

quartz for the midrange, and germanium
or zinc sulfide for the 8-14 m range.
Fiber optics are available to cover the
0.5-5.0 m region.
Ge
104
Si
InAs
InSb
10
THERMISTOR BOLOMETER
102
(PYROELECTRIC
DETECTOR)
THIN FILM
THERMOPILE
101
METAL THERMOPILE
1
0.1
0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0
5 7 10
20
WAVELENGTH (mm)
CHOPPED
UNCHOPPED
Figure 2: To optimize the respone of IR sensing

systems, the detectors spectral response and
modulation characteristics must be considered.
In the IR thermometers electronics

package, the detectors nonlinear output
signal, on the order of 100-1000 V,
is processed. The signal is amplified
1000 x, regulated, and linearized, and
the ultimate output is a linear mV or mA
signal. The trend is toward 4-20 mA
output to minimize environmental
electrical noise interference.
This signal can also be transposed to
RS 232 or fed to a PID controller, remote
display, or recorder. Additional signal
conditioning options involve on/off alarms,
adjustable peak hold for intermittent
targets, adjustable response time,
and/or sample-and-hold circuitry.
Z-60
On the average, IR thermometers have

a response time on the order of 300 ms,
although signal outputs on the order
of 10 ms can be obtained with silicon
detectors. In the real world, many
instruments have an adjustable response
capability that permits damping of noisy
incoming signals and field adjustment
on sensitivity. It is not always necessary
to have the fastest response available.
There are cases involving induction
heating and other types of applications,
however, where response times on the
order of 10-50 ms are required, and they
are attainable through IR thermometry.
SINGLE-WAVELENGTH
THERMOMETRY
The basic single-wavelength design
measures total energy emitted from a
surface at a prescribed wavelength.
The configurations range from handheld
probes with a simple remote meter to
sophisticated portables with simultaneous
viewing of target and temperature, plus
memory and/or printout capabilities.
On-line, fixed-mount sensors range
from simple small detectors with remote
electronics (OEM designs) to rugged
devices with remote PID control.
Fiber optics, laser aiming, water cooling,
CRT display, and scanning systems are
among the options for process monitoring
and control applications. There are
many variations in size, performance,
ruggedness, adaptability, and signal
conditioning.
Process sensor configuration, IR
spectral filtering, temperature range,
optics, response time, and target
emissivity are important engineering
elements that affect performance and
which must be given careful consideration
during the selection process.
The sensor configuration can be a
portable, a simple two-wire transmitter,
a sophisticated ruggedized sensing unit,
or a scanning device. Visual aiming,
laser alignment, non-aiming, fiber
optics, water cooling, output signals,
and remote displays represent an
overview of the various options. These
are somewhat subjective, but demand
engineering review. In most cases, if
it is a simple application, e.g., web
temperature, a simple low-cost sensor
would do the job; if the application is
Infrared Thermometry Principles Contd
complicated, e.g., vacuum chamber or

small target, then a more sophisticated
sensor is a better choice.
The selection of IR spectral response
and temperature range is related to a
specific application. Short wavelengths
are for high temperature and long
wavelengths are for low temperature, to
coincide with the blackbody distribution
curves. If transparent-type targets
are involved, e.g., plastics and glass,
then selective narrow-band filtering is
required. For example, polyethylene film
has a CH absorption band of 3.43 m,
where it becomes opaque. By filtering
in this region, the emissivity factor is
simplified. Likewise, most glass-type
materials become opaque at 4.6 m and
narrow-band filtering at 5.1 m permits
accurate measurement of glass surface
temperature. On the other hand, to look
through a glass window, a sensor filtered
in the 1-4 m region would allow easy
access via viewing ports into vacuum
and pressure chambers. Another option,
in the case of chambers, is to use a
fiber-optic cable with a vacuum or
pressure bushing.
Optics and response time are two
sensor characteristics that are, in most
applications, nonissues, in that the
standard FOV of approximately 1 in. at
15 in. is acceptable, and response time
of <1 s is adequate. If the application
requires a small target or a fast-moving
intermittent target, however, then small
spot (0.125 in dia.) and very small spot
(0.030 in. dia.) may be applicable at a
premium. Likewise, distant sighting
(10-1000 ft away from the target) will
also require an optical adjustment, as
the standard FOV will become very large.
In some instances, dual-wavelength
radiometry is used for these applications,
.e.g., wire and distant sighting. The
fiber-optic front-end offers engineering
flexibility by remoting the electronics
from hostile environments, eliminating
electrical noise interference and resolving
accessibility concerns. It is an intriguing
engineering tool that helps solve some
unique application problems.
Most sensors have adjustable response
in the 0.2-5.0 s range, and typical
settings are in the midrange. Fast
response can expose application noise,
while slow response affects sensitivity.
Induction heating requires fast response,
while conveyor or web monitoring
requires a slower response to reduce
application noise. A fast-responding
sensor requires a fast-responding
controller, SCR power pack, and other
regulators. Integrated system dynamics
can be defined by the following equation:
T = 1.1 =+++++++
t12 + t22 ....tn2
where:
T
= total response
t1,t2= individual elements of the loop

Considering the element of time, there
are two types of process dynamics:
steady state variations, where there is a
fast-moving product that requires close
temperature control due to the dynamics
of the process, e.g., induction heating
of wire. Step changes or ramp response
pertains to the very quick heating of a
product in a batch process, e.g., rapid
thermal annealing of silicon wafers.
In these dynamic applications, system
responsivity and sensor FOV are critical
parameters.
In many cases, target emissivity is
not a significant factor. With the proper
selection of narrow-band spectral filtering,
most materials have a constant emissivity
in the 0.90 0.05 range. Setting the
emissivity at 0.9 m, the sensor will tend
to read within 5 or 10 of absolute
temperature. This application error
represents an accuracy variation of about
1% or 2% but, in the real world of IR
thermometry, repeatability is critical
for control. If, for example, a product is
heated to 410F and the sensor reads
400F, and you make quality product
when the sensor indicates 390-410F,
use the 400 setpoint for control. Most
applications do not require NIST calibration
standards to produce quality product.
If an application requires accurate,
absolute temperature measurement
and documentation, the instruments can
be calibrated and certified to referenced
NIST standards. In addition, there is the
need to fully define the application error
due to surface emissivity. If a shiny
roll must be measured, e.g., the first
recommendation is to measure the
product passing on the shiny roll.
Second, the emissivity adjustment
can be made on the sensor using static
testing conditions to determine the
proper setting. Third, dual-wavelength
radiometry may be a viable option.
Single-wavelength IR thermometry
represents a very diversified, yet simple,
selection technique used in thousands
of applications where product temperature
control is vital for consistent, high-quality
products.
Z-61
DUAL-WAVELENGTH
THERMOMETRY
For more sophisticated applications
where absolute accuracy is critical,
and where the product is undergoing a
physical or chemical change, dual- and
multi-wavelength radiometry should be
considered. The concept of the ratioing
radiometer has been around since
the early 1950s, but recent design
and hardware changes are yielding
higher performance, low-temperature
capabilities, and reduced cost.
Dual-wavelength (ratio) thermometry
involves measuring the spectral energy
at two different wavelengths (spectral
bands). The target temperature can be
read directly from the instrument if the
emissivity has the same value at both
wavelengths. This type of instrument
can also indicate the correct temperature
of a target when the FOV is partially
occluded by relatively cold materials
such as dust, wire screens, and gray
translucent windows in the sight path.
The theory of this design is quite simple
and straightforward, and is illustrated by
the following equations, where we take
Plancks equation for one wavelength
and ratio it to the energy at a second
wavelength.
L
e C1 l1 -5 e-C2 / l1T
R = l1 = l1
Ll2 el2 C1 l2 -5 e-C2 / l2T
R=
e
el2
l1

-5
[ ll21]
-5
R=
[ ll21]
[-C2(1-1)]
T
l1 l2
[-C2(1-1)]
Tr
l1 l2
1 = 1 + 1n (el1/el2)
Tr
C2
(l1 - l2 )
If el1 = el2, then T = Tr

where:
R = spectral radiance ratio
Tr = ratio temperature of the surface
el = spectral emissivity
In this process, if the emissivity at both
wavelengths is equal (graybody condition),
the emissivity factor cancels out of the
equation and we find the ratio is directly
proportional to temperature.
RELATIVE RADIANT ENERGY
The same concept can be viewed also in

a graphic presentation by taking a small
segment of the blackbody distribution
curve and measuring some ratios at
various emissivities (see Figure 3).
Using 0.7 m and 0.8 m as the narrowband filters, the ratio factor remains
constant at 1.428 for the range of
emissivities down to 0.1.
8
e = 1.0
7
6
e = 0.7
5
4
e = 0.5
Dual-wavelength thermometers have

many applications throughout industry
and research as simple, unique sensor
that can reduce application error
involving graybody surfaces. Figure 4
illustrates examples of total emissivity
for a variety of products that have
temperature-related varying emissivity.
For example, most users would consider
graphite to have a high constant emissivity.
The fact is, however, that graphites
emissivity varies from 0.4 to 0.65
over the temperature range of ambient
to 2000F. For accurate product
temperature measurement and control,
dual-wavelength thermometers should
be used when these types of graybody
materials are being processed at high
temperatures.
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
A review of the basic application

elements is outlined in Figure 5. The
surface of a target to be measured is
the prime concern. When selecting the
instrument, the user must take into
account target size, temperature limits,
emissivity, and process dynamics as
they relate to FOV, spectral response,
and response time. It is also essential
to characterize the surroundings, e.g.,
flames, IR heaters, induction coils, and
the atmosphere (dust, dirty windows,
flames, excessive heat) in order to
select the optimum instrument for
SURROUNDINGS, Tsur
0.9
e = 0.1
SUMMARY
RADIATION
THERMOMETER
1.0
0.8
1.1
IRON
OXIDIZED
WAVELENGTH, mm
Similarly, any other changes that

are gray in nature will not affect the
temperature determined by the dualwavelength thermometer. These
variations include changes in target
size such as a wire or a stream of
molten glass whose diameters vary
during measurement, even in the case
of targets smaller than the thermometers
FOV. For instance, suppose that a
blackbody target fills only half the
thermometers FOV; instead of a 50%
reduction in emittance, this analysis is
unchanged. Another example is a case
where a target is obscured with smoke
or dust, or where an intervening window
(e.g., of a vacuum chamber) becomes
clouded. As long as the obscured
medium is not spectrally selective in
its attenuation of radiation, at least in
the wavelength region used by the
thermometer, the analysis remains the
same. The temperature inferred by the
dual-wavelength radiometer remains
unaffected.
Nonetheless, there are always limits
that must be recognized. The dualwavelength does not perform on
non-graybodies, e.g., aluminum; it
has difficulty looking through non-gray
windows or heated Pyrex; and it tends to
measure background temperatures where
the background is hotter than the target.
S.T l
TARGET,
TS, el
ATMOSPHERE
EMISSION AND
ABSORPTION
0.6
TOTAL EMITTANCE
Figure 3: The dual-wavelength system

automatically eliminates measurement errors
by computing the ratio of the radiant energies
emitted by the target in two adjacent
wavebands, e.g., 0.7 m and 0.8 m.
COPPER
OXIDIZED
0.7
Figure 5: When selecting noncontact

temperature measurement instruments, it
is necessary to take into account not only
the target and its emissivity, but also the
surroundings and the invtervening atmosphere.
0.5 GRAPHITE
INCONEL X
POLISHED
0.4
this application.
IRON, ARMCO
POLISHED
0.3
0.2
0.1
COBALT ALLOY
N-155
POLISHED
DOW
METAL
POLISHED
COPPER
POLISHED
LEAD
GOLD
POLISHED
POLISHED
0
0
500
1000
1500
TEMPERATURE. F
2000
2500
Figure 4: Many materials have emissivity levels

that vary with temperature. Several of the most
commonly used are compared here.
There are also multi-wavelength

thermometers available for non-graybody
materials where the emissivity varies
with wavelength. In these applications
there is a detailed analysis of the products
surface characteristics regarding emissivity
vs. wavelength vs. temperature vs.
surface chemistry. With these data,
algorithms can be generated relating
spectral emittance at various wavelengths
to temperature.
Z-62
With regard to performance specifications,

calibration accuracy will typically be in
the 0.5-0.1% range, while the repeatability
of most sensors will be in the 0.25-0.75%
range. Pricing on the basic sensor will
start at $500 and could go as high as
$5000-$6000. In the majority of the
applications, price is not an issue; when
the sensor is properly installed and
used, payback typically is on the order
of one or two months.
Reproduced from
Sensors Magazine with permission of
HELMERS PUBLISHING, INC.
174 Concord St.
Peterborough, NH 03458
Infrared Temperature
Measurement Theory and Application

Author and Presenter: John Merchant, Sales Manager, Mikron Instrument Company Inc.
ABSTRACT
emission
absorption
Infrared thermometers for non-contact

temperature measurement are highly
developed sensors which have
wide-spread application in industrial
processing and research. This paper
describes, in non-mathematical terms,
the theory upon which the measurement
technology is based, and how this
is used to deal with the variety of
application parameters which confront
the intending user.
Designs for an infrared thermometer

(IRT), have existed since at least the
late nineteenth century, and various
concepts by Fry were featured by
Charles A. Darling (1) in his book
Pyrometry, published in 1911.
incident
hot
cold
reflected
RADIATIVE HEAT EXCHANGE
Figure 2
However it was not until the 1930s that

the technology was available to turn
these concepts into practical measuring
instruments. Since that time there
has been considerable evolution in
the design and a large amount of
measurement and application expertise
has accrued. At the present time, the
technique is well accepted and is widely
used in industry and in research.
MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES
As previously stated IR energy is emitted
by all materials above 0K. Infrared
radiation is part of the Electromagnetic
Spectrum and occupies frequencies
between visible light and radio waves.
The IR part of the spectrum spans
wavelengths from 0.7 micrometers to
1000 micrometers (microns). Figure 1.
Within this wave band, only frequencies
of 0.7 microns to 20 microns are used
for practical, everyday temperature
measurement. This is because the IR
detectors currently available to industry
are not sensitive enough to detect the
very small amounts of energy available
at wavelengths beyond 20 microns.
Wavelength (meters)
10
12
10
10
10
10 6
transmission
emitted
INTRODUCTION
An infrared thermometer measures
temperature by detecting the infrared
energy emitted by all materials which
are at temperatures above absolute
zero, (0Kelvin). The most basic design
consists of a lens to focus the infrared
(IR) energy on to a detector, which
converts the energy to an electrical
signal that can be displayed in units of
temperature after being compensated
for ambient temperature variation. This
configuration facilitates temperature
measurement from a distance without
contact with the object to be measured.
As such, the infrared thermometer is
useful for measuring temperature under
circumstances where thermocouples
or other probe type sensors cannot be
used or do not produce accurate data
for a variety of reasons. Some typical
circumstances are where the object to
be measured is moving; where the
object is surrounded by an EM field, as
in induction heating; where the object
is contained in a vacuum or other
controlled atmosphere; or in applications
where a fast response is required.
reflection
10 4
10 2
102
radio
infrared
visible
ultraviolet
x-ray
gamma rays
Infrared spectrum 0.7 to 1000 micrometers (microns)

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Figure 1
Z-63
104
Though IR radiation is not visible to the

human eye, it is helpful to imagine it as
being visible when dealing with the
principles of measurement and when
considering applications, because in
many respects it behaves in the same
way as visible light. IR energy travels in
straight lines from the source and can
be reflected and absorbed by material
surfaces in its path. In the case of most
solid objects which are opaque to the
human eye, part of the IR energy
striking the objects surface will be
absorbed and part will be reflected. Of
the energy absorbed by the object, a
proportion will be re-emitted and part
will be reflected internally. This will also
apply to materials which are transparent
to the eye, such as glass, gases and
thin, clear plastics, but in addition, some
of the IR energy will also pass through
the object. The foregoing is illustrated in
Figure 2. These phenomena collectively
contribute to what is referred to as the
Emissivity of the object or material.
Materials which do not reflect or
transmit any IR energy are know as
Blackbodies and are not known to exist
naturally. However, for the purpose of
theoretical calculation, a true blackbody
is given a value of 1.0. The closest
approximation to a blackbody emissivity
of 1.0, which can be achieved in real life
is an IR opaque, spherical cavity with a
small tubular entry as shown in Figure 3.
The inner surface of such a sphere will
have an emissivity of 0.998.
Different kinds of materials and gases
have different emissivities, and will
therefore emit IR at different intensities
for a given temperature. The emissivity
of a material or gas is a function of
its molecular structure and surface
characteristics. It is not generally a
function of color unless the source of
the color is a radically different substance

to the main body of material. A practical
example of this is metallic paints which
incorporate significant amounts of
aluminum. Most paints have the same
emissivity irrespective of color, but
aluminum has a very different emissivity
which will therefore modify the emissivity
of metallized paints.
1. Kirchoffs Law
When an object is at thermal
equilibrium, the amount of absorption
will equal the amount of emission.
a=e
2. Stephan Boltzmann Law
The hotter an object becomes the
more infrared energy it emits.
W = eoT4
3. Wiens Displacement Law
The wavelength at which the
maximum amount of energy is
emitted becomes shorter as the
temperature increases.
lmax = 2.89 x 103mmK/T
1
0
theoretical blackbody
practical blackbody
EMISSIVITY
Figure 3
Just as is the case with visible light,

the more highly polished some surfaces
are, the more IR energy the surface will
reflect. The surface characteristics of a
material will therefore also influence its
emissivity. In temperature measurement
this is most significant in the case of
infrared opaque materials which have
an inherently low emissivity. Thus a
highly polished piece of stainless steel
will have a much lower emissivity than
the same piece with a rough, machined
surface. This is because the grooves
created by the machining prevent as
much of the IR energy from being
reflected. In addition to molecular
structure and surface condition, a third
factor affecting the apparent emissivity
of a material or gas is the wavelength
sensitivity of the sensor, known as the
sensors spectral response. As stated
earlier, only IR wavelengths between
0.7 microns and 20 microns are used
for practical temperature measurement.
Within this overall band, individual
sensors may operate in only a narrow
part of the band, such as 0.78 to 1.06,
or 4.8 to 5.2 microns, for reasons which
will be explained later.
4. Plancks Equation
Describes the relationship between
spectral emissivity, temperature and
radiant energy.
C2
Wl = C1el[l5(elT-1)]-1
INFRARED THERMOMETER
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
A basic infrared thermometer (IRT)
design, comprises a lens to collect the
energy emitted by the target; a detector
to convert the energy to an electrical
signal; an emissivity adjustment to
match the IRT calibration to the emitting
characteristics of the object being
measured; and an ambient temperature
compensation circuit to ensure that
temperature variations within the IRT,
due to ambient changes, are not
transferred to the final output. For many
years, the majority of commercially
available IRTs followed this concept.
They were extremely limited in
application, and in retrospect did
not measure satisfactorily in most
circumstances, though they were very

durable and were adequate for the
standards of the time. Such a concept
is illustrated in Figure 4.
The modern IRT is founded on this
concept, but is more technologically
sophisticated to widen the scope of its
application. The major differences are
found in the use of a greater variety of
detectors; selective filtering of the IR
signal; linearization and amplification
of the detector output; and provision
of standard, final outputs such as
4-20mA, 0-10Vdc, etc. Figure 5 shows
a schematic representation of a typical
contemporary IRT.
Probably the most important advance
in infrared thermometry has been the
introduction of selective filtering of the
incoming IR signal, which has been
made possible by the availability of
more sensitive detectors and more
stable signal amplifiers. Whereas the
early IRTs required a broad spectral
band of IR to obtain a workable detector
output, modern IRTs routinely have
spectral responses of only 1 micron.
The need to have selected and narrow
spectral responses arises because it is
often necessary to either see through
some form of atmospheric or other
interference in the sight path, or in fact
to obtain a measurement of a gas or
other substance which is transparent to
a broad band of IR energy.
Some common examples of selective
spectral responses are 8-14 microns,
which avoids interference from
atmospheric moisture over long path
measurements; 7.9 microns which is
used for the measurement of some thin
film plastics; and 3.86 microns which
avoids interference from CO2 and H2O
DET
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR IR

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
The formulas upon which infrared
temperature measurement is based are
old, established and well proven. It is
unlikely that most IRT users will need
to make use of the formulas, but a
knowledge of them will provide an
appreciation of the interdependency
of certain variables, and serve to clarify
the foregoing text. The important
formulas are as follows:
A.T.C.
INFRARED TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Figure 4
Z-64
Infrared Temperature Contd
a.t.c. amp
thermistor
lens
chopper
prw. amp
filter
signal amp
prw. amp
for the above stated reasons may often

benefit from a narrow spectral response
as close to 0.7 microns as possible.
This is because the effective emissivity
of a material is highest at shorter
wavelengths and the accuracy of
sensors with narrow spectral responses
is less affected by changes in target
surface emissivity.
signal ground
motor
control
d.c. motor
led optical
interrupter
power supply
12 vdc
phase control
15 vdc
MODERN INFRARED THERMOMETER
Figure 5
Spectral radiant emittance (W cm2 m1)
900K
0.75
While it is almost always possible to

establish the emissivity of the basic
material being measured, a complication
arises in the case of materials which have
emissivities that change with temperature
such as most metals, and other materials
such as silicon and high purity, single
crystal ceramics. Some applications
which exhibit this phenomena can be
solved using the two color, ratio method.
0.50
800K
700K
0.25
TWO COLOR-RATIO
THERMOMETRY
600K
500K
0
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Wavelength (microns)
Blackbody Spectral Distribution Curves

Figure 6
vapor in flames and combustion gases.

The choice between a shorter, or longer
wavelength spectral response is also
dictated by the temperature range
because, as Plancks Equation shows,
It will be apparent from the foregoing

information that emissivity is a very
important factor in infrared temperature
measurement. Unless the emissivity of
the material being measured is known,
and incorporated into the measurement,
it is unlikely that accurate data will be
obtained. There are two methods for
obtaining the emissivity of a material:
a) by referring to published tables and
b) by comparing the IRT measurement
with a simultaneous measurement
obtained by a thermocouple or resistance
thermometer and adjusting the emissivity
setting until the IRT reads the same.
Fortunately, the published data available
from the IRT manufacturers and some
research organizations is extensive,
so it is seldom necessary to experiment.
As a rule of thumb, most opaque,
non-metallic materials have a high
and stable emissivity in the 0.85 to 9.0
range; and most un-oxidized, metallic
materials have a low to medium
emissivity from 0.2 to 0.5, with the
exception of gold, silver and aluminum
which have emissivities in the order of
0.02 to 0.04 and are, as a result, very
difficult to measure with an IRT.
the peak energy shifts towards shorter

wavelengths as the temperature
increases. The graph in Figure 6
illustrates this phenomenon. Applications
which do not demand selective filtering
Z-65
Given that emissivity plays such a vital

role in obtaining accurate temperature
data from infrared thermometers,
it is not surprising that attempts have
been made to design sensors which
would measure independently of this
variable. The best known and most
commonly applied of these designs
is the Two Color-Ratio Thermometer.
This technique is not dissimilar to the
infrared thermometers described so far,
but measures the ratio of infrared
energy emitted from the material at two
wavelengths, rather than the absolute
energy at one wavelength or wave
band. The use of the word color in this
ratio
O/P
Z
target
Dl1
Dl2
beam
splitter
colimator
TWO COLOR THERMOMETRY

(ratio thermometry)
Figure 7
context is somewhat outdated, but

nevertheless has not been superseded.
It originates in the old practice of
relating visible color to temperature,
hence color temperature.
of all materials does not change equally

at two different wavelengths. Those
materials that do are called Greybodies.
The ones that do not are called
Non-Greybodies.
The basis for the effectiveness of twocolor thermometry is that any changes
in either the emitting property of the
material surface being measured, or in
the sight path between the sensor and
the material, will be seen identically by
the two detectors, and thus the ratio and
therefore the sensor output will not
change as a result. Figure 7 shows a
schematic representation of a simplified
two-color thermometer.
Not all forms of sight path obscuration

attenuate the ratio wavelengths equally
either. The predominance of particulates
in the sight path which are the same
micron size as one of the wavelengths
being used will obviously unbalance the
ratio. Phenomena which are non-dynamic
in nature, such as the non-greybodyness
of a material, can be dealt with by
biassing the ratio, an adjustment
referred to as Slope. However, the
appropriate slope setting must generally
be arrived at experimentally. Despite
these limitations, the ratio method works
well in a number of well established
applications, and in others is the best,
if not the most preferred solution.
Because the ratio method will, under

prescribed circumstances, avoid
inaccuracies resulting from changing or
unknown emissivity, obscuration in the
sight path and the measurement of
objects which do not fill the field of view,
it is very useful for solving some difficult
application problems. Among these are
the rapid induction heating of metals,
cement kiln burning zone temperature
and measurements through windows
which become progressively obscured,
such as vacuum melting of metals. It
should be noted however, that these
dynamic changes must be seen
identically by the sensor at the two
wavelengths used for the ratio, and this
is not always the case. The emissivity
SUMMARY
Infrared thermometry is a mature but
dynamic technology that has gained
the respect of many industries and
institutions. It is an indispensable
technique for many temperature
measurement applications, and the
preferred method for some others.
When the technology is adequately
understood by the user, and all the
relevant application parameters are
properly considered, a successful
Z-66
application will usually result, providing

the equipment is carefully installed.
Careful installation means ensuring
that the sensor is operated within its
specified environmental limits, and
that adequate measures are taken to
keep the optics clean and free from
obstructions. A factor in the selection
process, when choosing a manufacturer,
should be the availability of protective
and installation accessories, and also
the extent to which these accessories
allow rapid removal and replacement
of the sensor for maintenance. If these
guidelines are followed, the modern
infrared thermometer will operate
more reliably than thermocouples or
resistance thermometers in many cases.
REFERENCES
1. Darling, Charles R.; Pyrometry. A
Practical Treatise on the Measurement
of High Temperatures. Published by
E.&F.N. Spon Ltd. London. 1911.
Reproduced with permission of

the author, John Merchant,
Sales Manager, MIKRON
INSTRUMENT COMPANY, INC.
Noncontact Temperature
Measurement Theory and Application
Walter Glockmann, Capintec
Instruments, Inc.
temperature of an object by intercepting

and measuring the thermal radiation it
emits.
Noncontact temperature measurement

is the preferred technique for small,
moving, or inaccessible objects;
dynamic processes that require fast
response; and temperatures <1000C
(1832F). To select the best noncontact
temperature measurement device for a
particular application, it is essential to
understand the basics of temperature
measurement technology, temperature
measurement parameters, and the features
offered by the various measurement
systems currently available.
Emissivity. This quality defines the

fraction of radiation emitted by an object
as compared to that emitted by a perfect
radiator (blackbody) at the same
temperature. Emissivity is determined
in part by the type of material and its
surface condition, and may vary from
close to zero (for a highly reflective
mirror) to almost 1 (for a blackbody
simulator). Emissivity is used to
calculate the true temperature of an
object from the measured brightness
or spectral radiance. Because an
objects emissivity may also vary with
wavelength, a radiation thermometer
with spectral response matching regions
of high emissivity should be selected for
DEFINING THE TERMS

Temperature. Temperature is one
expression for the kinetic energy of
the vibrating atoms and molecules of
matter. This energy can be measured
by various secondary phenomena, e.g.,
change of volume or pressure, electrical
resistance, electromagnetic force,
electron surface charge, or emission of
electromagnetic radiation. The most
frequently used temperature scales are
Celsius and Fahrenheit, which divide
the difference between the freezing
and boiling points of water into 100
and 180, respectively.
The thermodynamic scale begins at
absolute zero, or 0 Kelvin, the point at
which all atoms cease vibrating and
no kinetic energy is dissipated.
0 K = 273.15C = 459.67F
IR Radiation. Infrared is that portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum beyond
the visible (blue to red, 0.4-0.75 m)
response of the human eye. IR
wavelengths extend from 0.75 m
to 1000 m, where the shortest
microwaves (radar) begin. Because
IR radiation is predominantly generated
by heat, it is called thermal radiation.
For the purpose of radiation thermometry,
only portions of the IR spectrum are
important. The spectrum is frequently
divided into atmospheric windows that
provide maximum loss-free transmission
through water vapor in air:
0.7-1.3 m; 1.4-1.8 m; 2.0-2.5 m;
3.2-4.3 m; 4.8-5.3 m; 8-14 m
Thermometer. Most of the well-known
thermometers, e.g., glass bulb mercury
or alcohol, thermocouple, or resistance
thermometer, must be placed in direct
contact with the temperature source.
Their useful measurement range is
100C to 1500C.
Radiation Thermometer. This noncontact
thermometer determines the surface
a specific application. Emissivity values

are listed in the literature for a variety of
materials and spectral bands, or these
values can be determined empirically.
Brightness/Single-Color Pyrometer.
These devices measure and evaluate
the intensity, or brightness, of the
intercepted thermal radiation. Intensity,
or, more generally, spectral radiance, is
measured in a narrow wavelength band
of the thermal spectrum. Band selection
is dictated by the temperature range and
the type of material to be measured.
The oldest brightness pyrometers
compared optical brightness in the
visible (red) spectrum at 0.65 m by
matching the glowing object to a hot
disappearing filament. The term
single-color derives from the single
Table 1: On-Line Temperature Measurement Instruments

LOW TEMPERATURE
HIGH TEMPERATURE
General Purpose
0 to 500C (30 to 1000F)
8-14 mm wide band radiation thermometers
thermopile detector
optical resolution: 4 mm target
(15:1 D-ratio)
response time: 0.5 sec
emissivity adjustment
analog output (mv/C, mV/F)
General Purpose
400 to 2000C (750 to 3600F)
narrow spectral band radiation
thermometers (0.7-1.1 m; 0.9-1.9 m)
solid-state photoelectric detectors (Si, Ge)
optical resolution 1 mm target
(60:1 D-ratio)
response time 3 msec
analog output (mVC, mV/F)
Extended Temperature Ranges

30C to 800C (20F to 1500F)
high-stability, 8-14 m thermometers
pyroelectric detector
chopper stabilized to compensate for
rapid changes in ambient temperature
optical resolution: 3 mm dia. (30:1 D-ratio)
response time: 50 msec
analog output 4-20 mA
High-Stability/Complex Applications
300 to 2500C (600 to 4500F)
narrow spectral band radiation thermometers
for glass and/or through hot gas (3.9 m)
for glass surfaces (5.0 m)
for combustion gases (4.2, 4.5, 5.3 m)
chopper stabilized
(100:1 D-ratio)
response time: 30 msec
analog output 4-20 mA
High-Precision/Complex Applications
50C to 800C (60F to 1500F)
for thin plastic films with CH absorption
bands (3.4 m; 6.8 m)
for polyester/fluorocarbon films (8.0 m)
for thin glass and ceramics (7.8 m)
optical resolution: 1.5 mm dia.
(100:1 D-ratio)
High-Speed, Two-Color Ratio

150 to 2500C (300 to 4500F) narrow
spectral bands (0.8/0.9 m; 2.1/2.4 m)
greatly independent of emissivity
fluctuations and/or sight path
disturbances
automatic compensation for moving targets
internal calibration check
Programmable/High-Performance
100C to 2500C (150F to 4500F)
with built-in signal conditioning and digital
computing, spectral band choices in wide
or narrow bands between 2 m and 20 m
digital RS 232 bidirectional interface
max./min./differential/hold functions
programmable ambient temperatures
choice of through-lens-sighting, LED,
or laser
Z-67
narrow wavelength band of red seen

by the user. Instruments sensitized to
measure in the IR region are also called
spectral radiation pyrometers or spectral
radiation thermometers.
Ratio/Two-Color Pyrometer. This
radiation thermometer measures
temperatures on the basis of two
(or more) discrete wavelengths. The
ratio of the brightnesses in separate
wavelengths corresponds to color in
the visible spectrum. The use of two
distinct, visible colors typically red and
green has long been popular to infer
color temperatures. More recently,
the term has broadened from its
initial usage to include wavelengths
in the infrared. The advantage of ratio
measuring is that temperature readings
are greatly independent of emissivity
fluctuations and/or sight path obscurations.
The technique is generally used for
temperatures above incandescence
(700C,1300F ), but measurements down
to 200C (400F) are also possible.
MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS
Advanced optical and electronic signal
processing modules greatly extend the
accuracy and performance capabilities
of noncontact temperature measuring.
For process control, standardized
interfaces are available that provide
conditioned signal outputs optimized
for specific applications.
RADIATION DETECTION
Emissivity Adjustment. Temperature
reading accuracy depends on the
correct adjustment of the instrument to
the target emissivity. Preset emissivity
values can be used for on-line sensors
to monitor targets of constant emissivity.
Measurements on those materials with
changing emissivities require an
accurate and reproducible emissivity
adjustment.
Surrounding Area Temperature.
Thermal target radiation always
contains stray radiation emitted by the
environment surrounding the target area
and reflected by the targets surface. In
practice, the ambient temperature is
frequently presumed to be the same as
the temperature of the sensor. If the
target is exposed to a different thermal
environment, e.g., inside a heated
furnace, inside a cooled chamber, or
outdoors facing the open sky, adjustments
are necessary for accurate measurement.
Separate sensors for the area surrounding
the target may be used for automatic
temperature calculation.
Sight Path Obscuration. Gases, water
vapor, dust, and other aerosols in the
sight path of a sensor may affect the
temperature reading. Using one of the
atmospheric windows in the IR region
greatly reduces measurement errors.
Since both optical channels are equally
attenuated, ratio pyrometers are generally

immune to sight path obscuration, and
the signal color ratio remains unaffected.
Ambient Temperature Drift. By the
nature of their design, radiation
detectors are strongly affected by
ambient temperature changes. To
maintain high measurement accuracy,
precise compensation of this temperature
drift is required. Temperature drift is
specified in error/C or error/F of
ambient temperature change.
OPTICAL SYSTEMS
Optics. Reflective (mirror) and
refractive (lens) optics are used in
noncontact temperature sensors to
isolate and define radiation from the
measured target.
Field of View. The field of view (FOV)
is expressed in degrees solid angle or
in radians. The FOV allows easy
calculation of the minimum target size
for each working distance. A convenient
measure is the distance-to-target ratio,
e.g., 20:1, indicating a minimum target
of 1 in. at a 20 in. measuring distance.
Focusing on Target. Optics in
noncontact temperature sensors
are generally of the fixed-focus type.
Focusing at longer measuring distances
is not required if the target area is
smaller than the entrance aperture
(lens diameter) of the instrument.
Small Targets. For miniature objects,
fixed-focus close-up optics are used,
and the minimum target size is
specified. Targets as small as 0.5 mm

can be isolated.
Fiber Optics. Fiber optics permits
a physical separation of the lens
assembly from the detector and signal
processing electronics in restricted
spaces or hostile environments. The
useful measuring range of fiber optics
starts at 400C (750F). Minimum target
areas are as defined above.
Target Scanning. Reflective surface
mirrors are used to change the viewing
angle of the measuring sensor if direct
viewing is difficult or impractical. An
oscillating mirror can be employed to
deflect the intercepted radiation and to
scan a predetermined temperature
profile across a target area.
A sequence of scanned temperature
profiles taken at preset spatial intervals
over the target can be displayed as a
thermal image or in the form of a
thermal map.
Aiming on Target. A variety of optical
aiming techniques are used with
noncontact temperature sensors:
Simple bead-and-groove gun sights
Integrated or detachable optical view
finders
Through-the-lens sighting
Integrated or detachable light beam
markers
SIGNAL PROCESSING
Direct Output. Noncontact temperature
sensors convert the intercepted thermal
radiation into an electrical signal
Table 2: On-Line Temperature Measurement Instruments

LOW TEMPERATURE
General Purpose
0 to 500C (30 to 1000F) 8-14 m wide band
50 to 1400C (60 to 2550F) 8-14m
with built-in signal conditioning
thermopile detector
optical resolution: 4 mm dia.
(30:1 D-ratio)
(15:1 D-ratio)
data collection
peak/valley/averaging functions
max./min. value
digital RS-232 output
High Stability
30 to 800C (30 to 1500F) 8-14 m
chopper stabilized
choice of optics
Miniature Probe
50 to 500C (60 to 1000F) 8-14 m
with interchangeable probes for long
distance or small target applications
large LCD information display
max./min./differential/hold signal
conditioning
optical resolution: 2.5 mm dia.
(7:1 D-ratio)
LED or laser aided target aiming
HIGH TEMPERATURE
General Purpose
High-Precision, Two-Color Ratio
Pyrometer
250 to 2500C (500 to 4500F)
650 to 2500C (1200 to 4500F) spectral
(0.65 m; 0.7-1.1 m; 0.9-1.9 m)
bands 0.8/0.9 m
solid-state photoelectric detectors (Si, Ge)
greatly independent of emissivity
fluctuations and/or sight path
optical resolution 0.9 mm dia. (250:1
disturbances
D-ratio)
automatic compensation for moving
targets
Z-68
Noncontact Temperature Measurement Contd

proportional to the spectral radiance
emitted from the target surface.
Linearized Output. An electronic
network converts the thermal radiance
signal into an electrical current/voltage
proportional to temperature.
Sample and Hold. The momentary
temperature reading, selected by an
external trigger is held (frozen) until
replaced by a new value in the next
sampling cycle.
Maximum Value or Peak Hold. The
highest temperature reading over the
specific measuring period is displayed.
Reset is triggered by an external signal.
Minimum Value or Valley Hold. The
lowest temperature reading during a
specific measurement period is
displayed. Rest is triggered by an
external signal.
Peak to Peak. The difference between
the maximum and the minimum
temperature readings during a specific
measurement period is displayed.
Speed of Response. Short response
time is needed to follow rapidly changing
dynamic temperature processes. Long
response time integrates all signal
variations during a specific measurement
period and enhances temperature
resolution in order to average changing
values or to improve measurement
precision.
Automatic Trigger (Wave Function).
The highest temperature reading is
detected and displayed. Reset is
triggered automatically when the signal
reaches an adjustable threshold, but the
last peak value is held on display until it
is replaced by the following peak value.
This technique is appropriate for rapid
sampling and analysis of intermittent
target values, without the use of
external trigger signals.
Alarms. An output signal (relay) is
activated when the signal reaches a
preset temperature value. Two
independent set points HI/LO are
generally provided.
ACCESSORIES
Water Coolable Jackets. Water
cooling extends the sensors ambient
temperature range up to 400C (752F)
or beyond.
Air Purge Fittings. Lens barrels or
attachments with fittings for compressed
air are designed to direct a clean air
flow across the lens surface. They keep
the optical sight paths free of vapors,
fumes, and dust.
BLACKBODY CALIBRATORS
Deep cavities controlled at a
homogeneously distributed temperature
serve as blackbody simulators for the
calibration of radiation thermometers.
To accommodate the variety of
instruments, they provide an effective
aperture of ~ 1 in. (25 mm) and are
optimized for their operating

temperature range:
Stirred water bath: 30-100C
(86-212F)
Aluminum core: 50-400C (122-752F)
Stainless steel core: 350-1000C
(662-1832F )
Portable, battery operated field
calibrator: fixed temperature choices
from 40C-100C (104-212F)
ON-LINE OR PORTABLE?
On-Line Instruments. These devices
are generally used for continuous
process monitoring and control. They
are available in low- and hightemperature models, each with its
own operating specs (see Table 1).
Portable Instruments. Portables are

typically favored for process checks,
preventive/predictive maintenance,
thermal surveys, R&D, and temporary
temperature monitoring. The low- and
high-temperature versions differ in
performance, as shown in Table 2.
APPLICATIONS
Successful applications of both on-line
and portable noncontact temperature
measurement instruments are
summarized in Table 3.
Capintec, Inc.
Table 3: Temperature Measurement in Process Control

SUCCESSFUL APPLICATIONS
ON-LINE PORTABLES
R H
Cement kiln
burning zones, preheaters
Energy conservation
insulation and heat flow studies, thermal mapping
Filaments
annealing, drawing, heat treating
X
X
Food
baking, candy-chocolate processing, canning, freezing,
frying, mixing, packing, roasting
Furnaces
flames, boiler tubes, catalytic crackers
Glass
drawing, manufacturing/processing bulbs, containers,
TV tubes, fibers
X X
Maintenance
appliances, bearings, current overloads, driving shafts,
insulation, power lines, thermal leakage detection
Metals (ferrous and nonferrous)

annealing, billet extrusion, brazing, carbonizing, casting,
forging, heat treating, inductive heating, rolling/strip mills,
sintering, smelting
Quality control
printed circuit boards, soldering, universal joints, welding,
metrology
X X
Paint
curing, drying
Paper
coating, ink drying, printing
photographic emulsions, web profiles
Plastic
blow-molding, RIM, film extrusion,
sheet thermoforming, casting
Remote sensing (thermal mapping)

clouds, earth surfaces, lakes, rivers, roads, volcanic surveys
Rubber
calendering, casting, molding, profile extrusion
tires, latex gloves
Silicon
crystal growing, strand/fiber, wafer annealing,
epitaxial deposition
Textile
curing, drying, fibers, spinning
X
R=Ratio/Two-Color
H=High-Temperature
X
X
Vacuum chambers
refining, processing, deposition
Z-69
X
X
L=Low Temperature
Fiber Optics
A New Approach to Monitor and Control
Process Temperature
The coupling of optical fibers to infrared
detectors and signal processing
electronics represents the latest
progress in the field of non-contact
temperature measurement and control.
All fibers used in infrared instrumentation

are made of glasses especially chosen
for their ability to transmit the radiation
comprised in the chosen spectral region.
All rays entering the front surface that
acquire an inclination smaller than the
critical angle are totally reflected inside
the fiber core, and keep propagating in
this fashion until they reach the opposite
end or are totally absorbed, whichever
comes first. For a fiber having a critical
angle of X means that all rays incident
onto the fiber's front surface at the same
angle or less with its axis are trapped
inside the fiber by total internal reflection.
Only recently have fiber optics become

the object of widespread interest thanks
mainly to their ability to carry optical
information signals over long distances
and around unavoidable obstructions.
For years infrared detectors have been
used in conjunction with conventional
optical elements (lenses, mirrors,
prisms). Fiber optics were excluded
from consideration since they are made
of either glass or plastics, both of which
are opaque throughout most of the
infrared spectral region. Thus, according
to fundamental laws of physics, their
marriage to infrared detectors could
never work.
On the other hand, all incident rays

entering the fiber with an inclination
larger than the same angle will leave
the first contact with its internal surface.
This behavior is commonly called
spilling (See Figure 1).
Months of painstaking development

proved the reality and practicality of
transmitting IR with fiber optics. And
thus it happened that coupling fiber
optics with infrared detectors resulted in
several new families of instrumentation
and control systems endowed with
superior performance characteristics.
The value of the critical angle is a function

of the ratio between the refractive indexes
of the glass of which the core is made
and of the medium surrounding it. By
controlling the ratio we can increase
or decrease the acceptance angle of
fiber optics, thus obtaining special
performance characteristics.
Since most if not all of you are currently

familiar with the theory of infrared
radiation and the variety of methods
for monitoring IR this discussion will
deal mainly with the application of fiber
optics in conjunction with IR detectors,
i.e. their construction, advantages,
disadvantages and applications.
For most IR monitoring applications,

optical fibers are assembled into fiber
bundles consisting of many hundreds
of individual fibers contained within
a flexible or rigid sheathing of either
metallic or nonmetallic material. Each
end of the bundle is held in place using
a high temperature epoxy. The end
surface is then highly polished to assure
a clearly defined angle of acceptance
and diminish reflectance losses due to
irregular surfaces. Using such a large
number of narrow fibers in a bundle
allows us to gather and transmit more
signal to the detector while retaining
mechanical flexibility. Typically, the
outside diameter of a single fiber is 25m.
A typical optical fiber is usually

constructed of a silicon (glass) material,
however, plastic and quartz are
also available but normally for data
transmission. Today most of all optical
fibers manufactured consist of a lightconducting glass core surrounded by a
thin layer of glass cladding with
a lower refractive index. This cladding
serves to protect the core finish.
Cladding
Acceptance
angle
(72)
Light A
ray
B
23
67
S "spilled" ray
35
Opaque coating
B
Figure 1
Z-70
Generally speaking, in the majority

of applications where optical fibers
are used with infrared radiometers,
the lengths are 1 or 2 meters long.
On occasion fibers will be made up
to approximately 10 meters in length.
The determining factors in using fiber
bundles to transmit IR, are MMT
(minimum measurable temperature),
target distance and spot size. The
higher the temperature the longer
the fiber, conversely low temperatures
require a shorter fiber due to the glass
attenuation.
Unfocused fibers (those without a
viewing lens) have a field of view or angle
of acceptance of 60. This is the target
area viewed by the detector which is
slightly larger than the distance between
the front end of the fiber and the target
surface. This can be easily verified by
backlighting the target with visible light
which will project onto the target surface.
Unfocused fibers are used when the
target area is large and it is desirable to
measure its average temperature.
Focused fibers (those with a viewing
lens assembly attached to the front end)
are used to measure targets as small as
.01 cm from as far away as 4.5 meters
or further. The determining factor as
with fiber length is the amount of energy
being collected. By backlighting we
can be assured the lens is properly
focused and aligned on the target. In
some applications, where vibration or
other type movement may alter the
lens's alignment, a bifurcated fiber is
preferable. One branch of the fiber
is connected to a high intensity light
source and activated by a momentaryon switch which will verify to the operator
the correct alignment of the fiber. The
other branch will allow the infrared
detector to see the target at exactly
the same spot that was illuminated.
Fiber Optics Cont'd
FIBER ASSEMBLY VARIETIES

The wide selection of fibers and lens
configurations available allows for a
satisfying and endless number of
applications.
Following are some of the many
components that make up a fiber optic
system and allow for such versatility.
Sheathing
Single, bifurcated or trifurcated fiber
optic systems
Flexible stainless steel (standard)
Heavy duty S.S. wire braid
Heavy duty braided fiber Imperial
Eastman
Teflon (for use in high RF fields)
Protective tubing
Lenses
1.27 cm, 1.90 cm, 2.54 cm x 8.59 cm
to 27.7 cm max.
Natural - black anodized aluminum
Angular lens configurations available
Replaceable Tips
Glass or quartz, 7.62 cm, 15.24 cm &
22.86 cm long
Ceramic or stainless steel jacket
Optical Rods
Glass, 15.24 cm, 30.48 cm &
60.96 cm long
Ceramic or stainless steel jacket
Specials
Right angle prisms, high speed
scanners, angled bundle configurations
APPLICATIONS
Since virtually every manufactured
product from automobiles to the safety
pin requires the application of heat
treatment in some form, the use for noncontact temperature monitoring and
control is virtually limitless.
INDUCTION HEATING
Because of the strong RF inductive
energy field needed to heat the metal
parts being treated, conventional
measuring devices are of little value
since they will be heated directly by
the induction coil.
Figures 2 and 3 show typical applications
of fiber optic systems used to monitor
and control induction treatment of metal
objects either stationary in, or moving
through induction furnaces.
Precise control of the temperature

needed for perfect heat treatment of
metal parts is essential to produce
the crystal structure that will ensure
meeting or exceeding the mechanical
characteristic specifications.
This control function is achieved either
by on/off or high speed proportional
control incorporated in the fiber optic
Figure 2: Monitoring steel rod continues
induction heating.
Figure 4: Five-channel multiplexing,
signal-processing and display system.
Figure 3: Controlling induction treating of

automotive crankshafts.
and Thermal Monitoring System.

Using fiber optics vs. the conventional
direct line of sight infrared detection
systems allows placing the viewing end
of the fiber optic in close proximity of the
target. The tip of the fiber in many cases
may be positioned between the induction
coils to view the processed material. To
eliminate the adverse effects of the RF
field a ceramic replaceable tip is utilized.
In those instances where the design
of the system won't allow room for
the fibers, a lens system will then be
provided to view and monitor targets
from a distance.
The fiber and electronics normally are
not affected by induction energy fields,
however, in unusual circumstances
when the electrical noise environment
is excessively high, a synchronous
demodulation system is specified.
The sync. demod, converts the 400 Hz
AC signal from the detector head to
DC. This conversion differs from
conventional AC to DC converters in
that it selects only the signal component
at 400 Hz and discriminates against
noise components of other frequencies.
CONTINUOUS CASTING
These operations utilize fiber optic
Z-71
assemblies up to thirty feet in length

that are installed between the rollers
themselves to within one or two inches
of the slab surface. A remotely located
automatic multiplexing chassis monitors
several points on a time shared basis,
achieving significant savings in terms
of cost and space. Due to the shielded
path of constant transmissivity provided
by the optical fibers and the short wave
length 0.8 to 1 silicon detector, the system
watches the target through smoke,
fumes, vapors and water. (See Figure 4.)
Quite often in this type of application
the fibers are exposed to substantially
elevated temperatures and mechanical
abuse necessitating the need for air
purging and special heavy duty protective
sheathing. The purge tube is designed
to allow the air flow to exit the front
end of the fibers at a right angle thus
preventing the build up of contaminants.
METAL FORGING, HOT STAMPING,

PIPE BENDING
Forging of metal parts includes both
rough shape as well as precision forging,
which requires less material removal
and waste. Pipe bending and shaping is
also included in this application. These
operations are carried out by heating
the parts to be worked upon to the
optimum temperature with any of
the several means available (ovens,
flame, induction field, etc.) If the part
temperature is below the optimum,
cracks and internal tensions will develop,
while if it is above the optimum, drooping
will take place. The precise temperature
control afforded by the use of infrared
fiber optic controllers will:
Avoid the formation of defective
parts (from cracks or drooping), thus
eliminating rejects and waste due to
these defects;
Save thermal energy by ensuring that
no heat is wasted by heating the parts
Z
Figure 5
beyond the optimum level;

Speed up production by allowing a
faster rate of heating the parts without
danger of temperature overshoot.
METAL DIE CASTING

The die temperature is of critical
importance in die casting of metals.
Thermal cycling of aluminum products,
with reference to die temperature has
been successfully implemented with the
help of optical fibers. Figure 5 shows
schematically and in detail how the front
end of the fiber is inserted through the
mold frame and held in a corner of the
runner plate, in contact with the aluminum
flowing through it.
The major advantages offered by this
solution are:
Substantial savings of thermal energy,
by eliminating overheating and
drastically reducing production rejects.
Increased production due to the
speedup of the casting cycle. The
operation is automatically controlled
by the temperature of the casting
material and not solely by time,
resulting in faster operation.
Improvement in the quality of the
casting due to the control of the
process as a function of temperature,
results in simpler operation and
automatic compensation for a cold
die start-up or interrupted cycles.
Figure 6
the emissivity variations of the target

surface. These variations, in turn, affect
the amount of laser power absorbed by
the target, and consequently the target's
temperature, which is of paramount
importance for good operating
performance.
Among the advantages offered by the

fiber optics infrared approach are the
following:
This difficulty is overcome by the use of

an emissivity-independent infrared fiber
Cutting Oxygen
Preheating Gas
Cutting Nozzle
Cutting Direction
Direct indication of the die and furnace

pot temperature of the metal. Low
level and blocked water lines are
easily indicated several shots before
the casting can display conditions
visibly.
Lens
Assembly
150
CONTROL OF
METAL-WORKING LASER
Lasers, generally high-power CO2 lasers,
are used for welding, surface treating and
finishing metals of various types. The
conventional approach is to periodically
sample the beam to keep its power at
the desired level. This approach, however,
cannot automatically take into account
optics system (EITM) aimed at the spot

of laser beam impact. (See Figure 6.)
The infrared system is made blind to
the laser wavelength, and in this way it
measures precisely the target temperature
at the same spot and, via a feedback
loop, it controls the laser power to
ensure that the operation is carried out
at the optimum temperature.
Pre-heating Flame
Cutting Oxygen Jet
Reaction
Zone
Base Metal
Figure 7
Z-72
Fiber Optics Cont'd
Non-contact temperature
measurement in real time.
Fiber optics allow easy access to view
the laser heating area because of their
relatively small size.
EITM compensates for variations in
emissivity as the part is being heated.
EITM response can be matched to the
response speed of the laser.
Additional applications of interest:
Substantial savings are realized by

eliminating a previous costly process of
destructive testing.
Flame Heads
Lens
Assembly
FLAME CUTTING
Automated flame cutting involves either
pattern tracing or computer control to
repetitively cut steel plates into a variety
of shapes. (See Figure 7.)
During start-up, a natural gas or
propane flame heats the metal plate
until a puddle of molten metal is
detected by the operator; on multiple
heat cutters the time may vary between
torches. The puddle having been
formed, oxygen is injected into the gas
stream and blows the molten metal
through the plate at which time the
cutting cycle begins.
FLAME HARDENING OF
STEEL WHEELS
Hardening the surfaces of steel wheels
used on heavy construction equipment
such as drive & idler wheels for
bulldozers, backhoes, and other track
type equipment is presently being
accomplished by flame hardening.
Figure 8
Flame
Quench
The above are but a few of the many

and varied uses of fiber optics. The
range and applications for these
systems is only limited by one's
imagination. The technology is
expanding exponentially. Fiber optics
are no longer viewed with doubts and
misgivings. Like IC's, chips, bubble
memories, RAM's, ROM's and PROM's,
they are here to stay, they are the
future.

Vanzetti Instruments.
Figure 9
By optically looking through the clean

natural gas flame at the optimum point
on the wheel, Figure 10, the variations
in the temperature determined by the
Thermal Monitor provide a proportional
signal which is fed to a pneumatic
transducer which pneumo/mechanically
moves the head to the correct position.
Optimum
Measuring
Point
A flame head is positioned on either

side of the wheel (Figure 8). As the
wheel is rotated the flame impinges on
the surface elevating the temperature to
approximately 976C. Within close
proximity to the flame the surface is
rapidly quenched with cooling water
(Figure 9).
Because of the variations in the wheels,
both in roundness and lateral
distortions, if the flame head were fixed
the hardening process would not be
uniform throughout the critical areas.
By monitoring both level and

temperature, the Coke Guide Pyrometer
assures the optimum efficiency in the
manufacture of coke. The multiplexing
of several detectors on a vertical plane
allows the operator to measure both
height and temperature of the coke in
the processing oven.
When desired parameters are met, a
controller signal activates the pusher
to dump the processed coke into an
awaiting transfer car, thus assuring
a quality product and energy
conservation.
If the oxygen is injected prematurely

a defective cut is made leaving an
objectionable rough and wide pitlike
depression in the plate.
By positioning a fiber optic bundle
with lens assembly to look through
the clean flame at the plate surface,
the temperature is monitored and
controlled to maintain the necessary
temperature. By multiplexing and using
hi-lo logic with relays tied in series, the
oxygen is not turned on until all setpoints
and associated relays are closed, insuring
high quality cuts.
COKE GUIDE PYROMETER
Figure 10
Z-73
Handheld
Infrared Thermometers
for All Applications
The new OS520/OS530 series handheld infrared
thermometers from OMEGA Engineering
adapt to virtually all remote temperature
measurement applications. These
universal instruments combine the features
found in many specialized units into one
high performance design. Rugged
assembly and state-of-the-art
measurement techniques are an integral
part of these dependable and portable
temperature measuring tools.
IMPROVED MEASUREMENT ACCURACY

Select from models of the OS520/OS530 series with
temperature ranges from 18 to 2482C (0 to 4500F).
Temperature readings are switchable from F to C via the
keypad. Reading accuracy is to 1%. This accuracy is
obtained through a unique keypad emissivity adjustment. The
operator sets the infrared gun to match target material emissivity
(0.10 to 1.00 in 0.01 increments) thus eliminating target
emissivity error.
Units have standard V groove gun sights for proper aiming
accuracy. Laser sighting is an available option. Measurable target
distances are from a few inches to approximately 200 feet (limited by
line of sight and target size).
To assure the operator that the target fills the field of view, near and
far field-of-view diagrams are supplied with each unit and all
instruments are labeled with a distance versus spot size chart. The
distance to spot size ratio is from 10:1 to 110:1 depending on the model.
VERSATILE DISPLAY AND PROGRAMMING FEATURES

The Custom backlit LCD display provides a dual parameter presentation.
When the unit is turned on, the emissivity setting is displayed. Target
temperature is then displayed simultaneously with either minimum,
maximum, differential, or average temperature as selected
by the operator.
Non-volatile memory assures that all set parameters,
such as target material emissivity, alarm setpoints,
etc., remain in memory until reset.
An electronic lock feature on the control panel keypad sets a trigger
mechanism for continuous measurements. With the trigger
programmed in the lock position, the instrument reads and displays
temperature data up to 4 times per second. The electronic trigger is also used to
enable/disable special functions like the audible/visual alarms.
PATENT NOTICE
ANALOG AND DIGITAL OUTPUTS FOR

DATA PROCESSING
This product may be protected by one or more of the following patents:
Analog and digital outputs are available for data recording and processing. The analog
output is 1 mV/C or F (0.5mV/degree for OS524); the digital output interface is RS-232.
High and low audible and visible alarms indicate preset temperature setpoints.
Z-74
U.S. PAT. D357, 194, 5,368,392, 5,524,984, 5,527,880, 5,465,838/Canada

D
75811VOMEGA
ENGINEERING, INC./Czech Republic 25372/France
0378411 to 0378446/Germany M 94 06 478.4/Italy RM9400000913/Japan
988.378/Netherlands 25009-00/Spain med. ut. 133292/Slovak Republic
24565/U.K. Registered 2041153
Other U.S. and Foreign Patents Pending.
THERMOCOUPLE INPUT
FEATURE
The OS530 Series thermometers offer
thermocouple input. This allows
measurement of target temperatures
either by contact or non-contact means.
RUGGED AND FUNCTIONAL

DESIGN EASES HANDLING
For safety and ease of carrying, a
soft holster and wrist strap are supplied
with each infrared thermometer. Rubber
boots encapsulate the lens and the
display to ensure mechanical integrity
during rough handling or mechanical
shock.
The OS520/OS530 series features a
sealed keypad display. Unique
packaging and styled design provide
ease of handling and convenient trigger
operation. The laser sighting option
ensures added accuracy for target
acquisition and definition.
UNIVERSAL PROBLEM SOLVER

Handheld infrared thermometers
are ideal for applications where noncontact temperature measurements
are required. Typical examples
include moving objects, materials
in contaminated or hazardous areas,
and locations of high voltage or very
high temperature. In each of these
environments, accurate and repeatable
measurements are obtained at a safe
distance using the OS520/OS530
infrared thermometers.
DIVERSE APPLICATION
EXAMPLES
Example 1:
Predict and Prevent Process Failure
Manufacturing and processing facilities,
such as chemical and petrochemical
plants, utilize solenoid valves to control
critical functions. The solenoids are
often inaccessible and difficult to test.
Process engineers know that an upward
shift in solenoid temperature is
indicative of a pending malfunction. The
portable OS520/OS530 thermometers
are used to remotely sense the
temperature of the solenoid housings.
Utilizing the instruments audible and
visual alarm system, a temperature shift
from a pre-set norm signals the
operator. The suspect solenoid valve is
identified and replaced before a critical
process failure occurs.
Example 2:
Perform Energy Auditing
Plant and maintenance engineering
are required to reduce building heating
costs by locating wall insulation voids.
Variations in wall temperatures indicate
areas of improper insulation. The
OS520/OS530 series measures wall
temperatures to identify areas of heat
leakage. A unique target ambient
temperature compensation feature
allows precise target (wall) temperature
measurement. Data is downloaded to a
computer for mapping of wall
temperature gradients.
Example 3:
Identify Permanent Test Sights
Engineering must determine if a process
warrants permanent temperature
monitoring. Wide variations in process
temperature indicate the need for tighter
controls. The OS520/OS530 series
mounts on a tripod for preliminary
evaluation of that process (integral
tripod mount is standard). Temperatures
are measured and updated
automatically using a unique trigger lock
feature. Data can be transmitted to a
recorder or a computer for evaluation.
The need for permanent temperature
monitoring is evaluated using the
analyzed data.
Example 4:
Prevent Contamination
Many processes in the food industry
are sensitive to temperature limits and
variations. Maintaining tight temperature
controls of the processing, canning,
packaging or freezing of food is critical
to prevent spoilage and to ensure
elimination of contaminants. Placement
of temperature measuring devices
within the food is discouraged due to
possible introduction of impurities and
contaminants. A remote temperature
indicating instrument is required. The
OS520/OS530 handheld infrared
thermometers take accurate
temperature readings without direct
contact to food or packaging material.
The instrument is adaptable to either a
temporary or permanent installation.
Intermittent measurements are
performed utilizing the handheld
configuration. A permanent setup is
established using the tripod mount and
the data downloading/ recording
capabilities.
Z-75
ENGINEERING SUPPORT
Unlimited applications and system
support are provided by the full
resources of OMEGA Engineering.
Petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, steel
production, food processing, paper
manufacturing and laboratory testing
are just a few of the industries where
OMEGA applications and systems
personnel are currently providing close
customer support.
ALL-IN-ONE INDUSTRY LEADER

The OMEGA Engineering
OS520/OS530 series handheld infrared
thermometers respond to the need for a
comprehensive remote temperature
measuring instrument. Unique features
such as ambient target temperature
compensation, electronic trigger lock,
adjustable emissivity set, themocouple
input and audible/visual alarms ensure
accurate and dependable readings. The
OS520/OS530 series are competitively
priced, are manufactured and tested in
the United States and are CE approved
for the European Market.
COMMON SPECIFICATIONS
Repeatability: (1% of reading + 1 digit)
Resolution: 1F or 1C
Response Time: 250 to 500 msec
Display: Backlit LCD, displays current
and min., max., diff., or average
temperature simultaneously
Spectral Response: 8 to 14 microns
Emissivity: 0.10 to 1.00 in 0.01
increments
Distance to Spot Size Ratio: From
10:1 to 110:1 depending on the model
Temperature Range: 18 to 2482C
(0 to 4500F)
Operating Ambient: 0 to 50C
(32 to 122F)
Power: 4 AA size batteries or
AC adaptor
Battery Life: 60 hrs., alkaline;
10 days, lithium under normal operation
Thermocouples
INTRODUCTION
IRt/c INFRARED
THERMOCOUPLES
A REVOLUTIONARY NEW
TEMPERATURE SENSING
TECHNOLOGY
The IRt/c product line represents a
dramatic breakthrough in temperature
sensing technology. The IRt/c sensors
are unpowered, low cost, and can
measure surface temperatures of
materials without touching. They can
be directly installed on conventional
thermocouple controllers, PLCs,
transmitters, and other readout devices.
Actual IR/tc Signal

millivolt
output
Target Temperature
The actual signal generated by the IRt/c can
be approximated with a fourth order polynomial
function of target temperature. This fourth power
dependence is due to radiation physics, and
not a limitation of the IRt/c.
How do they measure temperature?

All IRt/cs have a proprietary infrared
detection system which receives the
heat energy radiated from objects the
sensor is aimed at, and converts the
heat passively to an electrical potential.
A millivolt signal is produced, which is
scaled to the desired thermocouple
characteristics.
Since all IRt/cs are self-powered
devices, and rely only on the incoming
infrared radiation to produce the signal
through thermoelectric effects, the
signal will follow the rules of radiation
thermal physics, and be subject to the
non-linearities inherent in the process.
However, over a range of temperatures,
the IRt/c output is sufficiently linear
to produce a signal which can be
interchanged directly for a conventional
t/c signal. For example, specifying a
2% match to t/c linearity results in a
temperature range in which the IRt/c
will produce a signal within 2% of the
conventional t/c operating over that
range. Specifying 5% will produce a
somewhat wider range, etc.
OS36 Series
yy
,
,
,y
y
,
Linear Range ***
2%
Conventional thermocouple
millivolt
output
Linear region
millivolt
output
5%
> 5%
Actual IR/tc Signal
Target Temperature
The linear region matches the conventional
t/c to a specified tolerance.
Target Temperature
,,
y
y
,
y
,
y
yy
,,
yy
,,,
yy
yyy,
,,,
yy,
,,
,
y
,,
y
yy
,
yyyy
,,
yy
,
,
Temperature Selection Guide
90.00
2%
millivolts of signal output
80.00
> 5%
70.00
Sensor - Type - Temperature
60.00
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
10.00
50
Linear Range ***

5%
50
150 250 350 450 550 650

Actual Temperature (C)
The OS36-K-80 has its 2% linear range

centered at 80F (27C), but produces a
repeatable signal to 1200F (650C).
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
220C/440F
170C/340F
140C/280F
120C/240F
90C/180F
60C/140F
27C/80F
10C/50F
37C/98.6F
50
100
150
200
300 C
Special Biomedical Calibration 0.2 C (35.5-39.4), 0.3 C (25-40C)
0
100
200
300
400
Target Temperature
* Select OS36, OS36-2, or OS36-5
** Select Type J, K, E, T
*** Temperature Range in which IRt/c output is linear
compared to conventional t/c, within stated % (of reading).
Z-76
250
500
600 F
Principles of Infrared Thermocouples Cont'd

Each IRt/c model is specifically
designed for optimum performance
in the region of best linear fit with
conventional t/cs, but can be used
outside of those ranges by simply
calibrating the readout device
appropriately. The output signal is
smooth and continuous over its entire
rated temperature range, and maintains
1% repeatability over its entire range.
The Temperature Selection Guide
is a summary of the linear range
performance of each IRt/c model. The
user selects the IRt/c model and type,
and the target temperature range for
the application. The normal offset
adjustments on the thermocouple
readout device are used to calibrate
the installation for emissivity and
background effects.
Long term accuracy is influenced by the

same things that influence repeatability:
mechanical changes and metallurgical
changes. It is well known that
thermocouples can change calibration
over time due to these effects.
Mechanical changes occur because
conventional thermocouples are
constructed generally as small and
light as possible to enhance response
time, thus making them vulnerable
to deformations that can change
the thermoelectric properties. More
importantly, the conventional
thermocouple must operate at
elevated temperature since it merely
measures its own temperature.
percentage of failure, the IRt/c has

essentially unlimited long term
calibration accuracy.
QUICK INSTALLATION GUIDE

All infrared-based sensing systems
must be calibrated for specific material
surface properties (for example, the
amount of heat radiated from the target
surface, environmental heat reflections,
etc.). This calibration is performed by
measuring the target surface temperature
with a reliable independent surface
temperature probe. The easiest and
fastest method of accurately calibrating
out these effects is to use an OMEGA
OS91 hand-held Infrared Thermometer
with a patented Automatic Emissivity
Compensation System to give a true
reading regardless of emissivity.
How reliable are these new devices?
The following procedure is recommended:
Of fundamental interest in temperature

control is the ability of the measuring
device to maintain its calibration under
service conditions, and over a long
period of time. The IRt/c is rated at
1% (of reading) repeatability and to
have no measurable long term
calibration change, which makes it well
suited for reliable temperature control.
These attributes are inherent in the
basic design and construction of each
IRt/c.
1. Install IRt/c as close as practical to

view the target material to be measured.
IRt/c at Room Temperature

Thermocouple Probe at Product Temperature
Conventional thermocouple operating at elevated
temperature is subject to long-term drift, while the
IRt/c operating at room temperature is stable.
Repeatability is defined as the ability

of a measuring device to reproduce its
calibration under identical conditions.
The IRt/c is a solid, hermetically sealed,
fully potted system that does not change
either mechanically or metallurgically
during service. There are no active
electronic components and no power
source to produce the signal only the
thermoelectric effects that produce a
thermocouple signal. The 1% rating
is a conservative value based on the
practical difficulty of demonstrating
tighter tolerances under test conditions,
rather than a true limitation of the device.
The IRt/c gives repeatable static

and dynamic readings.
The metallurgical changes which affect

thermoelectric properties are a strong
function of temperature, being negligible
at room temperature, and of serious
concern at high temperature.
The IRt/c solves both problems by
its design and basic operation. Its
solid fully potted construction in a
mechanically rigid stainless steel
housing, and operation at near room
temperature conditions, essentially
eliminates the classical drift problems of
conventional thermocouples. Every IRt/c
is double annealed at temperatures
above 100 C to ensure long term
stability, and tested 5 times prior to
packaging. Barring a very small
2. Wire IRt/c to controller, PLC

Transmitter, etc. in standard fashion
(including shield). As in conventional
t/cs, red wire is always ().
3. Bring process up to normal operating
temperature and measure actual
temperature of target material with
OS90 Series Infrared Thermometer.
4. Adjust input offset, zero,
low cal, on the readout device to
match the OS91 reading.
Installation complete.
Quick Installation Guide
2
+
Z-77
IRt/c SETUP WITH AUTO-TUNE

TEMPERATURE CONTROLLERS
10,000 V
60 Hz
In many applications, heating elements

are employed to heat a product in an
oven, furnace, or with jets of hot air.
Conventional control devices using
contact thermocouples measure and
control the oven air temperature, IR
heating element temperature, or air jet
temperature in an effort to maintain
product temperature and therefore,
quality; often with less than satisfactory
results.
IRt/c
Fast
Meter
Heat Input
Product Temperature
Time
Replacing the contact thermocouple,

(for example measuring oven
temperature) with a non-contact IRt/c
measuring product temperature directly,
will insure that product temperature is
maintained. Some readjustment of the
controller parameters is required
because of differences in sensor
response times (an IRt/c is much
faster), and time required to heat the
product compared to the original sensor
(slower). After installing the IRt/c and
calibrating the controller reading using
an OS91 Infrared Scanner (see Quick
Installation Guide below), initiate the
self-tuning cycle of the controller and
check to see that the control is stable
and accurate. If it will not self tune
properly, manually adjust the control
coefficients to achieve stable control.
Because the product temperature is
likely to change temperature more
slowly than the original sensor, start
with slowly increasing the D of the
PID coefficients.
1000 ft (300 m)
Twisted Shield Pair t/c Wire
IRt/c CAN BE USED WITH

UP TO 1,000 FT (300 M) OF
THERMOCOUPLE EXTENSION
WIRE
With twisted shielded pair thermocouple
extension wire, an IRt/c can be mounted
as far as 300 meters (1,000 ft) from
the readout device, even in a very
fierce electrical noise environment. A
demonstration test was performed with
a 300 m (1000 ft) coil of twisted shielded
pair of extension wire, with 30 m (100 ft)
unwound, connecting an IRt/c to a fast
(100 msec. response) A/D conversion
module to a computer. As a noise
generator, a 60 Hz 10,000 volt transformer
and spark generator was set up to spark
within 15 cm (6 inches) of the wire.
The test results showed less than 0.1C
of noise at any relative position of the
wire, spark, and transformer. The
extraordinary noise suppression
characteristics designed into the IRt/c
make it possible to locate it at very long
distances, without the necessity of a
transmitter. The IRt/c housing is electrically
isolated from the signal leads and is
connected to the shielded ground of the
extension cable. For long distances,
twisted shielded extension cable should
be used, and the shield connected to a
good electrical ground.
IRt/cs are intrinsically safe when used

with barriers
IRt/cS ARE INTRINSICALLY SAFE

WHEN USED WITH BARRIERS
Field Apparatus having energy storing
or generating characteristics of <1.2V,
0.1A, 25 mW or 25 microJ shall be
considered Simple Apparatus (nonenergy storing). These general purpose
devices may be used in a hazardous
(classified) location without further
approval when connected to a certified
intrinsically safe circuit. Quote from
R. Stahl, Inc. Comprehensive Product
Manual On Intrinsic Safety Barrier
and Repeater Relays. Examples of
non-energy storing Intrinsically Safe
Apparatus are:
Thermocouples RTDs LEDs
Dry Switch Contacts
NAMUR Inductive Proximity Switches
Non-inductive Strain Gage Devices
and Resistors
The IRt/c falls into the category of
thermocouples, since it generates its
signal by converting the radiated heat
energy to an electrical signal via
Seebeck effects, the basic driving
force of thermocouples. Like all
thermocouples, it requires no power
source and generates signals measured
in millivolts of voltage, microamps of
current and nanowatts of power. IRt/cs
have a small capacitance, but at one
microFarad, the energy storage is
measured in nanojoules and is a
thousand times lower than the
25 microjoule criterion.
Accordingly, the IRt/c qualifies as a
Simple Apparatus for use in hazardous
locations, and with the appropriate
barrier, qualifies as Intrinsically Safe.
IRt/c
Barrier
Z-78
Principles of Infrared Thermocouples Cont'd

IRt/c
APPLICATION NOTES
IRt/c MONITORS
TIRE TEMPERATURES FOR
RACING PERFORMANCE
Tire temperature is of critical concern in

automotive racing for two reasons: the
tire temperature directly affects its
adhesion and its wear characteristics;
and tire temperature patterns provide
valuable information on the set-up and
performance of the suspension. For
example, excessive loading of a tire
caused by out-of-tune suspension will
cause that tire to become considerably
warmer than the others.
The IRt/c is an ideal measuring device
for on-board data acquisition, due to its
small size, ruggedness, and low cost.
It may be connected to standard
thermocouple read-out systems.
Installation should include connecting
the shield to a suitable ground in order
to avoid interference from the
electrically harsh environment of a
racing automobile. Mechanical
installation should include attention to
air flow patterns to minimize dirt building
on the lens. The OS36-2 or OS36-5 are
recommended due to their narrower
field of view, thus allowing you to
position it further away.
IRt/c RELATIVE HUMIDITY

MEASUREMENT
CONTROLLING WEB ROLLER

TEMPERATURE
IRt/cs can be used to measure actual

relative humidity in many situations
where there is a convenient source
of water and flowing air, and measure
it accurately and reliably.
The IRt/c infrared thermocouples have

quickly become the sensors of choice
for monitoring and controlling both web
and roller temperatures. Tips on accurate
roller temperature measurement:
An IRt/c aimed at a wet porous surface

with ambient air blowing across the wet
surface, can actually measure what is
called wet bulb temperature for that
ambient area. (More precisely, wet
bulb temperature is the equilibrium
temperature of the air-water interface
when a water film is evaporated. When
air is moved over a wet surface, the
water cools by evaporation until it
reaches wet-bulb temperature, then
the cooling stops, no matter how much
more air is moved over the surface. The
temperature at which the cooling stops
is the wet bulb temperature.)
1. Uncoated Metal or Chrome Rolls

Shiny, uncoated metal rolls are difficult
for any infrared sensor to properly
sense the true temperature (the sensor
will see too many environmental
reflections). The solution to the problem
is to simply: paint a small black stripe
on an unused end of the roller. Aim the
IRt/c sensor at the black paint stripe.
It will then measure the temperature
accurately and reliably regardless of
changes in the surface conditions of the
rest of the roller.
The IRt/c measures the temperature

of the air-water interface on a surface
directly. The quality of the water or of
the absorbing material does not affect
the reading, since the IRt/c can directly
view the air-water interface, and the wet
bulb equilibrium temperature is not
materially affected by impurities.
The highest precision method is to
employ an IRt/c wired differentially
with a conventional thermocouple
to measure the quantity wet bulb
depression. The differential pair
arrangement guarantees high
accuracy, since RH is a strong function
of wet bulb depression and a weak
function of dry bulb temperature.
Standard psychrometric tables,
charts, and software algorithms
can be used with the data to obtain
accurate relative humidity for your
environmental measurements.
If there is very little space on the edge

of the roller, move the sensor closer and
paint a very small black stripe. The
minimum spot size of the IRt/c is 8 mm
(0.3 inches) and for the OS36-2 it is
4 mm (0.16 inches) when the sensor is
brought close to the surface.
2. Dull Metal Rollers Dull metal
rollers can provide a reliable signal.
It is best to test the surface for reliability,
though, as the surface emissive
properties may shift via dirt, moisture,
cleaning, etc. It is best, if in doubt, to
simply paint a stripe to eliminate these
variations.
Relative Humidity Measurement
Air Flow
Wet Bulb
Depression
Temperature
+
Dry Bulb
Temperature
Z-79
3. Non-metallic Surfaced Rollers

These will provide a reliable IR signal at
any point the IRt/c is aimed. No painted
stripe is required.
CONTROLLING
VACUUM FORMING AND
THERMOFORMING PROCESSES
IRt/c CONTROLS PRINTED

CIRCUIT BOARD PREHEAT
DURING WAVE SOLDERING
For forming plastics, an excellent

combination of heating method and
control is radiant heat with an IRt/c for
control. They work extraordinarily well
together, since both the heating and
measuring occur right at the surface
where the plastic is located. The IRt/c
reading is unaffected by reflections from
the heater, since the spectral response
of the 6-14 micron IRt/c lens filters out
the shorter wavelengths of the radiant
heater energy.
An excellent solution to the problem of

proper heater control for PC board
preheat is an IRt/c. They work
extraordinarily well together, since both
the heating and measuring occur right
at the surface where the solder must
flow. The IRt/c reading is unaffected by
reflections from the heater, since the
spectral response of the 6-14 micron
IRt/c lens filters out any shorter
wavelengths of the radiant heater energy.
,yy,y,y
,
y,y,y,y
,
Air
OS36-2
Air
The IRt/c may be mounted in between

ceramic heaters, or in the shroud or
reflector of the radiant heater, such that
it can see in between the elements.
Select the IRt/c standard, OS36-2
or OS36-5 model, depending on the
field-of-view required to see past the
elements to the painted surface. Care
should be taken in mounting the IRt/c in
such a way as to keep its temperature
below 93C (200F) and to keep the
lens clean. The OS36-2 is the preferred
model for this application because of
its small physical size with built-in air
purge. It can be used in temperatures to
121C (250F) environments when the
air purge system is used. Its narrower
field-of-view allows more leeway in
positioning, and thus more flexibility in
installation. For still narrower fields of
view, use the OS36-5 with its 5:1 FOV.
OS36-2
Ceramic Heaters
2. The field-of-view: the preferred

method is to view the part between
the coil turns or from the end. Select
the IRt/c model that best suits the
requirements.
3. Part temperature: both the OS36-2
and OS36-5 models can be used to
target temperatures of 1100C (2000F),
and have linear ranges to 260C (500F).
ASPHALT TEMPERATURE
MONITORING
Asphalt properties are particularly
sensitive to temperature, and it is
important that the asphalt is applied
at the correct temperature in order
to perform to its specifications.
Accordingly, temperature monitoring
is a common requirement, but the
thermocouples normally used have
severe breakage problems due to the
harsh abrasiveness of the material, and
must constantly be replaced at high cost
and interruption of production.
For this application, the IRt/c may

be mounted identically to Vacuum
Forming/Thermoforming (above).
INDUCTION HEATER CONTROL

The induction heating process can be
readily controlled by the temperature
of the part as measured by an IRt/c
non-contact infrared thermocouple.
Several issues should be considered
in an installation.
IRt/c
Cooling Water
OS36-5
OS36-2
1. The effect of the field on the IRt/c:

since the measuring signal is electrically
isolated from the housing, the IRt/c will
operate in even a very strong field.
The shield wire should be attached to
a proper signal ground. If there is
excessive heating from the field,
consider using the optional cooling
jacket kit, with the same water source
as is used to cool the coil.
OS36-2 and OS36-5
models feature
built-in air purge
to keep these quality
thermocouples functioning
efficiently and accurately,
even in dirty environments
Z-80
yyy
,,,
,,,
yyy
Air
OS36-2
Air
OS36-5
The IRt/c solves this problem directly,

since the temperature is monitored
without contact. The normal thermocouple
controller can be used simply calibrate
offset if necessary. The OS36-2 and
OS36-5 models are recommended due
to their built-in air purge, which will keep
the lens clean by preventing vapors
from condensing on the lens. The
OS36-2 can be mounted in the chute
to view the asphalt through a small
hole, while the OS36-5 can be mounted
some distance away due to its narrow
5:1 field of view.

Exergen Corp.
Microcomputer Based IR
Temperature Transducers
Charles E. Everest, Everest Interscience, Inc.
systems, an increment of radiant

power dWD is transmitted from the
detectors sensitive area to the target
spot according to the equation:
eDC1f
dWD =
dl
5
l (eC2 / lTD-1)
Microcomputer based IR temperature

transducers are superior to the readily
available analog types because in situ
computing can be used to correct
detector imperfections, provide threefigure emissivity compensation settings
(including real-time control of emissivity
compensation during individual
measurements), and process transducer
data, transmitting only salient information
and thereby reducing data load on the data
acquisition system (DAS) (see Figure 1).
The net incremental radiant power flow

from the target spot to the sensitive area
is:
dWnet = dWT - dWD
The C makes it possible also to

calibrate the transducer in real time
without bothering the DAS unless a
failure mode is detected. In situ data
logging and buffering for asynchronous
polling by the DAS is available. The
data rate of the transducer can be
matched to the data rate of the DAS.
or:
dWnet=
-
CORRECTING DETECTOR
IMPERFECTIONS
eD
] dl
eC2/lTD-1
C1, C2 = absolute constants

f
= optical gain of the IR focusing
optics
l
= wavelength in microns
eT
= emissivity of the target surface
eD
= emissivity of the detector
surface
then:
Wnet =
C1f
l5
l = l1
From this basic energy balance equation,

the target temperature is an exponential
function of the detector temperature TD.
A
N
A
L
O
G
ASCII
ADC
MICRO
COMPUTER
BCD
RS232-C
RS232-C
MUX
OUTPUT
CONNECTOR
REFERENCE
THERMISTOR
OPTICAL
CHOPPER
l = l2
eD
T
[ eC2e/lT
] dl
T-1 eC2 /lTD-1
Furthermore, since the optical system

and its media are linear, bilateral
LOW NOISE
IR
REAMP
SENSOR
where:
The thermal-type IR detectors used in

moderate-temperature IR thermometers
all suffer from shortcomings, but these
can be corrected by sophisticated data
processing techniques available with
digital computers. The sensitive area of
the detector and its image spot on the
target are conjugate images of each
other formed by the optics. Also, since
Plancks equation defines a spectral
quantity, an increment of radiant power,
dWT, for each micron of spectral
bandwidth in the IR spectrum is radiated
from the target spot to the IR detector
according to the equation:
eTC1f
dWT =
dl
5
l (eC2/lTT-1)
OPTICAL ASSY.
eT
eC2/lTT-1
C1f
l5
+9 VDC
Figure 1
Z-81
The output signal from the IR detector

is a minute voltage proportional to the
difference in temperature between the
target and the detector body itself. To
obtain an accurate measurement of
the target temperature, it is therefore
necessary to accurately measure the
detector body temperature and add
the processed difference temperature
provided by the IR detector.
If our embedded computer can improve
the accuracy of either of these component
temperature measurements, the overall
target temperature measurement is
enhanced. In fact, the accuracy of
both of these component temperature
measurements is significantly improved
using computer enhancements, as
explained later.
Another troublesome detector error
source that can be completely corrected
with the computer is DC drift caused
by ambient temperature variations.
The detector body temperature TD is
probably the most important variable
the computer uses to improve overall
system accuracy. The techniques by
which the computer obtains this variable
with greatly enhanced accuracy are
outlined below.
TD spans the range of the natural
environment, from roughly -50 to 100C.
Over this range, the most precise and
accurate temperature measuring
transducer is the thermistor. It is rarely
used as the temperature reference
element for IR thermometers, however,
because its output signal
is highly nonlinear, and, although
extremely stable, its as-manufactured
nominal values vary widely from unit
to unit (production spread).
Most IR thermometer manufacturers
are limited to simple analog correction
techniques for their detector reference
elements and so must abandon the
more accurate and stable thermistor
for a less accurate but easier to use
element such as an integrated circuit,
which outputs a linear current with
temperature.
Highly nonlinear transducer responses
are no problem for a computer,
however, because they can be
characterized with a Taylor series
polynomial of the form shown in
Equation 6 with an order, n, high
enough to give arbitrarily perfect

linearization correction for any
transducers curve:
A + BX + CX2 + DX3 + ... ZXn
An algorithm for a general solution of
the equation is held as a subroutine in
program memory, while the transducerspecific coefficients A,B,D,C ... Z are
held in firmware (EEPROM). Given
the power of modern Cs, complex
mathematical operations like this are
practically free of hardware costs and
can be performed in real time quickly
enough not to affect the overall reading
speed. The bottom line is that actual
detector case temperature measurements
of 0.05C absolute accuracy are routine.
The IR detector itself is another
temperature transducer with a highly
nonlinear and temperature-dependent
response:
E0 = R W
where:
E0 = detector output in volts
W = IR electromagnetic radiant power
in W/m2
R = responsivity (constant of
proportionality)
Responsivity is also a nonlinear function
of TD. It is typically grossly corrected in
the industry with a simple linear gain
correction produced by a temperature
sensitive resistor in the preamplifier
feedback network. With an embedded
C, a third-order Taylor series correction
using the real-time values computed for
TD will effect a complete error correction
for less cost than the temperature
sensitive feedback resistor. These
techniques allow the price of new
computer based digital IR temperature
transducers to be no greater than that
of their analog predecessors, even
with greatly enhanced performance
and accuracy.
WT, the net radiant target signal power
impinging on the detector, is highly
nonlinear with target temperature TT; for
low-temperature targets (TT<1000F), it
is also highly dependent on the detector
temperature itself (TD). WT is a spectral
quantity that depends on the spectral
window it passes through, as calculated
from Plancks equation. For very wide
band IR thermometers measuring hightemperature targets, this characteristic

approaches the fourth order of the
Stefan-Boltzmann law:
; KoTT4
W;
where:
TT = absolute target temperature
o = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
K = a nonlinear function of TD
In present-day IR thermometers, K is
usually combined with R of Equation 7 and
a single linear compensation correction
is applied, even though they have differing
slopes in TD. With Taylor series digital
corrections, only three or four coefficients
need to be stored for use with the
general purpose Taylor series algorithm
to effect nearly perfect corrections of
both coefficients independently.
The critical linearization of the TT4
term (in the equation above) is usually left
to linear approximation techniques. The
instruments entire scale span is divided
into a convenient number of curved
sections, usually between 6 and 12,
and each section is approximated by a
straight line that can be easily handled
by analog techniques. Unfortunately,
each section is accurately corrected
at only two temperatures; other
temperatures in the section can be read
out in error by as much as the entire
accuracy specification of the instrument,
which was fixed at one of the accurate
points of the highest section. Thus the
linearity error specification is usually
equal to, and in addition to, the span
accuracy specification of the instrument.
In digital IR thermometers with embedded
Cs, a Taylor series polynomial with
as many as 7 terms, solved in real time,
can effectively solve the fourth-power
relationship between detector output
voltage and target temperature.
Detector zero (or DC) drift is another
imperfection that can be effectively
corrected with an embedded C.
Thermal detectors usually have
negligible long-term zero drift under
stable ambient conditions but are quite
susceptible to thermal transients. Errors
of several degrees are common when
taking an instrument with a simple thermal
detector from one room to another with
a different ambient temperature.
Z-82
An effective way to correct this error

is periodically to completely block the
incoming IR radiation signal from the
target with an optical chopper, while
measuring the remaining error signal
and storing its value in computer memory
for later subtraction from the measured
composite signal. This procedure can
be performed as often as necessary or
convenient under adaptive computer
control. Whenever an inactive time
interval can be identified by the computer,
the procedure can be cycled without
interrupting the useful flow of information.
If this asynchronous chopping is done
frequently as compared to the drift rate
of the detector, nearly perfect DC zero
restoration can be achieved.
DIGITAL TARGET EMISSIVITY

COMPENSATION
Extremely precise (three-figure) emissivity
corrections can be called up either from
as many as 10 values stored in resident
EEPROM, or from complex, real-time
programs dependent on target timetemperature relationships. An example
of the latter is a program for compensation
of the emissivity of an induction heated
steel part, which oxidized as it heats
to higher temperatures. The emissivity
may be quite low (;0.1) at low
temperatures, but as it is rapidly heated,
an oxide film forms on its surface, which
raises the emissivity according to its
time-temperature history. This timetemperature integral can be easily
calculated by the computer and the
corresponding emissivity value applied
to the temperature readout in real time.
EMBEDDED DATA PROCESSING

CHORES
Transducer data can be preprocessed
at the point of measurement to extract
the pertinent information for transmission
to the mainframe data processing
system. For instance, only excess limit
or out-of-range data may be desired.
In this case, set point values can be
programmed into the embedded computer
firmware so that only data above (or
below) the set point will be transmitted,
perhaps on a priority interrupt basis.
On a serial digital interface bus, a
priority interrupt hierarchy can be
defined that will maximize the number
of drops (transducers) a single wire will
accommodate.
Microcomputer Based IR
Temperature Transducers Cont'd
A smart transducer can be programmed
to identify windows in data flow patterns
where a preprogrammed calibration
procedure can be performed without
affecting useful data flow. For instance,
if the IR thermometer is measuring the
temperature of cans proceeding down a
conveyor belt, a gap between successive
cans is sensed and the dead time during
the gap is used to cycle the calibration
procedure. The master DAS need not
be aware of the individual transducers
calibration details unless an out-of-limits
condition occurs and the affected
transducer initiates a priority interrupt
alarm.
There are also four precision, low-level

analog inputs available that can accept
auxiliary inputs from thermocouples,
RTDs, or other IR detectors for support
functions. The simplest of these might
be detection of temperatures above or
below a preset threshold that has been
programmed into EEPROM. This set
point could even be automatically
programmed by the computer in
response to input variable history.
As many as four set points can be
monitored and controlled simultaneously.
Among the more complex control
functions are complete local closed-loop
PID control of a process temperature
entirely by the transducer with no external
help from other control electronics.
INTEGRAL DATA LOGGING

AND BUFFERING
INTERFACE MANAGEMENT
AUTOMATIC CALIBRATION
Both volatile and nonvolatile data

logging are built into the transducer.
Volatile data logging with the resident
RAM is used to assemble and
temporarily store on-line data either for
use in computations or to wait for bus
polling. This ability to locally process
and format data reduces the data
transfer time to the processor.
Furthermore, because even fast IR
thermometers are relatively slow (;ms)
compared to electronic DASs (;s),
very little time is needed to service
an individual digital IR thermometer
on a data bus. The data can often be
compressed into 50 s/s, allowing
dozens of drops (transducers) on a
single-wire pair (see section on
Interface Management). Nonvolatile
data logging, via the embedded
EEPROM, is used to store significant
historical data such as maximum,
minimum, average, mean, and out-oflimit values for indefinite times.
IN SITU DIGITAL CONTROL

INTELLIGENCE
The powerful integral microcontroller
can also be programmed to act on the
incoming temperature data to perform
external control functions. There are 16
multipurpose C control ports available
for command inputs from external
signals such as simple switch closures
or photo-detector signals, or for control
outputs such as power relays. Each port
can directly drive an optically isolated
solid-state relay capable of controlling
a 10 kW load operating at 1600 V
differential from the transducer.
The computers data processing power

minimizes the hardware complexity of
the transmission lines by managing both
electrical power and data transmission
flow for the transducer. For example,
the computer can function as a traffic
cop to time share a single line among
several dozen transducers for both
power and two-way data transmission.
In addition, when the line is used for
power transmission, other transducers
can be connected to it and powered up
at the same time. When the computer
disconnects line power, data can be
transmitted so quickly that many
connected transducers can be polled
before the next power up. The bottom
line is that inexpensive BNCs can be
used with the transducers and a simple
2-wire party line can service up to 16
transducers over a distance of 1000 ft.
Another performance advantage accrues
from the all-digital data transmission,
which is far less susceptible to RFI/EMI
than is analog data transmission.
Because the binary data transmission
is serial in nature and is formatted for
bilateral transmission on a single line, a
single fiber-optic line can be substituted
to provide complete immunity from
RFI/EMI, up to and including lightning
strikes. Finally, the savings on multipin
connectors and individual multiconductor
cables is enough to pay for the C,
not to mention the greatly enhanced
reliability from a single line system
vs. six conductors.
Z-83
SUMMARY
The superiority of C based IR
temperature sensing instruments
over present generation analog IR
thermometers is apparent. This
statement is supported by the enhanced
accuracy of temperature measurements
of the difference between the target and
detector body, and the measurement of
the detector body itself. Also to be noted
is the ability of the microcomputer based
instrumentation to replace the linear
approximation techniques. Extremely
precise emissivity correction is another
plus, as are the automatic calibration,
integral data logging, and in situ digital
control intelligence capabilities. The
reduction in the cost of the interface
between the host computer and the
transducers can be substantial. An
extremely sophisticated IR temperature
measurement system can be provided
at a cost that is equal to or less than
previously available analog systems
with limited capabilities.

EVEREST INTERSCIENCE, INC.
Infrared Thermocouples,
Z
Infrared thermocouples can be used with most

thermocouple meters or controller over a specified
temperature range. For example, the OS36-J-50F
would have a 2% accuracy over the range of -18 to
27C (0 to 80F).
The following table shows the series of equations that
permit a determination of measured temperature by
measuring the IR-TCs output voltage. If desired, the
cold junction (CJ) correction can be set at any known
constant temperature, e.g., 25C. If the CJ temperature
is not known and constant, it is suggested you use an
OMEGA CJ connection device like a TRC IIIA or CJ-K.
This will correct to 0C and allow use of a standard
voltmeter without other cold junction compensation.
The CJT term can then be dropped in the following
polynomial table.
Z-84
Polynomial Table for OS36, 37 and 38 Signal Output

TT = A(mV)6 + B(mV)5 + C(mV)4 + D(mV)3 + E(mV)2 + F(mV) + CJT
OS36-J-50F/10C
OS36-J-80F/27C
OS36-J-140F/60C
OS36-J-180F/90C
OS36-J-240F/120C
OS36-J-280F/140C
OS36-J-340F/170C
OS36-J-440F/220C
OS36-K-50F/10C
OS36-K-80F/27C
OS36-K-140F/60C
OS36-K-180F/90C
OS36-K-240F/120C
OS36-K-280F/140C
OS36-K-340F/170C
OS36-K-440F/220C
OS37-K
OS38-K
OS38-K
OS38-K
-6.14473E-09
-2.83996E-08
-4.31591E-08
-7.03138E-08
-1.05707E-07
-1.89514E-07
-2.99852E-07
-5.20472E-07
-1.59875E-08
-6.09875E-08
-1.42546E-07
-3.22615E-07
-5.08511E-07
-9.34497E-07
-1.62369E-06
-2.90564E-06
-7.13085E-08
-2.17588E+04
-3.01228E-08
2.08199E-06
7.41635E-06
1.06077E-05
1.59337E-05
2.23776E-05
3.63996E-05
5.33519E-05
8.44263E-05
4.63673E-06
1.41502E-05
2.87094E-05
5.67063E-05
8.28536E-05
1.37576E-04
2.18012E-04
3.54076E-04
2.30925E-05
7.42505E+04
9.50466E-06
-2.72953E-04
-7.54046E-04
-1.01002E-03
-1.39844E-03
-1.83521E-03
-2.70839E-03
-3.67751E-03
-5.30444E-03
-5.20959E-04
-1.27187E-03
-2.24003E-03
-3.86135E-03
-5.22978E-03
-7.84637E-03
-1.13401E-02
-1.67152E-02
-2.88585E-03
-9.73319E+04
-1.17636E-03
1.75317E-02
3.79224E-02
4.72155E-02
6.02655E-02
7.38926E-02
9.89395E-02
1.24452E-01
1.63572E-01
2.87368E-02
5.61266E-02
8.58077E-02
1.29089E-01
1.62069E-01
2.19704E-01
2.89601E-01
3.87409E-01
1.75033E-01
6.14482E+04
7.27752E-02
E
-5.84883E-01
-1.00406E+00
-1.14872E+00
-1.35167E+00
-1.54843E+00
-1.88106E+00
-2.19192E+00
-2.62438E+00
-8.24991E-01
-1.28905E+00
-1.71070E+00
-2.24604E+00
-2.61390E+00
-3.20171E+00
-3.84908E+00
-4.67308E+00
-5.35670E+00
-1.92711E+04
-2.41603E+00
Alternative: Power Law Fit=298.0514(mV)0 2864
Maximum
Range
mV
TT
Minimum
Range
mV
TT
Test Conditions
TT
CJT
OS36-J-50F/10C
OS36-J-80F/27C
OS36-J-140F/60C
OS36-J-180F/90C
OS36-J-240F/120C
OS36-J-280F/140C
OS36-J-340F/170C
OS36-J-440F/220C
OS36-K-50F/10C
OS36-K-80F/27C
OS36-K-140F/60C
OS36-K-180F/90C
OS36-K-240F/120C
OS36-K-280F/140C
OS36-K-340F/170C
OS36-K-440F/220C
OS37-K
OS38-K
OS38-K
70
70
70
70
65
60
55
50
70
70
65
55
50
45
45
40
70
1
80
466
577
634
674
671
678
674
667
551
664
685
678
671
670
681
685
957
334
1035
-4
-3
-3
-3
-2
-2
-2
-2
-3
-3
-2
-2
-2
-2
-2
-1
0
0
1
-47
-47
-47
-47
-46
-47
-46
-49
-47
-45
-47
-47
-49
-48
-45
-48
0
0
309
mV
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
1
80
89
107
112
117
122
130
136
143
101
116
126
137
143
152
160
169
341
334
1035
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
262
OS38xxx-K Power Law
80
1046
473
25
Notes: TT = Target Temperature

CJT = Cold junction temperature at input added via the input Device (controller, indicator, PLC, etc.).
A controlled constant 25C is assumed here for most polynomials. It can be changed.
mV = Signal produced by infrared thermocouple in millivolts.
All temperatures in C.
Assumed target emissivity is 0.9 for all models except OS38 which has assumed emissivity 0.2.
Z-85
F
1.53003E+01
2.06592E+01
2.20397E+01
2.39075E+01
2.55885E+01
2.82034E+01
3.04447E+01
3.31770E+01
1.86777E+01
2.33472E+01
2.68960E+01
3.08183E+01
3.32464E+01
3.67952E+01
4.03439E+01
4.44530E+01
8.58605E+01
2.97242E+03
4.88735E+01
Infrared Window Transmission

Refractive Indexes for IR Windows
Material
Barium Fluoride
Cesium Bromide
Cesium Iodide
Calcium Fluoride
Germanium
Lithium Fluoride
Magnesium Fluoride
Potassium Bromide
Potassium Chloride
Sapphire
Silicon
Silver Bromide
Silver Chloride
Sodium Chloride
Sodium Fluoride
Strontium Fluoride
Thallium Bromide
Thallium Bromide-Chloride KRS6
Thallium Bromide-Iodide KRS5
Thallium Chloride
Zinc Selenide
Zinc Sulphide
at wavelength m
1.45
1.66251
1.73916
1.399
4.003
1.39
No = 1.379 Ne = 1.391
1.526
1.454
1.755
3.4179
2.31
1.980
1.49482
1.238
1.439
2.338
2.1767
2.37069
2.193
2.40
2.2
5
10
10
5
10
0.5
0.5
10
10
1
10
0.5
10
10
10
0.5
10
10
10
10
10
10
Transmission Range
Wavelength (m)
Reproduced with permission of Optovac Corporaton
Z-86
Infrared Quick Help

When to Use Infrared Temperature
Measurement:
Surface Is:
OS520 Series Handheld Infrared

Thermometer
U Too Hot to Be Measured

With Thermocouples
U Too Large to Be
Measured Without a
Very Large Number of
Thermocouples
U Moving Too Much for
Thermocouple Lead
Wire to Accept Without
Breaking
U At So High an Electrical
Potential That Use of a
Thermocouple Would Be
Dangerous
U So Low in Mass That
The Thermocouple Itself
Will Affect the Unknown
Surface Temperature
U Too Fragile or Wet to

Accommodate
Thermocouple Contact
U Too Active (Chemically)
to Accept a
Thermocouple or Its
Probe
U In an Atmosphere
That Is Hostile to a
Thermocouple
U Inaccessible to a
Thermocouple or Its
Instrumentation
U Near Noise Producing
Electric or Magnetic
Fields
Key Infrared Application

Factors
U Target Spot Size and
Distance
U Target Material (for
Emissivity)
U Fixed or Handheld Unit
U Temperature Range
OS550 Sensor Head Industrial

Noncontact Infrared
Thermometer/Transmitter and
OS550-MB Mounting Bracket
U
U
U
U
U
Response Time
Sighting System
Environment
Viewing Port
Options Needed
Determination of Infrared
Emissivity
U Measure Surface
Temperature by Some
Other Means (After
Stopping Motion)
U Place Masking Tape on
Surface (Emissivity 0.95)
U Drill Hole in Surface At
Least Six Times as Deep
as It Is Wide
(Emissivity 0.95)
BB704 Series Blackbody Calibration

Source with Portable Design
Z-87
U Paint Surface Dull Black

(M IR Region)
U Look up Emissivity in
Table (Last Resort)
Table of Total Emissivity

These tables are presented for use as a guide when making
infrared temperature measurements with the OMEGASCOPE
or other infrared pyrometers. The total emissivity () for Metals,
Non-metals and Common Building Materials are given.
Material
Temp F (C)
Alloys
20-Ni, 24-CR, 55-FE, Oxid.
392 (200)
20-Ni, 24-CR, 55-FE, Oxid.
932 (500)
60-Ni , 12-CR, 28-FE, Oxid. 518 (270)
60-Ni , 12-CR, 28-FE, Oxid. 1040 (560)
80-Ni, 20-CR, Oxidized
212 (100)
1112 (600)
2372 (1300)
Aluminium
Unoxidized
77 (25)
Unoxidized
212 (100)
Unoxidized
932 (500)
Oxidized
390 (199)
Oxidized
1110 (599)
Oxidized at 599C (1110F) 390 (199)
Oxidized at 599C (1110F) 1110 (599)
Heavily Oxidized
200 (93)
Heavily Oxidized
940 (504)
Highly Polished
212 (100)
Roughly Polished
212 (100)
Commercial Sheet
212 (100)
Highly Polished Plate
440 (227)
Highly Polished Plate
1070 (577)
Bright Rolled Plate
338 (170)
Bright Rolled Plate
932 (500)
Alloy A3003, Oxidized
600 (316)
Alloy A3003, Oxidized
900 (482)
Alloy 1100-0
200-800 (93-427)
Alloy 24ST
75 (24)
Alloy 24ST, Polished
75 (24)
Alloy 75ST
75 (24)
Alloy 75ST, Polished
75 (24)
Bismuth, Bright
176 (80)
Bismuth, Unoxidized
77 (25)
Bismuth, Unoxidized
212 (100)
Brass
73% Cu, 27% Zn, Polished 476 (247)
73% Cu, 27% Zn, Polished 674 (357)
62% Cu, 37% Zn, Polished 494 (257)
62% Cu, 37% Zn, Polished 710 (377)
83% Cu, 17% Zn, Polished 530 (277)
Matte
68 (20)
Burnished to Brown Colour
68 (20)
Cu-Zn, Brass Oxidized
392 (200)
752 (400)
1112 (600)
Unoxidized
77 (25)
Unoxidized
212 (100)
Cadmium
77 (25)
Carbon
Lampblack
77 (25)
Unoxidized
77 (25)
Unoxidized
212 (100)
Unoxidized
932 (500)
Candle Soot
250 (121)
Filament
500 (260)
Graphitized
212 (100)
Graphitized
572 (300)
Graphitized
932 (500)
Chromium
100 (38)
Chromium
1000 (538)
Chromium, Polished
302 (150)
Cobalt, Unoxidized
932 (500)
Cobalt, Unoxidized
1832 (1000)
Columbium, Unoxidized
1500 (816)
Columbium, Unoxidized
2000 (1093)
Copper
Cuprous Oxide
100 (38)
Cuprous Oxide
500 (260)
Cuprous Oxide
1000 (538)
Black, Oxidized
100 (38)
Etched
100 (38)
Matte
100 (38)
Roughly Polished
100 (38)
Emissivity
.90
.97
.89
.82
.87
.87
.89
.02
.03
.06
.11
.19
.11
.19
.20
.31
.09
.18
.09
.04
.06
.04
.05
.40
.40
.05
.09
.09
.11
.08
.34
.05
.06
.03
.03
.03
.04
.03
.07
.40
.61
.60
.61
.04
.04
.02
.95
.81
.81
.79
.95
.95
.76
.75
.71
.08
.26
.06
.13
.23
.19
.24
.87
.83
.77
.78
.09
.22
.07
Material
Since the emissivity of a material will vary as a function of

temperature and surface finish, the values in these tables should
be used only as a guide for relative or delta measurements.
The exact emissivity of a material should be determined when
absolute measurements are required.
Temp F (C)
Polished
100 (38)
Highly Polished
100 (38)
Rolled
100 (38)
Rough
100 (38)
Molten
1000 (538)
Molten
1970 (1077)
Molten
2230 (1221)
Nickel Plated
100-500 (38-260)
Dow Metal
0.4-600 (18-316)
Gold
Enamel
212 (100)
Plate (.0001)
Plate on .0005 Silver 200-750 (93-399)
Plate on .0005 Nickel 200-750 (93-399)
Polished
100-500 (38-260)
Polished
1000-2000 (538-1093)
Haynes Alloy C,
Oxidized
600-2000 (316-1093)
Haynes Alloy 25,
Oxidized
600-2000 (316-1093)
Haynes Alloy X,
Oxidized
600-2000 (316-1093)
Inconel Sheet
1000 (538)
Inconel Sheet
1200 (649)
Inconel Sheet
1400 (760)
Inconel X, Polished
75 (24)
Inconel B, Polished
75 (24)
Iron
Oxidized
212 (100)
Oxidized
930 (499)
Oxidized
2190 (1199)
Unoxidized
212 (100)
Red Rust
77 (25)
Rusted
77 (25)
Liquid
2760-3220 (1516-1771)
Cast Iron
Oxidized
390 (199)
Oxidized
1110 (599)
Unoxidized
212 (100)
Strong Oxidation
40 (104)
Strong Oxidation
482 (250)
Liquid
2795 (1535)
Wrought Iron
Dull
77 (25)
Dull
660 (349)
Smooth
100 (38)
Polished
100 (38)
Lead
Polished
100-500 (38-260)
Rough
100 (38)
Oxidized
100 (38)
Oxidized at 1100F
100 (38)
Gray Oxidized
100 (38)
Magnesium
100-500 (38-260)
Magnesium Oxide1880-3140 (1027-1727)
Mercury
32 (0)
"
77 (25)
"
100 (38)
"
212 (100)
Molybdenum
100 (38)
"
500 (260)
"
1000 (538)
"
2000 (1093)
" Oxidized at 1000F
600 (316)
" Oxidized at 1000F
700 (371)
" Oxidized at 1000F
800 (427)
" Oxidized at 1000F
900 (482)
" Oxidized at 1000F
1000 (538)
Monel, Ni-Cu
392 (200)
Monel, Ni-Cu
752 (400)
Monel, Ni-Cu
1112 (600)
Monel, Ni-Cu Oxidized
68 (20)
Z-88
Emissivity
.03
.02
.64
.74
.15
.16
.13
.37
.15
.37
.11-.14
.07-.09
.02
.03
.90-.96
.86-.89
.85-.88
.28
.42
.58
.19
.21
.74
.84
.89
.05
.70
.65
.42-.45
.64
.78
.21
.95
.95
.29
.94
.94
.35
.28
.06-.08
.43
.43
.63
.28
.07-.13
.16-.20
.09
.10
.10
.12
.06
.08
.11
.18
.80
.84
.84
.83
.82
.41
.44
.46
.43
METALS
Material
Temp F (C)
Monel, Ni-Cu Oxid. at 1110F 1110 (599)

Nickel
Polished
100 (38)
Oxidized
100-500 (38-260)
Unoxidized
77 (25)
Unoxidized
212 (100)
Unoxidized
932 (500)
Unoxidized
1832 (1000)
Electrolytic
100 (38)
Electrolytic
500 (260)
Electrolytic
1000 (538)
Electrolytic
2000 (1093)
Nickel Oxide
1000-2000 (538-1093)
Palladium Plate (.00005
on .0005 silver)
200-750 (93-399)
Platinum
100 (38)
"
500 (260)
"
1000 (538)
Platinum, Black
100 (38)
"
500 (260)
"
2000 (1093)
" Oxidized at 1100F
500 (260)
"
1000 (538)
Rhodium Flash (0.0002
on 0.0005 Ni)
200-700 (93-371)
Silver
Plate (0.0005 on Ni) 200-700 (93-371)
Polished
100 (38)
"
500 (260)
"
1000 (538)
"
2000 (1093)
Steel
Cold Rolled
200 (93)
Ground Sheet 1720-2010 (938-1099)
Polished Sheet
100 (38)
"
500 (260)
"
1000 (538)
Mild Steel, Polished
75 (24)
Mild Steel, Smooth
75 (24)
Mild Steel,
Liquid
2910-3270 (1599-1793)
Steel, Unoxidized
212 (100)
Steel, Oxidized
77 (25)
Steel Alloys
Type 301, Polished
75 (24)
Type 301, Polished
450 (232)
Type 301, Polished
1740 (949)
Type 303, Oxidized 600-2000 (316-1093)
Type 310, Rolled 1500-2100 (816-1149)
Type 316, Polished
75 (24)
Type 316, Polished
450 (232)
Type 316, Polished
1740 (949)
Type 321
200-800 (93-427)
Type 321 Polished 300-1500 (149-815)
Type 321 w/BK Oxide 200-800 (93-427)
Type 347, Oxidized 600-2000 (316-1093)
Type 350
200-800 (93-427)
Type 350 Polished 300-1800 (149-982)
Type 446, Polished 300-1500 (149-815)
Type 17-7 PH
200-600 (93-316)
Type 17-7 PH
Polished
300-1500 (149-815)
Type C1020,
Oxidized
600-2000 (316-1093)
Type PH-15-7 MO 300-1200 (149-649)
Stellite, Polished
68 (20)
Tantalum, Unoxidized
1340 (727)
"
2000 (1093)
"
3600 (1982)
"
5306 (2930)
Tin, Unoxidized
77 (25)
"
212 (100)
Tinned Iron, Bright
76 (24)
"
212 (100)
Emissivity
.46
.05
.31-.46
.05
.06
.12
.19
.04
.06
.10
.16
.59-.86
.16-.17
.05
.05
.10
.93
.96
.97
.07
.11
.10-.18
.06-.07
.01
.02
.03
.03
.75-.85
.55-.61
.07
.10
.14
.10
.12
.28
.08
.80
.27
.57
.55
.74-.87
.56-.81
.28
.57
.66
.27-.32
.18-.49
.66-.76
.87-.91
.18-.27
.11-.35
.15-.37
.44-.51
.09-.16
.87-.91
.07-.19
.18
.14
.19
.26
.30
.04
.05
.05
.08
Table of Total Emissivity Contd

Material
Temp F (C)
Titanium
Alloy C110M,
Polished
300-1200 (149-649)
" Oxidized at
538C (1000F)
200-800 (93-427)
Alloy Ti-95A,
Oxid. at
538C (1000F)
200-800 (93-427)
Anodized onto SS
200-600 (93-316)
Material
Adobe
Emissivity
.08-.19
.51-.61
.35-.48
.96-.82
Temp F (C)
Emissivity
68 (20)
.90
Asbestos
Board
100 (38)
Cement
32-392 (0-200)
Cement, Red
2500 (1371)
Cement, White
2500 (1371)
Cloth
199 (93)
Paper
100-700 (38-371)
Slate
68 (20)
Asphalt, pavement
100 (38)
Asphalt, tar paper
68 (20)
Basalt
68 (20)
Brick
Red, rough
70 (21)
Gault Cream
2500-5000 (1371-2760)
Fire Clay
2500 (1371)
Light Buff
1000 (538)
Lime Clay
2500 (1371)
Fire Brick
1832 (1000)
Magnesite, Refractory
1832 (1000)
Gray Brick
2012 (1100)
Silica, Glazed
2000 (1093)
Silica, Unglazed
2000 (1093)
Sandlime
2500-5000 (1371-2760)
Carborundum
1850 (1010)
Ceramic
Alumina on Inconel 800-2000 (427-1093)
Earthenware, Glazed
70 (21)
Earthenware, Matte
70 (21)
Greens No. 5210-2C 200-750 (93-399)
Coating No. C20A
200-750 (93-399)
Porcelain
72 (22)
White Al2O3
200 (93)
Zirconia on Inconel 800-2000 (427-1093)
Clay
68 (20)
" Fired
158 (70)
" Shale
68 (20)
" Tiles, Light Red 2500-5000 (1371-2760)
" Tiles, Red
2500-5000 (1371-2760)
" Tiles,
Dark Purple 2500-5000 (1371-2760)
Concrete
Rough
32-2000 (0-1093)
Tiles, Natural 2500-5000 (1371-2760)
" Brown
2500-5000 (1371-2760)
" Black
2500-5000 (1371-2760)
Cotton Cloth
68 (20)
Dolomite Lime
68 (20)
Emery Corundum
176 (80)
Glass
Convex D
212 (100)
Convex D
600 (316)
Convex D
932 (500)
Nonex
212 (100)
Nonex
600 (316)
Nonex
932 (500)
Smooth
32-200 (0-93)
.96
.96
.67
.65
.90
.93
.97
.93
.93
.72
.93
.26-.30
.75
.80
.43
.75-.80
.38
.75
.88
.80
.59-.63
.92
.69-.45
.90
.93
.89-.82
.73-.67
.92
.90
.62-.45
.39
.91
.69
.32-.34
.40-.51
.78
.94
.63-.62
.87-.83
.94-.91
.77
.41
.86
.80
.80
.76
.82
.82
.78
.92-.94
Material
Tungsten
Unoxidized
Unoxidized
Unoxidized
Unoxidized
Unoxidized
Unoxidized
Filament (Aged)
Filament (Aged)
Filament (Aged)
Temp F (C)
Emissivity
Uranium Oxide
77 (25)
212 (100)
932 (500)
1832 (1000)
2732 (1500)
3632 (2000)
100 (38)
1000 (538)
5000 (2760)
.02
.03
.07
.15
.23
.28
.03
.11
.35
Temp F (C)
Emissivity
Granite
70 (21)
.45
Gravel
100 (38)
.28
68 (20)
32 (0)
.80-.90
.97
Ice, Rough
32 (0)
Lacquer
Black
200 (93)
Blue, on Al Foil
100 (38)
Clear, on Al Foil (2 coats)
200 (93)
Clear, on Bright Cu
200 (93)
Clear, on Tarnished Cu
200 (93)
Red, on Al Foil (2 coats)
100 (38)
White
200 (93)
White, on Al Foil (2 coats)
100 (38)
Yellow, on Al Foil (2 coats)
100 (38)
Lime Mortar
100-500 (38-260)
Limestone
100 (38)
Marble, White
100 (38)
" Smooth, White
100 (38)
" Polished Gray
100 (38)
Mica
100 (38)
Oil on Nickel
0.001 Film
72 (22)
0.002 "
72 (22)
0.005 "
72 (22)
Thick "
72 (22)
Oil, Linseed
On Al Foil, uncoated
250 (121)
On Al Foil, 1 coat
250 (121)
On Al Foil, 2 coats
250 (121)
On Polished Iron, .001 Film
100 (38)
100 (38)
100 (38)
On Polished Iron, Thick Film 100 (38)
Paints
Blue, Cu2O3
75 (24)
Black, CuO
75 (24)
Green, Cu2O3
75 (24)
Red, Fe2O3
75 (24)
White, Al2O3
75 (24)
White, Y2O3
75 (24)
White, ZnO
75 (24)
White, MgCO3
75 (24)
White, ZrO2
75 (24)
White, ThO2
75 (24)
White, MgO
75 (24)
White, PbCO3
75 (24)
Yellow, PbO
75 (24)
Yellow, PbCrO4
75 (24)
Paints, Aluminium
100 (38)
10% Al
100 (38)
26% Al
100 (38)
Dow XP-310
200 (93)
Paints, Bronze
Low
Gum Varnish (2 coats)
70 (21)
Gum Varnish (3 coats)
70 (21)
Cellulose Binder (2 coats)
70 (21)
.98
Material
METALS
Material
Gypsum
Ice, Smooth
Z-89
.96
.78
.08 (.09)
.66
.64
.61 (.74)
.95
.69 (.88)
.57 (.79)
.90-.92
.95
.95
.56
.75
.75
.27
.46
.72
.82
.09
.56
.51
.22
.45
.65
.83
.94
.96
.92
.91
.94
.90
.95
.91
.95
.90
.91
.93
.90
.93
.27-.67
.52
.30
.22
.34-.80
.53
.50
.34
Temp F (C)
Emissivity
1880 (1027)
.79
Zinc
Bright, Galvanized
100 (38)
Commercial 99.1%
500 (260)
Galvanized
100 (38)
Oxidized
500-1000 (260-538)
Polished
100 (38)
Polished
500 (260)
Polished
1000 (538)
Polished
2000 (1093)
.23
.05
.28
.11
.02
.03
.04
.06
NON-METALS
Material
Temp F (C)
Paints, Oil
All colors
200 (93)
Black
200 (93)
Black Gloss
70 (21)
Camouflage Green
125 (52)
Flat Black
80 (27)
Flat White
80 (27)
Gray-Green
70 (21)
Green
200 (93)
Lamp Black
209 (98)
Red
200 (93)
White
200 (93)
Quartz, Rough, Fused
70 (21)
Glass, 1.98 mm
540 (282)
Glass, 1.98 mm
1540 (838)
Glass, 6.88 mm
540 (282)
Glass, 6.88 mm
1540 (838)
Opaque
570 (299)
Opaque
1540 (838)
Red Lead
212 (100)
Rubber, Hard
74 (23)
Rubber, Soft, Gray
76 (24)
Sand
68 (20)
Sandstone
100 (38)
Sandstone, Red
100 (38)
Sawdust
68 (20)
Shale
68 (20)
Silica,Glazed
1832 (1000)
Silica, Unglazed
2012 (1100)
Silicon Carbide
300-1200 (149-649)
Silk Cloth
68 (20)
Slate
100 (38)
Snow, Fine Particles
20 (7)
Snow, Granular
18 (8)
Soil
Surface
100 (38)
Black Loam
68 (20)
Plowed Field
68 (20)
Soot
Acetylene
75 (24)
Camphor
75 (24)
Candle
250 (121)
Coal
68 (20)
Stonework
100 (38)
Water
100 (38)
Waterglass
68 (20)
Wood
Beech P!aned
Oak, Planed
Spruce, Sanded
Low
158 (70)
100 (38)
100 (38)
Emissivity
.92-.96
.92
.90
.85
.88
.91
.95
.95
.96
.95
.94
.93
.90
.41
.93
.47
.92
.68
.93
.94
.86
.76
.67
.60-.83
.75
.69
.85
.75
.83-.96
.78
.67-.80
.82
.89
.38
.66
.38
.97
.94
.95
.95
.93
.67
.96
.80-.90
.94
.91
.89
Cryogenic Temperature Sensors

CY7 Series Silicon Diodes
MADE IN
USA
The new CY7 Series Sensors from OMEGA represent
the first truly new cryogenic sensor technology
introduced in the last decade. The sensors incorporate
uniform sensing elements that exhibit precise,
repeatable, monotonic temperature response over a
wide range. The elements are mounted into rugged,
hermetically sealed packages that have been
specifically designed for proper behavior in a cryogenic
environment.
The result is a family of sensors with temperature
responses so predictable, tightly grouped, and stable
that the sensors can be routinely interchanged with one
another.
A New Proprietary Silicon Diode Chip
The key to the sensors temperature response lies with
the basic sensing element itself. The small silicon chip
in each sensor has a temperature characteristic that is
so stable, so predictable, and conforms so well from
chip to chip, that the CY7s sensors are the first massproduced, interchangeable cryogenic sensors.
Precise thermal response of the sensing element itself

is of little benefit if thermal errors generated in installing
and using the sensor swamp out its capability. It is in
minimizing these frequently unsuspected errors that the
CY7 excels.
A Sensor Package Designed for Cryogenics
As shown on the graph on page Z-93, the temperature

response profile of a CY7 is comprised of two distinct
elements. With their inherent dual sensitivity, CY7
sensors can cover a wide temperature range (up to 475
Kelvin) and at the same time exhibit high sensitivity for
critical low temperature measurement.
Sensors for higher temperatures fall far short for

cryogenic use. The complex thermal link between the
sensing element and its entire environment must be
taken into account, as must the effect of any
measurement-induced self-heating of the sensor, if one
is to achieve accurate results. In addition, the package
must also withstand repeated cycling to low
temperatures without mechanical failure.
Z-90

CY7 Series
The development of the CY7 Series has included the
design of unique sensor packages to solve many of the
problems encountered in low temperature thermometry.
For example, the CY7 hermetic package incorporates a
sapphire substrate for high electrical isolation yet good
thermal conductivity. The base bottom is metallized for
easy anchoring to a sample. Large strong leads form an
integral part of the package and are thermally sunk into the
substrate. This simplifies making connections to the sensor
and at the same time helps reduce measurement errors
that could be caused by heat conduction along the leads.
10 Microampere Excitation Current

Key to the achievement of error-free measurement is low
excitation current. The lower the current, the less power is
dissipated in the sensor and the less self-heating occurs.
Tolerance, K (kelvin)
2.0
1.5
BAND 4
1.0
BAND 2
0.5
BAND 1
0.0
50
100
150
200
250
One measure of the effectiveness of a cryogenic sensors

thermal design is the variation in reading obtained
between operation in a vacuum at liquid helium
temperature and immersion directly in the liquid. In a field
where discrepancies of a degree or more have been
reported, OMEGA CY7 sensors exhibit variations as low
as 5 millikelvin.
Tolerance Bands for CY7 Series Sensors allow

selection of appropriate (and economical)
accuracy levels for a given application.
1.8
1.6
Average
Slope
-26mV/K
Forward Voltage Vf (volts)
1.4
1.2
1.0
10
20
30
40
60
50
0.8
0.6
Average
Slope
-2.3mV/K
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
20 40 60 80 100
300
Temperature, K (kelvin)
300
200
400
Temperature, K (kelvin)
Standard Temperature Response (Curve 10) for CY7 Series Sensors.

All Sensors Track this Curve Within Specified Tolerance Bands.
Z-91
70
Select the Sensor Configuration Best Suited to Your Application

CY7-SD
The SD configuration is the

smallest package in this series, and is
designed primarily for bonding or clamping to a flat
surface. Since the sensing element is in best thermal
contact with the base (largest surface) of the package,
the package should be mounted with that same surface
in good contact with the sample. Mounting materials
and methods which will not expose the sensor to
temperatures above 200C are required. Low
temperature indium-lead-tin based solder or low
temperature epoxy is recommended. The SD package
style is usable at temperatures up to 475 K.
CY7-LR With a CY7-SD sensor

mounted on a slightly more than halfround cylinder, this package is
designed to be inserted into a 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) diameter
hole. Low temperature epoxy can also be used to install
the sensor, although the mounting is much more
permanent in that case. As with other soldered down
sensors, the temperature range of the CY7-LR extends
to 325 K.
CY7-ET
This convenient
screw-in package is formed
by soldering a basic SD
configuration into a recess in one flat of a hexagonal
cylinder. The cylinder terminates in a standard 6-32
SAE thread. Thus the sensor can be threaded (finger
tight only) into a mounting hole in the sample. A light
coating of vacuum grease on the threads further
enhances the thermal contact between the sensor
package and the sample. The solder used in mounting
the SD package to this adaptor constrains the upper
useful temperature of this configuration to 325 K.
CY7-MT The MT package

is similar to the ET version
except the SD package is
mounted in a slot in the center of the cylinder and the
stud is a 3 mm x 0.5 metric thread.
CY7-CO
A spring-loaded
clamp holds a standard SD sensor
in contact with the surface of the
sample in this configuration. This
allows the sensor to be easily
changed or replaced. It also
enables the sensor to be used over its full operational
temperature range of 1.4 to 475 K. Extra clamps are
available to accommodate applications where frequent
relocation of the sensor is desirable. The 4-40 brass
screw used with this clamp has a formed shoulder so
that, once the screw is properly seated, the spring
applies correct pressure to the clamp.
CY7-CU In this configuration, the SD sensor is

epoxied into a flat cylindrical disk and the sensor leads
are thermally anchored to that same disk. The unit can
be mounted to any flat surface with a 4-40 brass screw
(not supplied). The CU style sensor is wired in a fourlead configuration with the leads comprised of a 36-inch
length of OMEGAs color coded cryogenic wire.
Temperature range is 1.4 to 325 K.
CY7-D1 This is a two-lead version of the the CY7-CU.
CY7-CY
Some applications are best served by a

relatively large, robust sensor, and the CY7-CY fills that
bill. It is very similar to the CU style except that the disk
has a larger center diameter with the mounting hole
directly in the center. The CY sensor has 36-inch heavy
duty (30 AWG, PTFE coated) leads. Special attention
must be paid to thermally anchoring the leads to
prevent heat leak induced measurement error.
CY7-BO
In addition to being
soldered to the mounting block,
the SD sensor in this design has
its leads thermally anchored
(without epoxy) to the block via
a beryllium oxide insert. Since
leads can be a significant heat
path to the sensing element, and
can lead to measurement errors when incorrectly
anchored, this configuration helps maintain the leads
at the same temperature as the sensor. Mounting of
this block is accomplished with a 4-40 screw (not
supplied). Usable temperature range of the CY7-BO
sensor is 1.4 to 325 K.
Probes
The flexibility of the CY7 series sensors

makes them ideal candidates for incorporation into
various probes and thermowells. However, the
individualized nature of these applications usually
demands customized designs.
Z-92

CY7 Series
TABLE 1. Chebychev fit coefficients
Polynomial Representation
Curve #10 can be represented by a polynomial equation based

on the Chebychev polynomials which are described below.
Four separate ranges are required to accurately describe the
curve, with the parameters for these ranges given in Table 1.
The polynomials represent Curve #10 on the preceding page
with RMS deviations on the order of 10 mK.
The Chebychev equation is of the form
T(x) =
n=0a
t (x)
n n
(1)
where T(x) represents the temperature in kelvin, tn(x) is a

Chebychev polynomial, and a n represents the Chebychev
coefficients. The parameter x is a normalized variable given by
x=
(V-VL)-(VU-V)
(VU-VL)
(2)
where V is the voltage and VL and VU designate the lower and

upper limits of the voltage over the fit range.
The Chebychev polynomials can be generated from the
recursion relation
tn+1 (x)=2xtn(x)-tn-1(x), to(x)=1, t1(x)=x.
(3)
Alternately, these polynomials are given by

tn(x)=cos[n*arccos(x)]. (4)
The use of Chebychev polynomials is no more complicated
than the use of the regular power series, and they offer
significant advantages in the actual fitting process. The first
step is to transform the measured voltage into the normalized
variable using equation (2). Equation (1) is then used in
combination with equation (3) or (4) to calculate the
temperature. Programs 1 and 2 give sample BASIC
subroutines which will take the voltage and return the
temperature T calculated from Chebychev fits.The subroutines
assume that the values VL and VU have been input along with
the degree of the fit, Ndegree. The Chebychev coefficients are
also assumed to be in an array A(0), A(1), ...,A(Ndegree).
An interesting property of the Chebychev fits is evident in the
form of the Chebychev polynomial given in equation (4). No
term in equation (1) will be greater than the absolute value of
the coefficient. This property makes it easy to determine the
contribution of each term to the temperature calculation and
where to truncate the series if the full accuracy is not required.
PROGRAM 1. BASIC subroutine for evaluating the

temperature T from the Chebychev series using
equations (1) and (3). An array Tc(Ndegree) should
be dimensioned.
100
REM Evaluation of Chebychev series
110
X= ((V-VL)-(VU-V))/(VU-VL)
120
Tc(0) = 1
130
Tc(1) = X
140
T = A(0) + A(1) *X
150
FOR I = 2 to Ndegree
160
Tc(l) = 2*X*Tc(l-1)-Tc(l-2)
170
T = T + A(l) *Tc(l)
180
NEXT 1
190
RETURN
2.0 to 12.0 K
A(0)
=
7.556358
A(1)
=
-5.917261
A(2)
=
0.237238
A(3)
=
0.334636
A(4)
=
-0.058642
A(5)
=
-0.019929
A(6)
=
-0.020715
A(7)
=
-0.014814
A(8)
=
-0.008789
A(9)
=
-0.008554
12.0 to 24.5 K
A(0)
=
17.304227
A(1)
=
-7.894688
A(2)
=
0.453442
A(3)
=
0.002243
A(4)
=
0.158036
A(5)
=
-0.193093
A(6)
=
0.155717
A(7)
=
-0.085185
A(8)
=
0.078550
A(9)
=
-0.018312
A(10)
=
0.039255
24.5 to 100.0 K
A(0)
=
71.818025
A(1)
=
-53.799888
A(2)
=
1.669931
A(3)
=
2.314228
A(4)
=
1.566635
A(5)
=
0.723026
A(6)
=
-0.149503
A(7)
=
0.046876
A(8)
=
-0.388555
A(9)
=
0.056889
A(10)
=
-0.116823
A(11)
=
0.058580
100 to 475 K
A(0)
=
287.756797
A(1)
= -194.144823
A(2)
=
-3.837903
A(3)
=
-1.318325
A(4)
=
-0.109120
A(5)
=
-0.393265
A(6)
=
0.146911
A(7)
=
-0.111192
A(8)
=
0.028877
A(9)
=
-0.029286
A(10)
=
0.015619
VL = 1.32412
VU = 1.69812
VL = 1. 11732
VU = 1.42013
VL = 0.923174
VU = 1.13935
VL = 0.079767
VU = 0.999614
PROGRAM 2. BASIC subroutine for evaluating the

temperature T from the Chebychev series
equations (1) and (4). ACS is used to represent the
arccosine function.
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
Z-93
REM Evaluation of Chebychev series

X = ((V-VL)-(VU-V))/(VU-VL)
T=0
FOR I = 0 to Ndegree
T = T + A(I)*COS(I*ACS(X))
NEXT I
RETURN
Resolution and Accuracy of Cryogenic

Temperature Measurements
D. Scott Holmes and S. Scott Courts
Lake Shore Cryotronics, Inc., Westerville, Ohio 43081-2399
A procedure is outlined and typical data provided for calculation of achievable resolutions and accuracies using commercially
available cryogenic temperature sensors suitable for use as secondary or tertiary standards. Differences between resolutions
achievable in absolute temperature measurements as opposed to measurements of temperature changes are discussed.
Methods for estimating or determining errors are discussed and typical sensor calibration errors are given.
V / V
rel
T =
[
T
(T / V) (dV /dT)
S
INTRODUCTION
Temperature resolution and accuracy are important, but are
not the only, considerations when choosing a temperature
sensor and its associated measurement system. Other
considerations include: sensor size or thermal mass, stability
over time, response time, mechanical shock resistance,
interchangeability, measurement system simplicity, cost,
magnetic field effects, and resistance to ionizing radiation.
The scope of this paper is limited to the estimation of
resolutions and accuracies possible when making cryogenic
temperature measurements with commercially available
temperature sensors.
Cryogenic temperature sensors have been developed based
on a variety of temperature-dependent properties (1).
Common, commercially available sensors include resistors,
capacitors, thermocouples, and semiconductor junction
devices such as diodes or transistors. The temperaturedependent characteristics of such sensors are published
elsewhere (2,3). Such sensors, suitable for use as a
secondary or tertiary temperature standards, are of primary
concern in this paper. Primary standards-grade sensors are
very sensitive to thermal and mechanical shock and are
therefore not suitable for ordinary laboratory or industrial
temperature measurements. Other temperature measurement
techniques such as gas, vapor pressure, acoustic, noise, and
magnetic susceptibility thermometry, are not covered by this
paper as they require much greater effort to implement or they
severely constrain system design.
Temperature resolution is the smallest temperature change
that can be detected. The precision (or reproducibility or
stability) is a measure of how closely the measured values are
grouped. Accuracy is indicated by the difference between
measured and true values of a parameter. The accuracy of a
single measurement can be no better than the resolution, but
is degraded by calibration and measurement errors. The
relevant equations for determining resolution and accuracy
depend on whether the measurement is of the absolute
temperature or of a temperature change. In either case, the
achievable resolution depends on 1) the sensor
characteristics and 2) the measurement system resolution.
The accuracy of a temperature measurement can be
evaluated using error analysis.
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE RESOLUTION
The temperature resolution T of a thermometer measuring

a temperature T is limited by the measurement system
resolution v according to the expression
V
T =
dV / dT
(1)
when the sensitivity dV/dT of the thermometer does not

change significantly within T of the temperature, T. The
measured parameter and the system resolution, V, are
assumed to be voltages in Equation 1. The sensitivity dV/dT
can be written as I(dR/dT) in the case of a ohmic resistance
thermometer excited with a constant current, I. Equation 1 can
be put in dimensionless form by dividing both sides by T and
dividing the numerator and denominator of the right hand side
by V, yielding
(2)
The dimensionless group in the numerator is the relative

measurement system resolution, rel, consisting of the
measurement system resolution, V, divided by the voltage
measured. The denominator consists of S [ (T/V)(dV/dT),
known as the specific sensitivity, giving the relative temperature
sensitivity of the thermometer at temperature T. The specific
sensitivity is also equal to (d InV/d InT), the slope of the
parameter versus temperature on a log-log plot. Note that
equations 1 and 2 can be made to apply to thermometers based
on other temperature-dependent properties (e.g., capacitance,
resistance or pressure) by replacing V with C, R or P.
The dimensionless nature of Equation 2 makes somewhat
easier the comparison of thermometers based on different
temperature-dependent properties. Specific sensitivities of
some representative cryogenic temperature sensors are
plotted in Figure 1. Sensors of the same type made by
different manufacturers may have similar characteristics. Nonmetallic sensors of the same type but different nominal
resistances usually have different S versus T characteristics.
Metallic resistance thermometers should all fall on the same
line with some exceptions: variations in residual resistance
cause differences in specific sensitivity at lower temperatures,
and the sensitivity of alloys such as Rh-Fe also depends on
the concentration of the active impurity.
A specific sensitivity in the 0.1 to 10 range is usually best for
temperature measurements over a wide range, although other
factors can be much more important. A large specific
sensitivity allows the resolution of small temperatures relative
to the temperature measured, but the temperature range
becomes limited if the value of the property measured
becomes too large or small to be determined accurately with
the measurement system.
The relative absolute temperature resolution is also a
function of the relative measurement system resolution, rel =
v /V (c/C for capacitance measurements). As an example, a
germanium resistance sensor with a specific sensitivity of
-2.14 and resistance of 1000 at a temperature of 4.2 K, 1
A excitation current, and a measurement system with 1 V
resolution would provide an absolute temperature resolution
of about 2 mK. Note that the sensor excitation current affects
the output voltage (V = IR), and thus the relative
measurement system resolution, so the sensor and the
measurement system are not independent. Absolute
temperature resolutions calculated using Equation 2, the
specific sensitivities plotted in Figure 1, and sample
excitations and system resolutions are plotted in Figure 2. The
temperature resolutions plotted in Figure 2 were calculated
only as a demonstration of how to calculate temperature
resolutions for a variety of different sensors; different
operating conditions, sensor models, or measurement
equipment can greatly affect the achievable resolution.
Optimization of the temperature resolution is dependent on
both the sensor properties and the measurement system. The
minimum resolvable temperature is not merely a matter of
finding a sensor with the highest specific sensitivity. Some
examples of interactions between sensor properties and
measurement system resolution follow.
Z-94
15
10
CGR
Absolute Temperature Resolution, T (K)
YSI
CS-501
Specific Sensitivity (S)
GR
Au-Fe
Thermocouple
Rh-Fe
0.1
GaAlAs
Diode
Si Diode
RO
Pt
CLTS
0.01
1
10
100
500
Temperature (K)
Figure 1. Absolute values of specific sensitivities of
representative commercial cryogenic temperature sensors.
Model numbers refer to Lake Shore sensors except where
noted. Au-Fe thermocouple: KP chromel vs. Au-0.07%Fe,
CGR: CGR-1-1000 carbon-glass resistor, CLTS: Vishay
Micro-Measurements CLTS-2 metal foil gauge, CS-501: CS501 capacitor, GaAlAs diode: TG-120P gallium-aluminumarsenide @ 10 A, GR: GR-200A-1000 germanium resistor,
Pt: Pt-103 platinum resistor, Rh-Fe: RF-800-4 rhodium-iron
resistor, RO: Scientific Instruments RO-600 ruthenium oxide
sensor, Si diode: DT-470 @ 10 A, YSI: Yellow Springs
Instruments 44003A thermistor.
Temperature (K)
Figure 2. Absolute temperature resolutions of
representative commercial cryogenic temperature sensors
under the following operating conditions: Au-Fe
thermocouple: versus KP chromel, CGR: 1-3 mV or I = 0.1
A minimum, CLTS: 10 A, CS-501: 5 kHz charging current,
GaAlAs diode: 10 A, GR: 1-3 mV or I = 0.1 A minimum,
Pt: 100 A, Rh-Fe: 300 A, RO: 10 A, Si diode: 10 A, YSI:
1 W. Relative measurement system resolution: capacitance:
rel = 0.1 pF/C; voltage: rel = 0.1 V/V or 10-5, whichever is
larger. Refer to Figure 1 for sensor identification.
As a first example, gold-iron versus chromel thermocouples

have what appears to be a nearly ideal specific sensitivity
near unity across the entire
1 to 300 K temperature range. Unfortunately, thermocouples
suffer from very small signal output, which can decrease the
temperature resolution possible from a given measurement
system. Thermocouples are also affected by nonuniformities
in the wire and require a good understanding of thermocouple
physics for proper installation and operation (4).
A sensor with large specific sensitivity, such as a
germanium resistor near 1 K, can be limited in resolution by
power dissipation constraints. The germanium crystal requires
strain-free mounting for accurate temperature readings and
long term stability, but the strain-free mounting reduces the
thermal contact between the sensor and the body whose
temperature is to be measured, making the sensor more
susceptible to self heating. The excitation current for
germanium and carbon-glass sensors is typically adjusted to
produce an output voltage in the 1 to 3 mV range, thereby
maintaining a balance between signal level and power
dissipation. Other sensors such as platinum or thick film
resistors do not require strain-free mounting, so signal levels
of thin film or encapsulated platinum sensors can be
increased by operating with higher power dissipation. The
trade off is that strain-free mounted platinum sensors are
more stable over time.
A diode is an example of a sensor that can have relatively
low specific sensitivity, but large signal level, typically on the
order of a volt. Potentials on the order of one volt can be
measured with great resolution. Diodes, however, are nonohmic and thus constrained to constant current operation,
which can lead to self-heating problems at low temperatures.
RELATIVE TEMPERATURE RESOLUTION

Better resolution is possible with the same measurement
system when measuring temperature changes (relative
temperatures) smaller than the absolute temperature. The
reason for this fact is that only the change in the value, and not
the entire value, must be measured. In this case, Equation 2 is
not valid since the specific sensitivity is defined using the full
parameter value (e.g., V) whereas the relative system response
requires the change in the measured value (e.g., V). Equation
1 is valid, but provides little guidance for optimizing the
resolution of relative temperature measurements. Equation 2
can be modified to apply to relative temperature measurements
by multiplying the right hand side by (V/V), yielding the
expression
T =
V V / V
V rel

[
T
V (T/V)(dV/dT) V S
(3)
The resolvable temperature is seen to be reduced by a factor

of (V/V) if rel remains the same as for an absolute
temperature measurement. In practice, the system resolution,
V, is ordinarily not reduced in proportion to the ratio (V/V) so
less resolution gain is realized. Note that both equations 1
and 3 implicitly or explicitly require knowledge of the absolute
temperature, T (the sensitivity dV/dT at temperature T is
required in Equation 1). This problem can be avoided by using
a thermometer with a linear response to temperature.
Alternately, the relative temperature can be measured with
one thermometer while the absolute temperature is measured
with a second thermometer, but the accuracy of the absolute
temperature measurement will affect the accuracy of the
relative temperature measurement.
Optimization of the absolute temperature resolution can

require complex tradeoffs between sensor and measurement
system costs and capabilities.
Z-95
SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT ERROR

Equations 1 - 3 can be used to calculate the temperature
resolution (or error) once the measurement system resolution
(or error) is specified. This section discusses the sources of
the errors and how to determine their magnitudes. Error
sources include the sensor calibration, the applied excitation,
measurement system calibration, thermal voltages, noise,
sensor self-heating and poor thermal grounding of the sensor.
The total error arising from several independent error
sources is usually calculated in one of two ways. The worstcase error, WC, can be estimated by direct summation of all
errors
WC = 1 + 2 ++ i ++ n
(4)
where i is the i th of n total errors.
The most probable error, MP, can be estimated by

assuming a statistical distribution of errors, in which case the
errors are summed in quadrature according to

MP = 1 + 2++
+n2
i
2
(5)
The worst-case and most probable errors must be computed

from errors of the same dimensions. Dimensionless relative
system errors can be summed using either Equations 4 or 5 and
then translated to temperature errors using Equations 2 or 3.
Getting statistical data suitable for addition by quadrature
can be a problem; instrument and sensor specifications
commonly give maximum rather than most probable or typical
values for errors. Two approaches may be taken to dealing
with maximum error specifications. The conservative
approach is to use the specification limit value in worst case
or most probable error calculations. The less conservative
approach is to assume a statistical distribution within the
specification limits and assume the limit is roughly three
standard deviations, in which case one-third of the
specification limit is used in error calculations. The
manufacturer may be able to supply additional information to
help improve error estimates.
Thermoelectric Voltages and Zero Offsets

Voltages develop in electrical conductors with temperature
gradients when no current is allowed to flow (thermal EMFs).
Thermoelectric voltages appear when dissimilar metals are
joined and joints are held at different temperatures. Typical
thermoelectric voltages in cryogenic measurement systems
are on the order of microvolts.
A zero offset is the signal value measured with no input to
the measuring instrument. The zero offset can drift with time
or temperature and is usually included in the instrument
specifications.
Thermoelectric voltages and zero offsets can be eliminated
from voltage measurements on ohmic resistors by reversal of
the excitation current and use of the formula:
V = (V+ - V_)/2
(7)
where V+ and V_ are the voltages with respectively positive

and negative excitation currents. Alternating current (ac)
excitation can also be used with ohmic sensors to eliminate
zero offsets.
Measurements made in rapid succession might not allow
time for current switching and the required settling times. The
error can be reduced by measuring the offset before and after
a series of rapid measurements and subtracting the offset
voltage from the measured voltages. The sum of the
thermoelectric voltages and zero offset can be calculated as
Vo = (V+ + V_)/2
Voltage or Frequency Measurement Errors
(8)
Note that the resolution of Vo is practically limited by the

resolution of the measurement system. The value of Vo can be
expected to vary little in a static system, but may change
during a thermal transient under study. The value of Vo should
be rechecked as often as is practical.
The accuracy of instrumentation such as voltmeters and

frequency counters is subject to calibration uncertainty and
drift with time and operating temperature. Accuracies of such
instruments should be available from the manufacturer.
Excitation Current Error

The temperature measurement error due to an error in the
excitation current can be calculated from Equation 2 by
replacing the quantity V /V by the relative voltage change due
to the current error. The resulting expression is
(I /I)(Rd /Rs)
T =
T
S
/2 times the upper 3 db frequency limit of the analog dc

measuring circuitry, given as approximately 1/(4 Reff Cin)
where Reff is the effective resistance across the measuring
instrument (including the instruments input impedance in
parallel with the sensor resistance and wiring) and Cin is the
total capacitance shunting the input;
0.55/tr where tr is the instruments 10-90% rise time;
one Hz if an analog panel meter is used for readout; or
one-half the conversion rate (readings per second) of an
integrating digital voltmeter.
(6)
where Rd and Rs are the dynamic and static resistances of the

sensor. Note that the dynamic and static resistances of an
ohmic sensor are equal. Typical dynamic resistances of a
Lake Shore DT-470 silicon diode are 3000 at 300 K, 1000
at 77 K, and 2800 at 4.2 K, while the static resistances
are respectively 51.9 k, 102 k and 163 k.
Thermal (Johnson) Noise

Thermal energy produces random motions of the charged
particles within a body, giving rise to electrical noise. The
minimum rms noise power available is given by Pn = 4kTfn,
where k is the Boltzmann constant and fn is the noise
bandwidth. Peak-to-peak noise is approximately five times
greater than the rms noise. Metallic resistors approach this
fundamental minimum, but other materials produce somewhat
greater thermal noise. The noise power is related to current or
voltage noise by the relations: I = [Pn /R]1/2 and V = [PnR]1/2.
The noise bandwidth is not necessarily the same as the signal
bandwidth, but is approximately equal to the smallest of (5):
The offset voltage Vo is best measured by reversing the

current through a resistor. Measurement of Vo with zero
excitation current is also possible, but large resistances can
produce excessive time constants for discharge of any
capacitances in the circuit, requiring long waiting times before
Vo can be measured accurately.
Measurements on diodes do not allow current reversal. The
value of Vo can be estimated by shorting the leads at the
diode and measuring the offset voltage with zero excitation
current at operating temperature.
Ground Loops and Electromagnetic Noise

Improper grounding of instruments or grounding at multiple
points can allow current flows which result in small voltage
offsets. One common problem is the grounding of cable
shields at both ends. The current flow through ground loops is
not necessarily constant, resulting in a fluctuating error
voltage.
Electromagnetic pickup is a source of additional noise.
Alternating current noise is a serious problem in sensors with
nonlinear current-voltage characteristics (6). Measurement of
the ac noise across the terminals of the reading instrument
can give a quick indication of the magnitude of this noise
source (thermal noise will be included in this measurement).
Books on grounding and shielding can help to identify and
eliminate both ground loops and electromagnetic noise (7,8).
Z-96
Self Heating
Heat dissipated within a temperature sensor causes its
temperature to rise, resulting in an error relative to the
sensors surroundings. Self heating errors might not affect
relative temperature measurements. Attempting to correct for
self heating errors by calculation or extrapolation is not
considered good practice. An estimate of the self heating error
should be included in the total error calculation instead. An
easy way to check for self heating is to increase the power
dissipation and check for an indicated temperature rise.
Unfortunately, this procedure will not work with diodes. An
indication of the self heating error can be made by reading the
diode temperature in both a liquid bath and in a vacuum at the
same temperature, as measured by a second thermometer not
dissipating enough power to self heat significantly.
Calibration Uncertainty
Commercially calibrated temperature sensors should have
calibrations traceable to international standards. Calibration
uncertainties for sensors calibrated by Lake Shore are
provided later in this paper. The calibration uncertainty of the
temperature sensor must be included in accuracy calculations.
Interpolation Errors
Once a calibration has been performed, an interpolation
function is required for temperatures which lie between
calibration points. The interpolation method must be chosen
with care since some fitting functions can be much worse than
others. Common interpolation methods include linear
interpolation, cubic splines and Chebychev polynomials.
Formulas based on the physics of the sensor material may
give the best fits when few fit parameters are used.
Use of an interpolation function adds to the temperature
measurement uncertainty. The additional uncertainty due to an
interpolation function can be gauged by the ability of the
interpolation function to reproduce the calibration point
temperatures from the calibration point resistances. Lake
Shore calibration reports include the mean and largest
deviations. Fitting with Chebychev polynomials is standard
practice. Each calibration can be broken up into several
ranges to decrease the fitting errors. Typical errors introduced
by the interpolation function are on the order of one-tenth the
calibration uncertainty.
CALIBRATION SYSTEM EXAMPLE
Figure 3. Calibration cryostat schematic

block and surrounding chamber cool to a nominal temperature
of 4.2 K. The transfer gas is then pumped out. To obtain
temperatures below 4.2 K, the subpot is filled with liquid
helium and vacuum pumped. As the vapor pressure of the
helium liquid in the subpot decreases, the temperature
decreases. The pumping is controlled by a high resolution
pumping valve. The subpot bath temperature is not actively
controlled. Depending on the pumping speed and base
pressure, temperatures as low as 1.05 K can be reached. To
obtain temperatures above 4.2 K, the subpot is pumped dry
and the heater is energized by the temperature controller. A
diode monitors the nominal temperature of the isothermal
shield and calibration block and the temperature is read by
the temperature controller. The heater is used to bring the
temperature to a point just below the desired temperature.
The heater power is then reduced so that the temperature is
increasing on the order of a millikelvin per minute. Data are
taken when the drift rate is sufficiently small (typically about
10 minutes).
Electronic Equipment
The example to be discussed in detail is the cryogenic

temperature calibration facility operated by Lake Shore. This
facility is designed to calibrate a variety of resistance and
diode temperature sensors over the temperature range of
1.2 to 330 K.
Physical Construction
Calibrations are performed by mounting sensors on a probe
to be inserted in a liquid helium cryostat (see Figure 3). The
sensors are mounted in a gold-plated OFHC copper
calibration block which provides an isothermal environment.
Special adapters and a variety of calibration blocks allow
calibration of sensors with varying shapes and sizes. The
electrical leads from the sensors are soldered to contacts
thermally anchored to a second gold-plated OFHC copper
block directly above the calibration block. The thermal
anchoring block is attached to a flange, on top of which is a
liquid helium subpot. Surrounding the thermal anchoring and
calibration blocks is an isothermal OFHC copper shield. The
shield has a resistance wire heater wound around the outside
with several layers of super-insulation overwrap to reduce
thermal radiation to or from the vacuum can. Thermoelectric
voltages are minimized by using continuous wire from the
thermal anchoring block to the low thermal EMF connectors at
the top of the probe which is at room temperature.
The electronic equipment used in this facility consists of a

HP3456A voltmeter, a Keithley model 224 variable current
source, five Lake Shore model 8085 scanners, a Lake Shore
DRC-82C temperature controller, five Guildline 9330 standard
resistors (10 , 100 , 1 k, 10 k and 100 k values), a
1000 germanium standard thermometer and a 100
platinum standard thermometer. Other electronic equipment
such as the computer used for system control has no effect
on the accuracy of the system. A block diagram of the
equipment connection scheme is shown in Figure 4. Data
acquisition is computer controlled. Two scanners are used to
switch between each of twenty unknown sensors, one
scanner is used to place one of the standard resistors into the
circuit, one scanner chooses between the germanium and
platinum standard, and the last scanner chooses whether the
voltmeter measures the voltage drop across the unknown
sensor or the standard resistor.
current
source
computer
standard
resistors
scanners
temperature
sensors
Operation
voltmeter
During cooldown, a small amount of helium gas is introduced

into the vacuum chamber to act as a transfer medium. The
cryostat is then filled with liquid helium and the calibration
Figure 4. Thermometer calibration facility instrumentation

block diagram
Z-97
Resistance Measurements
The resistance of a sensor is measured by comparison with
a standard resistor. Long term stability of resistor standards
tends to be somewhat better than the long term stability of
current sources, so overall accuracy is improved over
methods relying on a calibrated current source.
The normal operating procedure is to place a resistor
standard in series with the sensor whose resistance is to be
measured. A voltmeter reading is taken with current in both
the forward and reverse directions across the sensor.
Voltmeter readings are then taken with current in both the
forward and reverse directions across the standard resistor.
The resistance of the sensor can be calculated using the
relation
Rsensor =
(V+ - V_)sensor
(V+ - V_)standard
x Rstandard
Nominal
Value of
Working
Standard
Resistor
R ()
1 Year Base
Uncertainty
of Primary
Standard
Resistor
A
Voltmeter
Transfer
Accuracy
B
Error From
Possible
Room
Temperature
Fluctuations
C
15
15
20
6
6
6
5
5
5
100
1000
10000
(9)
17
17
22
26
26
31
Table I. Uncertainty estimates for calibrations of working

standard resistors. Errors and uncertainties are expressed in
parts per million (ppm). Typical values are calculated by
quadrature (MP) and worst case (WC) values by direct
summation.
where V+ and V_ are the voltages measured with current in the

forward and reverse directions respectively. Measuring and
averaging voltage for current in both forward and reverse
directions serves two purposes: errors due to thermoelectric
voltages are eliminated and voltmeter offsets are canceled
out. In this situation, the voltmeter transfer specification, rather
than the absolute measurement specification, applies. The
gain in accuracy is about a factor of ten over using the
voltmeter as an absolute measurement device.
T
(K)
1.5
4.2
10.
20.
30.
50.
100.
300.
Diode Measurements
Diode measurements are no more difficult to perform but
typically less accurate. The reduced accuracy is a
consequence of the nonlinear current-voltage characteristic of
diodes. The voltage across the diode can be measured only in
the forward direction, so the voltmeter must now make an
absolute measurement. Without current reversal,
thermoelectric voltages and voltmeter offsets may be present
and these directly affect the achievable accuracy. The longterm accuracy and stability of the current source is also a
factor. Fortunately, the small dynamic resistance reduces the
error due to small current errors by a factor of 100 to 1000 (6).
Total
Uncertainty
for Working
Standard
Resistor
MP WC
CGR-1-1000
(mK)
1
1
3
10
19
41
110
425
GR-200A-1000
(mK)
1
1
2
6
10
20
76
-
PT-103
(mK)
14
5
3
6
16
Table II. Temperature measurement uncertainties in

millikelvin for carbon glass (CGR), germanium (GR) and
platinum (PT) sensors.
Calibration
Calibration is accomplished by comparison calibration
against standard thermometers. Two standard thermometers
are used: a germanium resistance thermometer for the 1 to 28
K range and a platinum resistance thermometer for the 28 to
330 K range. A standard sensor reading is taken before and
after every unknown sensor reading. The initial and final
readings are averaged to compensate for temperature drifts
between the time the standard and unknown are read.
Total System Accuracy Calculation
T [K]
T [mK]:
20
10
30
15
50
15
100
15
300
20
Table III. Uncertainties in realizing the ITS-90 temperature

scale at the Lake Shore calibration facility.
The attainable accuracy for a temperature measurement

system depends on a number of variables. Lake Shore bases
its calibrations on a calibrated voltmeter and calibrated
working resistance standards to transfer a temperature scale
from working temperature standards to unknown resistance
temperature sensors. Calculating the total system accuracy
requires information such as absolute and transfer
specifications for equipment being used and a derating
schedule for the calibration of the equipment. Some of this
information is normally supplied with the equipment, but other
parts are not. The manufacturer is the best source for this
information. Keep in mind, however, that the degradation of
the equipment is directly dependent upon its use and
treatment.
Our voltmeters are calibrated every six months to ensure
they meet their transfer specifications. Primary standard
resistors are calibrated once per year. The working resistance
standards are calibrated every six months against the primary
standard resistors.The following table lists typical uncertainties
for the 10 , 100 , 1000 and 10 k working standard
<10
5
T (K)
1.5
4.2
10.
20.
30.
50.
100.
300.
CGR-1-1000
[mK]
GR-200A-1000
[mK]
MP
WC
MP
WC
5
5
5
20
35
55
125
450
4
4
4
8
12
20
45
-
5
5
5
15
25
35
90
-
4
4
4
10
20
30
65
250
PT-103
[mK]
MP
WC
15
10
10
10
20
Table IV. Total temperature measurement uncertainties

relative to ITS-90 in millikelvin for carbon glass (CGR),
germanium (GR) and platinum (PT) sensors.
Z-98
25
20
20
20
35
resistors. Uncertainties arise from shifts in the primary

standard resistances, limitations of the voltmeter as a transfer
device, and dependence of the voltmeter and standard
resistors on variations in room temperature.
The total errors from the standard resistors due to
calibration shifts and operating temperature variations are
listed in Table I in terms of parts per million (ppm). The
uncertainty estimates can be converted into equivalent
temperature uncertainties given the temperature and specific
sensitivity of the sensor measured using Equation 2.
Using the voltmeter as a transfer standard gives an
improved accuracy over using it to make absolute
measurements. The transfer accuracy of the voltmeter is
roughly 10 counts which translates to about 1 V on an
absolute scale in the millivolt range. Signals for carbon glass
and germanium sensors are kept between 1 and 3 mV so this
is equivalent to a relative accuracy, rel, of about 0.05%.
Platinum sensors are read at a power somewhat less than
10 W and produce voltage signals ranging from 3.5 mV at
30 K (1 mA current) to 27.5 mV at 300 K (0.25 mA). The
voltmeter relative accuracy for 100 platinum sensors ranges
from 0.03% at 30 K to about 0.0036% at 300 K. Higher
accuracy at higher temperatures is also observed in rhodiumiron sensors. Equivalent temperature uncertainties are given
in Table II for a typical carbon glass resistor (model CGR-11000), germanium resistor (model GR-200A-1000) and a
platinum resistor (model PT-103). The uncertainties due to
calibration transfer of the resistance standards and that of the
voltmeter transfer accuracies have been added together in
this table.
REFERENCES
1. L.G. Rubin, B.L. Brandt and H.H. Sample, Cryogenic
thermometry: a review of recent progress, II, Cryogenics
22 (1982) 491-503.
2. L.L. Sparks, Temperature, strain and magnetic field
measurements, in Materials at Low Temperatures, R.P.
Reed and A.F. Clark, eds., American Society for Metals,
Ohio (1983) 515-571.
3. S.S. Courts, D.S. Holmes, P.R. Swinehart and B.C.
Dodrill, Cryogenic thermometryan overview,
Applications of Cryogenic Technology, Vol. 10, Plenum
Press, New York (1991) 55-69.
4. P.L. Walstrom, Spatial dependence of thermoelectric voltages
and reversible heats, Am. J. Phys. 56 (1988) 890-894.
5. Low Level Measurements , Keithly Instruments, Inc.,
Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A. (1984).
6. J.K. Krause and B.C. Dodrill, Measurement system
induced errors in diode thermometry, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 57
(1986) 661-665.
7. H.W. Ott, Noise Reduction Techniques in Electronic
Systems, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1976).
8. R. Morrison, Grounding and Sheilding Techniques in
Instrumentation, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1977).
Another important source of error comes from the error

limits assigned to the secondary temperature standards
calibrated by national standards laboratories. Based on
estimates given in NBS Monograph 126 concerning the
accuracy of the fixed points maintained at NIST (National
Institute for Standards and Technology, formerly NBS) and
the variations observed in platinum thermometers, an
uncertainty estimate of 5 mK can be made. Added to this
uncertainty is the measurement uncertainty from Table II.
Germanium standards (1000 ) are used below 28 K and
platinum standards (100 ) are used above 30 K. The
measurement uncertainty added to the calibration uncertainty
of the secondary temperature standards gives the overall
uncertainty in realizing the ITS-90 temperature scale. The
uncertainty of Lake Shore calibrations relative to ITS-90 is
given in Table III at several temperatures. The temperature
resolution of the Lake Shore Calibration Facility is generally a
factor of 10 or more better than our accuracy specification.
The total error of a given calibration is the combination of
the first three tables. The total error is given in Table IV for the
same representative temperature sensors included in Table II.
The total uncertainty is expressed as millikelvin deviation from
ITS-90. Two columns are given for each sensor. The MP
column is the estimated most probable error of a given
calibration computed using summation by quadrature. The
WC column is the unlikely worst case error computed by
direct summation of all error sources.
CONCLUSION
The accuracies stated apply only to the sensors as calibrated.
An end user must be careful to distinguish between the desired
measurement accuracy and the calibration accuracy of the
sensor alone. Errors introduced by the users measurement
system, rough handling and inadequate thermal contact will add
to the calibration uncertainty.
An estimate of the accuracy of a temperature sensor can be
made by combining the errors due to calibration, interpolation
and the measurement system. Errors can be added in
quadrature to give the most probable error, or can be summed
directly to give worst case error.
Reproduced with permission of the American Institute of Physics and

Lake Shore Cryogenics.
Z-99
Heat Wave
A National Problem
Heat kills by taxing the human body beyond its abilities.

In a normal year, about 175 Americans succumb to the
demands of summer heat. Among the large continental
family of natural hazards, only the cold of winternot
lightning, hurricanes, tornadoes, floods or
earthquakestakes a greater toll. In the 40-year period
from 1936 through 1975, nearly 20,000 people were
killed in the United States by the effects of heat and
solar radiation. In the disastrous heat wave of 1980,
more than 1,250 people died.
And these are the direct casualties. No one can know
how many more deaths are advanced by heat wave
weather - how many diseased or aging hearts surrender
that under better conditions would have continued
functioning.
North American summers are hot; most summers see
heat waves in one section or another of the United
States. East of the Rockies, they tend to combine both
high temperature and high humidity although some of
the worst have been catastrophically dry.
Heat Index/Heat Disorders

Heat
Index
130 or
Higher
105 to
130
90 to
105
80 to
90
Possible Heat Disorders for

People in Higher Risk Groups
Heatstroke/sunstroke highly
likely with continued exposure
Sunstroke, heat cramps or
heat exhaustion likely, with
heatstroke possible with
prolonged exposure and / or
physical activity
Sunstroke, heat cramps and
heat exhaustion possible with
physical activity
Fatigue possible with
physical activity
Summary of NWSs Alert Procedures
NOAAS National Weather Service Heat

Index Program
Considering this tragic death toll, the National Weather
Service (NWS) has stepped up its efforts to alert more
effectively the general public and appropriate authorities
to the hazards of heat waves - those prolonged
excessive heat/humidity episodes.
Based on the latest research findings, the NWS has
devised the Heat Index (HI), (sometimes referred to as
the apparent temperature). The HI, given in degrees
F, is an accurate measure of how hot it really feels
when relative humidity (RH) is added to the actual air
temperature.
To find the HI, look at the Heat Index Chart. As an
example, if the air temperature is 95F (found on the left
side of the table) and the RH is 55% (found at the top of
the table), the HI - or how hot it really feels - is 110F.
This is at the intersection of the 95 row and the 55%
column.
IMPORTANT: Since HI values were devised for shady,
light wind conditions, EXPOSURE TO FULL
SUNSHINE CAN INCREASE HI VALUES BY UP TO
15F. ALSO, STRONG WINDS, PARTICULARLY WITH
VERY HOT, DRY AIR, CAN BE EXTREMELY
HAZARDOUS.
Note on the HI chart the shaded zone above 105F.
This corresponds to a level of HI that may cause
increasingly severe heat disorders with continued
exposure and/or physical activity.
The Heat Index vs. Heat Disorder table (next to the HI
chart) relates ranges of HI with specific disorders,
particularly for people in higher risk groups.
The NWS will initiate alert procedures when the HI is

expected to exceed 105-110F (depending on local
climate) for at least two consecutive days. The
procedures are:
Include HI values in zone and city forecasts.
Issue Special Weather Statements and/or Public
Information Statements presenting a detailed
discussion of (1) the extent of the hazard including HI
values, (2) who is most at risk, (3) safety rules for
reducing the risk.
Assist state/local health officials in preparing Civil
Emergency Messages in severe heat waves.
Meteorological information from Special Weather
Statements will be included as well as more detailed
medical information, advice, and names and
telephone numbers of health officials.
Release to the media and over NOAAs own Weather
Radio all of the above information.
How Heat Affects the Body

Human bodies dissipate heat by varying the rate and
depth of blood circulation, by losing water through the
skin and sweat glands, and - as the last extremity is
reached - by panting, when blood is heated above 98.6
degrees. The heart begins to pump more blood, blood
vessels dilate to accommodate the increased flow, and
the bundles of tiny capillaries are threading through the
upper layers of skin are put into operation. The bodys
blood is circulated closer to the skins surface, and
excess heat drains off into the cooler atmosphere. At
the same time, water diffuses through the skin as
perspiration. The skin handles about 90 percent of the
bodys heat dissipating function.
Z-100
Heat Wave Contd
AIR TEMPERATURE (F)
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%)

140
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
125
120
117
111
107
103
99
95
91
87
83
78
73
69
64
128
122
116
111
107
102
97
93
88
84
79
74
69
64
10
131
123
116
111
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
15
131
123
115
108
102
97
91
86
81
76
71
65
20
141
130
120
112
105
99
93
87
82
77
72
66
25
139
127
117
109
101
94
88
83
77
72
66
30
148
135
123
113
104
96
90
84
78
73
67
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95 100
Heat Index
(or Apparent
Temperature)
143
130
118
107
98
91
85
79
73
67
151
137
123
110
101
93
86
79
74
68
143
129
115
104
95
87
80
74
68
150
135 142 149
120 126 132 138 144
107 110 114 119 124 130 136
96 98 100 102 106 109 113 117 122
88 89 90 91 93 95 97 99 102 105 108
81 81 82 83 85 86 86 87 88 89 91
75 75 76 76 77 77 78 78 79 79 80
69 69 70 70 70 70 71 71 71 71 72
Heat Index Chart

Air Temperature and Relative Humidity Versus Apparent Temperature
Sweating, by itself, does nothing to cool the body,

unless the water is removed by evaporationand high
relative humidity retards evaporation. The evaporation
process itself works this way: the heat energy required
to evaporate the sweat is extracted from the body,
thereby cooling it. Under conditions of high temperature
(above 90 degrees) and high relative humidity, the body
is doing everything it can to maintain 98.6 degrees
inside. The heart is pumping a torrent of blood through
dilated circulatory vessels; the sweat glands are pouring
liquidincluding essential dissolved chemicals, like
sodium and chlorideonto the surface of the skin.
Ranging in severity, heat disorders share one common

feature: the individual has overexposed or over
exercised for his age and physical condition in the
existing thermal environment.
Too Much Heat
Acclimatization has to do with adjusting sweat-salt

concentrations, among other things. The idea is to lose
enough water to regulate body temperature, with the
least possible chemical disturbance.
Heat disorders generally have to do with a reduction or

collapse of the bodys ability to shed heat by circulatory
changes and sweating, or a chemical (salt) imbalance
caused by too much sweating. When heat gain exceeds
the level the body can remove, or when the body
cannot compensate for fluids and salt lost through
perspiration, the temperature of the bodys inner core
begins to rise, and heat-related illness may develop.
Sunburn, with its ultraviolet radiation burns, can

significantly retard the skins ability to shed excess heat.
Studies indicate that, other things being equal, the
severity of heat disorders tend to increase with
ageheat cramps in a 17-year old may be heat
exhaustion in someone 40, and heat stroke in a person
over 60.
Reprinted with permission of National Weather Service.
Z-101
Dew Point
% HUMIDITY
2
10
30
20
40
50
60
70 90
80 100
70
65
60
Charts based on:
55
td - ta
17.5
td + 240.97
50
45
AIR TEMPERATURE (C)
H =100
where H = relative humidity (%)

td = dewpoint temperature (C)
ta = air temperature (C)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-10
-5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
DEWPOINT TEMPERATURE (C)
% HUMIDITY
2
10
20
30
40
50
70 90
60 80 100
160
150
140
To determine the dewpoint

temperature: After measuring the air
temperature and relative humidity, use
the graph by drawing a horizontal line
from the air temperature (Y-axis) to the
appropriate relative humidity line. Then
draw a vertical line from that
intersection down to the dewpoint
temperature (X-axis).
130
AIR TEMPERATURTE (F)
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
32
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110120 130 140 150 160
DEWPOINT TEMPERATURE (F)
Z-102
Equilibrium ReIative Humidity

Saturated SaIt Solutions
Temperature
C
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Relative Humidity (%RH)

Lithium
Potassium
Chloride
Acetate
11.23 0.54
11.26 0.47
11.29 0.41
11.30 0.35
11.31 0.31
11.30 0.27
11.28 0.24
11.25 0.22
11.21 0.21
11.16 0.21
11.10 0.22
11.03 0.23
10.95 0.26
10.86 0.29
10.75 0.33
10.64 0.38
10.51 0.44
10.38 0.51
10.23 0.59
10.07 0.67
9.90 0.77
23.28 0.53
23.40 0.32
23.11 0.25
22.51 0.32
21.61 0.53
Magnesium
Chloride
33.66 0.33
33.60 0.28
33.47 0.24
33.30 0.21
33.07 0.18
32.78 0.16
32.44 0.14
32.05 0.13
31.60 0.13
31.10 0.13
30.54 0.13
29.93 0.16
29.26 0.18
28.54 0.21
27.77 0.25
26.94 0.29
26.05 0.34
25.11 0.39
24.12 0.46
23.07 0.52
21.97 0.60
Saturated Salt Solutions

A very convenient method to
calibrate humidity sensors is the use
of saturated salt solutions. At any
temperature, the concentration of a
saturated solution is fixed and does
not have to be determined. By
providing excess solute, the solution
will remain saturated even in the
presence of modest moisture
sources and sinks. When the solute
is a solid in the pure phase, it is easy
to determine that there is saturation.
The saturated salt solution, made up
as a slushy mixture with distilled
water and chemically pure salt, is
enclosed in a sealed metal or a glass
chamber. Wexler and Hasegawa
measured the humidity in the
atmosphere above eight saturated
salt solutions for ambient
temperatures 0 to 50C using a dewpoint hygrometer. Later, Greenspan
compiled, from the literature, data on
28 saturated salt solutions to cover
the entire range of relative humidity.
Using a data base from 21 separate
investigations comprising 1106
individual measurements, fits were
made by the method of least squares
to regular polynomial equations to
obtain the best value of relative
humidity in air as a function of
temperature. These values are
summarized in the table shown.
Relative Humidity (%RH)

Temperature Potassium Magnesium Sodium
Potassium
C
Carbonate
Nitrate
Chloride
Chloride
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
43.13 0.66
43.13 0.50
43.14 0.39
43.15 0.33
43.16 0.33
43.16 0.39
43.17 0.50
60.35 0.55
58.86 0.43
57.36 0.33
55.87 0.27
54.38 0.23
52.89 0.22
51.40 0.24
49.91 0.29
48.42 0.37
46.93 0.47
45.44 0.60
75.51 0.34
75.65 0.27
75.67 0.22
75.61 0.18
75.47 0.14
75.29 0.12
75.09 0.11
74.87 0.12
74.68 0.13
74.52 0.16
74.43 0.19
74.41 0.24
74.50 0.30
74.71 0.37
75.06 0.45
75.58 0.55
76.29 0.65
Z-103
88.61 0.53
87.67 0.45
86.77 0.39
85.92 0.33
85.11 0.29
84.34 0.26
83.62 0.25
82.95 0.25
82.32 0.25
81.74 0.28
81.20 0.31
80.70 0.35
80.25 0.41
79.85 0.48
79.49 0.57
79.17 0.66
78.90 0.77
78.68 0.89
78.50 1.0
Potassium
Nitrate
Potassium
Sulfate
96.33 2.9
96.27 2.1
95.96 1.4
95.41 0.96
94.62 0.66
93.58 0.55
92.31 0.60
90.79 0.83
89.03 1.2
87.03 1.8
84.78 2.5
98.77 1.1
98.48 0.91
98.18 0.76
97.89 0.63
97.59 0.53
97.30 0.45
97.00 0.40
96.71 0.38
96.41 0.38
96.12 0.40
95.82 0.45
Two-Wire Transmitters
For Temperature Applications
A two-wire transmitter is an ideal
solution for many remote
temperature measurement
applications. Transmitters have
definite advantages over
conventional temperature
measuring devices, but must be
selected with caution in order to
avoid ground loop problems.
PURPOSE
In many cases, the temperature of a
remote process must be monitored.
Common temperature sensing
devices such as thermocouples and
RTDs produce very small signals.
These sensors can be connected to
a two-wire transmitter that will
amplify and condition the small
signal. Once conditioned to a usable
level, this signal can be transmitted
through ordinary copper wire and
used to drive other equipment such
as meters, dataloggers, chart
recorders, computers or controllers.
OPERATION
A two-wire transmitter draws current
from a remote dc power supply in
proportion to its sensor input. The
actual signal is transmitted as a
change in the power supply current.
Specifically, a thermocouple input
transmitter will draw 4 mA of current
from a dc power supply when
measuring the lowest temperature
of the process. Then, as the
temperature rises, the two-wire
transmitter will draw proportionally
more current, until it reaches 20 mA.
This 20 mA signal corresponds to
the thermocouples highest sensed
temperature. The transmitters
internal signal-conditioning circuitry
(powered by a portion of the
4-20 mA current) determines the
temperature range that the output
current signal will represent.
Physically, only two copper wires
are necessary to connect the
transmitter output signal in a series
circuit with the remote power supply
and the process equipment. This is
made possible since the signal and
the power supply line are combined
(one circuit serves a dual function).
ADVANTAGES
Two-wire transmitters offer
numerous advantages over the
more traditional ways of measuring
temperature.
1.ac power is not needed at the

remote location to operate a twowire transmitter. Since transmitters
are powered by a low level 4-20 mA
output current signal, no additional
power has to be supplied at the
remote location. In addition, the
usual 24 Vdc signal necessary for
operation is standard in plants that
have large amounts of
instrumentation.
2.Electrical noise and signal
degradation are not a problem for
two-wire transmitter users. The
transmitter's current output signal
lends itself to a high immunity when
it comes to ambient electrical noise.
Any noise that does appear in the
output current is usually eliminated
by the common-mode rejection of
the receiving device. In addition, the
current output signal will not change
(diminish) with distance as most
voltage signals do.
3.Wire costs drop significantly
when using two-wire
transmitters. Low voltage signals
produced by thermocouples almost
always require the use of shielded
cable when they are sent any
significant distance. Ambient
electrical noise from arcing electrical
relays, motors and ac power lines
can raise havoc with these signals
that are transmitted in an
unshielded cable. In addition,
expensive, heavy gage wire is often
installed in applications that call for
long cable runs (since it reduces
errors from signal voltage drops
caused by line resistance).
Ordinary copper wire can be used to
connect all the pertinent equipment in
a two-wire transmitter system. The
4-20 mA current output signal is
relatively immune to ambient electrical
noise and is not degraded by long
distance transmission, even over a
small diameter wire. Adding a
two-wire transmitter to a system
eliminates the problem of having to
provide long runs of costly wire and an
extensive amount of shielding.
GROUND LOOP PROBLEMS
If a grounding rod was driven into the
earth at two different points and a
voltmeter was connected between
them, a voltage difference would be
detected between the two. This
difference in potential exists between
Z-104
practically any two points along the

earths surface. When one tries to
measure a process that is at a remote
location, this voltage difference will
induce an error current along the line,
which is referred to as a ground loop
signal. Its result will be an error at the
display.
To prevent ground loop errors of this
type, select an isolating two-wire
transmitter for your system. This type
of transmitter will optoelectronically
isolate the sensor signal from the
output current loop. This will allow the
user to ground both the sensor and
one side of the current loop.
TRANSMITTER FEATURES
Transmitters provide a two-wire output
with the same wiring used for power
and output. The load resistance is
connected in series with a dc power
supply, and the current drawn from
the supply is a 4-20 mA or output
signal which is proportional to the
input signal.
Two-wire transmission permits remote
mounting of the transmitter near the
sensor to minimize the effects of noise
and signal degradation to which low
level sensor outputs are susceptible.
A rugged metal enclosure, suitable for
field mounting, offers environmental
protection and screw terminal input
and output connections. This
enclosure may be either surface or
standard relay track mounted.
Most two-wire transmitters are
linearized to the voltage signal
produced by the thermocouple or
RTD, although there are new models
now available that are linearized to the
actual temperature.
The two-wire transmitters convert the
thermocouple or RTD signal to a
4-20 mA output signal. Some models
will convert to an RS-232C output.
Transmitters are available with dip
switch selection for several
thermocouple types per model, as
well as thermocouple and RTD
selection on a single model. Two-wire
transmitters are available in either
isolating or non-isolating models, and
they also feature output ranging
adjustments with zero and span
adjustments over 80 to 100%
(depending on model) of the sensor
range.
Technical Information
How to Use Ferrite Cores
with Instrumentation
OMEGAs thermocouple and RTD connectors with built-in nickel-zinc
ferrite cores are used where it is desired to suppress electro-magnetic,
interference commonly known as EMI. Suppression of EMI has become
a major concern in the instrumentation and control field. It is particularly
important in handling and transmitting electronic data, as well as signals
from transducers, such as thermocouples, thermistors and RTDs.
This is because lead wires, extension wires, and signal wires often act
as antennae. OMEGA offers a family of nickel-zinc ferrites in our new
OMEGA ferrite connectors. This allows the user to reduce the antenna
effect, which allows undesired signals to enter the instrumentation
and controls.
Ferrite Connectors
The effectiveness of any ferrite core is based upon the material selection,
number of wire turns around the core, and overall wire length. OMEGAs
ferrite connectors listed here have been developed for a multitude of
general applications. The use of additional ferrite cores, as well as a
specific selection of ferrite material, will provide a significant improvement
in EMI suppression. While the OMEGA ferrite connectors are designed
for a multitude of applications, the amount of EMI suppression will vary
from application to application.
Please consult the factory for those applications where the standard
OMEGAs ferrite connectors may not be sufficient.
Note: Built-in ferrite cores are available in male miniature connectors and
both male and female standard size connectors.
OMEGA Panel Meters and Controllers

1) OMEGA Panel Meters and Controllers are intended for installation in
metal panels which should be connected to Earth Ground. (Standard
rack panels are available from OMEGA Engineering. In environments
with extreme electromagnetic radiation, shielded EMI cabinets offer
additional protection.)
2) NEVER run signal wires and power in the same conduit.
3) Whenever electromagnetic compatibility is an issue, always
use SHIELDED CABLES for all inputs and outputs.
(A vast selection of shielded signal cable is
available from OMEGA Engineering.)
Connect the shield to the analog
signal ground if appropriate or
to earth ground.
Patent applications pending

in various countries
4) Install one (or more)

FERRITE BEADS on each
signal input wire close to
the meter.
NA
SIG
WE
PO
HI
LO
GND
AC
Omegas policy is to make

running changes, not model
changes, whenever an
improvement is possible.
This affords our customers
the latest in technology
and engineering.
Ferrite Beads supplied standard

with all DP40 and DP25 meters.
Z-105
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
may be a new term to some.
However, it has been important for
many years and actually predates
World War II. For several decades,
three agencies have been driving
forces behind EMC: the U.S. Military;
Europes Special International
Committee on Radio Perturbations
(Interference), CISPR; and the U.S.
Federal Communications
Commissions (F.C.C.).
History
EMC first began to be an issue in
the military environment particularly
on broad ships where many types of
electronic equipment had to
successfully operate in close
proximity to each other. In such an
environment, communication,
navigation and data processing
electronics all need to function
simultaneously in the presence of
strong radio frequency (RF) fields.
Such RF fields are produced by
two-way communications
equipment, radar transmitters and
microprocessor controlled devices.
Added to this mix, on board a
military ship is the presence of
ordinance or explosives and aircraft
fuel. In such an environment it
becomes transparently clear that
each device needs to be
Electromagnetically Compatible with
its environment and not be rendered
inoperative or unsafe by this
environment. Also each device
added to this milieu must not
unnecessarily or unintentionally
contribute spurious emissions that
do not perform any particular
function. From the preceding, the
origin of the two major aspects of
EMC, emissions and immunity, can
be seen.
Due to the global proliferation of
electronic devices in non-military
living, it is becoming increasingly
important that EMC be maintained in
civilian settings as well. Residential
and commercial environments may
contain dozens of appliances that
are controlled by microprocessors,
i.e., kitchen stoves, video cassette
recorders, TVs, breadmakers,
personal computers, etc. All
electronic devices utilizing
microprocessor technology
generate radio frequencies.
Open Area Test Site (O.A.T.S.). Used for 3- and 10-meter testing. It is F.C.C. listed
and NVLAP accredited. In addition, the site was assessed by ACEMARK Europe,
LTD which is recognized by numerous European competent bodies.
For example, a 100 MHz computer

contains an electronic clock that
steps the microprocessor through its
program. In this case, the clock
frequency falls within the frequency
spectrum allocated in the U.S. for
FM radio broadcasting. If
precautions were not taken by PC
manufacturers, interference to
nearby radio receivers would result.
Harmonics or multiples of this
frequency could, if not subdued,
cause interference to other radio
receivers; such as those used by
emergency medical personnel and
to television receivers. It is therefore
incumbent upon manufacturers of
digital electronic devices to
guarantee their products will not be
incompatible with or a nuisance to
other electronic devices.
EMC and the USA
Because of the proliferation of
Information Technology Equipment
(ITE) and other microprocessorcontrolled electronic equipment, in
the 1970s the F.C.C. (as the
authority having jurisdiction in the
U.S.) implemented limits on RF
emissions from digital devices.
Digital devices that are intended to
be used in residential environments
are classified as Class B devices.
All such Class B devices must
comply with limits set forth in part 15
of the F.C.C. rules for radiated and
From analab1.com On-Line Publications
Z-106
conducted emissions. Before Class

B devices may be sold in the U.S.,
it must conform to the requirements
of the F.C.C. rules. Currently there
are no U.S. requirements for
immunity testing. Products destined
for use in the U.S. industrial,
scientific and medical fields have, to
this point, been exempt from
compliance with these limits. Such
devices are classified as Class A
devices and may not be used in
residential environments.
EMC and the European Union
Products sold in the European
Union must carry the CE mark that
constitutes a declaration by the
manufacturer of the products
compliance with all applicable
Harmonized Directives and
Standards. Electronic devices are
subject to EMC Directive,
89/392/EEC. Article 4 of this
document states: The
apparatus...shall be so constructed
that (a) the EMC disturbance it
generates does not exceed a level
allowing radio and
telecommunications equipment and
other apparatus to operate as
intended; (b) the apparatus has an
adequate level of intrinsic immunity
of EMC disturbance to enable it to
operate as intended. Clearly,
complying with the essential
requirements of the European EMC
Directive requires evaluation of a

products emission and immunity
characteristics. Notably, products
used in commercial, light industrial
and heavy industrial environments
are not exempt from compliance.
The Intrinsic Immunity requirement
dictates that an electronic apparatus
be so constructed that its
performance will not be degraded
by its normal electromagnetic
environment. For example, a
consumer in Europe has a right to
expect that the digital security
system monitoring his home will not
malfunction if a nearby ambulance
crew talks to their local dispatcher
via two-way radio communications
equipment. The directive implies
that manufacturers will design
products to possess immunity not
only to radiated RF fields, but to
other electromagnetic phenomena
as well.
Specific immunity tests are itemized
by generic and product-specific
European norms or standards.
Minimally, this means that a
devices performance will not be
adversely effected by: (1) RF fields,
such as radio and TV broadcast
stations, and licensed two-way radio
equipment; (2) Electrostatic
Discharge events (ESD); (3) and
Electrical Fast Transients (EFT).
Testing of products for immunity in
simulation of real-world
environments allows manufacturers
to demonstrate compliance with
Article 4, clause (b) of the EMC
Directive. Additional immunity
testing is required by certain specific
standards and the new 1997
generic immunity standard. These
additional tests include: Conducted
RF Immunity; Surge Immunity;
Power Frequency Magnetic Fields
Immunity; Voltage Dips and
Interrupts Immunity; and Pulsed RF
Fields Immunity.
maintain technical evidence

supporting all claims of product
conformity. This supporting
evidence is assembled in a
Technical Construction File (TCF).
A TCF will exist for each product
sold in the European Union.
Verification of compliance (testing)
may be performed by the
manufacturer or a third-party test
house. In all cases though, tests
must be performed in harmony with
International IEC Test Standards.
Results of EMC testing, such as the
Test Report issued by a testing
laboratory, shall be included in
the TCF.
A product that meets the
requirements of an appropriate
product specific standard, or in lieu
of a product specific standard the
generic standard, is presumed to
meet the essential requirements of
the EMC Directive. In addition to the
EMC Directive, other directives may
be applicable to an electronic
device. Conformity with all
applicable directives must be
verified and documented. Having
met all requirements, the CE mark

may then be applied. For a period of
ten years after being placed on the
European Market, the supporting
technical documentation (TCF) must
be kept on file and be accessible by
an authorized representative within
the European Union.
Benefits
Compliance with the European
Unions EMC Directive leads to
increasingly robust products,
improvements in quality and
increased customer satisfaction. For
example, ESD (electrostatic
discharge) Immunity Testing quickly
reveals any latent vulnerability a
product might have to such
standards and promotes corrective
measures that render the product
immune to such real world
occurrences. The result is improved
customer satisfaction realized from
reliable, solid products that provide
years of trouble free service.
C.R.S. 26-Jan-98
Biconical Antenna
CE Conformity
Conformity to the essential
requirements of the EMC Directive
must be declared by the
manufacturer or his authorized
representative. This is done by
issuing a document called a
Declaration of Conformity (DOC).
It is the manufacturers
responsibility to procure and
Anechoic Chamber
Z-107
The Noise Is Off with

This Thermocouple System
OMEGAs innovative Low Noise
Thermocouple System provides
stable and accurate temperature
measurements by neutralizing the
effects of ambient electrical noise. This
low cost and versatile system is used for
measuring temperatures of sensitive
circuits and equipment where precise
and stable readings are critical. It is also
used throughout industry as a noise
rejecting standard.
Low Noise
Thermocouple
System
The low noise thermocouple system

consists of three interrelated elements:
a probe assembly, a connector and
thermocouple wire. Each of these
three components has distinct and
coordinated noise neutralizing features
and together they provide a path for
diverting electrical noise. The system,
which uses universal two-terminal
connections, shunts noise signals
and preserves the integrity of the
temperature-measuring circuit
(see Figure 1).
ELECTRICAL NOISE
NEUTRALIZED
U.S. and Foreign
Patents
Electrical noise, typically generated by

power equipment, rotating machinery,
line processing conveyors, mobile units,
welding machines and cleaning
appliances, introduces spurious signals
that destabilize sensitive temperature
measurements. The systems unique
positive ground path, from the
thermocouple probe to the
temperature indicating instrument,
fully neutralizes the effects
of electrical noise. Precise
temperature control for data
acquisition, data logging and
computer interface circuits is
now possible with the added
assurance that noise is being
rejected.
BALANCED SYSTEM
ELEMENTS
The thermocouple systems
three building blocks
probe, connector and
wire are integrated into a
balanced and easily
assembled unit. The
probe and connector are
available in both
standard and miniature
configurations
(see Figure 2).
Z-108
(1) The thermocouple probe is shaped

to ease handling and improve viewing
of the test object. Probe types are
interchangeable to suit many
applications. The probe sheath
(outer jacket) connects to a ground
through an internal ground strap link.
(2) The connector, which joins the
probe and thermocouple wire, is a
standard two-terminal quick disconnect
type (miniature or standard size).
The external metal ground strap,
attached to the connector, provides
the continued noise shunting circuit
and adds mechanical strength to
the assembly.
(3) The twisted/shielded thermocouple
wire contains an integral drain wire
which provides the noise grounding link
between the probe assembly and the
measuring instrument.
CONVENIENT FEATURES
The probe assembly is designed to
ease handling, improve mechanical
integrity and allow the user to view the
subject under test without obstruction.
A 30 degree profile, found only in
OMEGAs patented design, allows for
improved user performance (see
Figure 2). The probe assemblies are
color coded to identify thermocouple
materials and a full selection of
probe sheath diameters and lengths
are available.
Probe lengths are 6", 12", 18", and 24";
diameters are from .040" to .250". The
probe sheath is 304SS or Inconel.
The connector provides continuity
of ground from the probe to the
thermocouple wire through an external
ground strap. Polarized connector
pins allow for quick connection or
disconnection to the probe assembly.
Connectors include removable write-on
pads. This feature, unique in the
industry, allows positive identification
of thermocouple assemblies in multiple
measurement applications.
PROBLEM SOLVER
The user often cannot forecast what
electrical noise sources will be present
during temperature readings. Typical
temperature measurements are
performed in electrically noisy
environments.
Figure 2. Balanced system elements include: thermocouple probe, connector, and thermocouple wire.
The thermocouple probe has a 30 profile, an exclusive OMEGA feature, and comes with the mating female connector and cable clamp
In a laboratory, where processes are

being controlled at precise temperature
transition points, electrical noise may
be introduced from sources such as
mixers, ovens, heating elements and
power supplies. Grounding of this noise
is essential for precise temperature
sensing. This thermocouple system
grounds the destabilizing noise signals.
Precise control of solder bath
temperatures, during an automated
flow soldering process, is required to
ensure that proper soldering takes
place and that no damage occurs to
sensitive components on a printed
circuit board. Typically, the thermal
sensing system is in the presence of
equipment which generates electrical
noise such as motors and welding
equipment. The systems unique and
positive noise grounding path
neutralizes the effects
of generated noise.
In high noise applications such as

environmental control, air conditioning,
heat treating and foundry operations,
noise neutralization during critical
temperature measurements is required
for accurate and stable control. By
shunting electrical noise harmlessly
to ground, the OMEGA thermocouple
system provides the required stable
readings.
To order probes
Standard quick disconnect
probes and miniature quick
disconnect probes are sold
in Section A of this catalog.
The noisy environments encountered

in industrial, mobile, field and
laboratory applications are no
match for this easily assembled
and handy-to-use system.
To order connectors
Standard connectors and
miniature connectors are
sold in Section G of this
catalog.
SM
METAL STRAP
DED
SHIEL
D
E
T
TWIS T/C WIRE
CONNECTOR
INTERNAL
DRAIN WIRE
(3)
(2)
PROBE
(1)
Figure 1. Continuous ground from probe to test instrument
Z-109
Introduction To Temperature
Controllers
On/Off
An on-off controller is the simplest form of temperature
control device. The output from the device is either on
or off, with no middle state. An on-off controller will
switch the output only when the temperature crosses
the setpoint. For heating control, the output is on when
the temperature is below the setpoint, and off above
setpoint.
Since the temperature crosses the setpoint to change
the output state, the process temperature will be cycling
continually, going from below setpoint to above, and
back below. In cases where this cycling occurs rapidly,
and to prevent damage to contactors and valves, an onoff differential, or hysteresis, is added to the controller
operations. This differential requires that the
temperature exceed setpoint by a certain amount
before the output will turn off or on again. On-off
differential prevents the output from chattering (that is,
engaging in fast, continual switching if the
temperatures cycling above and below the setpoint
occurs very rapidly).
On-off control is usually used where a precise control is
not necessary, in systems which cannot handle the
energys being turned on and off frequently, where the
mass of the system is so great that temperatures
change extremely slowly, or for a temperature alarm.
The Miniature CN77000 is a full featured

microprocessor-based controller in a 1/16 DIN
package.
How Can I Control My Process Temperature Accurately

and Reliably?
One special type of on-off control used for alarm is a

limit controller. This controller uses a latching relay,
which must be manually reset, and is used to shut down
a process when a certain temperature is reached.
To accurately control process temperature without

extensive operator involvement, a temperature control
system relies upon a controller, which accepts a
temperature sensor such as a thermocouple or RTD as
input. It compares the actual temperature to the desired
control temperature, or setpoint, and provides an output
to a control element.
ON
2.
3
4
ON
ON
Heater
OFF
The controller is one part of the entire control system,

and the whole system should be analyzed in selecting
the proper controller. The following items should be
considered when selecting a controller:
1.
ON
OFF
OFF
OFF
Temperature
Type of input sensor (thermocouple, RTD) and

temperature range
Type of output required (electromechanical
relay, SSR, analog output)
Control algorithm needed (on/off, proportional,
PID)
Number and type of outputs (heat, cool, alarm,
limit)
Setpoint
On-Off
Differential
(Deadband)
What Are the Different Types of Controllers, and How

Do They Work?
There are three basic types of controllers: on-off,
proportional and PID. Depending upon the system to be
controlled, the operator will be able to use one type or
another to control the process.
Z-110
Time
ON/Off Temperature Control Action
Introduction To Temperature Controllers Contd

Proportional
Proportional controls are designed to eliminate the
cycling associated with on-off control. A proportional
controller decreases the average power being supplied
to the heater as the temperature approaches setpoint.
This has the effect of slowing down the heater, so that it
will not overshoot the setpoint but will approach the
setpoint and maintain a stable temperature. This
proportioning action can be accomplished by turning the
output on and off for short intervals. This time
proportioning varies the ratio of on time to off time to
control the temperature. The proportioning action
occurs within a proportional band around the setpoint
temperature. Outside this band, the controller functions
as an on-off unit, with the output either fully on (below
the band) or fully off (above the band). However, within
the band, the output is turned on and off in the ratio of
the measurement difference from the setpoint. At the
setpoint (the midpoint of the proportional band), the
output on:off ratio is 1:1; that is, the on-time and off-time
are equal. If the temperature is further from the setpoint,
the on- and off-times vary in proportion to the
15 Sec. On
temperature difference. If the temperature is below

setpoint, the output will be on longer; if the temperature
is too high, the output will be off longer.
The proportional band is usually expressed as a
percent of full scale, or degrees. It may also be referred
to as gain, which is the reciprocal of the band. Note,
that in time proportioning control, full power is applied to
the heater, but is cycled on and off, so the average time
is varied. In most units, the cycle time and/or
proportional band are adjustable, so that the controller
may better match a particular process.
In addition to electromechanical and solid state relay
outputs, proportional controllers are also available with
proportional analog outputs, such as 4 to 20 mA or 0 to
5 Vdc. With these outputs, the actual output level is
varied, rather than the on and off times, as with a relay
output controller.
One of the advantages of proportional control is
simplicity of operation. It may require an operator to
make a small adjustment (manual reset) to bring the
temperature to setpoint on initial startup, or if the
process conditions change significantly.
5 Off
Time Proportional
Percent On Time Off Time
On
Seconds Seconds
0.0
0.0
12.5
25.0
37.5
50.0
62.5
75.0
87.5
100.0
100.0
Repetitive
20 sec. Cycle
Time
Time Proportioning at 75% Output Level
0.0
0.0
2.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
17.5
15.0
12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0.0
0.0
Temp
(F)
over 540
540.0
530.0
520.0
510.0
500.0
490.0
480.0
470.0
460.0
under 460
4-20 mA
Proportional
Output Percent
Level
Output
4 mA
4 mA
6 mA
8 mA
10 mA
12 mA
14 mA
16 mA
18 mA
20 mA
20 mA
0.0
0.0
12.5
25.0
37.5
50.0
62.5
75.0
87.5
100.0
100.0
Proportional Bandwith
Example: heating
Setpoint: 500F
Proportional Band: 80F
(40F)
Systems that are subject to wide temperature cycling
will also need proportional controllers. Depending upon
the process and the precision required, either a simple
proportional control or one with PID may be required.
The CN2010 controller features ramp and soak, the ability

to control temperature over time.
Processes with long time lags and large maximum rate

of rise (e.g., a heat exchanger), require wide
proportional bands to eliminate oscillation. The wide
band can result in large offsets with changes in the
load. To eliminate these offsets, automatic reset
(integral) can be used. Derivative (rate) action can be
used on processes with long time delays, to speed
recovery after a process disturbance.
Z-111
There are also other features to consider when

selecting a controller. These include auto- or selftuning, where the instrument will automatically calculate
the proper proportional band, rate and reset values for
precise control; serial communications, where the unit
can talk to a host computer for data storage, analysis,
and tuning; alarms, that can be latching (manual reset)
or non-latching (automatic reset), set to trigger on high
or low process temperatures or if a deviation from
setpoint is observed; timers/event indicators which can
mark elapsed time or the end/beginning of an event. In
addition, relay or triac output units can be used with
external switches, such as SSR solid state relays or
magnetic contactors, in order to switch large loads up to
75 A.
PID
The third controller type provides proportional with
integral and derivative control, or PID. This controller
combines proportional control with two additional
adjustments, which helps the unit automatically
compensate for changes in the system. These
adjustments, integral and derivative, are expressed in
Offset
Temp.
PB SP
Time
Process with Temperature Offset
time-based units; they are also referred to by their

reciprocals, RESET and RATE, respectively.
The proportional, integral and derivative terms must be
individually adjusted or tuned to a particular system,
using a trial and error method. It provides the most
accurate and stable control of the three controller types,
and is best used in systems which have a relatively
small mass, those which react quickly to changes in
energy added to the process. It is recommended in
systems where the load changes often, and the
controller is expected to compensate automatically due
to frequent changes in setpoint, the amount of energy
available, or the mass to be controlled.
What Do Rate and Reset Do, and How Do They Work?

Rate and reset are methods used by controllers to
compensate for offsets and shifts in temperature. When
using a proportional controller, it is very rare that the
heat input to maintain the setpoint temperature will be
50%; the temperature will either increase or decrease
from the setpoint, until a stable temperature is obtained.
The difference between this stable temperature and the
setpoint is called offset. This offset can be
compensated for manually or automatically. Using
manual reset, the user will shift the proportional band so
that the process will stabilize at the setpoint
temperature. Automatic reset, also known as integral,
will integrate the deviation signal with respect to time,
and the integral is summed with the deviation signal to
shift the proportional band. The output power is thus
automatically increased or decreased to bring the
process temperature back to setpoint,

The rate or derivative function provides the controller
with the ability to shift the proportional band, to
compensate for rapidly changing temperature. The
amount of shift is proportional to the rate of temperature
change.
A PID, or three-mode controller, combines the
proportional, integral (reset) and derivative (rate)
actions, and is usually required to control difficult
processes. These controllers can also be made with
two proportional outputs, one for heating and another
for cooling. This type of controller is required for
processes which may require heat to start up, but then
generate excess heat at some time during operation.
What are the Different Output Types That Are Available
for Controllers?
The output from the controller may take one of several
forms. The most common forms are time proportional
and analog proportional. A time proportional output
applies power to the load for a percentage of a fixed
cycle time. For example, with a 10 second cycle time, if
the controller output were set for 60%, the relay would
be energized (closed, power applied) for 6 seconds,
and de-energized (open, no power applied) for 4
seconds. Time proportional outputs are available in
three different forms: electromechanical relay, triac or
ac solid state relay, or a dc voltage pulse (to drive an
external solid state relay). The electromechanical relay
is generally the most economical type, and is usually
chosen on systems with cycle times greater than 10
seconds, and relatively small loads.
An ac solid state relay or dc voltage pulse are chosen
for reliability, since they contain no moving parts.
Recommended for processes requiring short cycle
times, they need an additional relay, external to the
controller, to handle the typical load required by a
heating element. These external solid state relays are
usually used with an ac control signal for ac solid state
relay output controllers, or with a dc control signal for dc
voltage pulse output controllers.
An analog proportional output is usually an analog
voltage (0 to 5 Vdc) or current (4 to 20 mA). The output
level from this output type is also set by the controller; if
the output were set at 60%, the output level would be
60% of 5 V, or 3 V. With a 4 to 20 mA output (a 16 mA
span), 60% is equal to (0.6 x 16) + 4, or 13.6 mA.
These controllers are usually used with proportioning
valves or power controllers.
What Should I Consider When Selecting a Controller for

My Application?
When you choose a controller, the main considerations
include the precision of control that is necessary, and
how difficult the process is to control. For easiest tuning
and lowest initial cost, the simplest controller which will
produce the desired results should be selected.
Simple processes with a well matched heater (not overor undersized) and without rapid cycling can possibly
use on-off controllers. For those systems subject to
cycling, or with an unmatched heater (either over- or
undersized), a proportional controller is needed.
Z-112
Temperature Controllers
Selection Considerations
CONTROLLABILITY OF
ELECTRIC HEAT
The basic function of a controller is to
compare the actual temperature with its
setpoint and produce an output which will
maintain that setpoint.
The controller is one part of the entire
control system, and the whole system
should be analyzed in selecting the
proper controller. The following items
should be considered when selecting a
controller.
1. Type of input sensor (thermocouple,
RTD, card and temperature range).
2. Placement of sensor
3. Control algorithm needed (on/off,
proportional, PID, autotune PID)
4. Type of output hardware required
(electromechanical relay, SSR, analog
output signal)
5. Additional outputs or requirements of
system (display required of
temperature and/or setpoint, cooling
outputs, alarms, limit, computer
communication, etc.)
TYPE OF INPUT
The type of input sensor will depend on
the temperature range required, the
resolution and accuracy of the
measurement required, and how and
where the sensor is to be mounted.
PLACEMENT OF THE SENSOR
The correct placement of the sensing
element with respect to the work and
heat source is of the utmost importance
for good control. If all three can be
located in close proximity, a high degree
of accuracy, up to the limit of the
controller, is relatively easy to achieve.
However, if the heat source is located
some distance from the work, widely
different accuracies can be obtained just
by locating the sensing element at
various places between the heater and
the work.
Before selecting the location for the
sensing element, determine whether the
heat demand will be predominantly
steady or variable. If the heat demand is
relatively steady, placement of the
sensing element near the heat source
will hold the temperature change at the
work to a minimum.
On the other hand, placing the sensing
element near the work, when heat
demand is variable, will enable it to more
quickly sense a change in heat
requirements. However, because of the
increase in thermal lag between the
heater and the sensing elements, more
overshoot and undershoot can occur,
causing a greater spread between
maximum and minimum temperature.
This spread can be reduced by selecting
a PID controller.
CONTROL ALGORITHM (MODE)

This refers to the method in which the
controller attempts to restore system
temperature to the desired level. The two
most common methods are two-position
(on-off) and proportioning (throttling)
controls.
ON/OFF CONTROL
On/Off control has the simplest of control
modes. It has a deadband (differential)
expressed as a percentage of the input
span. The setpoint is usually in the
center of the deadband. Therefore, if the
input is 0-1000F, the deadband is 5%
and the setpoint is set at 500F, the
output will be full on when the
temperature is 495F or below and will
stay full on until the temperature reaches
505F, at which time the output will be
full off. It will stay full off until the
temperature drops to 495F.
If the process has a fast rate of
response, the cycling between 495 and
505F will be fast. The faster the rate of
response of the process, the greater the
overshoot and undershoot and the faster
the cycling of the contactor when used as
a final control element.
On-off control is usually used where a
precise control is not necessary, for
example, in systems which cannot
handle having the energy turned on and
off frequently, where the mass of the
system is so great that the temperature
changes extremely slowly, or for a
temperature alarm.
One special type of on-off control used
for alarm is a limit controller. This
controller uses a latching relay, which
must be manually reset, and is used to
shut down a process when a certain
temperature is reached.
PROPORTIONAL
Proportional controls are designed to
eliminate the cycling associated with onoff control. A proportional controller
decreases the average power being
supplied to the heater as the temperature
approaches setpoint. This has the effect
of slowing down the heater so that it will
not overshoot the setpoint, but will
approach the setpoint and maintain a
stable temperature. This proportioning
action can be accomplished by turning
the output on and off for short intervals.
This time proportioning varies the ratio
of on time to off time to control the
temperature.
The time period between two successive
turn-ons is known as the cycle time or
duty cycle. The proportioning action
occurs within a proportional band
around the setpoint temperature. Outside
this band, the controller functions as an
on-off unit, with the output either fully on
(below the band) or fully off (above the
band). However, within the band, the
Z-113
output is turned on and off in the ratio of

the measurement difference from the
setpoint. At the setpoint (the midpoint of
the proportional band), the output on-off
ratio is 1:1 that is, the on-time and offtime are equal. If the temperature is
further from the setpoint, the on- and offtimes vary in proportion to the
temperature difference. If the
temperature is below setpoint, the output
will be on longer. If the temperature is too
high, the output will be off longer.
Above
Temp.
On
Time
Off
Time
At Set
Point
Temp.
Below
Temp.
Figure 1: Proportional control
The proportional band is usually

expressed as a percentage of full input
range scale, or in degrees. It may also be
referred to as gain, which is the
reciprocal of the band. In many units, the
cycle time and/or proportional bandwidth
are adjustable, so that the controller may
be better matched to a particular
process.
Proportional controllers have a manual
reset (trim) adjustment, which may be
used to adjust for an offset between the
steady state temperature and the
setpoint.
In addition to electromechanical and solid
state relay outputs, proportional
controllers are also available with
proportional analog signal outputs, such
as 4 to 20 mA or 0 to 5 Vdc. With these
outputs, the actual output level amplitude
is varied, rather than the proportion of on
and off times.
PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL
PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL MODE
(PID):
This controller operates the same way a
proportional controller does, except that
the function of the trim adjustment is
performed automatically by the integral
function (automatic reset). Thus, load
changes are compensated for
automatically and the temperature
agrees with the setpoint under all
operating conditions. Offset is eliminated.
Temperature Controllers
Selection Considerations
Low Rate
Setting
Set
Point
Rate Set
Properly
Figure 2: Rate function compensates for rapid

changes.
The derivative function (rate action)

compensates for load changes which
take place rapidly. An example is a
traveling belt oven where the product is
fed intermittently. When the product
enters the oven, there is a sharp rise in
the demand for heat, and when it stops,
there is an excess of heat. Derivative
action reduces the undershoot and
overshoot of temperature under these
conditions and prevents bad product due
Set
Point
Offset
Figure 3: Reset fuction eliminates offset.
to over or under curing.

PID control provides more accurate and
stable control than on/off or proportional
controller types. It is best used in
systems that have a relatively small
mass and which react quickly to changes
in energy added to the process. It is
recommended in systems where the load
changes often. The controller is expected
to automatically compensate the amount
of energy available or the mass to be
controlled, due to frequent changes in
setpoint.
The proportional, integral and derivative
terms must be tuned, i.e., adjusted to a

particular process. This is done by trial
and error. Some controllers called
Autotune controllers attempt to adjust the
PID parameters automatically.
TYPE OF CONTROL OUTPUT
HARDWARE
The output hardware in a temperature
controller may take one of several forms.
Deciding on the type of control hardware
to be used depends on the heater used
and power available, the control
algorithm chosen, and the hardware
external to the controller available to
handle the heater load. The most
commonly used controller output
hardware is as follows:
Time Proportional or On/Off
1) Mechanical Relay
2) Triac (ac solid state relay)
3) dc Solid State Relay Driver (pulse)
Analog Proportional
1) 4-20 mA dc
2) 0-5 Vdc or 0-10 Vdc
A time proportional output applies power
to the load for a percentage of a fixed
cycle time. For example, with a 10
second cycle time, if the controller output
were set for 60%, the relay would be
energized (closed, power applied) for 6
seconds, and de-energized (open, no
power applied) for 4 seconds.
The electromechanical relay is generally
the most economical output type, and is
usually chosen on systems with cycle
times greater than 10 seconds and
relatively small loads.
Choose an ac solid state relay or dc
voltage pulse to drive an external SSR
with reliability, since they contain no
moving parts. They are also
recommended for processes requiring
short cycle times. External solid state
relays may require an ac or dc control
signal.
An amplitude proportional output is
usually an analog voltage (0 to 5 Vdc) or
current (4 to 20 mA). The output level
from this output type is also set by the
controller. If the output were set at 60%,
the output level would be 60% of 5 V, or
3 V. With a 4 to 20 mA output (a 16 mA
span), 60% is equal to (0.6 x 16) + 4, or
13.6 mA. These controllers are usually
used with SCR power controllers or
proportioning valves.
The power used by an electrical
resistance heater will usually be given in
watts. The capacity of a relay is given in
amps. A common formula to determine
the safe relay rating requirements is:
W = V(A)(1.5) or A = W/(V)(1.5)
Where A = relay rating in amps
W = heater capacity in watts
V = voltage used
1.5 = safety factor
Z-114
The types of hardware available, external

to the controller, to allow it to handle the
load, are as follows:
1) Mechanical Contactor
2) ac controlled solid state relay
3) dc controlled solid state relay
4) Zero crossover SCR power controller
5) Phase angle fired SCR power controller
Mechanical contactors are external
relays, which can be used when a higher
amperage than can be handled by the
relay in the controller is required, or for
some three-phase systems. They are not
recommended for cycle times shorter
than 15 seconds.
Solid state relays have the advantage
over mechanical contactors, in that they
have no moving parts, and thus can be
used with short cycle times. The shorter
the cycle time, the less dead lag and the
better the control. The switching takes
place at the zero voltage crossover point
of the alternating current cycle; thus, no
appreciable electrical noise is generated.
An ac controlled solid state relay is used
with either a mechanical relay or triac
output from the controller, and is
available for currents up to 90 amps at
voltages of up to 480 Vac. DC solid state
relays are used with dc solid state driver
(pulse) outputs. The turn on signal can
be from 3 to 32 Vdc and models are
available to control up to 90 amps at up
to 480 Vac.
Zero crossover SCR power controllers
are used to control single or three-phase
power for even larger loads. They can be
used for currents up to 200 amps at
480 volts. A 4-20 mA dc control signal is
usually required from the controller. The
zero crossover SCR power controllers
convert the analog output signal to a time
proportional signal with a cycle time of
about two seconds or less, and also
provide switching at the zero crossover
point to avoid generating electrical noise.
Phase angle SCR power controllers also
are operated by a 4-20 mA dc controller
output. Power to the load is controlled by
governing the point of turn on (firing) of
each half cycle of a full ac sine wave.
This has the effect of varying the voltage
within a single 0.0167 second period. By
comparison, time proportional controllers
vary the average power over the cycle
time, usually more than 1 second, and
often more than 15 seconds. Phase
angle SCRs are only recommended for
low mass heating elements such as
infrared lamps or hot wire heaters.
Temperature Control
Tuning a PID (Three Mode) Controller

Tuning a temperature controller involves setting the proportional,
integral, and derivative values to get the best possible control for
a particular process. If the controller does not include an autotune
algorithm, or if the autotune algorithm does not provide adequate
control for the particular application, then the unit must be tuned
using trial and error.
After the controller is installed and wired:

1. Apply power to the controller.
2. Disable the control outputs if possible.
3. For time proportional primary output, set the cycle time. Enter
the following value:
The following is a tuning procedure for the OMEGA CN2000

controller. It can be applied to other controllers as well. There are
other tuning procedures which can also be used, but they all use
a similar trial and error method. Note that if the controller uses a
mechanical relay (rather than a solid state relay), a longer cycle
time (20 seconds) should be used when starting out.
CYCLE TIME 1
5 SEC (Only appears if output is a time proportional output. A
smaller cycle time may be required for systems with an extremely
fast response time.)
The following definitions may be needed:
Then select the following parameters:
1) Cycle time - Also known as duty cycle; the total length of time
for the controller to complete one on/off cycle. Example: with a
20 second cycle time, an on time of 10 seconds and an off
time of 10 seconds represents a 50 percent power output. The
controller will cycle on and off while within the proportional
band.
PR BAND 1 _______5% (PB)

RESET 1 _________0 R/M (TURNS OFF RESET FUNCTION)
RESET 2 _________0 R/M
RATE 1 __________0 MIN (TURNS OFF RATE FUNCTION)
RATE 2 __________0 MIN
2) Proportional band - A temperature band expressed in % of full

scale or degrees within which the controllers proportioning
action takes place. The wider the proportional band, the
greater the area around the setpoint in which the proportional
action takes place. This is sometimes referred to as gain,
which is the reciprocal of proportional band.
NOTE
On units with dual three mode outputs, the primary and
secondary tuning parameters are independently set and must be
tuned separately. The procedure used in this section is for a
HEATING primary output. A similar procedure may be used for a
primary COOLING output or a secondary COOLING output.
3) Integral, also known as reset, is a function which adjusts the

proportional bandwidth with respect to the setpoint to
compensate for offset (droop) from setpoint; that is, it adjusts
the controlled temperature to setpoint after the system
stabilizes.
A. TUNING OUTPUTS FOR HEATING CONTROL

1. Enable the OUTPUT(S) and start the process.
2. The process should be run at a setpoint that will allow the
temperature to stabilize with heat input required.
A PID (three mode) controller is capable of exceptional control

stability when properly tuned and used. The operator can achieve
the fastest response time and smallest overshoot by following
these instructions carefully. The information for tuning this three
mode controller may be different from other controller tuning
procedures. Normally a SELF TUNE feature will eliminate the
need to use this manual tuning procedure for the primary output;
however, adjustments to the SELF TUNE values may be made if
desired.
3. With RATE and RESET turned OFF, the temperature will

stabilize with a steady state deviation, or droop, between the
setpoint and the actual temperature. Carefully note whether or
not there are regular cycles or oscillations in this temperature
by observing the measurement on the display. (An oscillation
may be as long as 30 minutes.)
The tuning procedure is easier to follow if you use a recorder
to monitor the process temperature.
PRIMARY
SETPOINT
TEMP.
TEMP.
PRIMARY
SETPOINT
TIME
Divide PB by 2 if
you observe this.
TIME
This is close to
perfect tuning.
Figure 1. Temperature Oscillations

Z-115
PRIMARY
SETPOINT
TEMP.
4) Derivative, also known as rate, senses the rate of rise or fall of

system temperature and automatically adjusts the proportional
band to minimize overshoot or undershoot.
TIME
Multiply PB by 2 if
you observe this.
4. If there are no regular oscillations in the temperature, divide

the PB by 2 (see Figure 1). Allow the process to stabilize
and check for temperature oscillations. If there are still no
oscillations, divide the PB by 2 again. Repeat until cycles or
oscillations are obtained. Proceed to Step 5.
If oscillations are observed immediately, multiply the PB by
2. Observe the resulting temperature for several minutes. If
the oscillations continue, increase the PB by factors of 2
until the oscillations stop.
9. You have now completed all the measurements necessary

to obtain optimum performance from the Controller. Only
two more adjustments are required - RATE and RESET.
10.Using the oscillation time measured in Step 7, calculate the
value for RESET in repeats per minutes as follows:
RESET =
8 x __
1
__
5
Where TO = Oscillation Time in Minutes.

OR Use Nomogram II (see Figure 5):
5. The PB is now very near its critical setting. Carefully

increase or decrease the PB setting until cycles or
oscillations just appear in the temperature recording.
TEMPERATURE CYCLE TIME IN MINUTES
0.1
If no oscillations occur in the process temperature even at

the minimum PB setting of 1%, skip Steps 6 through 11
below and proceed to paragraph B.
0.2
0.3
5
10
20
10
0.50
20
0.30 0.20
0.10
100
30
0.03 0.02
0.05
CORRECT RESET SETTING IN REPEATS PER MINUTE
6. Read the steady-state deviation, or droop, between setpoint

and actual temperature with the critical PB setting you
have achieved. (Because the temperature is cycling a bit,
use the average temperature.)
7 Measure the oscillation time, in minutes, between
neighboring peaks or valleys (see Figure 2). This is most
easily accomplished with a chart recorder, but a
measurement can be read at one minute intervals to obtain
the timing.
TEMP.
TO
Figure 5. Nomogram II
Enter the value for RESET 1.
11.Again using the oscillation time measured in Step 7,
calculate the value for RATE in minutes as follows:
RESET =
T
O
__
10
Where TO = Oscillation Time
OR Use Nomogram III (see Figure 6)
PRIMARY SETPOINT
MEASURE THIS TEMP
TRMPERATURE CYCLE TIME IN MINUTES
INCREASE
PB
CRITICAL
PB
DECREASE
PB
0.1
MEASURE THIS
TIME
0.01
TIME
STARTUP
TEMP
10
20
0.3
30 40 50
3
6 x Reset Value
i.e., if reset = 2 R/M, the

RATE = 0.08 min.
1.65 TEMP
DEVIATION WITH
PB
DEVIATION
TEMP WITH PB
CRITICAL PB
TIME WITH PB
STARTUP
13.Several setpoint changes and consequent RESET and

RATE time adjustments may be required to obtain the
proper balance between RESPONSE TIME to a system
upset and SETTLING TIME. In general, fast response is
accompanied by larger overshoot and consequently shorter
time for the process to SETTLE OUT. Conversely, if the
response is slower, the process tends to slide into the final
value with little or no overshoot. The requirements of the
system dictate which action is desired.
TIME
Figure 3. Calculating Final Temperature Deviation
TEMPERATURE DEVIATION WITH

CRITICAL PBC. SETTING
0.2
12.If overshoot occurred, it can be eliminated by decreasing the

RESET time. When changes are made in the RESET value,
a corresponding change should also be made in the RATE
adjustment so that the RATE value is equal to:
RATE =
1
______________
PRIMARY SETPOINT
0.1
Enter this value for Rate 1.
The desired final temperature deviation can be calculated by

multiplying the initial temperature deviation achieved with
the CRITICAL PB setting by 1.65 (see Figure 3) or by use of
the convenient Nomogram I (see Figure 4). Try several trialand-error settings of the PB control until the desired final
temperature deviation is achieved.
0.02 0.03
Figure 6. Nomogram III
8. Now, increase the PB setting until the temperature

deviation, or droop, increases 65%.
0.3
CORRECT RATE SETTING IN MINUTES
Figure 2. Oscillation Time
EXAMPLE
3 DEVIATION WITH
PB SET PB TO
OBTAIN 5 FINAL
DEVIATION
0.2
4 5
10
10
15 20
15 20
30 40 50
30 40 50
70 100
100 150
FINAL TEMPERATURE DEVIATION = 1.65

DEVIATION WITH CRITICAL PBC. SETTING.
14.When satisfactory tuning has been achieved, the cycle time

should be increased to save contactor life (applies to units
with time proportioning outputs only (TPRI)). Increase the
cycle time as much as possible without causing oscillations
in the measurement due to load cycling.
15.Proceed to Section C.
Figure 4. Nomogram I
Z-116
Tuning a PID Controller Cont'd
B. TUNING PROCEDURE WHEN NO OSCILLATIONS

ARE OBSERVED
1. Measure the steady-state deviation, or droop, between
setpoint and actual temperature with minimum PB setting.
2. Increase the PB setting until the temperature deviation
(droop) increases 65%. Nomogram I (see Figure 4)
provides a convenient method of calculating the desired
final temperature deviation.
3. Set the RESET 1 to a high value (10 R/M). Set the RATE
1 to a corresponding value (0.02 MIN). At this point, the
measurement should stabilize at the setpoint
temperature due to reset action.
4. Since we were not able to determine a critical oscillation
time, the optimum settings of the reset and rate
adjustments must be determined by trial and error. After
the temperature has stabilized at setpoint, increase the
setpoint temperature setting by 10 degrees. Observe the
overshoot associated with the rise in actual temperature.
Then return the setpoint setting to its original value and
again observe the overshoot associated with the actual
temperature change.
Excessive overshoot implies that the RESET and/or
RATE values are set too high. Overdamped response
(no overshoot) implies that the RESET and/or RATE
values are set too low. Refer to Figure 7. Where
improved performance is required, change one tuning
parameter at a time and observe its effect on
performance when the setpoint is changed. Make
incremental changes in the parameters until the
performance is optimized.
2. After some delay (for heat to reach the sensor), the PV

will start to rise. After more delay, the PV will reach a
maximum rate of change (slope). Record the time at
which this maximum slope occurs and the PV at which it
occurs. Record the maximum slope in degrees per
minute. Turn off system power.
3. Draw a line from the point of maximum slope back to the
ambient temperature axis to obtain the lumped system
time delay Td (see Figure 8). The time delay may also
be obtained by the equation:
Td = time to max. slope-(PV at max. slope - Ambient)/max. slope
4. Apply the following equations to yield the PID

parameters:
Pr. Band = Td x max. slope x 100/span = % of span
Reset= 0.4 / Td = resets/minute
Rate = 0.4 x Td = minutes
5. Restart the system and bring the process to setpoint with
the controller in the loop and observe response. If the
response has too much overshoot, or is oscillating, then
the PID parameters can be changed (slightly, one at a
time, and observing process response) in the following
directions:
Widen the proportional band, lower the Reset value, and
increase the Rate value.
Example: The chart recording in Figure 8 was obtained by
applying full power to an oven. The chart scales are
10F/cm, and 5 min/cm. The controller range is 100 to
600F, or a span of 500F.
5. When satisfactory tuning has been achieved, the cycle

time should be increased to save contactor life (applies to
units with time proportioning outputs only (TPRI)). Increase
the cycle time as much as possible without causing
oscillations in the measurement due to load cycling.
Maximum slope = 18F/5 minutes

= 3.6F/minute
Time delay = Td = approximately 7 minutes.
Proportional Band = 7 minutes x
3.6F/minutes x 100/500F = 5%.
Reset = 0.4/7 minutes = 0.06 resets/minute
Rate = 0.4 x 7 minutes = 2.8 minute
RESET OR RATE TOO HIGH
RESET OR RATE TOO LOW
Figure 7. Setting RESET and/or RATE
C. TUNING THE PRIMARY OUTPUT FOR COOLING

CONTROL
The same procedure is used as for heating. The process
should be run at a setpoint that requires cooling control
before the temperature will stabilize.
PV
D. SIMPLIFIED TUNING PROCEDURE FOR PID

CONTROLLERS
18oF
The following procedure is a graphical technique of

analyzing a process response curve to a step input. It is
much easier with a strip chart recorder reading the process
variable (PV).
5 mins
Td
TO
1. Starting from a cold start (PV at ambient), apply full

power to the process without the controller in the loop,
i.e., with an open loop. Record this starting time.
TIME
Figure 8. System Time Delay
Z-117
Controller Operation
There are three basic types of controllers: on-off,
proportional and PID. Depending upon the system to be
controlled, the operator will be able to use one type or the
other to control the process.
On/Off
An on-off controller is the simplest form of temperature
control device. The output from the device is either on or
off, with no middle state. An on-off controller will switch the
output only when the temperature crosses the setpoint.
For heating control, the output is on when the temperature
is below the setpoint, and off above setpoint.
Since the temperature crosses the setpoint to change the
output state, the process temperature will be cycling
continually, going from below setpoint to above, and back
below. In cases where this cycling occurs rapidly, and to
prevent damage to contactors and valves, an on-off
differential, or hysteresis, is added to the controller
operations. This differential requires that the temperature
exceed setpoint by a certain amount before the output will
turn off or on again. On-off differential prevents the output
from chattering or making fast, continual switches if the
cycling above and below the setpoint occurs very rapidly.
On-off control is usually used where a precise control is
not necessary, in systems which cannot handle having the
energy turned on and off frequently, where the mass of the
system is so great that temperatures change extremely
slowly, or for a temperature alarm.
One special type of on-off control used for alarm is a limit
controller. This controller uses a latching relay, which must
be manually reset, and is used to shut down a process
when a certain temperature is reached.
Proportional
Proportional controls are designed to eliminate the cycling
associated with on-off control. A proportional controller
decreases the average power supplied to the heater as
the temperature approaches setpoint. This has the effect
of slowing down the heater so that it will not overshoot the
setpoint, but will approach the setpoint and maintain a
stable temperature. This proportioning action can be
accomplished by turning the output on and off for short
intervals. This time proportioning varies the ratio of on
time to off time to control the temperature. The
proportioning action occurs within a proportional band
around the setpoint temperature. Outside this band, the
controller functions as an on-off unit, with the output either
fully on (below the band) or fully off (above the band).
However, within the band, the output is turned on and off
in the ratio of the measurement difference from the
setpoint. At the setpoint (the midpoint of the proportional
band), the output on:off ratio is 1:1; that is, the on-time and
off-time are equal. if the temperature is further from the
setpoint, the on- and off-times vary in proportion to the
temperature difference. If the temperature is below
setpoint, the output will be on longer; if the temperature is
too high, the output will be off longer.
The proportional band is usually expressed as a
percentage of full scale, or degrees. It may also be
referred to as gain, which is the reciprocal of the band.
Note that in time proportioning control, full power is applied
to the heater, but cycled on and off, so the average time is
varied. In most units, the cycle time and/or proportional

band are adjustable, so that the controller may better
match a particular process.
In addition to electromechanical and solid state relay
outputs, proportional controllers are also available with
proportional analog outputs, such as 4 to 20 mA or 0 to
5 Vdc. With these outputs, the actual output level is varied,
rather than the on and off times, as with a relay output
controller.
One of the advantages of proportional control is the
simplicity of operation. It may require an operator to make
a small adjustment (manual reset) to bring the temperature
to setpoint on initial startup, or if the process conditions
change significantly.
Systems that are subject to wide temperature cycling will
also need proportional controllers. Depending upon the
process and the precision required, either a simple
proportional control or one with PID may be required.
Processes with long time lags and large maximum rates of
rise (e.g., a heat exchanger), require wide proportional
bands to eliminate oscillation. The wide band can result in
large offsets with changes in the load. To eliminate these
offsets, automatic reset (integral) can be used. Derivative
(rate) action can be used on processes with long time
delays, to speed recovery after a process disturbance.
PID
The third controller type provides proportional with integral
and derivative control, or PID. This controller combines
proportional control with two additional adjustments, which
helps the unit automatically compensate for changes in the
system. These adjustments, integral and derivative, are
expressed in time-based units; they are also referred to by
their reciprocals, RESET and RATE, respectively.
The proportional, integral and derivative terms must be
individually adjusted or tuned to a particular system using
trial and error. It provides the most accurate and stable
control of the three controller types, and is best used in
systems which have a relatively small mass, those which
react quickly to changes in the energy added to the
process. It is recommended in systems where the load
changes often and the controller is expected to
compensate automatically due to frequent changes in
setpoint, the amount of energy available, or the mass to be
controlled.
There are also other features to consider when selecting a
controller. These include auto- or self-tuning, where the
instrument will automatically calculate the proper
proportional band, rate and reset values for precise
control; serial communications, where the unit can talk to
a host computer for data storage, analysis, and tuning;
alarms, that can be latching (manual reset) or non-latching
(automatic reset), set to trigger on high or low process
temperatures or if a deviation from setpoint is observed;
timers/event indicators which can mark elapsed time or the
end/beginning of an event. In addition, relay or triac output
units can be used with external switches, such as SSR
solid state relays or magnetic contactors, in order to switch
large loads up to 75 A.
Z-118
SSR Thermal Considerations

One of the major considerations
when using a SSR, which cannot be
stressed too strongly, is that an
effective method of removing heat
from the SSR package must be
employed. The most common
method is to employ a heat sink.
SSRs have a relatively high
contact dissipation, in excess of
1 watt per amp.
TC
RCA
AMBIENT
(AIR TEMPERATURE)
HEAT FLOW
WITH HEAT SINK
TJ
TC
RJC
CASE
TEMPERATUE
TS
RCS
= Junction temperature, C
TA
= Ambient temperature, C
= Power dissipation
(ILOAD x EDROP) watts
RJC = Thermal resistance,

junction to case C/W
TJ - TA
RSA =
- (RJC + RCS)
P
100 - 71.2
= -(1.3 + 0.1)
12
= 1C/W
(c). To determine maximum load
current, for 1C/W heat sink and
71.2C ambient temperature:
TA
RJC
OUTPUT
SEMICONDUCTOR
(JUNCTION
TEMPERATURE)
TJ
RCS = Thermal resistance,

case to sink. C/W
NO HEAT SINK
TJ
where
TA
RSA
HEAT SINK
TEMPERATUE
Fig. 18 A simplified thermal model
With loads of less than 5 amps,

cooling by free flowing air or forced
air current around the SSR is
usually sufficient. At higher currents
it will become necessary to make
sure the radiating surface is in good
contact with a heat sink. Essentially
this involves mounting the base
plate of the SSR onto a good heat
conductor, usually aluminum. Good
thermal transfer between the SSR
and the heat sink can be achieved
with thermal grease or heat sink
compound. Using this technique,
the SSR case to heat sink thermal
resistance (RCS) is reduced to a
negligible value of 0.1C/W (celsius
per watt) or less. This is usually
presumed and included in the
thermal data. The simplified
thermal model in Fig. 18 indicates
the basic elements to be considered
in the thermal design. The values
that are determinable by the user
are the case to heat sink interface
(RCS), as previously mentioned,
and the heat sink to ambient
interface (RSA).
Thermal Calculations
Fig. 18 illustrates the thermal
relationships between the output
semiconductor junction and the
surrounding ambient. TJ - TA is the
temperature gradient or drop from
junction to ambient, which is the
sum of the thermal resistances
multiplied by the junction power
dissipation (P watts). Hence
RSA = Thermal resistance,

sink to ambient C/W
To use the equation, the maximum
junction temperature must be
known, typically 125C, together
with the actual power dissipation,
say 12 watts for a 10 amp SSR,
assuming a 1.2 volt effective (not
actual) voltage drop across the
output semiconductor. The power
dissipation (P watts) is determined
by multiplying the effective voltage
drop (EDROP)
Assuming a thermal resistance from
junction to case (RJC) of, say,
1.3C/W and inserting the above
typical values into the equation,
solutions can be found for unknown
parameters, such as maximum load
current, maximum operating
temperature, and the appropriate
heat sink thermal resistance.
Where two of these parameters are
known the third can be found as
shown in the following examples:
(a) To determine the maximum
allowable ambient temperature
for 1C/W heat sink and 10 amp
load (12 watts) with a maximum
allowable T3 of 100C:
TJ - TA = P(RJC + RCS + RSA)
= 12 (1.3 + 0.1 + 1.0)
= 28.8
TJ - TA
P =
RJC + RCS + RSA
100 - 7.2
=
1.3 + 0.1 + 1.0
=12 watts
hence,
P
ILOAD =
EDROP
12
=
1.2
= 10 amperes
Regardless of whether the SSR is
used on a heat sink or the case is
cooled by other means, it is possible
to confirm proper operating
conditions by making a direct base
plate temperature measurement
when certain parameters are
known. The same basic equation is
used except that base plate
temperature (TC) is substituted for
ambient temperature (TA) and RCS
and RSA are deleted. The
temperature gradient now becomes
TJ - TC that is the thermal resistance
(RJC) multiplied by the junction
power dissipation (P watts). Hence:
TJ - TC = P(RJC)
hence,
TA = TJ - 28.8
= 100 - 28.8
= 71.2C
(b) To determine required heat sink
thermal resistance, for 71.2C
maximum ambient temperature
and a 10 amp load (12 watts):
Parameter relationships are similar

in that solutions can be found for
maximum allowable case
temperature, maximum load current,
and required junction to case (RJC)
thermal resistance. Again, where
two parameters are known, the third
can be found as shown in the
following examples (using previous
values).
(d). To determine maximum
allowable case temperature, for
TJ - TA = P(RJC + RCS + RSA)

Z-119
35
80
0.5C/W
RCS+ RSA=
1.0C/W
30
POWER DISSIPATION (W)
TJ - TC = P (RJC)
= 12 x 1.3
= 15.6
hence,
85
E
3.0C/W
25
20
95
K
100
10
105
NO H
INK
= 84.4C
= 12 watts
15
110
G
100 - 84.4
=
1.3
90
EAT S
= 100 - 15.6
TJ - TC
P =
RJC
TC = TJ - 15.6
(e). To determine maximum load

current for RJC = 1.3C/W and
84.4C case temperature:
2.0C/W
10
15
D
20
25/0
I
10
LOAD CURRENT (ARMS)
20
30
40
50
A
60
70
MAX ALLOWABLE CASE TEMPERATURE (C)
RJC = 1.3C/W and 10 amp load

(12 watts):
80
MAX AMBIENT TEMPERATURE (C)
Fig. 19 Thermal operating curves (25 A SSR)
and when it is, it is more commonly

combined with (RJC) and stated as
(RJA) The equation would appear
as follows:
TJ - TA = P(RJC + RCA )
Or
TJ - TA = P(RJA)
Ratings
The free air performance of lower
powered SSRs is usually defined in
the catalogue by means of a single
derating curve, current versus
ambient temperature based on the
foregoing formulas, which is
adequate for most situations
Where
SSR
hence,
P
ILOAD =
EDROP
12
=
1.2
= 10 amperes
(f). To determine required thermal
resistance (RJC) for 84.4C case
temperature and 10 amp load (12
watts):
RJC
TJ - TC
=
P
100 - 84.4
=
12
= 1.3C/W
In examples (a) through (c) SSR

operating conditions are determined
as they relate to ambient air
temperature using a heat sink.
Similarly, conditions can be
determined for an SSR operating in
free air without a heat sink, provided
that a value is given for the radiating
characteristics of the package
(RCA). This value is rarely given
RCA = Thermal resistance, case

to ambient, C/W
RJA = Thermal resistance,
junction to ambient, C/W
The equation can be used to
calculate maximum load current and
maximum ambient temperature as
before. However, the resultant
values are inclined to be less
precise due to the many variables
that affect the case to air
relationship (i.e... positioning,
mounting, stacking, air movement,
etc).
Generally, free air performance is
associated with PCB or plug-in
SSRs of 5 amps or less, which
have no metallic base to measure.
The question is often raised as to
where the air temperature is
measured. There is no clear-cut
answer for this. Measurement is
made more difficult when the SSRs
are closely stacked, each creating a
false environment for its neighbor.
One suggested approach is to place
a temperature probe or
thermocouple in the horizontal plane
approximately 1 inch away from the
subject SSR. This technique is
reasonably accurate and permits
repeatability.
Z-120
0.15
INCH
1.5
INCHES
2.3
INCHES
Fig. 20 Typical light duty aluminum heat

sink extrusion (end view)
Heat Sinking
Under worst case conditions the
SSR case temperature should not
exceed the maximum allowable
shown in the right hand vertical
scales of Fig. 19.
A typical finned section of extruded
aluminum heat sink material is
shown in outline form in Fig. 20. A
2 inch length of this material would
approximate the same thermal
characteristics as curve (a) in Fig.
21, likewise, a 4 inch length would
approximate curve (b). This is
assuming the heat sink is positioned
with the fins in the vertical plane,
with an unimpeded air flow.
As a general rule, a heat sink with
the proportions of the 2 inch length
of extrusion (curve (a)) is suitable
SSR Thermal Considerations Contd
TEMPERATURE RISE ABOVE AMBIENT (C)
THERMAL RESISTANCE (RSA)C/W
3.0
A
2.5
B
2.0
1.5
100
STILL AIR
(NATURAL CONVECTION)
FINS VERTICAL
80
60
300 LFM
500 LFM
40
1000 LFM
20
1.0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
20
40
DISSIPATION (WATTS)
60
80
100
120
140
160
POWER DISSIPATED (WATTS)
Fig. 21 Typical heat sink characteristics
Fig. 23 Typical free-moving air characteristics of a heavy duty heat sink,

temperature rise versus power dissipated
for SSRs rated up to 10 amps,

while the 4 inch length (curve (b))
will serve SSRs rated up to 20
amps. For power SSRs with
ratings greater than 20 amps, heavy
duty heat sink of the type shown in
Fig. 22 become necessary. The
performance of a 5.5 inch length of
the extrusion would approximate the
characteristics shown in Fig. 23.
Not all heat sink manufacturers

show their characteristics in terms
of degrees C per watt (C/W). Some
show them as a temperature rise
above ambient as shown in Fig. 23.
In this case, a value for RSA is
found by dividing power dissipation
(watts) into the temperature rise
(C). For example, taking the 60
watt point on the dissipation scale
the free air curve would indicate a
40 degree rise. Hence:
SSR
TRISE
RSA =
P
2.62
INCHES
1.44
INCHES
4.75
INCHES
Fig. 22 An end view of a typical heavy

duty aluminum heat sink extrusion
40
=
60
= 0.66C/W
In many applications, the SSR is
mounted to a panel or base plate
which may also be more than
Z-121
adequate as a heat sink. By

ensuring flatness, using thermal
compound, and removing paint to
maximize effectiveness, a base
plate (SSR) temperature
measurement at maximum ambient
may be all that is necessary to
confirm proper operation as
previously mentioned.
If an SSR installation does not
provide an adequate heat sink, a
selection is made from the wide
variety of commercial heat sink
types that are available. Each
configuration has its own unique
thermal characteristics and are
usually well documented with
manufacturers performance curves
and application data.
No Time Out for This

Programmable Timer/Controller
Model PT41 a
precision clock/timer,
controller, combines
the features of many
dedicated meters
into one
multipurpose design.
See Figure 1.
Challenge this
universal and
economical,
programmable
timer/controller to
any level task, from
variable cycle timing
in complex patterns
to elementary
stop watch and reset
operations.
Timing modes and

patterns are virtually Figure 1 PT41 timer/controller
unlimited and the four independently If power is interrupted, the
microprocessor-based nonvolatile
controlled outputs are easily
memory retains all timer settings. If
programmed using front panel
retention of day and date is required,
pushbuttons or remote serial link.
a battery backup option is available.
Connected by a common bus to
other DP41 series test instruments,
the PT41 timer/ controller is capable Programming Made Simple
The PT41 is fully programmable
of requesting readings from all
from the front panel or remotely via
meters and recording the data on
an RS-232 or RS-485 serial link.
a common printer.
Front panel programming is
Special Features
accomplished with five pushbuttons.
The programmer is prompted with
The features of this precision
key words (such as START, TIMSET,
instrument allow variations of
UNITS, ELAPSE) on the six position
timing patterns through simplified
alphanumeric LED display.
programming and process
monitoring. There are four
The remote programming option
independent outputs with eight
has more than forty commands
programmable setpoints and five
which allows full control by a
controlled output modes allowing
personal computer or work station.
for extensive combinations of load
Programming and timing status is
control patterns. For the often used
fed back to the personal computer
timing sequences, the instrument
for program verification. The remote
can store up to 64 preset patterns.
programming feature comes with its
Operations may be timed in
own directive software.
intervals as short as 0.01 second or
as long as 24 hours and will repeat
Automated Data Logging
any cycle up to a million times.
A unique feature of the PT41 is
The meter may be configured to
found in its controller mode. A
use any one of eight built-in time
maximum of 32 DP41 series
bases (such as time-of-day or one
instruments (such as voltmeters,
hour resolution).
temperature indicators, batch
controllers) equipped with RS-485
The user can view the setup and
serial interface boards, can be
timing configuration any time the
bussed together using this
meter is functioning. Depress the
instrument as a timer/controller. It
front panel REVIEW button or
can sequence through all meters on
activate the remote serial link and
the bus and request readings from
this feature will display the timing
all devices. An RS-485 printer, also
sequence without disturbing the
located on the bus, is then directed
timing function.
Z-122
to record the readings, with or

without a time and date stamp.
The PT41 can be programmed to
monitor remote devices in intervals
of up to eleven days. Figure 2
illustrates a typical configuration
using the PT41 to connect three
DP41 instruments and a printer.
Manages Any Time Problem

The flexible timing and output load
control of this meter provide the
tools needed to manage any timing
problem. Applications such as
life testing, burn-in, reliability
evaluation, process control, and
repeat cycle timing are typical.
Example 1 Time and control of
intermittent burn-in, where a product
is to be energized for ten seconds
and deenergized for 50, with the
process cycled 10,000 times;
voltage readings logged every hour.
Example 2 Time and control of
four production processes running
concurrently, each requiring different
start-stop sequencing with an alarm
to signal key steps in each process.
Example 3 Control the opening
and closing time periods for a set
of doors in a facility for security
reasons.
Example 4 Record readings
from five remote unattended test
instruments once a day and repeat
the process for ten days.
No Time Out for This

Programmable Timer/Controller
U.S. and Intl Patents.

Used Under License.
+140F (0C to +60C). The AC

power is 115V or 230V 10 % with
power consumption 9 Watts
maximum.
Adaptable Design
The six position, 14 segment red or
green LED display operates at
100% and 50% brightness levels.
Additional indicator lights show
alarm settings, AM/PM reference
and timer status. The clock time
base is derived from the 50 or 60 Hz
line frequency and from an internal
crystal oscillator with an accuracy of
50 PPM over the full operating
temperature range of +32F to
Universal Instrument
The PT41 is a full function
instrument capable of timing,
controlling and directing data
logging. The functions and features
included in this one low cost
instrument are normally attained by
combining several individual meters.
PT41 functions in a panel mount or
table configuration and is the all in
one solution for automated test,
operation and process control.
The UL-rated polycarbonate case is

dimensioned 1.89" H x 3.78" W x
5.86" D (48 x 96 x 149 mm).
Controller Mode Operation

RS-485
RS-485
1
SETPTS
STOP
MENU
RESET
PTC41
TIMER/
CONTROLLER
RS-485
RS-485
REVIEW
AB
PQ CDEFGH
AB RSTUVW IJKLMN
PQ CDEFGH XYZ[/] O
ABCD RSTUVWX IJKLMNO ^_
Y
EFGH
IJKLM Z[/]^_
NO
1
MAX
SETPTS
MIN
SETPTS
MENU
RESET
DP41-E
PROCESS METER
DISPLAY
SETPTS
STOP
MENU
MAX
RESET
DPF400
RATE TOTALIZER
DEV
MENU
RESET
DP41-T
TEMPERATURE INDICATOR
PRINTER
Figure 2 A typical configuration demonstrating the PT41 linked to three DP41 instruments and a printer.
Z-123
Solid State
ReIays
ISOLATING
TRANSFORMER
CONTROL
DC-AC
CONVERTER
TRIAC
LOAD
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT
Figure 1. Hybrid SSR
Figure 2. Transformer-Coupled SSR
AC POWER
PHOTO-TRANSISTOR
REED
RELAY TRIAC
CONTROL
SIGNAL
OPTIONAL
PREAMPLIFIER
LED
LOAD
CONTROL
SIGNAL
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT
TRIAC
LOAD
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT
AC POWER
Figure 3. Photo-Coupled SSR
AC POWER
Defined and Described

SSR Defined. A solid-state relay is an ON-OFF control
device in which the load current is conducted by one or
more semiconductors - e.g., a power transistor, an SCR,
or a TRIAC. (The SCR and TRIAC are often called
thyristors, a term derived by combining thyratron and
transistor, since thyristors are triggered semiconductor
switches.)
Like all relays, the SSR requires relatively low controlcircuit energy to switch the output state from OFF to ON,
or vice versa. Since this control energy is very much lower
than the output power controllable by the relay at full load,
"power gain" in an SSR is substantial--frequently much
higher than in an electromagnetic relay of comparable
output rating. To put it another way, the sensitivity of an
SSR is often significantly higher than that of an EMR of
comparable output rating.
Types of SSR's. It is convenient to classify SSR's by the
nature of the input circuit, with particular reference to the
means by which input-output isolation is achieved. Three
major categories are recognized:
Reed-Relay-Coupled SSR's (see figure 1), in which the
control signal is applied (directly, or through a
preamplifier) to the coil of a reed relay. The closure of
the reed switch then activates appropriate circuitry that
triggers the thyristor switch. Clearly, the input-output
isolation achieved is that of the reed relay, which is
usually excellent.
Transformer-Coupled SSR's (see figure 2), in which
the control signal is applied (through a DC-AC
converter, if it is DC, or directly, if It is AC) to the primary
of a small, low-power transformer, and the secondary
voltage that results from the primary excitation is used
(with or without rectification, amplification, or other
modification) to trigger the thyristor switch. In this type,
the degree of input-output isolation depends on the
design of the transformer.
Photo-coupled SSR's (see figure 3), in which the

control signal is applied to a light or infrared source
(usually, a light-emitting diode, or LED), and the
radiation from that source is detected in a photosensitive semi-conductor (i.e., a photosensitive diode, a
photo-sensitive transistor, or a photo-sensitive thyristor).
The output of the photo-sensitive device is then used to
trigger (gate) the TRIAC or the SCR's that switch the
load current. Clearly, the only significant coupling path
between input and output is the beam of light or infrared radiation, and electrical isolation is excellent. These
SSR's are also referred to as optically coupled or
photo-isolated.
In addition to the major types of SSR's described above,
there are some special-purpose designs that should be
mentioned:
Direct-control AC types (see figure 4), in which external
contacts, operating in a circuit energized by the same
AC power line as is used for the load circuit, trigger a
TRIAC (or back-to-back-connected SCR's). This type is
also referred to as having a switch closure input.
Clearly, this type of relay, while simpler and inherently
less expensive than more sophisticated designs, has the
great disadvantage (for most applications) of having no
isolation between the control and load circuits.
Direct-control DC types (see figure 5) in which external
contacts, operating in a circuit energized by the same
DC power line as is used for the load circuit, control the
conduction of a transistor. This type of relay, which is
perhaps the simplest of all, and inherently the least
expensive, also has the great disadvantage (for most
applications) of having no isolation between the control
and load circuits.
SCR types designed for DC, in which the load-currentcarrying SCR is made to turn off by means of a second
Z-124
Solid State Relays Contd

CONTROL
CONTACTS
LOAD
DC POWER
Figure 5. Direct-Control DC SSR
COMMUTATING
CAPACITOR
CONTROL
CONTACTS
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT
LOAD
A
CONTROL
SIGNAL
ISOLATING
CIRCUIT
(SEE FIGS. 1-3) B
SCR-2
SCR-1
LOAD
AC POWER
Figure 4. Direct-Control AC SSR
Figure 6. SSR
using SCR switch
DC POWER
SCR, connected in a commutating circuit (such as that of

figure 6), which is capable of turning off the first SCR by
momentarily reducing its current to zero.
because all the input signal must do is to gate on the

AC-DC converter (see figure 2) that drives the
transformer, and that requires, typically, less than
10 milliwatts (e.g., 4.5 v dc at 2 mA) and rarely more
than 50 milliwatts. This sensitivity is better than required
by any single-TTL digital output, and a high-fan-out TTL
output can drive from 3 to 10 such SSRs in parallel.
Designs using special isolating means, such as. . .

...the Hall effect in which the motion of a magnet
external to, but in proximity to, the SSR causes a
change in resistance in a field -sensitive material,
thereby triggering on-off behavior.
...oscillator tuning, in which the external signal shifts the
frequency of an oscillator, thereby causing a closely
coupled resonant circuit to trigger on-off behavior.
...saturable reactors or magnetic amplifiers, in which a
DC control current in one winding controls the induced
voltage (from an AC source) in another winding. The
induced voltage is then used to trigger on-off behavior.
It is safe to say that well over 95% of all SSR
requirements are best satisfied by one of the three major
types described earlier (i.e., figures 1-3).
Input Circuit Performance. The sensitivity of isolated
SSRs (that is, the minimum control voltage and current at
which the SSR turns on) depends on the characteristics of
the isolating component or circuit:
In hybrid (reed-relay isolated) designs, the SSRs
sensitivity is established by the operating-power
requirement of the reed relay, which ranges from as low
as 40 milliwatts (e.g., 5 volts dc at 8 mA) to as high as
several hundred milliwatts. Note that the low-voltage,
low-power designs are compatible with standard digitalcomputer logic levels, and that the standard high-fanout TTL logic-level output from a digital computer or
digital controller can drive two or more hybrid SSRs in
parallel.
In transformer-coupled SSRs, the sensitivity is usually
considerably higher than that of the hybrid type,
In optically coupled SSRs, the sensitivity ranges from

about 6 milliwatts (e.g., 3 volts dc at 2 mA) to 100
milliwatts. Using an appropriate series resistor or current
regulator, this type of input circuit is also compatible with
TTL logic levels, and several optically coupled SSRs
can be driven in parallel by high-fan-out logic lines.
The sensitivity of most direct-control SSRs (figures 4
and 5) is significantly lower than that of the isolated
designs, but that fact is of little importance because the
control power required is almost always well within the
capability of even the smallest control contacts.
The maximum turn-off level (voltage and/or current) of an
SSR is about 50% of the minimum level at which it turns
on. This characteristic provides an adequate margin of
safety between the ON and OFF states, thereby
eliminating erratic behavior due to small changes in the
control signal.
In many SSR designs, the control-voltage range is much
greater than that implied by the minimum turn-on voltage.
In designs optimized for wide input voltage range, it is not
uncommon for the SSR to be rated for use over more than
a 6-to-1 range of control voltages (e.g., 3.0 V to 32 V). In
hybrid designs, the coil of the reed relay may be wound for
almost any useful control voltage, from as low as 3 volts
nominal, to 50 volts, or even higher, but the range of input
voltage tolerated by a hybrid SSR is limited by dissipation
in the relay coil. Generally, a range of 1.5 to 1 is
acceptable. On the other hand, series resistance, or a
constant-current active input circuit, may be used to
accommodate a hybrid relay to higher input voltages.
Z-125
(a)
V S U P P LY
l LOAD
LOAD
l LEAKAGE
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT
V LOAD
AC POWER
V OFF
R LEAKAGE
l LOAD
( V S U P P LY )
(c)
Vd
VSSR (X50)
V S U P P LY
L
(b)
Figure 7. Simplified Circuit of an

SSR (a), and equivalent circuits for
the ON state (b) and the
OFF state. (c)
V S U P P LY
Input Characteristics. Beyond consideration of the

sensitivity characteristics (page Z-120), we must also
describe the input-circuit isolation characteristics of an
SSR, which requires consideration of many different
parameters, including:
Figure 8a. ON-Mode Waveforms

(VSSR is greatly exaggerated)
Note that these parameters are (at least at first glance)

analogous to the usual voltage and current ratings of the
contacts on an electro-magnetic relay. There are,
however, differences between EMR output ratings and
SSR output ratings--differences that will be examined in
detail as this exposition proceeds.
Dielectric strength, rated in terms of minimum

breakdown voltage from control circuit to both the
SSR case and the output (load) circuit. A typical
rating is 1500 volts ac (RMS), for either control to
case or control to output.
Insulation Resistance, from control circuit to both
the case and the output circuit. Typical ratings range
from 10 megohms to 100,000 megohms for
transformer and hybrid designs. For optically isolated
SSRs, typical insulation resistances range from 1000
to 1 million megohms.
Stray Capacitance from control circuit to both case
and the output circuit. Capacitance to case is rarely
significant, but capacitance to the output circuit may
couple ac and transients back to the sensitive control
circuit, and even further back, into the control-signal
sources. Fortunately, in well designed SSRs, this
capacitance is rarely large enough to cause
interaction. Typical stray capacitance ranges from 1
to 10 picofarads.
The speed of response of the SSR to the application of
control voltage is covered later in this section.
Output Circuit Performance. Clearly, the most
significant output-circuit parameters are the maximum
load-circuit voltage that may be impressed across the
relay output circuit in the OFF condition without causing
it to break down into conduction or failure, and the
maximum current that can flow through the output
circuit and load in ON condition.
In the most general approach, one may say that the

contact ratings of an SSR are determined almost
entirely by the characteristics of the load-current
switching device. Perhaps this fact is most apparent
from an examination of the simplest type of ac SSR - a
direct-control (non-isolated) design, such as that
originally shown in figure 4, and redrawn above in figure
7, with its equivalent circuit for both the ON and OFF
states. In the ON state (figure 7b), the TRIAC exhibits a
nearly constant voltage drop (i.e., almost independent of
load current) approximately equal to that of two silicon
diodes - less than 2 volts. The passage of load current
through this voltage drop causes power dissipation
(Pd = Vd x Iload), and this power will cause a
temperature rise in the TRIAC junction. If proper heatsinking is provided - i.e., thermal conduction from the
TRIAC case to the outside air or to a heat-conductive
metal structure that can in turn dissipate the power to
the surrounding air without significant temperature rise then the TRIAC temperature will not rise above the rated
maximum value for reliable operation (typically, 100C).
With generous heat sinking, the current rating of the
SSR may be determined, not by power dissipation, but
by the current rating of the TRIAC.
Figure 7c shows the equivalent circuit of this very simple
SSR in the OFF state. Note that even when the TRIAC
is turned off, a very small amount of leakage current can
flow. This current path, represented by a resistance in
the equivalent circuit, is actually a non-linear function of
the load-circuit voltage. The normal practice, in rating
Z-126
Solid State Relays Contd

V S U P P LY
CURRENT
STARTS AT
NEXT
CROSSING
V S U P P LY
V S S R V S U P P LY
l
LEAKAGE
1/1000 X l L O A D )
l LOAD
Figure 8b. OFF-Mode Waveforms

(Ileakage is greatly exaggerated)
l LOAD
TURN OFF
HERE
ON
OFF
START
DELAY
CURRENT
CONTINUES
TO HERE
V S U P P LY
CONTROL
SIGNAL
ON
OFF
OFF
Figure 9a. Non-Synchronous SSR

waveforms for resistive load
TRIACs, is to specify a worst case maximum value for

this OFF-state leakage and a typical value is 0.001 A
max. for a 5-ampere load-current rating. The load circuit
voltage rating is simply that determined by the blocking
voltage rating of the thyristor.
The output-circuit ratings of the more common isolated
SSRs, most of which are designed to control ac load
circuits, are very similar to those described above,
except that OFF-state leakage is usually higher---on the
order of 5 mA at 140 V for a 5-ampere device---still only
about one-thousandth of the load current rating. Figure
7 shows the equivalent circuit of a TRIAC-switch SSR
design, and figure 8 shows the voltage and current
waveforms in the load circuit, for both OFF and ON
states. Note that the ON-state voltage-drop curves are
drawn to a much expanded scale compared with the
OFF state and load voltage curves.
Even at this early stage in our examination of SSR
performance, it is necessary to consider the time
relationships between the control signal and the ac
load-circuit voltage and current.
With respect to timing, there are two classes of
switching SSRs. In one, no particular effort is made to
achieve synchronism between the alternations of the
load circuit-power line and the turning on of the thyristor
switch. In this non-synchronous class, then, the
response delay between the application of control
voltage and the beginning of load-circuit conduction is
very short...typically from 20 to 200 microseconds in
optically coupled and transformer types, and less than
one millisecond in hybrids (longer due to the reed relay
operation time). The current waveform on turn-on in
non-synchronous designs is clearly a function of when
in the ac cycle the control signal is applied, as
illustrated in figure 9a.
CONTROL
SIGNAL
OFF
Figure 9b. Synchronous SSR

waveforms for resistive load
In synchronous (zero-voltage turn-on) designs, the

effect of the application of a control signal is delayed (if
necessary) until the power-line voltage is passing
through zero (see figure 9b). (This is done by internal
gating circuitry that senses the magnitude of the line
voltage, and prevents triggering the thyristor until the
next zero crossing occurs.) Thus, if the control signal
happens to be applied immediately after a zero
crossing, the SSR would not actually begin conducting
until almost a full half-cycle later. On the other hand, if
the control signal happens to be applied just before a
zero-crossing is about to occur, the SSR would begin to
conduct almost immediately, with only the very small
turn-on delays described above for non-synchronous
designs. Clearly, then, the turn-on delay of a
synchronous SSR can have any value from less than a
millisecond to a full half-cycle of the power line (about
8.3 milliseconds for a 60-Hz power line). Usually, for 60
Hz service, the rating is given as 8.3 milliseconds
maximum for all-solid-state designs, and 1.5
milliseconds maximum for hybrid designs.
The final major characteristic of the AC-switching SSR
is its turn-off behavior. Because a thyristor, once
triggered, will not stop conducting until the load current
flowing through it falls to zero, there is a maximum
possible turn-off delay (between the removal of the
control signal and the cessation of load current) of one
half cycle. As in the case of turn-on, the minimum turnoff delay is close to zero. Thus, a typical 60-Hz rating
for turn-off time is 9 milliseconds maximum.
Reproduced with permission of Crydom Corporation
Z-127
Intrinsic Safety
How are Hazardous Locations Defined?
Answer: According to the National Electrical Code,
Article 500, hazardous locations are defined by Class,
Group and Division. Differentiation by Class and Group
is in accordance with the laws of physics, while Division
classification is based on environmental and physical
plant conditions.
Relative to the application of Intrinsic Safety, it is
important to define the actual Class, Group and Division
into which any proposed Intrinsically Safe electrical
circuits are to be installed. As shown by the ignition
curves, all flammable mixtures do not require the same
energy levels to ignite. Because Intrinsic Safety
requires maintaining an energy level lower than that
required to ignite a specific hazardous mixture, it is
important to know what the energy allowances are for
operational and safety considerations.
The Definition of Intrinsic Safety Identifies Both

Electrical and Thermal Energy as Potential Causes
of Ignition. How Does Thermal Energy Relate to the
Ignition of a Specific Flammable or Combustible
Mixture?
Answer: There are temperatures at which a flammable
or combustible mixture will ignite. The minimum
temperature at which ignition takes place is called the
Auto-Ignition Temperature. Intrinsically Safe systems
will not allow thermal energy to reach levels at which a
specific flammable or combustible mixture will autoignite.
Figure 1 identifies common hazardous mixtures and
their auto-ignition temperatures.
Hazardous
Mixture
Typical Resistance Circuit Ignition Currents Identify

Only Four Hazardous Substances: Hydrogen,
Ethylene, Propane and Methane. Arent There More
Flammable or Combustible Materials Than That?
Answer: Yes, but those four hazardous mixtures
represent the basis for all flammable or combustible
mixtures subject to ignition from electrical sources. All
are found, as shown in the Hazardous (Classified)
Locations chart following, in Class I, with Hydrogen
identified as Group B; Ethylene identified as Group C;
Propane being Group D and, as a separate curve within
Group D, Methane.
Acetone
Acetylene
Ammonia
Benzene
Benzol
Butane
Butylalchohol
Carbon Disulphide
Carbon Oxide
Cyclohexane
Diesel Fuel
Ethane
Ethylacetate
Ethylalchohol
Ethylchloride
Ethylene
Ethylether
Ethyl Glycol
Fuel Oil
Hexane
Hydrogen aeroxide
Hydrogen disulphide
Methane
Methanol
Methyl chloride
Naphthalene
Phenol
Propane
Tetraline
Toluol
Acetylene: Group A and Hydrogen: Group B share the

same required energy levels relative to ignition. They
require less energy for ignition than does Group C,
which requires less energy for ignition than Group D.
Within Class II Group E, metal or electrically conductive
dusts, Group F, Coal Dust and Group G, electrically
nonconductive dusts, generally grain or agricultural
dusts are identified. As Groups A and B share the same
ignition curve, Group C, Ethylene, and Group E, metal
or electrically conductive dusts, share the same ignition
curve. Groups D, Propane, F, Coal Dust, and G,
electrically nonconductive dusts, share the same
ignition curve.
A complete listing of hazardous mixtures defined by
Group can be found in National Fire Protection
Association document NFPA 497 M.
Autoignition
Temperature
C
F
540
305
630
220
555
365
340
95
605
430
220 to 300
515
460
425
510
425
180
235
220 to 300
240
560
270
595
455
625
520
595
470
425
535
1004
581
1166
428
1031
689
644
203
1121
806
428 to 572
959
860
797
950
797
356
455
428 to 572
464
1040
518
1103
851
1157
968
1103
878
797
995
Figure 1: Autoignition temperatures of some hazardous mixtures.
Reproduced with permission of R. Stahl.
Z-128
Intrinsic Safety Contd
Hazardous (Classified) Locations in Accordance with Article 500, National Electric Code-1990
Class I
Flammable Gases or Vapors
Division 1
Exists under normal conditions
May exist because of:
- repair conditions
- maintenance operations
- leakage
Released concentration
because of:
- breakdown of equipment
- breakdown of process
- faulty operation of equipment
- faulty operation of process
which causes simultaneous
failure of electrical equipment
Group A:
Division 2
Liquids and gases in closed
containers or the systems are:
- handled
- processed
- used
Concentrations are normally
prevented by positive
mechanical ventilation.
Adjacent to a Class I, Division 1
location
Atmospheres containing Acetylene
Group B:
Atmospheres such as Butadiene, ethylene oxide,

Propylene Oxide, Acrolein, or Hydrogen (or gases
or vapors equivalent in hazard to hydrogen such
as manufactured gas)
Group C:
Atmospheres such as Cyclopropane, Ethyl Ether,

Ethylene, or gases or vapors equivalent in hazard
Group D:
Atmospheres such as Acetone, Alcohol,

Ammonia, Benzene, Benzol, Butane, Gasoline,
Hexane, Lacquer Solvent vapors, Naphtha,
Natural Gas, Propane or gases or vapors
equivalent in hazard
Z-129
Class II
Combustible Dusts
Division 1
Exists under normal conditions
Combustible mixture
produced by:
- mechanical failure of
equipment or machinery
- abnormal operation of
equipment and provide
source of ignition from:
- simultaneous failure of
electrical equipment
- simultaneous failure of
operation of protection devices
- other causes
Electrically conductive dusts
may be present
Division 2
Not normally in the air
Accumulations normally
sufficient to interfere with
normal operation of electrical
equipment or other apparatus.
In the air as a result of
infrequent malfunctioning of:
- handling equipment
- process equipment
Accumulations are sufficient to
interfere with the safe
dissipation of heat from
Accumulations may be ignitible
by abnormal or failure of
Group E:
Atmospheres containing combustible metal dusts

(regardless of resistivity), dusts of similarly
hazardous characteristics ( < 100 k/cm) or
electrically conductive dusts
Group F:
Atmospheres containing combustible Carbon

Black, Charcoal or Coke Dusts which have > 8%
total volatile material or if these dusts are sensitized
so that they present an explosion hazard and
having a resistivity > 100 k/cm but 100 M/cm
Group G:
Atmospheres containing combustible dusts having

a resistivity > 100 k/cm or electrically
nonconductive dusts
Class III
Ignitable Fibers or Flyings
Division 1
Fibers or materials producing
combustible flyings are
manufactured, stored or
handled
Not Grouped
Manufacturers such as textile
mills, cotton-related mills or
clothing plants
Fibers and flyings including
Rayon, Cotton, Sisal, Hemp,
Jute and Spanish Moss
Z-130
Division 2
Fibers are handled except
during the process of
manufacture or are stored
except during the process of
manufacture

Design
Making instruments
intrinsically safe need not
seem like a nightmare. Here,
the basics of intrinsic safety
circuit design are discussed.
Paul S. Babiarz
Intrinsically Safe
Apparatus
Intrinsically Safe
Applications(%)
Switching
mechanical switches
proximity switches
32.0%
85.0%
15.0%
2-wire transmitters
Thermocouples & RTDs
Load cells
Solenoid valves
Potentiometers
LEDs
I/P transducers
Other devices
22.0%
13.0%
8.5%
4.5%
2.5%
2.0%
2.0%
13.5%
Total field devices
Intrinsic safety prevents instruments

and other low-voltage circuits in
hazardous areas from releasing
sufficient energy to ignite volatile
gases. Although it is used widely in
Europe to safely install and operate
instrumentation circuits in
hazardous areas, it has caused
much confusion in North American
markets. Many users have heard of
it and want to know more; however,
most feel uncomfortable applying
intrinsically safe products. One
reason is that intrinsic safety has
been a part of Section 504 of the
National Electric Code only since
1990. In addition, the number of
different products on the market and
seemingly endless calculations
make applying intrinsic safety seem
like an engineers nightmare.
This is the first of a series of short
articles that explain how to make
the most common field devices
(thermocouples, RTDs, contacts,
solenoid valves, transmitters, and
displays) intrinsically safe. We will
begin with an introduction to the
practical side of intrinsic safety
circuit design.
100.0%
Figure 1. Current use of intrinsically safe

apparatus in hazardous areas.
device, also known as a barrier or

intrinsically safe associated
apparatus; and the field wiring.
When designing an intrinsically safe
circuit, begin the analysis with the
field device. This will determine the
type of barrier that can be used so
that the circuit functions properly
under normal operating conditions
but still is safe under fault conditions.
More than 85% of all intrinsically
safe circuits involve commonly
known instruments. Figure 1 shows
the approximate use of intrinsically
safe apparatus in hazardous areas.
An intrinsically safe apparatus (field
device) is classified either as a
simple or nonsimple device. Simple
apparatus is defined in paragraph
Safe Area
A nonsimple device can create or

store levels of energy that exceed
those listed above. Typical examples
are transmitters, transducers,
solenoid valves, and relays. When
these devices are approved as
intrinsically safe, under the entity
concept, they have the following
entity parameters: Vmax (maximum
voltage allowed); Imax (maximum
current allowed); Ci (internal
capacitance); and Li (internal
inductance).
The Vmax and Imax values are
straightforward. Under a fault
condition, excess voltage or current
could be transferred to the
intrinsically safe apparatus (field
device). If the voltage or current
exceeds the apparatus Vmax or
Imax, the device can heat up or
spark and ignite the gases in the
hazardous area. The Ci and Li
values describe the devices ability
to store energy in the form of
internal capacitance and internal
inductance.
Intrinsically Safe Barrier
Fuse
Input
Voltage
3.12 of the ANSI/ISA-RP 12.6-1987

as any device which will neither
generate nor store more than 1.2
volts, 0.1 amps, 25 mW or 20 J.
Examples are simple contacts,
thermocouples, RTDs, LEDs,
noninductive potentiometers, and
resistors. These simple devices do
not need to be approved as
intrinsically safe. If they are
connected to an approved
apparatus (barrier), the circuit is
considered intrinsically safe.
Hazardous Area
Current Limiting
Resistor
Zener
Diodes
Start With The Field Device

All intrinsically safe circuits have
three components: the field device,
referred to as the intrinsically safe
apparatus; the energy-limiting
Instrinsically Safe
Ground
Figure 2. Barrier circuit
Z-131
Field
Device
5A
Limiting Energy To The Field

Device
There are three components to a

barrier that limit current and voltage:
a resistor, at least two zener diodes,
and a fuse. The resistor limits the
current to a specific value known as
the short circuit current, Isc. The
zener diode limits the voltage to a
value referred to as open circuit
voltage, Voc. The fuse will blow
when the diode conducts. This
interrupts the circuit, which prevents
the diode from burning and allowing
excess voltage to reach the
hazardous area. There always are at
least two zener diodes in parallel in
each intrinsically safe barrier. If one
diode should fail, the other will
operate providing complete
protection.
A simple analogy is a restriction in a
water pipe with an overpressure
shut-off valve. The restriction
prevents too much water from
flowing through the point, just like
the resistor in the barrier limits
current. If too much pressure builds
up behind the restriction, the
overpressure shutoff valve turns off
all the flow in the pipe. This is similar
to what the zener diode and fuse do
with excess voltage. If the input
voltage exceeds the allowable limit,
the diode shorts the input voltage to
Associated Apparatus Apparatus
(barrier)
(field device)
Open circuit voltage Voc Vmax
Short circuit current Isc
Imax
Allowed capacitance Ca Ci
Allowed inductance La
Li
Figure 3. Comparison of the entity values of
an intrinsically safe apparatus and
associated apparatus
2A
1A
Z
Ignition Current (A)
To protect the intrinsically safe

apparatus in a hazardous area, an
energy-limiting device must be
installed. This is commonly referred
to as an intrinsically safe associated
apparatus or barrier. Under normal
conditions, the device is passive
and allows the intrinsically safe
apparatus to function properly.
Under fault conditions, it protects
the field circuit by preventing excess
voltage and current from reaching
the hazardous area. The basic
circuit diagram for an intrinsically
safe barrier is shown in Figure 2.
500 mA
Groups C and D
Methane
Propane
Ethylene
200 mA
100 mA
Groups A and B
Hydrogen
50 mA
20 mA
10 mA
10
20
30
40
50
100
200
Open Circuit Voltage (V)

Figure 4. Ignition curves resistance
ground and the fuse blows, shutting

off electrical power to the hazardous
area.
When conducting the safety
analysis of the circuit, it is important
to compare the entity values of the
intrinsically safe apparatus against
the associated apparatus. These
parameters usually are found on the
product or in the control wiring
diagram from the manufacturer (see
Figure 3).
Will The Circuit Work?

It also is important to make sure
that the intrinsically safe circuit will
work under normal conditions. With
the current-limiting resistor, a
voltage drop will occur between the
input and output of the barrier. This
has to be accounted for in your
circuit design. In the subsequent
articles in this series, a step-by-step
explanation will be given on how to
calculate these voltage drops and
make sure that the circuit is safe.
Z-132
Determining Safe Energy

Levels
Voltage and current limitations are
ascertained by ignition curves, as
seen in Figure 4. A circuit with a
combination of 30 V and 150 mA
would fall on the ignition level of
gases in Group A. This combination
of voltage and current could create
a spark large enough to ignite the
mixture of gases and oxygen.
Intrinsically safe applications always
stay below these curves where the
operating level of energy is about
1 watt or less. There are also
capacitance and inductance curves
which must be examined in
intrinsically safe circuits.
The purpose of this series of
articles is to simplify the application
of intrinsic safety. Consider the
ignition curves to demonstrate a
point about thermocouples.
Intrinsic Safety Circuit Design Contd

NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
HAZARDOUS SIDE
Recorder
Maximum 0.1 volt
produced by thermocouple
Figure 5. Thermocouple installed in a hazardous area
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
HAZARDOUS SIDE
Recorder
explosion
possible
110 V FAULT
Figure 6. Thermocouple with fault
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
Recorder
HAZARDOUS SIDE
Instrinsically
Safe
Barrier
Figure 7. Thermocouple with barrier
A thermocouple is classified as a
simple device. It will not create or
store enough energy to ignite any
mixture of volatile gases. If the energy
level of a typical thermocouple
circuit were plotted on the ignition
curve in Figure 4, it would not be
close to the ignition levels of the
most volatile gases in Group A.
Is the thermocouple which is
installed in a hazardous area
(Figure 5) intrinsically safe? The
answer is no, because a fault could
occur on the recorder which could

cause excess energy to reach the
hazardous area, as seen in Figure 6.
To make sure that the circuit
remains intrinsically safe, a barrier
to limit the energy must be inserted
(Figure 7).
The next installment in this series
will explain how the selection is
made for thermocouples and RTDs,
which comprise about 13% of all
intrinsically safe applications.
Z-133
BEHIND THE BYLINE

Paul B. Babiarz is marketing manager
of intrinsically safe products for CrouseHinds. He holds a B.S. from the
University of Rochester, an M.S. from
the University of Michigan, and an
M.B.A. from Syracuse University. He
has more than 13 years of experience
in working in hazardous areas and has
specialized in intrinsic safety.
Copyright Instrument Society of
America. Intech, October, 1992.
All Rights Reserved.

DesignPart 2
Fault conditions in hazardous-area temperature sensors can be explosive without the proper
protection. You can safeguard all of the devices in your application with one type of intrinsic
safety barrier.
Z
Paul S. Babiarz
When thermocouples and RTDs
(resistance temperature devices)
are installed in hazardous areas,
barriers are required to make their
circuits intrinsically safe. These
intrinsic safety barriers prevent
excess energy from possible faults
on the safe side from reaching the
hazardous area. Without the
barriers, excessive heat or sparks
produced by the fault condition
could ignite volatile gases or
combustible dusts.
Hundreds of different barriers are
available from North American
suppliers. The multitude of products
can give control engineers
nightmares as they try to select the
proper barrier for common
instrumentation loops. The search
can be simplified, however. One
type of barrier can be selected to
make all thermocouples and RTDs
intrinsically safe so that polarity
problems are avoided and
calculations are not necessary.
Normally, the design of all
intrinsically safe circuits centers on
one of two approaches: the
universal approach, which uses a
universal device that often is
isolated so that a ground for safety
is not required; or the engineered
approach, which uses grounded
safety barriers.
Isolated temperature
converters. These universal
devices measure temperature in
hazardous areas, but at a higher
cost. (Dispensing with the need for a
ground is a convenience that may
cost two to three times as much as
grounded safety barriers.) Isolated
temperature converters accept a
low-level DC signal from a
thermocouple or 3-wire RTD and
convert it into a proportional
4-20 mA signal in the safe area.
They also are available with set
points that trip an on-off signal to
HAZARDOUS SIDE
CLASS I,II, III
DIVISION 1
GROUPS A-G
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
Control
Room
GRD
Intrinsic Safety Barrier

Use same type of wire
Thermocouples
are simple devices.
Do not need approval
Use same type of wire

Safety Barrier
Parameters
VN: 2.5 V
Ri: 71
Note: Use consistent wiring
Figure 1. Current use of intrinsically safe apparatus in hazardous areas.
+
-
RTD
V Voltmeter
Figure 2. Typical values of barrier in thermocouple circuit.
the safe side when the temperature

reaches a designated level.
These units must be approved as
intrinsically safe.
Advantages of isolated temperature
converters as compared to
grounded safety barriers include:
Good signal response
No ground required for safety
Z-134
More versatile application

One product for all applications
Disadvantages include:
Larger in size
Requires calibration
More expensive
May not work with all
thermocouples and RTDs
Intrinsic Safety Barrier

A
A
V
R1
B
C R2
C
V Voltmeter
V Voltmeter
Note: When R1 = R2, bridge remains balanced
Figure 3. 3-wire RTD bridge
Grounded safety barriers.

These are passive devices that
prevent all excess energy from a
fault occurring on the safe side from
reaching the hazardous area.
Under normal conditions, the
barriers allow the circuit to function
properly by allowing the signals to
pass between the field device and
the control room. In a fault
condition, the barriers limit voltage
and current to levels that are not
sufficient enough to ignite gases.
For a more detailed explanation,
refer to Part 1 of this series.
Advantages of grounded safety
barriers as compared to isolated
temperature converters include:
Less expensive
Precise signal response
Very small (less than 12 in. wide)
Simple application
One barrier for all types of
thermocouples and RTDs
Disadvantages include:
Requires ground
Requires some engineering
Examine The Barrier

Parameters
Articles in this series will focus on
methods to select the proper grounded
safety barriers. Before we analyze
thermocouple and RTD circuits, we
should examine the functional
parameters necessary to select the
proper barrier. These parameters
are: polarity of circuit; rated voltage
of barrier; and resistance of barrier.
Polarity. The circuits polarity
must be known in order to choose
the correct type of barrier. DC
barriers are rated either as positive
or negative. AC barriers can be
connected to circuits with either a
positive or negative supply.
SIGNAL & RETURN barriers are
used for transmitter and switching
applications. All of these barriers
are available in single- or
double-channel versions. However,
because double-channel barriers
save space and money by being
connected to two legs of a loop,
they are becoming the standard.
Figure 4. 3-wire RTD bridge with barrier
Rated voltage. Like any

electrical device, safety barriers
have a rated nominal voltage, Vn,
referred to as working voltage. The
barriers Vn should be greater than
or equal to the supply to the barrier,
much like the rated voltage of a
lamp must be equal to or greater
than the supply to it. If the voltage
supply to the barrier is much greater
than its Vn, the barrier will sense a
fault. The protective zener diodes
will conduct, causing leakage
currents and inaccurate signals on
the loop. Most barriers have a rated
working voltage that guarantees a
minimal leakage current from 1 to
10 micro amps if it is not exceeded.
If the supply voltage to the barrier
becomes too high, the zener diode
will conduct. The resulting high
current through the fuse will cause
the fuse to blow. Excess supply
voltage is the main reason why
grounded barriers fail.
Internal resistance. Every safety
barrier has an internal resistance,
Ri, that limits the current under fault
conditions. Ri also creates a voltage
drop across the barrier. This drop can
be calculated by applying Ohms
law, V=IR. Not accounting for the
voltage drop produces the most
problems in the proper functioning
of intrinsically safe systems.
Thermocouple System
Design Pointers
Polarity. A thermocouple has two
wires, each with a positive and
negative polarity. Two single-channel
barriers, each with the proper
polarity, could be used. Problems
would occur if the positive leg to the
thermocouple were connected to
the negative terminal of the barrier or
vice versa. There are two possible
barrier choices for thermocouple
circuits:
Thermocouple circuit with one
positive and one negative lead
1 standard DC barrier, positive polarity
and
1 standard DC barrier, negative polarity
OR
1 double AC barrier
Z-135
When barriers and thermocouples

are being installed, the technician
may forget which wire is positive and
which is negative. To avoid polarity
problems on the terminals, a double
AC barrier should be used. The
wires can be connected to either
terminal and the circuit will function
properly as long as thermocouple
polarity is maintained throughout.
Rated voltage. A thermocouple
produces a very small voltage (less
than 0.1 V). It is connected to a
voltmeter which has a high impedance
and which requires a very small
current. Since the thermocouple
produces such a small voltage,
choose a double AC barrier with a
higher rated nominal voltage (Vn). A
survey of most double AC barriers on
the market shows that they are rated
at low nominal voltages from 1 V and
higher. Select one between 1 and 10 V.
Internal resistance. Since the
mV signal has a very small current
and is going to a high-impedance
voltmeter, the resistance of the
barrier will not influence circuit
function. A simple rule of thumb is
that when a signal is going to a
high-impedance voltmeter, an
internal barrier resistance of less
than 1000 ohms will not affect the
mV signal. It usually is good
practice, however, to select a barrier
with a low resistance in case the
circuit is modified later.
Barrier selection. For proper
operation of thermocouples in
hazardous areas, select safety
barriers based on the following
parameters:
Barrier type: double-channel AC
barrier to avoid polarity problems
Rated voltage: Barrier Vn > 1V
Internal resistance: barrier with lowest
resistance (less than 110 ohms)
Safety and installation check.
Since the thermocouple is a simple
device, it does not need third-party
approval. Make sure that the barrier
has the proper approvals for
hazardous area locations. The
thermocouple wires will be different
from terminal connections on the

barrier. Always use consistent wiring
from the thermocouple to the barrier
and then to the control room. This
will cancel any thermocouple effect
caused by the dissimilar metals on
the barrier connection.
RTD System Design

Pointers
RTDs come in 2-, 3-, and 4-wire
versions. The 3-wire RTD is used in
more than 80% of all applications.
The 2-wire version is not as
accurate and is used mostly in the
heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning industry for set-point
temperature measurements. The
4-wire RTD provides the most
accurate signal, but is more
expensive and requires one more
extension wire to the process area.
Understanding RTD accuracy is
essential in selecting the correct
barrier. Many RTD measurements
are in the form of a Wheatstone
bridge, whose output voltage is a
function of the RTD resistance. The
bridge requires four connection
wires, an external source, and three
resistors that have a balanced
temperature coefficient. The RTD
normally is separated from the
bridge by a pair of extension wires.
With a 2-wire RTD, the impedance
of the barrier in series with the RTD
will cause an imbalance on the
bridge and will affect the accuracy
of the temperature reading. This
effect can be minimized by using a

third wire to measure the voltage
(refer to Figure 3 for this discussion).
If wires A and B are perfectly
matched and if the resistance in
both channels of the barrier is the
same, the impedance effects will
cancel because each is in an
opposite leg of the bridge. The third
wire, C, acts as a sense lead to the
voltmeter.
Current loop A & B: Polarity. The
current loop to the RTD has a
positive and a negative polarity.
Possible solutions are similar to the
thermocouple:
1 standard DC barrier, positive polarity
and
1 standard DC barrier, negative polarity
OR
1 double AC barrier
Select the double AC barrier to

avoid polarity problems. Because it
is smaller, it is also less expensive.
Current loop A & B: Rated
voltage. The constant current
amperage sent to the RTD typically
is in the micro amp (10-6 ) level. The
maximum resistance of the most
commonly used RTD, Pt100 is
390 ohms at 1560C. The voltage
drop across the RTD will be in mV,
so the Vn of the RTD loop is similar
to the thermocouple. To be safe,
select a barrier with a Vn greater
than 1 V, similar to the Vn of the
thermocouple barrier.
HAZARDOUS SIDE
CLASS I,II, III
DIVISION 1
GROUPS A-G
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
Item 1
Current
loop
RTD
GRD
Item 2
signal
RTDs are simple devices.

Do not need approval.
GRD
Safety Barrier
Parameters
VN: 2.5 V
This channel can

be used to serve
part of loop #2.
Rj: 71
Z-136
Current loop A & B: Internal

resistance. The constant current
source will have a rated maximum
load or burden (resistance load it
can drive). Assume that this
maximum load is 500 ohms and the
maximum resistance of the RTD at
the highest temperature is 390
ohms. Knowing this information, the
Ri of the barrier can be calculated:
control room barrier
resistance
500 ohms
Ri
+ RTD
resistance resistance
< Ri ohms + 390 ohms
< 110 ohms
Current loop A & B: Barrier

selection. Use the same barrier that
was used for the thermocouple
circuit.
Leg C to the voltmeter: Barrier
selection. The RTD leg going to the
voltmeter (C) is a millivolt signal
similar to the thermocouple circuit.
The rated voltage, Vn, and internal
resistance, Ri, of the barrier will
have the same parameters as the
barriers used in the thermocouple
and current loop of the RTD.
Selecting the correct barrier to
make all thermocouples and RTDs
intrinsically safe is not difficult. Use
a double-channel AC barrier with a
rated voltage greater than 1 volt
with the lowest internal resistance.
The double-channel barrier is the
lowest cost solution. The AC version
will avoid any polarity problems. A
barrier with a rated voltage between
1 and 10 volts will provide a wide
selection which have a low
resistance and are approved for the
hazardous areas where the
temperature sensors are located.
This single barrier can then be used
to make all thermocouples and
RTDs intrinsically safe. And dont
forget, all thermocouples and RTDs
are simple devices, so they do not
need third party approval to be
intrinsically safe. When they are
intrinsically safe barrier, the circuits
are intrinsically safe.
Many temperature sensors are
attached to 4-20 mA temperature
transmitters, which comprise 22%
of all intrinsically safe applications.
The next article in this series will
show how to make these
transmitters intrinsically safe.
America. Intech, December, 1992.
Use The 80/20 Rule

In Intrinsic Safety
Circuit Design
Part 3 of this series on intrinsic safety circuit design describes how to select barriers for
intrinsically safe 4-20 mA transmitters. Use the 80/20 Rule to simplify this process.
Paul S. Babiarz
The 80/20 Rule actually is five rules

that are based on the fact that
certain practices prevail 80% of the
time, and 20% of applications are
more difficult. This article focuses on
how to choose intrinsically safe
barriers when the transmitters are
installed in hazardous areas for both
the 80% standard category and the
remaining 20% more difficult
applications.
The most common way to process
and send analog signals in the
instrumentation industry is via
4-20 mA transmitters. Transmitters
can be one of the simplest devices
involving barriers. However,
improper selection of intrinsically
safe barriers in loops with 4-20 mA
transmitters can introduce too much
impedance on the circuit and cause
the transmitters to function
improperly at the high end near the
20 mA reading.
Before selecting barriers, examine
how 4-20 mA analog circuits
function. Transmitters convert a
physical measurement such as
temperature or pressure into an
electrical signal that can be sent
without signal modification to a
converted to
mA signal
0C (min)
100C (max)
Temperature
+24V
4 20 mA
2-Wire
Transmitter
Distributed
Control
System
250
S
E
N
S
O
R
4 20 mA
Conversion
Figure 1. 4-20 mA 2-wire transmitter.
control system over a long distance.

The brains of the system, the DCS,
interprets the electrical signal into
the physical measurement. Because
these analog signals are sent to a
DCS, 4-20 mA circuits are called
analog inputs or A/I. Using
temperature as an example,
examine the function of the
transmitter (Fig. 1).
A power source in the DCS usually
supplies 24 VDC to the transmitter.
The transmitter converts the
physical measurement into an
electrical current signal. Transmitter
current ranging from 4-20 mA is
sent back to the DCS. Current
signals are used to avoid potential
voltage drops or electrical
interference associated with voltage
signals. However, because the
x multiplied by
ohm resistor
converted to
a voltage reading
in the DCS
4 mA (0.004 A)
x 250
1V
20 mA (0.020 A)
x 250
5V
Table 1. Conversion of physical measurement to electrical signals.
Z-137
controller reads a voltage signal, a

conversion resistor (most commonly
250 ohms) converts the 4-20 mA
current range into a voltage signal
on the DCS input channel. Applying
Ohms Law of V = IR, the controller
has a 1-to-5 V signal (Table 1).
Assume the temperature span to be
measured is from 0C to 100C. The
transmitter is calibrated so that a 4
mA signal equals the low reading of
0 and a 20 mA signal equals the
high reading of 100. The DCS then
runs the signal through a conversion
resistor which can be placed either
on the supply (+) or return (-) lead
of the circuit, converting the signal
back to a voltage reading.
There are three types of barriers for
intrinsically safe transmitter
applications: ungrounded repeaters,
grounded repeaters, or grounded
safety barriers. Each has its
advantages and disadvantages
(Table 2).
Ungrounded repeater barriers, also
known as galvanically isolated or
transformer-isolated barriers, are
used more frequently in Europe
Imax, Ci, and Li (see Part 1 of this

series).
Advantages
Disadvantages
Grounded Safety
Least expensive
Requires ground
Barrier
Precise signal response

Very small size
(<12 in. wide)
Requires engineering
Grounded
One product can be used
More expensive
Repeater
Can use transmitters with

higher operating voltage
Requires ground
Larger in size
Consumes more power
One product can be used

No ground required
Can use transmitters with
Most expensive
Larger in size (1 in. wide)
Possible radio frequency
higher operating voltage

Isolation, if good ground
interference
May not be compatible
Ungrounded
Repeater
not available
with smart transmitters
Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of grounded safety barriers, grounded and

ungrounded repeaters.
than in North America. Repeaters

suit most transmitter applications,
but at a higher cost. Grounded or
ungrounded repeaters supply a
constant regulated voltage of 15 to
17 V to the transmitter from a 24 V
source. The return channel is then
run through the barrier, which
repeats it without any appreciable
loss in signal. For example, if a
transmitter sends 19.6 mA through
the barrier, it is repeated in the
barrier without any loss so that
19.6 mA reaches the control room.
Repeaters act like mirrors by
retransmitting, or repeating, the
analog signals.
When budget constraints or control
panel space are important
considerations, grounded safety
barriers may be a better choice.
80/20 Rule #1: In North America,
most analog circuits are
protected by grounded safety
barriers because of lower costs.
Define the hazardous area
where the transmitter is located.
In North America, these areas are
defined by the National Electric
Code as classes, divisions, and
groups. The class defines the type
of materials that are in the
hazardous area. Class I
flammable gases and vapors; Class
II combustible dusts; Class III
fibers and flyings. Hazardous areas
are further broken down into two
divisions. Division 1 means normally
hazardous; Division 2 means not
normally hazardous. The group
designates the type of vapor or dust

in the area. Group A acetylene;
Group B hydrogen; Group C
ethylene; Group D propane;
Group E metal dust; Group F
coal dust; Group G grain dust.
Complex devices. Because
transmitters can store energy, they
are considered complex devices,
and must be approved as
third-party approved, they have
entity parameters such as Vmax,
Conversion
Resistor
+24V
250
Selection of safety barriers. The

proper barrier must be selected by
two separate evaluations: one to
determine that the analog circuit
functions properly at 20 mA, and
one to determine that the circuit is
safe under fault conditions.
Functional parameters: Type of
safety barrier, voltage input (Vn),
and internal resistance (Ri). The
type of safety barrier is largely
determined by the placement of the
conversion resistor. If the resistor is
placed on the supply leg of the
circuit, a simple DC positive barrier
can be used (Fig. 2).
80/20 Rule #2: Most transmitter
circuits have the conversion
resistor on the return channel.
Use the double channel supply
and return barrier.
The supply channel is constructed
like the positive DC barrier; it
prevents a fault on the safe side
from transferring excess energy to
the transmitter. The return channel
has two diodes in series which allow
the signal to pass only in one
direction back to the DCS, and
prevent any excess fault energy
from being transferred to the
transmitter. These diodes and the
supply channel have voltage drops
which must be accounted for in the
analog circuit (Fig. 3).
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
HAZARDOUS SIDE
Intrinsically
Safe
Transmitter
Distributed
Control
System
S
E
N
S
O
R
GRD
Figure 2. Positive DC barrier.

NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
+24V
HAZARDOUS SIDE
Intrinsically
Safe
Transmitter
Distributed
Control
System
250
GRD
Conversion
Resistor
Figure 3. Supply and return barrier.
Z-138
S
E
N
S
O
R
80/20 Rule #3: The supply

voltage normally is 24 VDC.
Select the voltage input, Vn.
One of the reasons that barriers
fail is because the voltage supply
is too high. Use a regulated supply
source with a high end of tolerance
that does not exceed the barrier
rating and a low end that is enough
to drive the circuit. A 24 Vdc
source 1% usually is a good
choice.
Determine the internal
resistance, Ri (also referred to
as end-to-end resistance) of the
barrier best suited for your
circuit. The most critical
component of the barrier selection
is the barriers internal resistance.
If the resistance is too high, the
transmitter will not work near
20 mA. As seen in Table 1 and the
following discussion, at 20 mA the
voltage drops across the barrier
and the conversion resistor will be
the highest. If the internal
resistance is too low, the barriers
short circuit current, Isc, may
exceed the transmitters entity
parameter, Imax.
The easiest way to determine the
barriers permitted resistance is to
calculate the total voltage drop on
the circuit. To select the proper
transmitter barrier, determine the
following:
Hazardous area Groups A-G or
C-G
Placement of the conversion
resistor on either the supply or
return leg of the circuit
Size of the conversion resistor
(250 ohms is most common)
Minimum operating voltage of the
transmitter (This figure, also
referred to as lift-off voltage, is in
the transmitter data sheet. Most
operate at a minimum of 12 V or
lower.)
Entity parameters of approved
transmitter
Case 1. Assume that conditions
are as follows:
Groups A-G
Supply
250 ohms
12 V
Vmax = 30 V, Imax = 150 mA,
Ci = 0 F, Li = 0 mH
Calculate the maximum allowable
resistance of the barrier under
worst-case conditions when the
transmitter is sending a 20 mA
signal. The supply is 24 Vdc; the
transmitter requires a minimum of
12 V; and the 250 ohm conversion
24 Supply
+24V
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
HAZARDOUS SIDE
Intrinsically
Safe
Transmitter
Distributed
Control
System
250
GRD
5 volt loss
maximum
7 volt loss
VOLTAGE BALANCE:
Transmitter = 12 volts
Resistor = 5 volts
Barrier(+ line loss) = 7 volts
Total Supply = 24 volts
12 volt loss
Figure 4. Voltage balance.
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
+24V
S
E
N
S
O
R
Distributed
Control
System
HAZARDOUS SIDE
15 - 17V +
Intrinsically
Safe
Transmitter
Repeater
Barrier
4 20 mA
S
E
N
S
O
R
4 20 mA
Conversion
Resistor
750 - 1000
max
Repeated
Figure 5. Repeater barriers.
resistor requires 5 V at 20 mA.

Simple subtraction leaves a
maximum allowable voltage drop of
7 V. Using Ohms Law, this
converts to an internal resistance
of 350 ohms. Allow for a cable
resistance of about 10 ohms. Thus,
the circuit functions properly with a
barrier having an internal
resistance of 340 ohms.
supply and return side. Voltage

drop on the return side diodes is
about 0.7 V. This leaves a
maximum drop of 6.3 V on the
supply side or a maximum
resistance of 305 ohms (allowing
10 ohms for cable resistance).
Again, verify the entity
parameters of the barrier and
transmitter.
Next, to make sure the circuit is

safe, verify that the barriers entity
parameters match the transmitters
entity parameters. This design
offers the lowest cost solution
where two transmitters can be
connected to one double channel
barrier. This circuit arrangement
allows one common barrier to be
used for most circuits (Fig. 4).
80/20 Rule #4: The two solutions

above cover 80% of all
transmitter applications.
Case 2. Use the same

conditions as in Case 1, except
change the placement of the
conversion resistor to the return
side, and use the supply and
return barrier. Voltage drop on
the barrier occurs on both the
Z-139
But what happens if the circuit falls

into the 20% category? Grounded
safety barriers may not work in
conditions where a loop-powered
indicator is connected, or where
the transmitter requires a minimum
voltage greater than 12 V. In these
cases, the easiest solution is to
use a repeater barrier. Repeaters
provide a regulated power supply
of 15-17 V to the transmitters and
can drive a conversion resistor
load of 750 to 1000 ohms (Fig. 5)
Groups Internal Resistance Voltage Drop
Short Circuit Open Circuit
(Ri)
at 20 mA
Current, Isc
Voltage, Voc
A-G
340 ohms
6.8 V
93 mA
28 V
Barrier #2 C-G
140 ohms
2.8 V
213 mA
28 V
Barrier #1
Table 3. Typical values of barriers rated for different groups.
If repeaters still are not the best

solution, there may be other ways to
use grounded safety barriers. Either
the impedance in the circuit must be
reduced or the voltage must be
increased. If these alternatives are
used, recheck the barrier and
transmitter entity parameters to
make sure the circuit is safe.
Increasing Voltage Supply
Reducing Impedance
Case 1: Resistor on the supply

side. When transmitters are first
energized, they transmit 4 mA for
calibrating zero readings. There
always is at least a 1 V drop across
the resistor before the supply
reaches the barrier. The voltage
supply could be increased to 25 to
26 V without the barrier sensing a
fault condition. This would allow 1 to
2 additional volts on the circuit.
Case 1. Reduce the conversion

resistor. As seen in Fig. 2, only two
fixed sources of impedance can be
reduced: the conversion resistor or
the barrier. One solution is to reduce
the conversion resistor to 100 or
50 ohms to obtain maximum voltage
readings of 2.0 to 1.0 V respectively.
(Example: 20 mA (0.02 A) x
100 ohms = 2 V.) This may be
practical for new installations, but it
may not be possible for cases where
additions are being made to an
existing control system.
If the voltage supply is increased

too much, the barrier may sense a
fault and the fuse could blow,
interrupting the circuit. Some
allowance can be tolerated for
increasing the voltage supply on
barriers with a nominal rated
voltage of 24 VDC.
Case 2: Resistor on the return

side. Since the resistor is on the
return side, the barriers receive the
total voltage supply. Since this
circuit is more sensitive to voltage
increases, be careful about
increasing the supply above the
barrier's nominal rated voltage, Vn.
Before the zener diodes in the
barriers reach their rated voltage,
there may be some leakage current
that could affect the transmitter
signals. Diode leakage current
values ranging from 1 to 10A are
listed by the barrier manufacturers.
In Case 1, this could mean that the
current signal could be deformed by
a maximum of 0.025% at 4 mA
(1 A/4 mA).
When the resistor is placed on the
return side, leakage current is on
the supply side and does not affect
the transmitters 4-20 mA signal.
Transmitters comprise 22% of all
intrinsically safe circuits. The next
article will feature discrete inputs,
also referred to as switching. These
represent 32% or almost one-third
of all intrinsically safe circuits.

America. Intech, March, 1993.
Case 2. Select a barrier with

lower resistance.
80/20 Rule #5: Many hazardous
locations are classified as
Groups C-G.
Ignition curves in Groups C-G allow
higher rated voltages and current
before gases ignite (see Part 1 of
this series, October 1992). Barriers
designed for hydrogen and other
gases classified as Group A or B
require higher series resistance
than barriers designed for only the
more common gases in Groups C
and D. Thus, most intrinsically safe
instruments should have entity
parameters (Imax, maximum short
circuit current) that are higher for
Groups C-G. (As a practical matter,
most instrument manufacturers
have not taken advantage of this
fact.) With the Group C-G rating
high-current barriers can be used,
which have a lower internal
resistance. These barriers have
corresponding lower voltage drops
but higher Isc (Table 3).
See SIB Series of Intrinsically Safe Transmitters
Z-140
Making Digital Inputs

Intrinsically Safe
Part 4 of this series describes how to make a switch intrinsically safe by using a switch
amplifier or a grounded safety barrier.
Digital inputs constitute almost onethird of all process signals. They

also are known as binary, on-off,
0/1, or simple switching signals
where a switch is either opened or
closed. The most common
examples of these are mechanical
or reed contacts, transistors, limit,
float, on-off, and pushbutton
switches. As defined in paragraph
3.12 of the ANSI/ISA-RP12.6-1987,
switches are simple devices that
neither generate nor store more
than 1.2 V, 0.1 A, 25 mW, or 20J.
Since switches are simple devices,
they do not have to be approved as
apparatus (barrier), the circuit is
deemed to be intrinsically safe.
To make a switch intrinsically safe,

the user may select a switch
amplifier or a safety barrier. A switch
amplifier is an intrinsically safe relay
that solves virtually all switching
applications. However, if power is
not available in the control panel or
if panel space is an important
consideration, a grounded safety
barrier may be a better choice. There
is not a significant cost savings of
one alternative over the other. Each
has its own advantages and
disadvantages, as shown in Table 1.
Switch Amplifiers
The most common application is
switching through an intrinsically
safe relay (Fig. 1). Relays, which
normally are powered by 110 VAC
or 24 VDC, have a low voltage and
current which are safe at the contact
in the hazardous area. When this
contact is closed, the relay transfers
the signal from the hazardous
Non-Intrinsically Safe Wiring
Paul S. Babiarz
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
location to the non-hazardous side.

A closed switch on the hazardous
side operates a relay or optocoupler
output on the non-hazardous side.
The signals are electrically isolated
so that grounding is not required.
When proximity switches became a
popular means of sensing the
presence of objects and materials,
the NAMUR-style sensor was
developed. Contrary to popular
opinion, NAMUR is not an approval
standard. It was organized by the
German chemical industry to
develop operating standards for
proximity switches. A NAMUR-style
proximity switch is a 2-wire DC
sensor that operates at 8.2 V with
switch points operating between 1.2
to 2.1 mA. This NAMUR standard
later was superseded by the
German Standard DIN 199234,
Measurement And Control:
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
INTRINSICALLY SAFE WIRING
To Field Circuits
Figure 1. Switch amplifier 2 channels.
Z-141
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
HAZARDOUS SIDE
Distributed
Control
System
Intrinsic
Safety
Barrier
Electrical Sensors Used For

Intrinsically Safe 2-Wire DC
Systems. Because these switches
required a remote amplifier for
operation, most switch amplifiers
standardized on an intrinsically safe
voltage of 8.2 V and current of 8 mA
at the contacts in hazardous areas.
This provided enough power to
operate NAMUR-style proximity
switches safely.
The amplifiers are sensitive enough
to detect closed contacts in
corrosive or abusive areas. Despite
the fact that the intrinsically safe
voltage and current at the contacts
are very low, most modern switch
amplifiers will detect a closed
contact when the resistance of the
circuit is less than 3000 ohms.
Intrinsically safe switches can be
located a long distance from the
switch amplifiers and still function
properly.
Switch amplifiers are available with
two different output contacts to the
safe side, relays and optocouplers.
The more commonly used relay
versions are applied in slow speed
switching to operate smaller pumps,
motors, or other electrical devices.
Optocouplers are transistors
operated by photo diodes to close
the output contacts. These outputs
have lower contact ratings but an
almost infinite switching capability.
Optocouplers are used for switching
back to a DCS or for high-speed
counting operations up to thousands
of times per second (KHz).
Intrinsically
Safe
Apparatus
Figure 3. Current sinking switching.
used for transmitters (see Part 3 of

this series).
The current sourcing method of
switching in Fig. 2 could use the
same signal and return barrier that
was used for 4-20 mA transmitters.
The voltage to the switch is supplied
through the supply channel. The
second channel is used for signal
return. A closed switch will close the
contact in the DCS. Most digital
input signals operate with 24 V and
10 mA. If the same barrier is used
for switching as 4-20 mA
transmitters, there will be about a 3
to 4 V drop across the barrier.
The barrier used for current sinking
switching can be a single-channel
DC barrier as seen in Fig. 3. When
the switch is open, the DCS input
will sense 24 V. When the switch is
closed, the DCS will recognize a
lower voltage. This lower voltage is
calculated as a voltage divider
circuit.
Make sure the rated voltage of the
barrier, Vn, is equal to or greater
than the voltage supply. Since most

switching uses 24 VDC, select a
barrier rated at 24 V. The internal
resistance of the barrier is not as
critical since the current in digital
inputs usually is very small.
However, it always is good practice
to select a barrier with low
resistance. Check the approvals of
the barriers to make sure that they
are rated for the proper hazardous
area group location.
Intrinsically safe relays, also referred
to as switch amplifiers, can be
applied universally for all digital
inputs. However, if safety barriers
are used, the same barriers used to
make analog inputs intrinsically safe
can be used for either current
sourcing or current sinking
switching.
The next article in this series will
explain how to make digital outputs
intrinsically safe.
Copyright Instrument Society of America.
Intech, April, 1993. All Rights Reserved.
Switch Amplifiers
Advantages
Disadvantages
Simple application
No ground required
No internal resistance
LEDs to indicate power and
monitor operations
Sensitive to detect closed
contacts in corrosive areas
Needs power supply

Larger in size
Switching Through Safety

Barriers
When a 110 V supply is not
available in the control panel, safety
barriers frequently are used for
digital inputs back to a DCS. There
are two methods of switching:
current sourcing or current sinking.
Both of these methods can use the
same types of barriers that were
Intrinsic
Safety
Barrier
Potential of
Ground Loops
ONLY THESE WIRESARE

INTRINSICALLYSAFE
Figure 2. Current sourcing switching.
HAZARDOUS SIDE
Safety Barriers
Advantages
Disadvantages
Smaller size
Does not require power supply
Requires grounding
Has internal resistance
Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of switch amplifiers and safety barriers.
Z-142
Intrinsically Safe Outputs

Made Easy
Part 5 of this series explains how to make solenoid valves, LEDs, and
I/P transducers intrinsically safe.
HAZARDOUS SIDE
CLASS I, II, III
DIVISION 1
GROUPS A-G
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
+ 24 V
Digital
Output
D/O
Solenoid
Valve
GRD
Solenoid valves need

entity approval
Typical Safety Barrier

Parameters
VN: 24 V
Ri::
350
VN = Rated voltage
Ri = Internal resistance
Paul S. Babiarz
Digital outputs refer to closed

contacts in a distributed control
system (DCS). They transfer a
voltage to a process area to operate
a field device. The two most
commonly used digital output field
devices, solenoid valves and LED
displays, can easily be made
intrinsically safe. For solenoid
valves, the same types of barriers
are used that make analog and
digital inputs (transmitters and
switch contacts) intrinsically safe.
LEDs may require a different barrier.
There is good news and bad news

for making circuits (or loops)
containing solenoid valves
intrinsically safe. The bad news is
that unlike transmitters which have
minimum operating voltages, valve
manufacturers often describe their
valves with a nominal operating
current or voltage. To select the
proper barrier one needs to know
the minimum operating characteristics
under the most extreme conditions.
Without these characteristics it can
be quite difficult to select a barrier
that will allow the circuit to function
properly and still meet the entity
parameters of the valves. Conditions
that may affect the operating
characteristics are high ambient
temperatures, position of the
actuator, and length of cable runs.
Z-143
The good news is that there are only

a handful of approved intrinsically
safe solenoid valves to choose from.
For this article, manufacturers tested
their intrinsically safe valves with the
most common barrier used in analog
and digital input circuits the 24 Vdc
barrier with a resistance equal to or
less than 350 ohms (Fig. 1).
To determine the correct barrier, start
with the basics. Since most digital
output circuits operate with 24 Vdc
switched on the positive side, use a
positive DC barrier rated at 24 Vdc.
Knowing the minimum operating
current of the valve and the internal
impedance of the coil, you can
calculate the maximum allowable
impedance for the barrier and the
cable.
Analog Outputs
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
+24 V
HAZARDOUS SIDE
CLASS I, II, III
DIVISION 1
GROUPS A-G
Analog outputs refer to I/P

transducers, also known as I/Ps
(pronounced Ida Pease). An I/P
transducer produces a pneumatic
output proportional to the electrical
current input that it receives. The
more current that is applied to the
transducer, the more air pressure is
allowed into the system to drive a
device. As opposed to a solenoid
valve which is either in an opened or
closed position, a transducer is a
proportional valve. I/P transducers
are referred to as analog outputs
because a variable output, the
current signal, is sent from the DCS
to the transducer.
25 mA
Digital
Output
D/O
12 V
GRD
12 volt drop across barrier

(480 x .025)
LED Pilot Light

LED pilot light is a simple
device; does not need
approval

Parameters
VN: 24 V
Ri: 480
VN = Rated voltage
Ri = Internal resistance
Figure 2. LED pilot light.
For example, assume a valve has a

minimum operating current of 28 mA
and a coil impedance of 400 ohms.
The maximum allowable impedance
of the circuit is 857 ohms (24/.028 =
857).
If the internal impedance of the
solenoid coil is 400 ohms, the
allowable impedance of the barrier
and cable would be 457 ohms
(857-400 = 457). The resistance of
one mile of #18 AWG wire at 60C
is about 40 ohms (resistance of
#18 AWG wire at 60C is 0.00737
ohms/ft.). This makes the maximum
resistance of the barrier 457-40 =
417 ohms.
Selecting the barrier now is simple:
1. Select a simple DC positive barrier.
(The rated voltage should be 24 V.)
2. Calculate the maximum allowable
resistance of the barrier as in the
example.
3.Confirm that the entity parameters
of the solenoid valve match those
of the barrier (refer to Part 1 of this
series).
Associated Apparatus
(barrier)
Open circuit voltage

Short circuit current
Allowed capacitance
Allowed inductance
Apparatus
(field device)
Voc
Isc
Ca
La
Vmax
Imax
Ci
Li
LEDs
LEDs (light emitting diodes) are
simple devices since they do not
store energy (capacitance or
inductance); therefore, they do not
need to be approved. However, they
still must be used with safety
barriers to make circuits intrinsically
safe. Typical LEDs are rated at 24,
18, 12, or 6 V and operate at about
25 mA. Since there will always be a

voltage drop across the barrier, the
best application is to choose an
LED rated at less than 24 VDC. Use
a barrier rated at 24 V, then subtract
the rated voltage of the LED. This
difference is the allowable voltage
drop on the barrier at the rated
current. Use Ohms Law (V = IR) to
calculate the internal impedance of
the barrier. Example:
LED rated at 12 V at 25 mA
Allowable voltage drop 12 V
(24-12 = 12)
Internal impedance of the barrier
= 480 ohms (12/.025 = 480)
Choose a 24 V positive DC barrier
with an internal impedance of about
480 ohms (Fig. 2).
The barrier must have an internal

resistance less than 850 ohms
(1000-150 = 850). Verify the rated
voltage of the barrier by calculating
the voltage drop of the circuit. For
example, use the same barrier and
cable values as in the solenoid valve
example. The total impedance
(impedance of barrier + transducer
+ cable) of the circuit would be
HAZARDOUS SIDE
CLASS I, II, III
DIVISION 1
GROUPS A-G
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
+ 4-20 mA
I/P transducers need entity

approval. They act like resistors in
the circuit, so three facts must be
known to select the correct barrier:
transducer impedance; maximum
burden of the driver that sends the
current signal; and transducer entity
values. Burden, rated in ohms,
measures the maximum load the
DCS can drive. To select the barrier,
use the following characteristics:
Transducer impedance is 150 ohms
Burden of the drive is 1000 ohms
Analog
Output
A/O
I/P
Transducer
GRD
Single Channel DC Barrier

Parameters
VN 12 V
Ri 150
150
VN = Rated voltage
Ri= Internal resistance
Figure 3. 4-20 mA I/P transducer.
Z-144
I/P transducers need

entity approval
Device
Barrier
Type
Rated
Voltage
Internal
Resistance
Notes
(IT = INTECH)
Thermocouples
AC
>1 V
<1000*
Thermocouples are simple

devices; do not need approval.
RTDs
AC
>1 V
<1000*
RTDs are simple devices; do

not need approval.
Digital inputs
switch
amplifiers
Dry contacts are simple

D/I - current
sourcing
supply &
return
24
350**

D/I - current
sinking
DC
24
350**

A/I
transmitters
supply &
return
24
350
Transmitters need approval.

Check entity parameters.
Conversion resistor of
250 ohms is on negative side.
Minimum lift-off voltage of
transmitter is 12 or less.
A/I transmitters
DC
24
350
Same, except conversion

resistor is on + side.
D/O solenoid
valves
DC
24
350
Solenoid valves need approval.

Check entity parameters.
A/O transducers
DC
>12
>150
Transducers need approval.

Check entity parameters and
DCS burden.
Select a barrier with a low resistance.
** Other barriers with a different resistance can be used. However, these barriers match those of the analog inputs.
Table 1. Guide to selecting grounded safety barriers.
540 ohms (350 + 150 + 40). At the

maximum current of 20 mA, the
voltage drop would be 10.8 V
(540 x 0.20 = 10.8). Select a
barrier rated equal to or higher
than 10.8 V. A barrier rated at 12 V
or higher with an internal
resistance of 150 ohms also would
be a good choice (Fig. 3). Confirm
that the entity parameters of the
barrier correspond with those of
the transducer.
This series of articles has shown
how the most common
applications of temperature
measurements and analog or
digital inputs/outputs can be made
intrinsically safe with a few intrinsic
safety barriers. Selection is simple:
1. Determine if the field device is a
simple or nonsimple (energy
storing) device that needs

approval and has entity
parameters.
2. Select the type of barrier
needed to protect the individual
ungrounded lines of the circuit.
Normally, temperature sensors
use an AC barrier. For analog
inputs and current sourcing
switching, use the supply and
return barrier. The remainder
(analog and digital outputs and
some switching circuits) require
DC barriers.
5. Confirm that the entity

parameters of the barrier match
those of the field device.
Use Table 1 as a guide in selecting
grounded safety barriers. There
will always be exceptions to these
guidelines, so verify your selection
with the manufacturer of the
barriers or field devices.
The last installment in this series
will discuss the general rules of
grounding, installation, and
maintenance of intrinsically safe
systems.
3. Select a barrier with a rated

voltage equal to or greater than
the voltage of the circuit.
4. Confirm that the internal
resistance of the barrier will
allow enough voltage for the field
device to operate properly.
Z-145

Intech, September, 1993. All Rights
Reserved.
Installing Intrinsically Safe

Systems
Part 6 of this series summarizes the major points of barrier replacement, wiring, installation,
grounding, sealing, maintenance, and troubleshooting of intrinsically safe systems.
Paul S. Babiarz
We have shown how an intrinsically
safe circuit is designed for most
common applications. Now the
intrinsically safe system must be
properly installed and provisions
must be made to maintain and
troubleshoot it. These procedures
are discussed in detail in Article 504
of the National Electrical Code
(NEC) and the ANSI/ISA
RP 12.6-1987 Recommended
Practice Installation of
Intrinsically Safe Systems For
Hazardous (Classified) Locations.
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Non-Intrinsically Safe Wiring
To Control
Room Circuits
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
INTRINSICALLY SAFE WIRING
Wiring
Intrinsically safe circuits may be
wired in the same manner as
comparable circuits installed for
unclassified locations with two
exceptions summarized as
separation and identification. These
wiring practices are simple and
clear; however, they often are
overlooked and are the source of
potential problems.
To Field Circuits
Figure 1. Suggested panel arrangement using separate wireways.
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
The intrinsically safe conductors

must be separated from all other
wiring by placing them in separate
conduits or by a separation of
2 inches of air space. Within an
enclosure the conductors can be
separated by a grounded metal or
insulated partition (Fig. 1).
HAZARDOUS SIDE
Intrinsic
Safety
Barrier
ONLY THESE WIRESARE

INTRINSICALLYSAFE
Figure 2. Barrier installation.
Z-146
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
influence the function of the system

by creating noise on the circuit or
modifying the signals. Fig. 3 shows
an improperly grounded system.
The numerous grounding points
create ground loops which can
modify the signals and induce stray
voltages into the intrinsically safe
circuits. The correct method of
grounding is shown in Fig. 4 where
all the grounds are tied together at
one single point in the system.
HAZARDOUS SIDE
Distributed
Control
System
Intrinsic
Safety
Barrier
Intrinsically
Safe
Apparatus
Sealing
Potential of
Ground Loops
Main Earth Ground
Figure 3. Unacceptable grounding.
Intrinsically safe wiring may be light

blue when no other conductors
colored light blue are used. The
raceways, cable trays, open wiring,
and terminal boxes must be labeled
Intrinsically Safe Wiring to prevent
unintentional interference with the
circuits. The spacing between the
labels should not exceed 25 ft.
Barrier Installation
The barriers normally are installed
in a dust- and moisture-free NEMA
4 or 12 enclosure located in the
nonhazardous area. Only the barrier
outputs are intrinsically safe.
Conductive dust or moisture could
lessen the required distance of 2 in.
between intrinsically safe and
nonintrinsically safe conductors
(Fig. 2). The enclosure should be as
close as possible to the hazardous
area to minimize cable runs and
increased capacitance of the circuit.
If they are installed in a hazardous
area, they must be in the proper
enclosure suited for that area.
The grounding conductor must be

a minimum 12 AWG.
All ground path connections must
be secure, permanent, visible, and

accessible for routine inspection.
A separate isolated ground
conductor normally is required
since the normal protective
ground conductor (green or
yellow/green wire) may not be at
the same ground potential
because of the voltage drop from
fault currents in other equipment.
For installations designed to
Canadian standards, the
Canadian Electrical Code
(Appendix F) recommends
redundant grounding conductors.
A poor grounding system can
HAZARDOUS SIDE
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
Distributed
Control
System
Grounding
First determine if the intrinsically
safe barriers used in the system are
grounded or isolated. The isolated
barriers normally are larger, more
expensive, and do not require a
ground for safety. The grounded
safety barriers are smaller and less
expensive, but require a ground to
divert the excess energy. The main
rules of grounding intrinsically safe
systems are:
The ground path must have less
than 1 ohm of resistance from the
furthest barrier to the main
grounding electrode.
The requirements for sealing

intrinsically safe circuits have been
discussed by a panel of experts and
published in Seals for Intrinsically
Safe Circuits, EC&M, September
1992, pp. 48-49. The panels
conclusion is that seals are required
to prevent the transmission of gases
and vapors from the hazardous area
to the nonhazardous area, not to
prevent passage of flames from
explosions. Explosion-proof seals
are not required as long as there is
some other mechanical means of
preventing the passage of gases
such as positive pressure in the
control room and/or application of
an approved mastic at cable
terminations and between the cable
and raceway. Many experts
generally agree that a commercially
available silicon caulk is a suitable
mastic which would minimize the
passage of gases. This must,
however, be acceptable to the
authority having jurisdiction.
Intrinsic
Safety
Barrier
Intrinsically
Safe
Apparatus
Single Ground Point
Main Earth Ground
Figure 4. Acceptable grounding.
Z-147
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
Explosion Proof
Enclosure
HAZARDOUS SIDE
Intrinsically
Safe
Apparatus
Intrinsic
Safety
Barrier
Distributed
Control
System
Intrinsically
Safe Seal
Explosion Proof
Seal
Figure 5. Mounting in a hazardous area.
When barriers are installed in

explosion-proof enclosures, which
are located in the hazardous area,
explosion-proof seals are required
on the enclosure (Fig. 5). Since
other conduits containing
nonintrinsically safe conductors
between the hazardous and
nonhazardous areas require
explosion-proof seals, it is good
practice to maintain consistency and
install explosion-proof seals on the
conduits containing intrinsically safe
conductors also. The exception to
this would be where multiconductor
shielded cable is used. This cable
may be difficult to seal in some
explosion-proof fittings. However, it
will be necessary to seal both the
cable terminations and between the
cable and raceway to minimize the
passage of gases, vapors, or dust.
Maintenance
No special maintenance of
intrinsically safe systems is
required. Once a year the barriers

should be checked to ensure that
the connections are tight,
the ground wiring has less than one
ohm of resistance, and the barriers
are free from moisture and dirt.
Check the panel and conduits for
separation and identification of the
intrinsically safe wiring. Never test
the barrier with an ohmmeter or
other test instrument while it is
connected in the circuit
(Fig. 6). This bypasses the barrier
and could induce voltages into the
intrinsically safe wiring.
Troubleshooting
If the intrinsic safety circuit does not
operate properly once it is
completed and energized, follow
these troubleshooting guidelines:
Make sure the connections are
tight.
Check the wiring to the
appropriate terminals against the
control wiring diagram. A control
Testmeter
Intrinsic
Safety
Barrier
NEVER DO THIS!
wiring diagram is defined by the

NEC as a drawing or other
document provided by the
manufacturer of the intrinsically
safe or associated apparatus that
details the allowed
interconnections between the
intrinsically safe and associated
apparatus. These diagrams are
easier to obtain than in the past.
Make sure that one of the
manufacturers provides not only
diagrams which show the
interconnections between the field
device and barriers, but also
wiring diagrams which
demonstrate that the circuit
functions properly and is safe by
comparing the safety parameters
of the field device and the barriers.
Make sure the circuit is powered.
Check to see if the resistance in
the barrier is too high for the
circuit. As stated in the previous
articles in this series, circuits are
analyzed for the proper loop
resistance (barrier and cable) and
supply voltages. If the circuit does
not operate properly, check the
circuit against the design in the
control wiring diagram.
Check for a blown barrier fuse.
This is accomplished by
disconnecting the barrier from the
circuit and measuring the
end-to-end resistance of the
barrier. If the ohmmeter registers
an infinite resistance, the fuse in
the barrier is blown. The fuse has
opened because of a fault in the
circuit, so reevaluate the entire
circuit before reinstalling a new
barrier.
Barrier Replacement
If the barriers fuse has opened, it
usually is the result of excessive
voltage being applied to the barrier.
This causes the diode to conduct,
which results in high current in the
fuse. After determining the cause of
the excess voltage, the barrier must
be replaced. The procedure is to
disconnect the wiring from the
safety barriers in the proper order of
nonhazardous terminal first,
hazardous terminals next, and the
ground last. Cover the bare wire
ends with tape, replace the barrier,
and then reverse the procedure to
mount the new barrier. Always install
the ground first and disconnect the
ground last.
Intech, October, 1993. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 6. The barrier should never be tested with an ohmmeter or other instrument while it is
connected in circuit.
Z-148
Selecting A Recorder
of/in addition to trend recording?
Is color differentiation available for
trend lines?
Is message printing required?
Is the recorder to perform alarm
functions?
How many setpoints per channel?
What types of alarms: threshold, rate
delta?
Are physical relay contacts available
for external alarm output?
Number required
SIGNAL INPUTS
GETTING STARTEDA CHECKLIST
How many inputs need to be recorded?
What types of inputs need to be
recorded?
Voltage and sensitivity
Thermocouples
RTDs
Do different input types need to be
recorded in the same unit?
What type of recording is required?
Continuous
Multiplex scanning (what minimum
scan cycle is required?)
Is a communciation interface required?
To transmit measured data to a
computer
Available input types

Typical process recorders accept
analog dc voltage inputs,
thermocouple, or RTD temperature
inputs or dry contact status input.
Signal processing
Linear scaling (conversion to
engineering units)
Thermocouple characterization
Difference calculation
Square root calculation
HIGHER-LEVEL FUNCTIONS
Intelligence
Math functions: +, -, x, , square root,
absolute value, logarithm, exponential
functions, max, min, time average,
group average, summantion, (maxmin), standard deviation, and
integration.
For remote setup of recorder

To connect to an external printer
Programming method
Front panel
Remote (downloaded)
Is recorder to be bench style or panel

mounting?
What type of instrument power is
available?
Is log-type recording desirable instead
Communications
RS-232C: serial point to point, 50 feet
cable length maximum at 9600 baud;
GPIB (IEEE-488): parallel (20 meter
system cable length maximum, 2 meter
Features
Printing method
Marking element
Continuous Writing
Wet ink
Thermal
Felt-tip or capillary Thermal array with
drag pen
heat-sensitive paper
Multicolor trending
Multicolor trending
enhances chart
readability
Single color trending

makes readability
difficult when trend
lines cross or are in
close proximity
Ability to capture fastchanging signals

Special chart paper
required
Yes
Yes
No
Temperature-sensitive No
nature of paper can
cause problems in
application of
recorder and storage
of charts
distance between devices, up to 14

devices per controller);
RS-422A/RS-485:
Balanced/unbalanced, serial, up to 32
devices per system, cable length can
extend to 1.2 km at 9600 baud.
HARD COPY AND DISPLAY

Recording method
Galvanometer movement
Servo
Stepper-driven
Fixed array
Writing method
Capillary ink
Disposable felt-tip ink cartridges
Dot printing: ink ribbon cassette or
pressure-sensitive paper
Thermal-moving head or stationary
linear array
Rotating ink wheel
The most popular methods have
become disposable ink cartridges for
continuous (drag pen) recording, and
multicolor ink ribbon cassette for dotprinting multipoint recording. These
writing methods use an economical
type of paper which is not sensitive to
routine handling and does not require
special storage considerations.
Chart types
For process recorders there are
basically two types of charts, Z-fold or
roll. Z-fold has become a predominant
choice for process applications due to
the ease of review of past traces
without disrupting active recording.
Chart speeds
Fixed or programmable
Multipoint
Mechanical
High-speed wire
Impact dot matrix
dot with multicolor
with pressureribbon
sensitive paper
Multicolor trending
Single color
enhances chart
trending makes
readability
readability difficult
when trend lines
cross or are in
close proximity
No
No
Z-149
Pressure-sensitive
nature of paper
can create
problems in
handling and
storage of charts
Thermal
Thermal matrix with
heat-sensitive paper
Single color trending
makes readability
difficult when trend
lines cross or are in
close proximity
No
Temperature-sensitive
nature of paper can
cause problems in
application of recorder
and storage of charts
Chart annotation
Tag printing
Digital printing
List printing
Alarm printing
Prints in engineering units
Message printing
Scale printing
Channel identifier (numeric or
alphanumeric)
Date and time
Chart speed
Snapshot digital measured values
internal when no alarm condition

exists, automactically switching to
alternate chart speed or log interval
when an alarm condition exists
RECORDER DEFINITIONS
Hybrid recorder: A recorder that
combines analog trend
representation and digital measured
value printing on the same chart
paper, without disruption of trend
For continuous writing recorders, the

annotation is accomplished by a
separate writing pen so that trace
information is not lost.
For dot-printing recorders, the
annotation is done by the dot-printer,
with either single-dot or full character
printing with each traverse of the
printhead, depending on whether the
instrument is performing analog
trending or log reporting.
Chart widths
100 mm
180 mm
250 mm
Visual indicators
Analog bargraph indication (% of full
scale)
Analog scale indication (% of full
scale)
Digital channel number and
measured value
Alarm status
Engineering units
Recorder setup
Until the advent of the
microprocessor, recorders were
dedicated to measuring only the type
of input signal and only the span
specified at the time of order. To
change input signal type and/or
measuring span, hardware changes
were required. Presently, recorders
are available in which input signal
type, measuring span, tag and unit
designators can conveniently be set
in by the user. The recorder setup is
done by a keypad or, if the
instrument has a communication
interface, by means of a computer
keyboard or downloading of a
computer file.
Modes
Normal: Monitoring at set scan
interval and trending at set chart
speed, or logging at set intervals
Print on alarm: Monitoring at set
scan interval but not trending or
logging until an alarm condition
occurs
Change on alarm: Trending or
logging at a base chart speed or log
printing.
Servo balancing: A means of
positioning the pen of a drag pen
recorder. Null-balance operation has
no current flow at balance, nullifying
the effect of lead resistance.
Conventional servo balancing
recorders use contact mechanisms
in the feedback loop and brushes in
the servo motor. New technology
allows the use of a noncontact pen
positioning transducer and a
brushless dc servo motor.
Scanning recorder: A multi-point
recorder that scans all of its inputs to
obtain new measured data every set
time period (usually 2 to 6 seconds).
Printing for all points is often
Linear scaling: Recording of a

voltage input in terms of the
engineering variable, such as
temperature, that the voltage
represents. Transformation is Y
(variable to be recorded) = mX (slope
x input signal) + b (Y intercept).
Pen offset compensation: In
traditional multiple input drag pen
recorders, each pen can travel the
full width of the recording chart. In
order to do so, the pens must be
physically offset from one another.
This puts the different pen traces on
different time lines of the chart. By
placing the measured data of the
front-most pen(s) into a buffer and
delaying their printing, the traces can
be synchronized to the same time
line, thereby compensating for their
offset.
Accuracy: The closeness to the
actual signal that the measured
value or trend position takes, stated
as either a percentage of full scale or
percent of reading. Separate
accuracy statements are typically
provided for measuring and
recording functions.
Tag ID: A means of designating a
trace or digital measured value by an
alphanumeric identifier instead of a
numeric identifier. Typically available
with up to seven characters.
Digital printing: Printing of the
precise measured numerical values
for the various channels, along with
their channel identifiers. Digital
printing usually occurs in a margin of
the chart so as not to interrupt trend
recording.
Log report: A printout of precise
measured numerical values for the
various channels, along with their
channel identifiers. Typically prints in
full character height per print cycle.
During trending, prints on demand,
resuming trending automatically.
When trending is not being used,
performed during each cycle of the

printing mechanism.
Multi-color printing: A recorder that
records trend traces in more than
one color to make traces easier to
differentiate. Drag pen recorders use
a different color for each pen (usually
four pens maximum). Mulit-point
recorders typically record in six
colors.
Z-150
prints at a preselected time interval.

May also include alarm status
indication.
Courtesy of Johnson Yokogawa

Corporation.
Overview of IEEE-488
INTRODUCTION
Some of its key features are:
IEEE-488 refers to the Institute of Electrical and

Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Standard number 488.
This standard was first established in 1978, 13 years
after Hewlett-Packard (HP) of Palo Alto, CA, began
work to enable its broad range of instruments to
communicate with one another and with host
computers.
At the time of its development, IEEE-488 was

particularly well-suited for instrument applications when
compared with the alternatives. In essence, IEEE-488
comprises a bus on a cable, providing both a parallel
data transfer path on eight lines and eight dedicated
control lines. Given the demands of the times, its
nominal 1 Mbyte/sec maximum data transfer rate
seemed quite adequate; even today, IEEE-488 is
sufficiently powerful for many highly sophisticated and
demanding applications.
Mechanical Specifications
However, IEEE-488, as originally defined, left some

ambiguities in the specifics of controller-instrument
interaction and communication. While these open
issues were likely intended to give instrument and
controller designers some latitude, the result was
confusion and compatibility problems among
instruments from different manufacturers.
During the 1980s, a new layer was added to the IEEE488 standard, IEEE-488.2. The original standard was
re-designated IEEE-488.1. IEEE-488.2 provides for a
minimum set of capabilities among controllers and
devices, as well as for more specific content and
structure of messages and communications protocols.
Up to 15 devices may be connected to one bus

Total bus length may be up to 20 m and the distance
between devices may be up to 2 m
Communication is digital (as opposed to analog) and
messages are sent one byte (8 bits) at a time
Message transactions are hardware handshaked
Data rates may be up to 1 Mbyte/sec
CONNECTOR
The IEEE-488 connector is a 24-pin connector. Devices
on the IEEE-488 bus have female receptacles;
interconnecting cables have the mating male
connectors. Connecting cables will typically have male
and female receptacles wired in parallel at each
connecting head to allow parallel connection of cables
at a device and/or to allow daisychaining between
devices.
INTERCONNECTION CABLING
Any individual IEEE-488 bus is limited to 15 devices
including the controller. However, the IEEE-488
specification limits the total length of all cabling used to
interconnect devices on a common bus to 20 m, or 2 m
times the number of interconnected devices (up to 20 m).
Cable lengths between devices may vary, as long as
total cable length does not exceed these restrictions.
Devices may be interconnected in a star or linear
topology, or in a combination of the two, as long as the
distance limits are observed. For maximum data
transfer rates, the total cable length should be reduced
to 15 m, with the average interdevice cable 1 m or less.
IEEE-488.2 is fully backward compatible with IEEE488.1; the use of a 488.2-compliant controller affords
the ability to use the new protocols available with
488.2 instruments while retaining the ability to
communicate with and control 488.1-compliant
instruments and associated vendor idiosyncrasies.
Electrical Specifications
Today, IEEE-488 is the most widely recognized and

used method for communication among scientific and
engineering instruments. Major stand-alone general
purpose instrument vendors include IEEE-488
interfaces in their products. Many vertical market
instrument makers also rely on IEEE-488 for data
communications and control.
Data Lines - Eight lines (DIO1 through DIO8) used to

transfer information (data and commands) between
devices on the bus, one byte at a time.
Handshake Lines - Three lines used to handshake
the transfer of information across the data lines:
DAV: Data Valid
NDAC: Not Data Accepted
NRFD: Not Ready for Data
Bus Management Lines - Five lines used for general
control and coordination of bus activities:
ATN: Attention
I FC: Interface Clear
REN: Remote Enable
SRQ: Service Request
EOI: End or Identify
Ground Lines - Eight lines used for shielding and
signal returns:
One Shield
One General Signal Ground
Six logic ground lines paired off with ATN, SRQ,
IFC, NDAC, NRFD and DAV
BUS LINES
The IEEE-488 bus is a multidrop interface in which all
connected devices have access to the bus lines. The 24
bus lines group into four categories:
IEEE-488 controllers support a variety of personal

computers, from the IBM PC/XT/AT and PS/2 and
compatibles to the multifaceted Macintosh family. Some
of these controllers are plug-in cards; others are
protocol converters (e.g., SCSI-to-IEEE-488). All
provide at least IEEE-488.1 in compliance, and a
growing number adhere to 488.2.
GENERAL INFORMATION
The IEEE-488 interface, sometimes called the General
Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB), is a general purpose
digital interface system that can be used to transfer
data between two or more devices. It is particularly wellsuited for interconnecting computers and instruments.
Z-151
HANDSHAKING
The IEEE-488 bus uses three handshake lines in a
We're ready - Here's the data - We've got it sequence
to transfer information across the data bus. The
handshake protocol assures reliable data transfer at the
rate determined by the slowest Listener. The
handshake lines, like all other IEEE-488 lines, are
active low. DAV is controlled by the Active Talker.
Before sending any data, the Talker verifies that NDAC
is asserted (low) which indicates that all Listeners have
accepted the previous data byte. The Talker then
places a byte onto the data lines and waits until NRFD
is unasserted (high), indicating that all Addressed
Listeners are ready to accept the information. When
NRFD and NDAC are in the proper state, the Talker
asserts DAV (active low) to indicate that the data on the
bus is valid. NRFD is used by the Listeners to inform
the Talker that they are ready to accept the new data.
The Talker must wait for each Listener to unassert this
line (high), which they do at their own rates when they
are ready for more data. This assures that all devices
accepting the information are ready to receive it. NDAC,
also controlled by the Listeners, indicates to the Talker
that each device addressed to listen has accepted the
information. Each device releases NDAC (high) at its
own rate, but NDAC does not go high until the slowest
Listener has accepted the data byte. This type of
handshaking permits multiple devices to receive data
from a single data transmitter on the bus. All active
receiving devices participate in the data handshaking
on a byte-by-byte basis and operate the NDAC and
NRFD lines in a wired-or scheme so that the slowest
active device determines the rate at which the data
transfers take place.
IEEE-488 FUNCTIONS
When information is placed on the data lines, it can
represent either a data byte or a command. If the
Attention bus management line (ATN) is asserted while
the data is transferred, then the data lines are carrying
a multiline command to be received by every bus
device. If ATN is not asserted, then a data byte is being
transferred, and only the Active Listeners receive that
byte.
The IEEE-488 bus also has a number of uniline
commands that are carried on a single bus
management line. For example, the Interface Clear
(IFC) line, when asserted, sends the Interface Clear
command to every bus device, causing each to reset its
IEEE-488 bus interface.
ADDRESSING
The IEEE-488 standard normally permits up to 15
devices to be configured within one system. Each of
these devices has a unique bus address, a number
from 0 to 30. Address limits can be circumvented
directly by the use of bus expanders or indirectly
through the use of an isolator or an extender.
address from the Active Controller. Similarly, it

becomes Addressed to Listen when it receives a Listen
Address Group (LAG) multiline command. Other
address commands include My Talk Address (MTA)
and My Listen Address (MLA), which are the TAG and
LAG commands of the Active Controller. The secondary
Command Group (SCG) is used to refer to
subaddresses or subfunctions within a particular device.
This permits direct access and control of the
subdevices or subinstruments embedded within
complex devices or instruments.
THE SYSTEM CONTROLLER

The System Controller, usually a computer with an IEEE488 board installed, always retains ultimate control of the
bus. When the system is first powered up, the System
Controller is the Active Controller and controls all bus
transactions. The System Controller may Pass Control to
a device, making it the New Active Controller, which may
then Pass Control to yet another device. Even if it is not
the Active Controller, the System Controller maintains
exclusive control of the Interface Clear (IFC) and Remote
Enable (REN) bus management lines and can take
control of the bus whenever it desires.
IEEE-488.2
The IEEE-488.2 standard was developed to simplify the
basic process of communicating with instruments.
IEEE488.2 extends the 488 standard with code, format
and protocol standardization and serves to resolve
issues left open in 488.1.
IEEE-488.2 details preferred implementation of many of
the issues that were either optional or unspecified on the
first standard. IEEE-488.1 covers the key physical issues
(connector type, bus length, maximum number of
instruments, etc.), electrical issues (open collector TTL,
tristate) and low-level protocols (device addressing,
control passing and data handshaking/timing). Four basic
device functions (Talker, Listener, Controller and System
Controller) are specified, as are capability subsets for
each type of device.
A number of items not covered by 488.1 can cause
problems for the test engineer, particularly regarding
equipment compatibility and data corruption.
For example, 488.1 does not cover these specifications:
Minimum Device Capability Requirements
No minimum set of requirements is mandated in IEEE488.1 for Talkers, Listeners, Controllers or System
Controllers. Hence, a device may implement all, or only
some, of the capability sets set forth in 488.1, giving
rise to systems containing devices with varying levels
of abilities.
The Controller, in such a situation, has no guarantee of
a basic communication subset among system devices.
This can lead to confusion for the system operator and
miscommunication between devices.
A device becomes Addressed to Talk when it receives a

Talk Address Group (TAG) multiline command (a byte
transferred with ATN asserted) specifying its own
Data Coding, Formats and Message Protocol

Under 488.1, the messages transferred between the
Controller and a device are entirely at the discretion of
Z-152
Overview of IEEE-488 Contd
the device manufacturer. The use of ASCII, binary or

some other form of data code and the choice of
terminators such as carriage-return or EOI is arbitrary.
Also, the sequence of the sending of commands and
the reading of their responses is unspecified and varies
from instrument to instrument.
Definition of the Status Byte
488.1 defines a status byte and one bit within, but the
meaning of the other seven bits is at the discretion of
the device designer. This forces the user to provide a
unique interpretation of each bit of the status byte.
Also, the relationship between the status byte and the
device's other internal status registers is unspecified.
DRIVER SOFTWARE FOR IBM PC

Great variety is found in the software required to
complete the interface between the user's program and
the IEEE instruments. Two fundamental techniques are
used: the DOS device driver and the subroutine library.
These are not mutually exclusive, as subroutine libraries
can be implemented via a DOS device driver.
DOS DEVICE DRIVER
A popular form of device driver used by several IEEE488 controller providers is the Terminate and Stay
Resident (TSR) DOS device driver approach. In this
method, the driver code is stored in memory as a TSR
and waits for access by an application program, much as
Borlands Sidekick waits for user hot key input.
OMEGAs 488 driver establishes a file I/O link with DOS,
just as DOS provides file I/O links for system devices
such as the keyboard/screen, printer or serial port.
These DOS I/O files may be accessed directly from
DOS, from programs with file I/O capability, including
spreadsheets such as Lotus 1-2-3 and Borland's Quattro,
and from most programming languages. These files
provide a direct link to the IEEE-488 bus using HP-style
English language commands. This style of Applications
Program Interface (API) is often referred to as Character
Command Language (CCL), as the IEEE commands are
sent as ASCII strings to the driver via the APIs file I/O
links through DOS.
Controlling Instruments from Any Language
Just as DOS and spreadsheets can access IEEE
instruments directly using the file I/O services provided
by DOS for device drivers, most programming languages
also can use file I/O to quickly and easily access the
IEEE-488 bus.
SUBROUTINE IEEE-488 DRIVER INTERFACE
An alternative means of controlling the IEEE-488
hardware is via subroutine calls from high level
languages. This method has the advantage of minimizing
the overhead of DOS device driver services and the
ASCII message (CCL) parser and interpreter.
Disadvantages include the loss of the convenience and
effectiveness of accessing the IEEE-488 bus from a wide
variety of applications programs, as well as from DOS.
Also, the use of subroutines, even those with easy-to-use
HP-style commands, typically requires compiling and
linking to run even simple test codes.
Some IEEE controller implementations on the IBM PC

give the user the choice of subroutine calls or CCL.
IEEE-488 SUBROUTINE CONTROL LIBRARIES
The logical complement to subroutine interfaces for a
TSR DOS device driver are subroutine libraries that
directly access the IEEE-488 hardware from a high-level
language with code that is compiled and linked directly
into the users program. This approach eliminates the
DOS device driver, integrating the IEEE-488 control
functions directly into the applications program code.
This method has the potential for the highest
performance, as it eliminates possible DOS effects on
the speed of commands and data.
MICROSOFT WINDOWS COMPATIBILITY
The growing popularity of the Windows 3.0 Graphical
User Interface (GUI) is rapidly spreading to test and
measurement applications. Until 1991, few tools were
available for the end user to build Windows applications.
Now, tools such as Microsoft's Visual Basic and
Borlands C++ provide GUI development interfaces that
allow users to draw windows and fill them with buttons,
scroll bars and dialog boxes. Soon, these tools (and the
tools, libraries and utilities that follow) will be widely used
by developers of IEEE-488 test programs. IEEE-488
controller package vendors will adapt their offerings to be
compatible with Windows, so users will be able to apply
Windows solutions to their measurement problems. As
these new Windows-oriented drivers and packages
debut, there will undoubtedly be a broad range of
solutions offered to the end user. It is important to know
and understand what makes Windows and Windows
applications different from DOS, and what features an
IEEE-488 driver should have in order to make the most
of the Windows environment. Users should keep the
following issues in mind when reviewing new offerings:
Is the software written as a Windows application, or is it
merely a port of DOS software?
Windows performs its own memory management
functions; typical DOS ports to Windows do not permit
Windows to dynamically allocate memory use, which can
lead to Unrecoverable Application Errors.
As Windows is an event-based system, it provides
extensive event handling facilities; Windows applications
should take advantage of them.
Windows has no equivalent of the TSR concept used
with DOS. Although some DOS TSRs will function while
Windows is running, their operation can be erratic and
unpredictable.
Will the driver support concurrent access of different
peripherals on a single interface by multiple Windows
applications? Windows pseudo muItitasking is one of
its reasons for being.
Will the driver service multiple bus adaptor boards?
Is the driver IEEE-488.2 compliant?
Z-153
ASCII Code Values

ASCII
Value
000
001
002
003
004
005
006
007
008
009
010
011
012
013
014
015
016
017
018
019
020
021
022
023
024
025
026
027
028
029
030
031
032
033
034
035
036
037
038
039
040
041
042
043
044
045
046
047
048
049
Hex
Value
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
1A
1B
1C
1D
1E
1F
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
2A
2B
2C
2D
2E
2F
30
31
Character
(NUL)
A
B
(BEEP)
(TAB)
(LF)
(HOME)
(FF)
(CR)
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
(ESC)
(RIGHT)
(LEFT)
(UP)
(DOWN)
(SPACE)
!
#
$
%
&
(
)
*
+
,
.
/
0
1
ASCII
Value
050
051
052
053
054
055
056
057
058
059
060
061
062
063
064
065
066
067
068
069
070
071
072
073
074
075
076
077
078
079
080
081
082
083
084
085
086
087
088
089
090
091
092
093
094
095
096
097
098
099
Z-154
Hex
Value
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
3A
3B
3C
3D
3E
3F
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
4A
4B
4C
4D
4E
4F
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
5A
5B
5C
5D
5E
5F
60
61
62
63
Character
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
:
;
<
=
>
?
@
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
[
\
]
^
_
`
A
B
C
ASCII Code Values Contd

ASCII
Value
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
Hex
Value
64
65
66
67
68
69
6A
6B
6C
6D
6E
6F
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
7A
7B
7C
7D
7E
7F
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
8A
8B
8C
8D
8E
8F
90
91
92
93
94
95
Character
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
{
|
}
~
T
E
A
E
E
E
I
I
I
ASCII
Value
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
Z-155
Hex
Value
96
97
98
99
9A
9B
9C
9D
9E
9F
A0
Al
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A9
AA
AB
AC
AD
AE
AF
B0
Bl
B2
B3
B4
B5
B6
B7
B8
B9
BA
BB
BC
BD
BE
BF
C0
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
Character
U
U
A
I
O
U
ASCII
Value
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
Hex
Value
C8
C9
CA
CB
CC
CD
CE
CF
D0
Dl
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
D8
D9
DA
DB
DC
DD
DE
DF
E0
El
E2
E3
Character
fi
fl
ASCII
Value
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
Hex
Value
E4
E5
E6
E7
E8
E9
EA
EB
EC
ED
EE
EF
F0
Fl
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
F8
F9
FA
FB
FC
FD
FE
FF
Character
(BLANK)
Hexadecimal Conversion Chart

Hex
Number
Binary
Number
Decimal
Digit 000X
Decimal
Digit 00X0
Decimal
Digit 0X00
Decimal
Digit X000
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
0
16
32
48
64
80
96
112
128
144
160
176
192
208
224
240
0
256
512
768
1,024
1,280
1,536
1,792
2,048
2,304
2,560
2,816
3,072
3,328
3,584
3,840
0
4,098
8,192
12,288
16,384
20,480
24,576
28,672
32,768
36,864
40,960
45,056
49,152
53,248
57,344
61,440
Z-156
The RS-232 Standard

Information being transferred
between data processing equipment
and peripherals is in the form of
digital data which is transmitted in
either a serial or parallel mode.
Parallel communications are used
mainly for connections between test
instruments or computers and
printers, while serial is often used
between computers and other
peripherals.
Serial transmission involves the
sending of data one bit at a time,
over a single communications line.
In contrast, parallel communications
require at least as many lines as
there are bits in a word being
transmitted (for an 8-bit word, a
minimum of 8 lines are needed).
Serial transmission is beneficial for
long distance communications,
whereas parallel is designed for
short distances or when very high
transmission rates are required.
Standards
One of the advantages of a serial

system is that it lends itself to
transmission over telephone lines.
The serial digital data can be
converted by modem, placed onto a
standard voice-grade telephone
line, and converted back to serial
digital data at the receiving end of
the line by another modem.
Officially, RS-232 is defined as the
Interface between data terminal
equipment and data
communications equipment using
serial binary data exchange. This
definition defines data terminal
equipment (DTE) as the computer,
while data communications
equipment (DCE) is the modem. A
modem cable has pin-to-pin
connections, and is designed to
connect a DTE device to a DCE
device.
Interfaces
In addition to communications
between computer equipment over
telephone lines, RS-232 is now
widely used for connections
between data acquisition devices
and computer systems. As in the
definition of RS232, the computer is
data transmission equipment (DTE).
However, many interface products
are not data communications
equipment (DCE). Null modem
cables are designed for this
situation; rather than having the pinto-pin connections of modem
cables, null modem cables have
different internal wiring to allow DTE
devices to communicate with one
another.
Cabling Options
RS-232 cables are commonly

available with either 4, 9 or 25-pin
wiring. The 25-pin cable connects
every pin; the 9-pin cables do not
include many of the uncommonly
used connections; 4-pin cables
provide the bare minimum
connections, and have jumpers to
provide handshaking for those
devices that require it. These
jumpers connect pins 4, 5 and 8,
and also pins 6 and 20.
The advent of the IBM PC AT has
created a new wrinkle in RS-232
communications. Rather than
having the standard 25-pin
connector, this computer and many
new expansion boards for pcs
feature a 9-pin serial port. To
connect this port to a standard 25pin port, a 9- to 25-pin adaptor cable
may be utilized, or the user may
create his own cable specifically for
that purpose.
2 Received Data
Request to Send 7
3 Transmitted Data
Clear to Send 8
4 Data Terminal Ready
Ring Indicator 9
5 Signal Ground
RS-232 Specifications
TRANSMITTED SIGNAL
VOLTAGE LEVELS:
Binary 0: +5 to +15 Vdc (called a
space or on)
Binary 1: -5 to -15 Vdc
(called a mark or off)
RECEIVED SIGNAL
VOLTAGE LEVELS:
Binary 0: +3 to +13 Vdc
Binary 1: -3 to -13 Vdc
DATA FORMAT:
Start bit: Binary 0
Data: 5, 6, 7 or 8 bits
Parity: Odd, even, mark or space
(not used with 8-bit data)
Stop bit: Binary 1, one or two bits
Transmission Example
1111101100001011 1 1
CHARACTER
A
TRAILING IDLE
BITS
STOP BIT
LEADING
IDLE BITS
START BIT
PARITY BIT
Pin Assignments 25-Pin Style

PIN
NUMBER
PIN NUMBER
1 Data Carrier Detect
The major considerations in

choosing an RS-232 cable are
based upon the devices to be
connected. First, are you connecting
two DTE devices (null modem
cable) or a DTE device to a DCE
device (modem cable)? Second,
what connectors are required on
each end, male or female, and 25 or
9-pin (AT style)? Usually, it is
recommended that the user obtain
the two devices to be connected,
and then determine which cable is
required.
Data Flow
9-Pin AT Style
Data Set Ready 6
Selecting a Cable
Secondary Transmitted Data

DCE Transmitter Signal Element Timing
Secondary Received Data
Receiver Signal Element Timing
14
15
16
17
18
Secondary Request to Send 19
Data Terminal Ready 20
Signal Quality Detector 21
Ring Indicator 22
Data Signal Rate Selector 23
DTE Transmitter Signal Element Timing 24
25
Z-157
PIN
NUMBER
1 Protective Ground
2 Transmitted Data
3 Received Data
4 Request to Send
5 Clear to Send
6 Data Set Ready
7 Signal Ground/Common Return
8 Received Line Signal Detector
9 +Voltage
10 -Voltage
11
12 Secondary Received Line Signal Detector
13 Secondary Clear to Send
Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-90

Guidelines for Realizing the
11.
International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
B. W. Mangum
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Gaithersburg, MD 20899
National Institute of Standards and Technology [NIST], Gaithersburg, MD,

USA,
National Physical Laboratory [NPLj, Teddington, UK,
National Research Laboratory of Metrology [NRLM), Ibaraki, Japan,
Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt [PTB], Braunschweig, FRG,
Van Swinden Laboratorium [VSL], Delft, The Netherlands,
Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA, and
Bureau International des Poids et Mesures [BIPM], Sevres, France.
and
G. T. Furukawa
Guest Scientist
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Gaithersburg, MD 20899
1.
INTRODUCTION
The Comit Consultatif de Thermomtrie (CCT) is one of eight specialized

technical subcommittees of the Comit International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM).
The CIPM is a committee of the Confrence Gnrale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM).
These eight subcommittees are:
1
2
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The Comit Consultatif dlectricit (CCE), established in 1927,

The Comit Consultatif de Photomtrie et Radiomtrie (CCPR),
assigned this name in 1971; the previous name was the Comit
Consultatif de Photomtrie, established in 1933,
The Comit Consultatif de Thermomtrie (CCT), established in 1937,
The Comit Consultatif pour la Dfinition du Mtre (CCDM),
established in 1952,
The Comit Consultatif pour la Dfinition de la Seconde (CCDS),
established in 1956,
The Comit Consultatif pour les talons de Mesure des Rayonnements
Ionisants (CCEMRI), established in 1958,
The Comit Consultatif des Units (CCU), established in 1964, and
The Comit Consultatif pour la Masse et les grandeurs apparentes
(CCM), established in 1980.
The CCT is composed presently of members from the following laboratories:
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Amt fr Standardisierung, Messwesen und Warenprufung [ASMW],

Berlin, DDR,
Bureau National de Metrologie, Paris, France: Institut National de
Metrologie [INM], du Conservatoire National des Arts et Mtiers,
Ceskoslovensky Metrologicky Ustav [CSMU], Bratislava
Czechoslovakia,
National Research Council [NRC], Ottawa, Canada,
CSIRO, Division of Applied Physics [CSIRO], Lindfield, Australia,
D.I. Mendeleyev Institute for Metrology [VNIIM), Leningrad, USSR;
Physico-Technical and Radio-Technical Measurements Institute
[PRMI], Moscow, USSR,
National Institute of Metrology [NIM], Beijing, PRC,
Istituto di Metrologia G. Colonnetti [IMGC], Turin, Italy,
Kamerlingh Onnes Laboratorium [KOL], Leiden, The Netherlands,
Korea Standards Research Institute [KSRI], Seoul, Korea,
The CCT met 12-14 September 1989 at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
(BIPM) in its 17th Session [14] and completed the final details of the new
temperature scale, the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) [66,83].
The CCT then recommended to the CIPM, which met [84] on 26-28 September 1989 at
the BIPM, that the ITS-90 be adopted and made the official scale (see
appendices). Upon considering this recommendation, the CIPM adopted the new
temperature scale (see appendices), and the ITS-90 became the official
international temperature scale on 1 January 1990, the same date on which changes
affecting certain electrical reference standards were implemented [12]. The
ITS-90 supersedes the IPTS-68, the International Practical Temperature Scale of
1968, Amended Edition of 1975 [IPTS - 68 (75)][101], and the 1976 Provisional 0.5
K to 30 K Temperature Scale (EPT-76) [99].
The ITS-90 was implemented at the NIST on 1 January 1990. The purpose of this
document is to describe the new scale, to give some guidelines for its
realization and use, to facilitate its implementation, to give the differences
between temperatures on it and those on the IPTS-68(75) and on the EPT-76, and
to describe how the NIST realizes the scale.
The ITS-90 extends upward from 0.65 K and temperatures on this scale are in much
better agreement with thermodynamic values than are those on the IPTS-68(75) and
the EPT-76. The new scale has subranges and alternative definitions in certain
ranges that greatly facilitate its use. Furthermore, its continuity, nonuniqueness and reproducibility throughout its ranges are much improved over the
corresponding characteristics of the previous scales. The biggest improvement
in reproducibility results from the replacement of thermocouple thermometry with
platinum resistance thermometry in the range 630 C to the freezing-point
temperature of silver, and with radiation thermometry in the range from the
freezing-point temperature of silver to that of gold.
The change in the temperature scale affects not only technical interests involved
directly in thermometry but also those involved with other reference standards,
* Reproduced with permission of National Institute of Standards and Technology
0.02
Temperature difference (t 90-t 68)/C
Shortly after the adoption of the International Practical Temperature Scale of

1968 (IPTS-68) [100], it was realized that the scale had many deficiencies and
limitations. These included its lower limit of 13.81 K, its inaccuracy relative
to thermodynamic temperatures, and its non-uniqueness and irreproducibility,
especially in the temperature region from T 68 - 903.89 K (630.74 C) to
T68 - 1337.58 K (1064.43 C, the region in which the Pt-10%Rh/Pt thermocouple
was the standard interpolating instrument. Consequently, the CCT undertook the
development of a new scale, and completed it in accordance with Resolution 7 of
the 18th Conference Generale des Poid et Mesures [29], which met in October 1987
(see appendices).
0.4
-0.02
-0.04
0.2
-200
200
400
0
0
0
-0.2
100
-0.01
-0.2
-0.02
-200
200
400
600
800
1000
t 90/C
Figure 1. The temperature difference (t90 - t68)/C in the range between the triple point of
equilibrium hydrogen (-259.3467 C) and the freezing point of gold (1064.18C) [83, 85].
Z-158
Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-90 Contd
such as electrical standards, that are sensitive to temperature. As examples,

standard resistors and standard cells are sensitive to temperature and generally
are maintained in constant-temperature environments, at least in national
standards laboratories,. At the present time, the temperatures of those
environments are normally determined with thermometers that were calibrated on
the IPTS-68(75). A given thermodynamic temperature expressed on the ITS-90,
however, has a value that is different from that expressed on the IPTS-68(75),
except at absolute zero (0 K), at the triple-point temperature of water
(273.16 K), and at a few other points at which the temperatures on the two scales
are fortuitously the same . This difference is shown in figure 1 [83]. A table
of differences between temperatures on the ITS-90, i.e., T90 or T90,and those on
the IPTS-68(75), i.e. , T68 or t68 and those on the EPT-76, T76, is given in the
text of the ITS-90 and is presented here in table 1. Although temperature values
expressed on the two scales are different, the change is only in the expression
of the value of temperature and not in the temperature itself. That is to say,
the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature (the hotness) of a material at any given
point is independent of the use of any of the practical temperature scales.
The better the practical scale is, the closer the values of temperature on that
scale are to the thermodynamic temperature values. Needless to say, the Kelvin
thermodynamic temperature values are experimentally determined, and they may have
significant error. Since temperature values expressed on the thermodynamic and
practical scales are different, if the temperature of the environment of a
reference standard is adjusted so that its value when expressed on the ITS-90 has
the same value as had been used on the IPTS-68(75), there will have been a change
of the thermodynamic temperature and the value of the reference standard will
usually change. Of course, one may not want to change the thermodynamic
temperature of the reference standard. In that case, the thermodynamic
temperature, as expressed an the IPTS-68(75), can simply be expressed on the ITS90 (a numerical value different from that on the IPTS-68(75)) and the reference
standards will be unaffected. For more details on the effects of the change of
the temperature scale on electrical standards, see National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) Technical Note 1263 [12].
In addition to the effect on reference standards for measurements, all
temperature-sensitive properties, e.g., tables of thermodynamic properties,
that are presently expressed on the IPTS-68(75) may require changes in values.
2. DEFINITION OF THE ITS-90
The ITS-90 was designed by the CCT in such a manner that temperature values
obtained on it do not deviate from the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature values by
more than the uncertainties of the latter values at the time the ITS-90 was
adopted. Thermodynamic temperature is indicated by the symbol T and has the unit
known as the kelvin, symbol K. The size of the kelvin is defined to be 1/273.16
of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. This definition of
the Kelvin Thermodynamic Temperature Scale (KTTS) that is based on the value of a
single finite temperature is not new; the CCT proposed it in 1954, the CIPM
recommended it, and the Tenth CGPM adopted it that same year [30].
Because temperatures on previous temperature scales were expressed relative to
the ice point (271.15 K), temperature, symbol t, on the Celsius Temperature Scale
is defined by:
Table 1. Differences between T90 and T68 (and t90 and t68), and between T90 and T76
(T90 - T76) /mK

T90 /K
(T90 -
-0.6
-2.2
-1.1
-3.2
-0.1
-1.3
-3.5
-0.2
-1.4
-3.8
-0.3
-1.6
-4.1
-0.4
-1.8
-0.5
-2.0
-0.7
-2.5
-0.8
-2.7
-1.0
-3.0
-0.007
-0.008
-0.006
-0.004
0.004
0.007
0.008
0.008
-0.006
-0.006
-0.008
-0.006
-0.003
0.005
0.007
0.008
0.008
-0.003
-0.005
-0.007
-0.007
-0.002
0.005
0.008
0.608
0.008
-0.004
-0.004
-0.007
-0.007
-0.001
0.006
0.008
0.008
0.008
-0.006
-0.004
-0.007
-0.007
0.000
0.006
0.008
0.008
0.009
-0.008
-0.005
-0.006
-0.006
0.001
0.007
0.008
0.008
0.009
-0.009
-0.006
-0.006
-0.006
0.002
0.007
0.008
0.008
0.009
T68) /K
T90 / K
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
-0.009
-0.006
-0.006
-0.006
0.003
0.007
0.008
0.008
-0.008
-0.007
-0.006
-0.005
0.003
0.007
0.008
0.008
-0.007
-0.008
-0.006
-0.005
0.004
0.007
0.008
0.008
T90 /K
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
200
0.009
0.011
0.011
0.010
0.013
0.009
0.014
0.008
0.014
0.007
0.014
0.005
0.014
0.003
0.013
0.001
0.012
0.012
(T90 - T68) / C
T90 / C
-100
0
T90 / C
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
T90 / C
1000
2000
3000
e-H2
TP
e-H2
17K
e-H2
20.3K
4He
Point
0
10
20
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
0.013
0.000
0.013
0.002
0.014
0.004
0.014
0.006
0.014
0.008
0.013
0.009
0.012
0.010
0.010
0.011
0.008
0.012
0.008
0.012
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0.000
-0.026
-0.040
-0.039
-0.048
-0.079
-0.115
0.20
0.34
-0.01
-0.19
-0.002
-0.028
-0.040
-0.039
-0.051
-0.083
-0.118
0.24
0.32
-0.03
-0.20
-0.005
-0.030
-0.040
-0.039
-0.053
- 0. 087
-0.122
0.28
0.29
-0.06
-0.21
-0.007
-0.032
-0.040
-0.040
-0.056
-0.090
-0.125
0.31
0.25
-0.08
-0.22
-0.010
-0.034
-0.040
-0.040
-0.059
-0.094
-0.08
0.33
0.22
-0.10
-0.23
-0.013
-0.036
-0.040
-0.041
-0.062
-0.098
-0.03
0.35
0.18
-0.12
-0.24
-0.016
-0.037
-0.040
-0.042
-0.065
-0.101
0.02
0.36
0.14
-0.14
-0.25
-0.018
-0.038
-0.039
-0.443
-0-068
-0.105
0.06
0.36
0.10
-0.16
-0.25
-0.021
-0.039
-0.039
-0.045
-0.072
-0.106
0.11
0.36
0.06
-0.17
-0.26
-0.024
-0.039
-0.039
-0.046
-0.075
-0.112
0.16
0.35
0.03
-0.18
-0.26
0
-0.72
-1.50
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
-0.26
-0.79
-1.59
-0.30
-0.85
-1.69
-0.35
-0.93
-1.78
-0.39
-1.00
-1.89
-0.44
-1.07
-1.99
-0.49
-1.15
-2.10
-0.54
-1.24
-2.21
-0.60
-1.32
-2.32
-0.66
-1.41
-2.43
H2O
TP
Planck's
Radiation Equation
SPRT
SPRT
e-H2TP, VP
Ar TP
In
FP
Hg
TP
Ag
FP
Zn
FP
Au FP
3He CVGT
Ga
MP
O2
TP
4He CVGT
Sn
FP
Al
FP
Cu FP
Calibration
Points
Bounds of Helium Vapor
Pressure Calibration
Bounds of Helium Vapor
Pressure Thermometry
4He VP
EQN
Ne TP
3He VP
EQN
0.1
0.3
0.5
10
30
50
100
300
500
1000
3000
5000
10000
Temperature, K (ITS-90)
Figure 2. A schematic representation of the ITS-90 showing the temperatures of the defining fixed points (or phase
equilibrium states) on the scale and temperature ranges defined by interpolation instruments and equations.
Z-159
t/C = T/K - 273.15.
(1)
The unit of temperature t is the degree Celsius, symbol C, and it is by

definition the same size as the kelvin. A difference of temperature may be
expressed either in kelvins or in degrees Celsius.
Temperatures on the ITS-90 are expressed, in terms of the International Kelvin
Temperatures, with the symbol, T90, or, in terms of the International Celsius
Temperatures, with the symbol t90. The unit of the temperature T90 is the kelvin,
symbol K, and the unit of the temperature t90 is the degree Celsius, symbol C.
The relation between T90 and t90 is:
t90/C = T90/K - 273.15.
(2)
The ITS-90 extends upward from 0.65 K. There are alternative definitions of T90
in certain temperature ranges and they have equal status. In measurements of the
highest precision made at the same temperature, the alternative definitions will
yield detectable temperature differences. Also, at any given temperature between
defining fixed points, different interpolating thermometers that meet
the specifications of the ITS-90 will indicate different temperature values.
These latter differences are referred to as the non-uniqueness in the definition
of the ITS-90, The magnitude of the differences that result from these two
sources is sufficiently small to be negligible for all practical purposes.
Temperatures on the ITS-90 are defined in terms of equilibrium phase states of
pure substances (defining fixed points), interpolating instruments, and equations
that relate the measured property of the instruments to T90. The equilibrium
phase states of the pure substances and the assigned temperatures used as
defining fixed points of the ITS-90 are listed in table 2. Figure
2
shows
schematically the defining phase states and temperature ranges defined by the
various interpolating instruments and equations. For comparison purposes, we
give in table 3 the defining fixed points, and their assigned temperatures, of
the ITS-90 and of all the previous internationally agreed-upon scales.
2.1 BETWEEN 0.65 K AND 5.0 K: 3He and 4He VAPOR PRESSURE THERMOMETRY
The ITS-90 is defined between 0.65 K and 3.2 K by the vapor-pressure-temperature
relation of 3He, and between 1.25 K and 2.1768 K (the point) and between
2.1768 K and 5.0 K by the vapor-pressure-temperature relations of 4He. T90 is
defined by the vapor-pressure equations of the form:
9
T90/K = A0 + Ai{[ n(p/Pa) - B] /C)1.
i=1
Table 3.
Comparison of temperatures of fixed points assigned on various
scales. Temperatures are expressed in kelvins on the KTTS or eqviivalent scales
Point
NHSa
ITS-27b
Au FPc
Ag FP
Al FP
S BPd
Zn FP
Sn FP
In FP
H2O BP
Ga TP
H2O TPe
H2O FP
Hg TP
02 BPf
Ar TP
O2 TP
Ne BP
Ne TP
H2 BP
H2 BPg
H2 TP
Pb SPh
4He BP
In SP
3He BP
Al SP
Zn SP
Cd SP
373
273
-
1336.15 1336.15
1233.65 1233.95
717.75
717.75
373.15
373.15
273.15
273.15
90.18
90.18
-
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
Wr(T90)e
Temperature
He
VP
TP
VP (or CVGT)
VP (or CVGT)
TP
TP
TP
TP
TP
MP
FP
FP
FP
FP
FP
FP
FP
3 to 5
13.8033
17
20.3
24.5561
54.3584
83.8058
234.3156
273.16
302.9146
429.7485
505.078
692.677
933.473
1234.93
1337.33
1357.77
IPTS-68(75) EPT-76
ITS-90
21.102
24.5591
20.2734
17.0373
13.8044
7.1999
4.2221
3.4145
1.1796
0.851
0.519
1337.33
1234.93
933.473
692.677
505.078
429.7485
302.9146
273.16
234.3156
83.8058
54.3584
-24.5561
20.3
17.0
13.8033
4.2
3.2
-
NHS = Normal hydrogen scale [25].

For a time, the ice point Was taken to be 273.16 K. Here, the value 273.15 K
was used to convert temperature values in degrees Centigrade or Celsius to
kelvins in order to be as consistent as possible throughout the table.
FP = Freezing point.
BP = Boiling point at 101,325 Pa.
TP = Triple point.
Changed in 1975 to the condensation point.
Reduced-pressure boiling point, at P = 33,330.6 Pa.
SP = Superconductive transition point.
Coef. or
Constant
t90 (C)
T90(K)
e-H2
e-H2 (or He)
e-H2 (or He)
Nec
O2
Ard
Hgc
H2O
Gac
Inc
Snd
Zn
Alc
Ag
Au
Cuc
IPTS-68
1337.58
1337.58
1235.08
1235.08
692.73
692.73
(505.1181) (505.1181)
373.15
373.15
273.16
273.16
90.188
90.188
(83.798)
54.361
54.361
27.102
27.102
20.28
20.28
17.042
17.042
13.81
13.81
-
Table 4. Values of the coefficients A1 and of the constants B and C for the 3He and 4He
vapor-pressure equations and the temperature range for which each equation is valid
Defining fixed points of the ITS-90
Materiala Equilibrium Stateb
IPTS-48b
1336.15
1233.95
717.75
(692.655)
373.15
(273.16)
90.18
-
(3)
The values of the coefficients Ai and of the constants A0, B and C of the vaporpressure equations for 3He and 4He are given in table 4.
Table 2.
ITS-48b
270.15 to
268.15
259.3467
256.15
252.85
248.5939
218.7916
189.3442
38.8344
0.01
29.7646
156.5985
231.928
419.527
660.323
961.78
1064.18
1084.62
A0
A1
A2
0.00119007
0.00844974
0.09171804
0.21585975
0.84414211
1.00000000
1.11813889
1.60980185
1.89279768
2.56891730
3.37600860
4.28642053
a
e-H 2 indicates equilibrium hydrogen, that is, hydrogen with the
equilibrium distribution of its ortho and para states at the corresponding
temperatures. Normal hydrogen at room temperature contains 25% para and
75% ortho hydrogen.
b VP indicates vapor pressure point or equation; CVGT indicates constant
volume gas thermometer point; TP indicates triple point (equilibrium
temperature at which the solid, liquid and vapor phases coexist); FP
indicates freezing point and MP indicates melting point (the equilibrium
temperatures at which the solid and liquid phases coexist under a pressure
of 101,325 Pa, one standard atmosphere). The isotopic composition is that
naturally occurring.
c
Previously, these were secondary fixed points.
Previously, these were alternative fixed points.
From reference functions, equations (14) and (22).
3
He
0.65 K to 3.2 K
4
He
1.25 K to 2.1768 K
1.053 447
0.980 106
0.676 380
5
He
2.1768 K to 5.0 K
1.392 408
0.527 153
0.166 756
3.146 631
1.357 655
0.413 923
A3
A4
A5
0.372 692
0.151 656
-0.002 263
0.050 988
0.026 514
0.001 975
0.091 159
0.016 349
0.001 826
A6
A7
A8
0.006 596
0.088 966
-0.004 770
-0.017 976
0.005 409
0.013 259
-0.004 325
-0.004 973
0
A9
B
C
-0.054 943
7.3
4.3
0
5.6
2.9
2.2 BETWEEN 3.0 K AND 24.5561 K (THE TRIPLE POINT OF Ne):

VOLUME GAS THERMOMETRY
0
10.3
1.9
He and
He CONSTANT
Between 3.0 K and 24.5561 K, the ITS-90 is defined in terms of the 3He or 4He
constant volume gas thermometer(CVGT). The thermometer is calibrated at three
temperatures - at the triple point of neon (24.556,1 K), at the triple point of
equilibrium hydrogen (13.8033 K), and at a temperature between 3.0 K and 5.0 K, the
value of which is determined by using either a 3He or a 4He vapor-pressure
thermometer as described in section 2.1.
For a 4 He CVGT that is used between 4.2 K and the triple point of neon
(24.5561 K), T90 is defined by the equation:
T90 = a + bp + cp2
(4)
where p is the CVGT pressure and a, b, and c are coefficients that are determined
from calibrations at the three specified temperatures, but with the additional
requirement that the calibration with the vapor-pressure thermometer be made at
a temperature between 4.2 K and 5.0 K
For a 4He CVGT that is used between 3.0 K and 4.2 K, and for a 3He CVGT that is used
between 3.0 K and 24.5561 K, the non-ideality of the gas must be accounted for,
using the respective second virial coefficients, B4(T90) or B3(T90). T90 is defined
in this range by the equation:
T90
a + bp + cp2
=
1 + Bx (T90)N/V
Z-160
(5)
where p is the CVGT pressure; a, b, and c are coefficients that are determined
from calibrations at the three defining temperatures; Bx(T90) refers to B3(T90) or
B4(T90), and N/V is the gas density, in moles per cubic meter, in the CVGT bulb.
The values of the second virial coefficients are given by the following
equations:
for
Note that in the earlier international scales, W(T) was defined with reference to
the SPRT resistance 273.15K, not 273.16 K.
There are two reference functions W r( T 90), one for the range 13.8033 K to
273.16 K and another for the range 273.15 K to 1234.93 K. These reference
functions will be described in the discussion of the two ranges (secs. 2.3.3 and
2 3 4).
3He,
The deviation W(T90) is obtained as a function of T90 for various ranges and
subranges by calibration at specified fixed points. The form of the deviation
function depends upon the temperature range of calibration.
B3(T90)/m3mol-1 = [16.69 - 336.98 (T90/K)-1

+ 91.04 (T9O/K)-2 - 13.82 (T90/K)-3] 10-6,
and for
(6)
A schematic representation of the ITS-90 in the range of temperature specified

for SPRTs is given in figure 3. Shown in figure 3 are the temperatures of the
defining fixed points in this region of the scale and the various subranges
specified by the scale.
4He,
B4(T90)/m3mol-1 = [16.708
374.05 (T90/K)-1 - 383.53 (T90/K)-2
+ 1799.2 (T90/K)-3 - 4033.2 (T90/K)-4 + 3252.8 (T90/K)-5] 10-6.
(7)
2.3.2
The accuracy of realization of T90 by using a CVGT is dependent upon the CVGT
design and the gas density used.
SPRT SPECIFICATIONS
The SPRT sensing element must be made from pure platinum and be strain-free.
finished SPRT must meet one of the following criteria:
2.3 BETWEEN 13.8033 K (THE TRIPLE POINT OF EQUILIBRIUM HYDROGEN) AND 1234.93 K
(THE FREEZING POINT OF SILVER): PLATINUM RESISTANCE THERMOMETRY
W(302.9146 K) 1.118 07,
[dW(T90)/dT90] 3.986 x 10-3 K-1 at 273.16 K.
(12)
An SPRT that is acceptable for use to the freezing point of silver must meet the
following additional criterion:
GENERAL RELATION BETWEEN RESISTANCE RATIOS AND T90
W(1234.93 K) 4.2844.
Temperatures on the ITS-90 in the above-indicated range are expressed in terms of

the ratio of the resistance R ( T 90) at temperature T 90 and the resistance R
(273.16 K) at the triple-point temperature of water. (Hereinafter, for
convenience, the terms triple-point temperature, freezing-point temperature and
melting-point temperature will be expressed as triple point, freezing point and
melting point, respectively.) The resistance ratio W(T90) is:
W(T90) = R(T90)/R(273.16 K).
(8)
(9)
where W(T90) is the observed value, Wr(T90) is the value calculated from the
reference functions, and W(T90) is the deviation of the observed W(T90) value of the
particular SPRT from the reference function value. The official version of the
ITS-90 [83] does not indicate the difference [W(T90) - Wr(T90)] by W(T90).
If the sheath of the long-stem type SPRT is borosilicate glass or stainless

steel, the SPRT should not be used above the upper calibration temperature limit
of 42C. If the sheath is Inconel, the upper temperature limit becomes about
273.16
H2O TP
Calibration Points
100
933.473, Al FP
1234.93, Ag FP
692.677, Zn FP
505.078, Sn FP
234.3156, Hg TP
302.9146, Ga MP
83.8058, Ar TP
54.3584, O2 TP
13.8033, e-H2 TP
17, e-H2 VP
20.3, e-H2 VP
24.5561, Ne TP
Interpolation Range
10
(13)
The temperature range over which an SPRT can be used depends upon the thermometer design,
but no single design of SPRT can be used over the whole temperature range with high
accuracy. For measurements at temperatures from 13.8033 K (-259.3467 C) to
429.7485 K (156.5985 C), or perhaps to as high as 505.078 K
(231.928 C) ,
capsule-type SPRTs that have a nominal resistance of 25.5 at 273.16 K may be
used. Long-stem type SPRTs of the same nominal resistance may be used in the
range from about 77 K to 933.473 K (660.323 C) . For temperatures above about 660
C and to as high as 1234.93 K (961.78 C), long-stem type SPRTs having a
nominal resistance of 0.25 (or possibly 2.5 ) at 273.16 K should be used. When
SPRTs are used at the highest temperatures, leakage currents through the
insulation supports of the platinum wire become significant and these result In
shunting of the resistor. The effect of this shunting is reduced by using low
voltages with low resistance SPRTs.
The temperature T90 is calculated from the resistance ratio relation:
W(T90) - Wr(T90) = W(T90)
(10)
(11)
These criteria are equivalent to a requirement on the slope, namely,
429.7485, In FP
2.3.1
or
W(234.3156 K) 0.844 235.
Between 13.8033 K (-259.3467 C) and l234.93 K (961.78 C),the ITS-90 is defined in

terms of specified fixed points to which temperature values have been assigned,
by resistance ratios of platinum resistance thermometers obtained by calibration
at specified sets of the fixed points, and by reference functions and deviation
functions of resistance ratios which relate to T90 between the fixed points.
(Henceforth, for convenience, the standards type platinum
resistance
thermometers will be referred to by the acronym SPRT.)
The
1000
10000
Temperature, K (ITS-90)
Figure 3. A schematic representation of the ITS-90 in the range specified for the platinum
resistance thermometer, showing the various defined subranges and the temperatures of the defining
Z-161
660 C. If the sheath is fused silica, temperature measurements can be made up to

962C.
For measurements up to about 630C, mica is just barely adequate as an electrical
insulator for the temperature sensing element and leads of SPRTs. Starting at
about 500C, muscovite mica begins to decompose, evolving water that
electrically shunts the thermometer resistor, Phlogopite mica is adequately
stable to 630C. For measurements up to 962C, refractory materials such as fused
silica and sapphire are used for electrical insulation.
with
n = 2. The coefficients a 1, b1, and the five c 1 s are obtained by
calibration at all eight of the above temperatures, including that at the triple
point of water, The values of Wr,(T90) are obtained from the reference function
[eq (14)].
The official version of the ITS-90 [83] does not indicate the difference
[W(T90) - Wr(T90)] by W,(T90), does not use the subscript m, where in eq (18),
m = 1, nor does it label the coefficients a and b with subscript m. However,
we
adopt this subscript notation to identify the subranges. Additionally, this
notation is useful when reporting calibration results.
2.3.3 RANGE 13.8033 K TO 273.16 K

If an SPRT is not to be used over the entire 13.8033 K to 273.16 K range, but its
use restricted to one of the subranges, the deviation functions and the
calibration points are as follows.
In the range 13.8033 K to 273.16 K, the reference function Wr(T90) is given by:
12
,n[Wr(T90)] = A0 + Ai([,n(T90/273.16 K) + 1.5]/1.5)i
i=I
(14)
A specified,, approximate inverse [83] of this equation, equivalent to within

0.000 1 K, is:
12
T90/273.16 K = B0 + Bi{([Wr(T90)]1/6 - 0.65)/0.35}i
i=I
(15)
The values of the constants A0 and B0, and of the coefficients Ai and Bi of
equations (14) and (15) are listed in table 5.
If an SPRT is to be used throughout the range from 13.8033 K to 273.16 K, it must
be calibrated at the triple points of equilibrium hydrogen (13.8033 K), neon
(24.5561 K), oxygen (54.3584 K) argon (83.8058 K), mercury (234.3156 k), and
water (273.16 K), and at two additional temperatures close to 17.0 K and 20.3 K.
The temperatures of calibration near 17.0 K and 20.3 K maybe determined by using
either a CVGT as defined in section 2.2 or the specified vapor - pressure temperature relation of equilibrium hydrogen.
When the CVGT is used, the two temperatures must be within the ranges 16.9 K to
17.1 K and 20.2 K to 20.4 K, respectively. When the equilibrium hydrogen vaporpressure thermometer is used, the two temperatures must be within the ranges
17.025 K to 17.045 K and 20.26 K to 20.28 K, respectively. The temperatures of
the equilibrium hydrogen vapor-pressure thermometer are determined from the
values of the hydrogen vapor pressure, p, and the equations:
2.3.3.1
SUBRANGE 24.5561 K TO 273.16 K
The deviation function for calibration in the subrange 24.5561 K to 273.16 K is

given by the relation:
3
W2 (T90) a2[W(T90) - 1] + b2[W(T90) - 1]2 + ci[,n[W(T90)]i+n,
(19)
i=I
with n = 0. The coefficients a 2 , b 2 , and the three, c 1 s are obtained by
calibrating,the SPRT at the triple points of equilibrium hydrogen (13.8033 K),
neon (24.5561 K), oxygen (54.35 84 K), argon (81.8058 K), mercury (234.3156 K)
and water (273.16 K). The, values of Wr( T 90), are obtained from the reference
function [eq (14)]. Note that for this subrange, temperatures are measured only
down to the triple point of neon, although the-thermometer must be calibrated
at the triple point of equilibrium hydrogen.
2.3.3.2 SUBRANGE 54.3584 K TO 273.16 K
The deviation function for calibration in the subrange 54.3584 K to 273 16 K is
W2 (T90) a3[W(T90) - 1] + b3[W(T90) - 1]2 + ci[,nW(T90)]i+n,
(20)
with n - 1. The coefficients a3, b3, and c1 are obtained by calibrating the SPRT
at the triple points of oxygen (54.3584 K), argon (83.8058 K), mercury
(234.3156 K), and water (273.16 K). The values of Wr(T90) are obtained from the
reference function [eq (14)].
2.3.3.3 SUBRANGE 83.8058 K TO 273.16 K
T90/K - 17.035 = (p/kPa - 33.3213)/13.32
(16)
T90/K - 20.27
(17)
= (p/kPa - 101.292)/30.
where 13.32 and 30 are, values of -(dp/dT90)/(kPa/K) at 17.035 K and 20.27 K,

respectively.
The deviation function for calibration in the subrange 83.8058 K to 273.16 K is

given-by the relation:
W4 (T90) a4[W(T90) - 1] + b4[W(T90) - 1]lnW(T90).
(21)
Depending upon the temperature range of use, the SPRT may be calibrated from
273.16 K down to 13.8033 K (the triple point of equilibrium hydrogen), down to
The coefficients a4 and b4 are obtained by calibrating the SPRT at the triple
points of argon (83.8058 K), mercury (234.3156 K), and water (273.16 K). The
values of Wr(T90) are obtained from the reference function [eq (14)].
Table 5. Values of the coefficients, Ai, Bi, Ci and Di, and of the constants A0,
B 0, C 0, and D 0 in the reference functions, eqs (14) and (22), and in the
functions approximating them, given by eqs (15) and (23)
In the range 273.15. K. to 12341.93 K, the equation for the reference function
Wr(T90) is given by:
2.3.4 RANGE 273.15 K (OC) TO 1234.93 K (961.78 C)
Constant or
Coefficient
Value
Constant or
Coefficient
9
Wr(T90) = C0 + C1[(T90/K - 754.15)/481]i
i=I
Value
A0
A1
A2
A3
-2.135
3.183
-1.801
0.717
347
247
435
272
29
20
97
04
B0
B1
B2
B3
0.183
0.240
0.209
0.190
324
975
108
439
722
303
771
972
A4
A5
A6
A7
0.503
-0.618
-0.053
0.280
440
993
323
213
27
95
22
62
B4
B5
B6
B7
0.142
0.077
0.012
-0.032
648
993
475
267
498
465
611
127
A8
A9
A10
A11
0.107
-0.293
0.044
0.118
152
028
598
686
24
65
72
32
B8
B9
B10
B11
-0.075
-0.056
0.076
0.123
291
470
201
893
522
670
285
204
A12
-0.052 481 34
B12
B13
B14
B15
-0.029
-0.091
0.001
0.026
201
173
317
025
193
542
696
526
C0
C1
C2
C3
2.781
1.646
-0.137
-0.006
572
509
143
497
54
16
90
67
D0
D1
D2
D3
439.932
472.418
37.684,
7.472
854
020
494
018
C4
C5
C6
C7
-0.002
0.005
0.001
-0.002
344
118
879
044
44
68
82
72
D4
D5
D6
D7
2.920
0.005,
-0.963
-0.188
828
184
864
732
C8
C9
-0.000 461 22
0.000 457 24
D8
D9
0.191
0.049
203
025
A specified, approximate inverse [83] of this equation, equivalent to within

0.000 13 K, is:
9
T90/K - 273.15 = D0 + Di([Wr(T90) - 2.64]/1.64]i
i=I
calibration
W1(T90) = a1[W(T90) - 1] +
If the SPRT is to be used over the entire range 273.15 K to 1234.93 K, it must be
calibrated at the triple point of water (273.16 K) and at the freezing points of
tin (505.078 K), zinc (692.677 K), aluminum (933.473 K), and silver, (1234.93 K).
The deviation function is given by the relation:
W6(T90) = a6[W(T90) - 1] + b6[W(T90) - 1]2
+ c6[W(T90) - 1]3 + d[W(T90) - W(933.473 K)]2
5
1]2 + c1[,nW(T90)]i+n,
i=I
(24)
The values of a6, b6, and c6 are determined from the measured deviations W(T90)
of W ( T 90) from the reference values W, ( T 90) [obtained from eq (22)] at the
freezing points :of tin (505.078 K), zinc (692.677 K), and aluminum, (933.473 K),
ignoring the term involving d. Then, d is determined-from these values of a6, b 6,
c 6 and the deviation W 6( T 90) of W ( T 90) from the reference value W i( T 90) at the
freezing point of silver (1234.93 K). The coefficient d is, used only for
temperature measurements in the range from the freezing point of aluminum to the
freezing point of silver. For temperature measurements below the freezing point of
aluminum, d = 0.
over the range 13,8033 K to 273.16 K is
b1[W(T90) -
(23)
The values of the constants C0 and D0 and of the coefficients Ci and Di of eqs
(22) and (23) are, listed in table 5.
24.5561 K (the triple point of neon), down. to 54.3584 K (the triple point of
oxygen), or down to 83.8058 K (the triple point of argon).
The deviation function for
(22)
(18)
SPRTs may be calibrated for use throughout the whole range 273.15 K to 1234.93 K
or for shorter subranges by calibrations at fixed points between 273.15 K and
the upper limit of 933.473 K (freezing point of aluminum,. 660.323 C), of
692.677 K (freezing point of zinc, 419.527 C), of 505.078 K (freezing point of
tin, 231.928 C) of 429.7485 K (freezing point of indium, 156.5985 C), or of
302.9146 K (melting point of gallium, 29.7646 C).
The
Z-162
deviation
function
W 5 ( T 90 )
will
be
discussed
liter
in
the
text.
If an SPRT is not to be used over the entire 273.15 K to 1234.93 K range, but its
use restricted to one of the subranges, the deviation functions and the
calibration points are as follows.
2.3.4.1
ALUMINUM)
SUBRANGE 273.15 K (0 C) TO 933.473 K (660.323 -C. FREEZING POINT OF
For an SPRT used throughout the subrange 273.15 K to 933.473 K, the thermometer is
calibrated at the triple point of water (273.6 K) and at the freezing points of tin
(505.078 K) zinc (692.677 K), and aluminum (9 33.473 K). The deviation function is
W7(T90) - a7[W(T90) - 1] + b7(W(T90) _ 1]2 + C7(WT90) - 1]3.
calibrated at the triple point of water (273.16 K); and at the freezing points of tin
(505.078 K) and zinc (692.677 K). The deviation function is given by the relation:
(26)
The coefficients a8 and ba are determined from the deviations W(T90) of W(T90)
from the reference values Wr(T90) [eq (22)] at the freezing points of tin (505.078
K) and zinc (692.677 K).
2.3.4.3 SUBRANGE 273.15 K (0 C) TO 505.078 K (231.928 C. FREEZING POINT OF TIN)
to 505.078 K. the thermometer is
, and at the freezing points of
of the deviation function is the
K, i.e.,
W9(T90) - a9[W(T90) - 1] + b9(W(T90) - 1]2.
(27)
The coefficients a8 and b8 are determined from the deviations W(T90) of W(T90) from
the reference values Wr(T90) [eq (22)] at the freezing points of indium (429.7485 K)
and tin (505.078 K).
2.3.4.4 SUBRANGE 273.15 K (0 C) To 429.7485 K (156.5985 C, FREEZING POINT OF
INDIUM)
For an SPRT used throughout the subrange 273.15 K to 429.7485 K. the thermometer is
calibrated at the triple point of water (273.16 K) and at the freezing point of
indium (429.7485 K). The deviation function is:
W10(T90) - a9[W(T90) -1]
(28)
The coefficient a10 is determined from the deviation W(T90) of W(T90) from the
reference value Wr(T90) [eq (22)] at the freezing point of indium (429.7485 K).
2.3.4.5 SUBRANGE 273.15 K (0 C) TO 302.9146 K (29.7646 C. MELTING POINT OF

GALLIUM)
calibrated at the triple point of water (273.16 K) and at the melting point of
gallium (302.9146 K). The deviation function is:
W11(T90) - a11W(T90) - 1].
(29)
The coefficient a11 is determined from the deviation W(T90) of W(T90) from the
reference value Wr(T90) [eq (22)] at the melting point of gallium (302.9146 K)
2.3.5 SUBRANGE 234.3156 K (-38.8344 C. TRIPLE POINT OF MERCURY) TO 302.9146 K

(29.7646 THE MELTING POINT OF GALLIUM)
For an SPRT used throughout the subrange 234. 3156 K to 302.9146
is calibrated at the triple points of mercury (234.3156 K) and
and at the melting point of gallium (302.9146 K). The form
function is the sameas that for the subrange 273.15 K to
W5(T90) - a5[W(T90) - 1] + b5[W(T90) -1.]
K, the thermometer
water (273.16 K),
of the deviation
692.677 K, i.e.,
(30)
The coefficients a5 and b5 are determined from the deviations W(T90) of W(T90)
from the reference values Wr(T90) at the triple point of mercury (234.3156 K) and at
the melting point of gallium (302.9146 K) The reference values Wr(T90) must be
calculated from the appropriate reference function [either eq (14) or eq (2 2 ) }
both reference functions being required to cover this range.
2.4 ABOVE 1234.93 K (961.78 C. FREEZING POINT OF SILVER): RADIATION THERMOMETRY

RASED ON PLANCKS LAW OF RADIATION
At temperatures above 1234.93 K, T90 is defined by the relation:
L (T90)
L [T90(X)]
3.1
VAPOR PRESSURE THERMOMETRY AND GAS THERMOMETRY

REALIZATION OF THE ITS-90 BELOW 273.16 K
(25)
2.3.4.2 SUBRANGE 273.15 K (0 C) TO 692.677 K (419.527 C, FREEZING POINT OF ZINC)
For an SPRT used throughout the subrange 273.15 K

calibrated at the triple point of.water)(273.16 K)
indium (429.7485 K) and tin (505 078 K). The form
same as that for the subrange 273.15 K to 692.677
3. REALIZATION OF THE ITS-90
3.1.1
The coefficients a7, b7, and C7, are identical to a6, b6, and C6, respectively, are
determined from the deviations W(T90) of W(T90) from the reference values WI,(T90) [eq
(22)] at the freezing points of tin (505.078 K), zinc (692.677 K), and aluminum
(933 . 473 K).
W8(T90) - a8[W(T90) - 1]+ b8[W(T90) - 1]2
temperature of silver is the Junction point of platinum resistance thermometry and

radiation thermometry, it is believed that the T90 values of the freezing points
of silver, gold and copper are sufficiently self-consistent that the use of any one
of them as the reference temperature T90(X) will not result in any significant
difference in the measured values of T90 from what would be obtained if only the
silver freezing point were used.
exp[c2/T90(X)]-1
exp[c2/T90-1
in which L(T90) and L[T90(X)] are the spectral concentrations of the radiance of a
blackbody at wavelength (in vacuum) at T90 and at T90(X), respectively. T90(X)
refers to either the silver freezing point [T90(Ag) - 1234.93 K] , the gold freezing
point (T 90 (Au) - 1337.33 K], or the copper freezing point [T90 (Cu) 1357.77 K]. The second radiation constant, C2 (-hc/k), of Plancks radiation
formula has the value C 2 - 0.0143 88 m-K. Although the freezing-point
The calibration of thermometers below the triple point of argon on the ITS-90, as
defined, is relatively complex It is expected that capsule-type SPRTs, rhodiumiron resistance thermometers (RIRTs), and other stable encapsulated resistance
thermometers will be calibrated in terms of the defined ITS-90 and then used as
reference thermometers to maintain the ITS-90 below about 84 K and used to
calibrate other resistance thermometers by the comparison method. The reference
thermometers will be calibrated periodically in terms of the defined ITS-90.
By use of the term "realization of the ITS-90," reference is made to obtaining the
equilibrium states as defined by the scale, to having thermometers in thermal
equilibrium with those equilibrium states, and to making accurate measurements and
interpretations of the requisite properties of those thermometers in terms of the
ITS-90.
Considerable effort has been expended to develop and realize the EPT-76, a scale
which covered the range 0.5 K to 30 K. This scale has been widely disseminated among
low temperature scientists. At NIST, the EPT-76 has been maintained on referencestandard RIRTs for use in calibrating customer thermometers. Upon introduction of
the ITS-90, NIST converted the EPT-76 on the reference-standard RIRTs to the ITS-90
using the specified differences [83] between T90 and T76, This converted scale is
being used to calibrate other thermometers until such time that NIST realizes the
ITS-90 in this temperature region directly as defined. It is recommended that
those laboratories that have thermometers with calibrations on the EPT-76 adjust
their T76 values to conform to T90 values. When NIST realizes the ITS-90 as defined
in this range, the difference between the converted scale on the referencestandard RIRTs (and, where appropriate, on capsule SPRTs) and the realized
scale will be determined.
3.1.2 VAPOR PRESSURE THERMOMETRY AND THE CVGT RANGE
For most measurements below about 100 K, better precision can be obtained with
capsule-type SPRTs than with the long-stem type. In the calibration of SPRTs,
however, long-stem type SPRTs (immersion-type SPRTs) can be calibrated easily by
a direct immersion process down to the triple point of argon (83.8058 K) by moving the
SPRTs from one fixed-point device to another. Unless capsule-type SPRTs and
other capsule-type thermometers are installed inside long stem-like holders,
however, they will require re-installation, and re-wiring whenever different
fixed-point apparatuses are used. (In this document, the phrase capsule-type
thermometers means encapsulated resistance thermometers of small o v e r a l l
dimensions.) It is desirable, therefore, to be able to calibrate capsule-type
SPRTs and other capsule-type thermometers at the argon triple point and below (or,
if possible, even at the triple point of water and below since calibrations of
SPRTs require measurements at the triple point of water) in an integrated
"multi-task" (multi- fixed-point) apparatus. Such a multi-task apparatus
requires, in addition to wells for capsule thermometers (in thermal equilibrium
in a "single cryostat block"), means for calibration using 3He, 4He, and e-H2 vapor
pressure thermometry, 3He and 4He CVGTs, and triple points of e-H2 Ne, O2, Ar, Hg,
and H 2 O - A total of 11 chambers is required if all of the overlapping
definitions of the ITS-90 are to be evaluated and if a "continuous calibration,"
without re-installation and re-wiring of the SPRTs, is desired from 0.65 K to
273.16 K. In addition, unless high pressure sealed cells of the reference gases
are used, tubes to each of the chambers, except those for Hg and H20, are required.
Since 3He and 4He vapor-pressure and CVGT ranges overlap to a large extent
chambers for 4He vapor-pressure measurements and for 4He CVGT measurements could be
eliminated and the ITS-90 could still be realized. Also, chambers for e-H2 vaporpressure and the e-H2 triple-point realizations could be combined. The number of
chambers could be reduced further if the cryostat block could be allowed to warm
to ambient temperature or higher for exchanging certain of the fixed-point
substances, or if it were permissible to perform the calibrations of the capsule
thermometers at the triple points of argon, mercury, and water in other
apparatuses, using a long-stem type holder. This procedure, however, would
require a longer time for calibration.
The number of chambers can also be reduced if suitable, highly stable capsule
thermometers are available for correlating the scales; for this purpose, the
capsule SPRTs would be calibrated in another, simpler, fixed-point apparatus. It
is expected that such a set of reference-standard resistance thermometers would be
calibrated, and that routine calibrations of customer thermometers on the ITS-90
would be by comparison with these reference thermometers. The reference
thermometers would be checked occasionally against the defined ITS-90. It is hoped
that resistance thermometer devices will be more reproducible than the ability to
realize the defined ITS-90. Depending upon the design of the cryostat, the defined
ITS-90 may lack the desired reproducibility when realized in a multi-task
apparatus of high complexity. In order to achieve the best realization of the
ITS-90, it may be more practical to limit the number of defining fixed points
in a single cryostat block.
The greatest problem in realization of the fixed points and in calibrations of
capsule thermometers is ensuring that the multi-task or a "single-task" cryostat
block is isothermal. Depending upon the design, a thermal gradient can persist. The
presence 3 He, 4 He, e-H 2 , Ne, 0 2 , and/or Ar gases in their respective
chambers are expected to be beneficial in making the apparatus isothermal, but, the
gases may be a source of thermal oscillation. (In designing an apparatus for low
temperature gases, provisions should be made to avoid thermal oscillations
in the gas.) The vapor pressures of Ne and Ar are high at their respective triplepoint temperatures so that thermal equilibrium should be easily attained at their
triple points.
Z-163
For a practical cryostat block, the 3He and 4He CVGTs must connect thermally the 3He
and 4He vapor-pressure scales and the fixed points of e-H2 and Ne. Such a cryostat
block will require six chambers (separate 3He and 4He vapor-pressure chambers,
separate 3He and 4He CVGT chambers, e-H2 vapor-pressure and e-H2 triple-point chamber,
and a Ne chamber) to realize the ITS-90 in the most satisfactory manner at and below
the Ne triple point. This arrangement will permit a direct comparison of the
different parts of the scale and/or calibration of thermometers. Since the
combination of 4He vapor-pressure thermometry and 4He constant volume gas
thermometry are redundant with 3He vapor-pressure thermometry and 3He constant volume
gas thermometry, the 4He systems are not required. Hence, the number of chambers
required could be reduced to four and the ITS-90 could still be realized. It should
be noted, however, that, depending upon the CVGT filling pressure, the dp/dT of a
3He CVGT may be less sensitive than 4He vapor-pressure thermometry. Since SPRTS
can be calibrated only down to the argon triple-point temperature using the longstem SPRT apparatus, it would be most practical and useful to include an oxygen
triple-point chamber in the low-temperature system, thereby increasing the number
of chambers,to five. Also, since it is highly desirable to overlap calibrations
obtained in a long-stem type SPRT apparatus with those obtained in a lowtemperature apparatus, an argon triple-point chamber should be included. This
increases the number of chambers for the low temperature apparatus to six.
Although it is desirable to have as few tubes as possible going to the cryostat
block in order to minimize temperature gradients in the block, one must build into
the system enough redundant components to be able to check the system for proper
and accurate operation. For example, although the CVGT is calibrated at only the
triple-point temperatures of neon and hydrogen and at one point in the 3He or 4He vapor
pressure range between 3.0 K and 5.,0 K, the system should have the capability for
the measurement of hydrogen vapor pressures at about 17 K and 20.3 K so that
temperatures measured by means of vapor pressures and by the CVGT m a y b e
compared. Of course, if the system is operating properly, the
temperatures measured by the two techniques should agree. Similarly, there should
be the capability to measure the vapor pressures of both 3He and 4He so that
temperatures measured with the CVGT in the range from 3 K to 5 K and by means of
3He and 4He vapor pressures may be compared for agreement. Also, it is desirable to
design the CVGT for absolute gas thermometry measurements; the CVGT can check the
consistency of the ITS-90 from about 3 K to 90 K.
3.1.3.2
Since measurement of pressure is common to both vapor pressure and CVGT

measurements, it will be discussed later in this section (see sec. 3.1.3.5).
In vapor pressure measurements, it is important that cold spots be absent along the
gas-pressure transmitting tube. If cold spots are present, the observed vapor
pressure will reflect the temperature of the condensation at the cold spot instead of
that of the bulk bath. A separate vacuum jacket around the tube will maintain a
continuous heat flux to the sample bulb or bath and should free the tube of any
condensation [24]. The vacuum jacket should also reduce the occurrence of
thermal oscillation in the gas-pressure, sensing tube. If thermal oscillations do
occur, they may be suppressed by either one or a combination of the following:
increasing,the volume of the external gas-pressure space at the ambient
temperature, or by inserting a wad of wool or glass fiber or a piece of yarn in the
gas-pressure sensing tube. The thermal oscillations may be suppressed also
by tuning a variable volume device [36]. Thermocouples should be placed along the
gas-pressure sensing tube in order to determine temperatures along that tube, the
distribution of those temperatures being required to determine the aerostatic
head correction.
The vapor pressure may be determined over the bath of bulk liquid 3He, 4He, or e-H2
with which the thermometer to be calibrated is in thermal equilibrium. The
measurement can be made also by using a separate, small sample bulb with which the
thermometer is in good thermal contact. The latter method is preferred with the
rather expensive 3 He and with e-H 2 which requires a catalyst for the
equilibrium ortho-para conversion of the sample [2,58,91].
3.1.3.1 3He Vapor-Pressure Measurements
Because of the relatively high cost of the sample, vapor-pressure measurements are
made with 3He contained in a small volume of about 5 cm . Likewise, the gas pressure volume to the manometer should be kept relatively small, but large enough
to avoid large thermomolecular pressure effects and thermal oscillations.
Thermomolecular-pressure-effect corrections depend on the sensing tube diameter,
surface condition of the tube, temperature difference, and pressure [49,71,102].
As mentioned above, thermal oscillations can be reduced by varying the gaspressure volume at the ambient temperature or by introducing a wad of fiber or
yarn (cotton, wool, or glass) in the gas-pressure tube.
In the past, 3He contained significant amounts of 4He and the observed vapor
pressures of 3He required corrections for its presence. In recent years,
however, 3He samples of 99.9995% purity have become available, eliminating the
requirement for such corrections. At 0.65 K, the vapor pressure and the
temperature derivative of the vapor pressure are 115.9 Pa and 1.08 Pa/mK,
respectively. At the upper limit of 3.2 K, the vapor pressure and the
temperature derivative of the vapor pressure are 101,662.1 Pa and 106.83 Pa/mK,
respectively. The required pressure resolution that corresponds to 0.1 mK of
vapor-pressure measurements varies from 0.108 Pa at 0.65 K to 10.7 Pa at 3.2 K.
Since the amount of 3He in the cryostat is small, and since the amount of 4He used
in cooling is relatively large, every effort should be made to avoid
contamination of the sample of 3He by the 4He through diffusion, particularly
through any glass parts of the apparatus.
The sample bulb should contain enough 3He that the liquid surface temperature and
the cryostat block temperature can be correlated with the observed vapor pressure.
The temperature of the cryostat block must be checked for consistency with the
observed dp/dT of the vapor pressure at the temperature of measurement.
Aerostatic-head corrections depend upon the density of the gas in the pressuretransmitting gas tube. Thermocouples must be distributed along the tube in order to
measure the temperatures required for calculation of these corrections.
Vapor-Pressure Measurements
At the lower temperature limit of 1.25 K, the vapor pressure of 4He is 114.7 Pa
and the temperature derivative of the vapor pressure is 0.76 Pa/.K. At the
upper limit of 5 K, the vapor pressure and, the temperature derivative of the
vapor pressure of 4He are 1946.29.7 Pa and 146.53 Pa/mK, respectively. The
required pressure resolutions of the vapor pressure that corresponds to 0.1 mK
are 0.076 Pa at 1.25 K and 14.7 Pa at 5.0 K [37,38].
3.1.3.3
e-H2. Vapor Pressure Measurements
The equilibrium composition of the two molecular states of hydrogen (ortho and
para) is temperature dependent. The room temperature composition, about 75% ortho
and 25% -para, is referred to as normal hydrogen (n-H2). On liquefaction, the
composition slowly changes toward the equilibrium composition corresponding to
its temperature. ~ In the process, the heat of transition is released, resulting
in the evaporation of some hydrogen. A catalyst, such as activated ferric
hydroxide, hastens the equilibration. The catalyst must be placed in the sample
chamber in order to ensure that the hydrogen has the appropriate
equilibrium composition. Most of the conversion must be made before collecting
the liquid in the sample chamber since the heat of conversion (1664 J/mol) from
the ortho to the -para,molecular state is larger than the heat of vaporization
(900 J/mol) of normal hydrogen. The normal boiling point of e-H2 (equilibrium
composition: 0.21% ortho and 99.79% -para) is about 0.12 K lower than that of
n-H2. The temperatures near 17.035 K and 20.27 K are determined from vaporpressure measurements near 33,,321.3 Pa and 101,292 Pa, respectively [2,31,58].
3.1.3.4
3.1.3 REALIZATION OF THE VAPOR PRESSURE AND CVGT SCALES AT TEMPERATURES BELOW THE
NEON TRIPLE POINT
4He
Since liquid 4He can be obtained easily, the vapor pressure can be determined
above a bath of the liquid in which an apparatus containing the thermometer is
i m m e r s e d . o r a t e c h n i q u e u s i n g a s m a l l b u l b o f 4H e s a m p l e , w i t h t h e
thermometer in good thermal contact, can be employed. The lower end of the gaspressure tube should have a small orifice in order to reduce superfluid 4He film
flow at temperatures below 2.1768 K [61,91]. The 4He sample bulb must be in
thermal equilibrium with the cryostat block. The cryostat block temperature
should be checked for consistency with the observed dp/,dT of the vapor pressure
at the temperature of measurement.
Constant Volume Gas Thermometry
Some of the following precautions and corrections that are applicable to absolute
constant-volume gas thermometry should be included in the calibration of the CVGT
at the three specified temperatures of calibration:
1. The volume of the gas bulb should be sufficiently large relative to the gaspressure-line volume to minimize the error in correcting for the "dead space."
On the other hand, the diameter of the gas-pressure line should not be so small
as to cause large thermomolecular pressure corrections.
2. The temperature coefficient of volume expansion and the pressure expansion of
the gas bulb should be known accurately. (It is desirable to check the
calibration by using the,CVGT ih the absolute mode.)
Table 6. The effect of pressure on the temperatures of the defining fixed points.
The reference pressure for the equilibrium states of freezing and
melting points is one standard atmosphere (101,325 Pa). Triple points have the
vapor pressure of the material when the solid, liquid and vapor phases are present
in equilibrium.
Material
T90
Pressure Effect of Fixed Point

K Pa-1
x108*
e-H2 TP
Ne TP
O2 TP
Ar TP
Hg TP
H2O TP
Ga HP
In FP
Sn FP
Zn FP
Al FP
Ag FP
Au FP
Cu FP
13.8033
24.5561
54.3584
83.8058
234.3156
273.16
302.9146
429.7485
505.078
692.677
933.473
1234.93
1337.33
1357.77
mK/(meter of liquid)
34
16
12
25
5.4
-7.5
-2.0
4.9
3.3
4.3
7.0
6.0
6.1
3.3
0.25
1.9
1.5
3.3
7.1
-0.73
-1.2
3.3
2.2
2.7
1.6
5.4
10.
2.6
*Equivalent to millikelvins per standard atmosphere.
3. In order to be able to calculate the aerostatic head correction, the

temperature distribution along the connecting gas-presure transmitting tube
(capillary) must be known. That temperature distribution may be determined by
placing thermocouples along the tube.
4. The gas-bulb filling pressure should be sufficiently high to give an
adequate dp/dT for measurement, but not so high as to require large corrections
for non-ideality of the gas.
5. Higher pressures reduce the thermomolecular pressure gradients in the
connecting gas-pressure tube.
6. The effect of adsorption can be reduced by designing the gas bulb so that
the volume is large relative to the surface and by polishing the inside surface
of the bulb.
For optimizing the CVGT design, the
Differentiating the ideal gas relation,
Z-164
ideal
gas
law
may
be
applied.
pV = nRT,
(32)
yields
dp/dT
Rn/V,
(33)
where p is the pressure of n moles of gas contained in a volume of V m3.

Equation (33) shows that the dp/dT sensitivity of the CVGT is directly related to
the gas density n/V. Expressing the gas constant R as 8.31441 Nm/mol K or
8.31441 Nm3/(M2molK), the sensitivity dp/dT can be expressed in the units Pa/K.
Thus,
dp/dT = 8.31441(n/V) Pa/K,
(34)
where n/V is given in mol/m3. If a gas bulb of 1000 cm3 is filled to four
atmospheres at 273.16 K, n/V would be approximately 178 mol/m 3, and dp/dT
becomes 1484 Pa/K. Since the resolution of many high quality mercury-manometer
systems is about 0.03 Pa to 0.2 Pa, the temperature resolution is about 0.03 mK
to 0.1 mK. It is to be noted that since
p/T = Rn/V,
(35)
the sensitivity dp/dT is constant,: independent of the gas bulb volume, as long
as the gas density at the filling temperature is constant. Hence, the gas-bulb
volume and the gas filling pressure should be chosen so that errors from the
effect of dead space, gas non-ideality effects and other effects are negligibly
small. See references [6,13,49,60].
3.1.3.5
Pressure Measurements
Efforts have been made to minimize the requirement of highly precise and
accurate pressure measurements in the realization of the defining fixed points
of the ITS-90 . The fixed points involving freezing and melting require
knowledge of the pressure only within the significance of the relative ly small
pressure effect ( cf. table 6). Accurate pressure measurements are required,
however, to realize the vapor-pressure-temperature scales of 3He and 4He in the
range 0.65 K to 5.0 K, and to realize the vapor-pressure-temperature scale of eH2 close to 17.035 K and 20.27 K. To realize the CVGT scale using 3He or 4He gas
in the range 3.0 K to the triple point of neon (24.5561 K), only accurate
pressure-ratio measurements are required.
3.1.3.5.5
Thermolecular Pressure Difference
Thermolecular pressure differences occur at low gas pressures in tubes with

temperature gradients when the tube diameter is not much larger than the mean
free path of the gas. The pressure difference depends upon the gas, the
temperature of the gas, the diameter of the tube, the tube material, and the
surface condition of the tube. The best procedure is either to use a
sufficiently large tube to minimize the thermomolecular pressure difference or
to experimentally determine the difference by comparing the pressures between the
small diameter tube being used in the cryostat and a large diameter tube
[49,71,102]
3.2
REALIZATION OF THE FIXED POINTS OF THE ITS-90
3.2.1
EFFECT OF IMPURITIES
Except for the vapor-pressure-temperature points of helium and equilibrium

hydrogen, the fixed points of the ITS-90 are freezing points. melting points,
or triple points. The vapor-pressure measurements with 3He, 4He, and e-Hz must
be performed with sufficiently pure samples to minimize the effect of
impurities. The principal components of air impurity would be frozen. Neon in
hydrogen, however, causes positive deviations from ideal behavior [93,97). In the
vapor pressure measurements of 4He, it is very likely that the He will be
pure but 3He may contain some 4He. For such a circumstance, Roberts, Sherman and
Sydoriak described a procedure for correcting for the presence of 4He in 3He
[90].
The temperatures of freezing points (liquid-solid or liquid-solid-vapor
equilibrium points) of substances are usually lowered by the presence of an
impurity. This sometimes, however, is not the case when that impurity is
soluble in both the liquid and the solid phases of the major component. If a
given impurity is known to be present or is suspected, one must consult the
literature on the heterogeneous phase data of metal and non-metal systems to
estimate the possible effect of that impurity on the freezing point [39,51,88].
(Note: often in the analysis of the effect of impurities on freezing points,
the impurity is assumed to be nonvolatile.)
Assuming that the ideal solution law holds and that the impurities remain in
liquid solution, with no concentration gradients, then as the major component
slowly freezes, the depression in the freezing point, relative to the freezing
point
of the 100% pure material, is directly proportional to the overall
impurity concentration divided by the "first cryoscopic constant." This is
expressed as:
3.1.3.5.1 Mercury Manometry
T(pure) - T(obs) = x2/A.
Mercury manometry requires precise determination of the difference in height of

the two mercury surfaces in a U-tube manometer. Traditionally, cathetometers have
been used with a smallest imprecision of ab t 2 Pa. In recent years , the levels
have been sensed, in conjunction with length standards, by capacitive and
interferome tric. methods . The resolution of such mercury manometry systems is
about 0.05 Pa [19,50, 5 2,81] . (Note : the NIST manometry resolution has been
reported [50] to be about 0.0013 Pa.) For accurate pressure measurements, it
is
necessary
to know the density of mercury (which is pressure and temperature
dependent), the capillary depression at the mercury meniscus, the vapor pressure
of mercury, the aerostatic head difference of the pressure transmitting gas or
gases, and the local acceleration due to gravity. At one standard atmosphere,
uncertainties as of absolute pressure measurements of about 3 ppm and pressure
ratios of about 1 ppm have been reported. See references [19,50,52,81].
A = L/R[T(pure)]2,
Oil Manometry
The techniques and the requirements of oil manometry are similar to those of
mercury manometry.
3.1.3.5.3
Piston Gauges (Pressure Balances)
The pressure balanced by a dead-weight piston gauge is obtained from the mass of
the piston and the applied weights, and the effective area of the freely rotating
piston inside a closely-fitting cylinder. For determination of the absolute
pressure, the gauge must be enclosed and evacuated by a high capacity pumping
system to minimize the back pressure from the gas leaking between the piston and
the cylinder [13,60,81,96]. The local acceleration due to gravity must be known
accurately. Corrections must be applied for the effect of the streaming gas and
for any back pressure. It is advisable to check the readings of the piston gauge
against a primary mercury manometer. Also, the variation
of the effective area
with pressure must be determined with a mercury manometer. The aerostatic head of
the manometry system will change as gas leaks between the piston and the cylinder
causing the piston to sink deeper into the cylinder. The position of the piston
may be maintained by automatically pumping more gas
into the system. A
resolution of 1 ppm [13] and an certainty of about 15 ppm have been reported in
the pressure range 2 kPa to 200 kPa [63,81].
3.1.3.5.4
Diaphragm Pressure Detector
The diaphragm pressure detector consists of a thin metal disk clamped under
tension between two flat electrodes which form two capacitors, with the disk
common to both capacitors. Any pressure differential across the metal disk
causes the disk to deflect , increasing the capacitance on one side while
decreasing
the capacitance on the other side. This change is detected by
capacitance bridge techniques. Instruments for absolute pressure measurements are
available; however, they require periodic recalibrations to achieve
uncertainties of 1 to 5 parts in 104 of the readings.
The diaphragm pressure detector is used in high precision manometry as pressure
balance detectors, i.e. , with the pressures equal on both sides of the
diaphragm. The diaphragm pressure balance detector separates the gas of the
apparatus (vapor pressure apparatus or GVGT) from the counter-balancing gas of
which the pressure is determined.
The resolution of diaphragm gauges has been reported [13] to be about 0.002 Pa.
Instability due to different pressures, hysteresis temperature effects,and
other causes may decrease the resolution ion to 0.02 Pa in
actual pressure
measurements [13].
(37)
Table 7. Latent heats of fusion and first cryoscopic constants of defining

fixed-point materials
Substance
3.1.3.5.2
(36)
In eq (36), T(obs) is the observed freezing point of the particular sample being
investigated, T(pure) is the freezing point of the 100% pure material, x2 is the
mole fraction impurity concentration, and A is the first cryoscopic constant.
A is given by the relation:
e-H2
Ne
O2
Ar
Hg
H2O
Ga
In
Sn
Zn
Al
Ag
Au
Cu
Fixed Point
Temperature
T/K
13.8033
24.5561
54.3584
83.8058
234.3156
273.16
302.9146
429.7485
505.078
692.677
933.473
1234.93
1337.33
1357.77
Latent Heat
of Fusion
First Cryoscopic Constant
kJ/mole
0.117
0.335
0.444
1.188
2.292
6.008
5.585
3.264
6.987
7.385
10.79
11.30
12.364
13.14
K-1
0.0739
0.0668
0.0181
0.0203
0.00502
0.00968
0.00732
0.00213
0.00329
0.00185
0.00149
0.000891
0.000831
0.000857
where L is the molar heat of fusion and R is the molar gas constant. (Note:
eq (36) is an approximation. A more complete expression includes secondary
cryoscopic constants.
The term "first cryoscopic constant" is used here for
distinction. Also, in some cases, the term "cryoscopic constant" refers to the
reciprocal of eq (37) and in other cases, to the effect of impurities per liter
or kilogram of solvent.) The first cryoscopic constants of metals are relatively
smaller than those of molecular substances and of the
"cryogenic" gases (3He,
4 He, e-H , Ne, O , and Ar). Referring to eq (36), zinc, which has a first
2
2
cryoscopic
constant
of
0.0018/K,
requires
an
overall
impurity
concentration of approximately 2 parts in 107 for the temperature of the halffrozen sample to be depressed by 0.0001 K, relative to the liquidus point.
On
the other hand, argon, with a first cryoscopic constant of 0.0203/K, requires
an impurity concentration close to 2 parts in 106 for the same temperature
depression. Table 7 lists the heats of fusion and the first cryoscopic
constants of substances specified for the defining fixed points. It is the
usual practice at NIST to calibrate SPRTs during the first 50% of the freeze.
3.2.2
3.2.2.1
TRIPLE POINTS OF e-H2, Ne, O2. AND Ar

GENERAL CONSIDERATION OF APPARATUS DESIGN
The cryogenic fixed points (triple-points of pure gases equilibrium hydrogen,

natural neon, oxygen, and argon) are best real ed
in a calorimetric type
apparatus designed for calibrating capsule-type thermometer (SPRTs, RIRTs,
germanium
resistance
thermometers
(GRTs),
and
others)
[1, 2, 17, 18,20, 21,41,47, 58, 59, 78, 79, 80] . During calibration of the thermometers,
Z-165
TO SAMPLE
RESERVOIR
TO HIGH VACUUM
AND ELECTRICAL
LEAD TERMINALS
PORT FOR FILLING
LIQUID NITROGEN
LIQUID NITROGEN
LONG STEM SPRT

WELLS (7)
HE GAS MANIFOLD
TO SPRT WELLS
TEMPERATURE
CONTROLLED SHIELD
PASSIVE SHIELD
SAMPLE CELL SHIELD
SAMPLE CELL
67 cm
BAFFLES
CAPSULE SPRT
WELLS (6)
VACUUM CAN
SUPER INSULATED
DEWAR
56 cm
Figure 4.
A schematic drawing of the NIST argon triple-point apparatus for calibrating seven
long-stem SPRTs and six capsule SPRTs. Six long-stem SPRT wells surround a central SPRT well,
which is large enough to accommodate a holder for calibrating a capsule SPRT. At the bottom of the
sample cell, six capsule SPRT wells are circularly arranged between the long-stem SPRT wells.
Z-166
COPPER
CAPILLARY
AUXILIARY ISOTHERMAL
SHELL, HELD WITH NUT
CELL HEATER
COPPER TEMPERING
STRIPS
SAMPLE CELL
COPPER TUBES
94
mm
HELICALLY GROOVED
COPPER SLEEVE
PLATINUM
RESISTANCE
THERMOMETER
THERMOCOUPLE
CLIPS
25.4
mm
Figure 5. A sealed cell suitable for containing cryogenic gases at high pressures. This cell of
20 cm3 volume was filled to 100 atmospheres with pure oxygen and used to realize the triple point
of oxygen. Another cell of the same outer dimensions, but of 16 cm3 volume and with wells for
three capsule SPRTs, was filled to 163 atmospheres with oxygen and also used to realize the
triple point of oxygen [47].
Z-167
the calorimeter system thermally isolates the vessel containing the pure gas
sample and the thermometers. The capsule thermometers should be installed in
close-fitting wells of the sample vessel, using stopcock grease to enhance the
thermal contact. The wells should be vented for easy installation and
subsequent removal of the thermometers since such thermometers are sensitive to
shock. The wells can be vented by designing the well tubes to extend completely
through the sample cell or by machining a small groove along the length of the
well wall. The number of wells in.the vessel is limited only by the practical
size of the vessel and of the calorimeter system. On the other hand, for large
vessels, larger temperature gradients should be expected. The leads to the
thermometers should be tempered on the sample vessel. (Note: the term "temper"
refers to a process whereby sections of the leads or of the protective sheaths of
long-stem SPRTs are placed in "steady-state thermal equilibrium" with
selected parts of the apparatus.)
For calibration of SPRTs, the sample should be completely frozen for the second
time and the temperature set at about 1 K below the triple point, the sample
thermally isolated, and the equilibrium temperature measured. From the
knowledge of the previously determined heat capacity of the system below the
triple point and of the heat of fusion, add enough electrical energy to melt
about 10% of the sample. If T1 is the initial equilibrium temperature just below
the triple point, the required amount of electrical energy Q, to melt 10%
of the sample is:
Since the triple point of argon is about 6 K above the normal boiling point (NBP)
of nitrogen and since liquid nitrogen is readily available in large
quantities, long-stem type SPRTs can be calibrated at the argon triple point in
an apparatus cooled by liquid nitrogen. The apparatus should be designed to
cool the upper part of the protective sheath of the long-stem SPRTs to liquid
nitrogen temperatures, and then to heat the intermediate section of the sheath
above the sensing element to the argon triple point so that the sensing coil will
be in thermal equilibrium with the argon at its triple point [42]. See figure 4
for a schematic of such an apparatus presently in use at the NIST.
In using a temperature fixed point, one must make corrections for the
hydrostatic head of the liquid and for the gas pressure on the defined
equilibrium state. Table 6 gives the dT/dp for the defining fixed points of the
ITS-90, both in terms of the external gas pressure to which the fixed-point
material is exposed and in terms of the column of liquid.
Sample vessels for the cryogenic fixed points could be ruggedly constructed for
high pressures and sealed with a suitable amount of the pure gas [41,79]. These
"sealed-sample vessels can be easily installed and removed from the calorimeter for
replacement of thermometers and also to be transported to other laboratories for
comparison (see fig.5).The amount of gas that can be sealed in such
vessels however,is rather limited and, hence,the calorimetric system must be
operated with sufficient adiabatic control that the small amount of heat of
fusion of the sample is adequate to realize the triple point and then calibrate
the thermometers. Also, since the amount of sample gas is small, extra care
must be taken to clean the vessel thoroughly before filling. The recommended
procedure is to bake the vessel at high vacuum and then purge many times with the
sample gas before finally filling and sealing the cell [41,47,79].
The vessel for a cryogenic fixed point can be installed in the calorimeter and
connected by a small diameter tube to a source of pure gas {1,2,31,32,44,58,59}.
In this design, enough condensed liquid could be used to nearly fill the vessel
and thus, to provide an abundant supply of heat of fusion for calibration of
thermometers. The tube from the vessel must be connected to an "external
expansion volume" of appropriate size so that when the system is at ambient
temperature the pressure is not excessive. The vessel could also be connected to
an external rugged container into which all or nearly all of the sample can be
transferred by cooling, and then contained bye high-pressure valve. Since under
these conditions the "sample vessel" would not be subjected to high
pressures, it can be constructed of thin copper parts. With appropriate gas
handling and cleaning provisions, the same vessel could be used with all of the
reference gases, stored in separate external rugged containers, and the
thermometers calibrated at the fixed points of the gases without the necessity of
having to remove the thermometers from the vessel between fixed-point
can have separate chambers for each of the gases. In the latter design,
separate tubes for the gases must enter the calorimeter system. Although each of
the chambers of a "multi-chamber sample vessel" would be relatively small, the
amount of sample that could be condensed inside each chamber would still be more
than that which is normally used with the high pressure "sealed-sample vessel"
Similar to the procedure used in filling sealed-sample vessels, a thorough
baking, pumping, and purging procedure before filling should be followed with
permanently installed vessels.
where Cs and Ct are the mean heat capacities in the temperature intervals in the
solid and liquid phases, respectively, and To is the triple-point temperature.
Q1= 0.1L. + C8(T0 - T1).
3.2.2.2.1 TRIPLE POINT OF EQUILIBRIUM HYDROGEN, 13,8033 K (-259.3467C)

Hydrogen gas samples of 99.9999% and higher purity are readily available. [The
first cryoscopic constant of hydrogen is relatively high (0.040/K).
Consequently, the liquidus point of an ideal hydrogen solution of 99.9999% purity
would be approximately 0.01 mK lower than that of 100% pure hydrogen. Except for
helium and deuterium, all other impurities would be either frozen or in solution
in very small amounts.] The commonly used catalyst for converting ortho hydrogen
to para hydrogen is hydrated ferric oxide (Fe 2 O 3 +H 2 O or FeO+OH)
Other oxides of magnetic elements, either pure or mixed-metal, such as those of
chromium, nickel, cobalt, and neodymium, also have been used as catalysts for
ortho to para hydrogen conversion. The hydrated ferric oxide catalyst is
prepared by mixing at about 30C relatively dilute solutions (about 2 molal)
of ferric chloride and sodium hydroxide, with only a slight excess of sodium
hydroxide, washing the resulting gelatinous Fe(OH)3 precipitate thoroughly with
distilled water, air drying at 140C for 24 hours, vacuum baking at 110C for 16
to 20 hours, and back-filling with hydrogen while the catalyst is still hot
[7,104). The catalyst is activated by flowing hydrogen through it for about 4
hours while the catalyst is maintained at a temperature of about 150C. The
sample vessel and ancillary components should be designed to permit the whole
of the hydrogen sample to come into contact with the catalyst at the equilibrium
temperature. See references [2,31,58].
3.2.2.2.2 TRIPLE POINT OF NATURAL NEON. 24,5561 K (-248,5939,C)
Neon gas samples of 99.999% purity are commercially available. Samples of higher
purity may be obtained by special arrangement with the supplier. The
yy
,,
,,
yy
,,
yy
,,
yy
,,
yy
,,
yy
,,
yy
,,
yy
,,
yy
,,
yy
,,
yy
,,
yy
,,
yy
3.2.2.2 REALIZATIONS OF THE TRIPLE POINTS AND THEIR APPLICATION TO CALIBRATION

The procedure for realizing a triple point of the cryogenic gases is to first
completely freeze the sample. If the triple point is being realized for the first
time with the apparatus, the sample should be cooled sufficiently below the
triple point to determine the heat capacity of the system (sample, vessel, and
thermometers) from about 5 K to 20 K below (depending on the gas) to about 20 K
above the triple point, and to determine the heat of fusion of the sample during
the same series of measurements [41,47]. (Note: check thermometers must be
calibrated along with the test thermometers. The measurements on the check
thermometers will serve to guide the heating process during the calibration, as
well as to provide measurement statistics.)
After cooling to the required low temperature the vessel should be thermally
isolated by placing it under continuous adiabatic control. Then the following
series of measurements should be performed:
1. the equilibrium temperature should be observed with the check
thermometer,
2. a measured amount of electrical energy should be added to the
system.
3. a new equilibrium temperature should be established and measured
4. steps 2 and 3 should be repeated until three heat capacity points
are obtained below the triple point.
5. then,the sample should be completely melted by introducing a
measured amount of heat,
6. next, the equilibrium temperature just above the triple point should
be measured
7. then, three additional heat capacity points should be obtained above
the triple point in accordance with steps 2 and 3.
From the knowledge of the eight equilibrium temperatures (four below the triple
point and four above the triple point) and the measured amounts of electrical
energies added, the heat capacities of the system below and above the triple
point, and the heat of fusion, are calculated. If Q joules are added to the
system from an initial equilibrium temperature Ti just below the triple point to
heat the system to a final equilibrium temperature Tf Just above the triple
point, the heat of fusion L is:
L=Q - CS(TO - T1) - C,(Tf - TO),
(38)
(39)
Once the system comes to equilibrium, measure the resistances of all of the
thermometers. Repeat the measurements at 20%, 40%, 60%, 70%, and 80% melted. If
the sample is about 99.9999% pure, all measurements on each thermometer
throughout this melted range should agree to within 0.1 mK to 0.2 mK.
Type A
yyy
,,,
,,,
yyy
,,,
yyy
,,,
yyy
,,,
yyy
,,,
yyy
,,,
yyy
,,,
yyy
,,,
yyy
,,,
yyy
,,,
yyy
,,,
yyy
,,,
yyy
Type B
Figure 6. Two types of triple point of water cells with wells for platinum
resistance thermometers. The cells contain pure air-free water. The
thermometer wells are made of precision-bore tubing.
Z-168
principal impurities are CO, H2, He, and N2. The CO and the N2 impurities can be
frozen out by slowly flowing the sample through a coiled tube immersed in liquid
neon; the H2 and the He impurities can be removed by freezing the neon sample in
liquid hydrogen and pumping, with care so that the lighter isotopes of neon are not
preferentially removed. [The first cryoscopic constant of neon is 0.0668/K.
Consequently, the liquidus point of an ideal neon solution of 99.999% purity would
be approximately 0.1 mK lower than that of 100% pure neon.] The
purified sample
should be collected in a clean stainless-steel cylinder by
cooling the cylinder
in liquid hydrogen (or cooled with liquid helium). If desired, the purified
sample can be collected directly in the cooled sample vessel. See references
[1,79].
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3.2.2.2.3 TRIPLE POINT OF OXYGEN. 54 .3584 K (-218,7916 C)

Oxygen gas samples of 99.999% purity are commercially available. Accurate
chemical analysis of oxygen is difficult and, therefore, the claimed purity may not
be correct. Unknown or undetected impurities are chemically less reactive than
oxygen, e.g, the noble gases, and, in particular, argon, which forms a peritectic
with oxygen. Samples of purity greater than 99.999% may be obtained by special
arrangement with the supplier. [The first cryoscopic constant of oxygen is
0.0181/K. Consequently, the liquidus point of an ideal oxygen solution of
99.999% purity would be approximately 0.6 mK lower than that of 100% pure oxygen.]
Careful preparation by thermal decomposition of potassium permanganate can
yield samples of 99.99992% purity or better [47]. The oxygen sample should be
stored in clean stainless-steel cylinders. See references [32,47,59,79,80].
3.2.2.2.4 TRIPLE POINT OF ARGON. 83,8058 K (-189.3442 C)

Argon gas samples of 99.9999% purity or better are readily available. The usual
impurities are the components of air, moisture, and hydrocarbons. [The first
cryoscopic constant of argon is 0.0203/K. Consequently, the liquidus point of an
ideal argon solution of 99.9999% purity would be approximately 0.05 mK lower than
that of 100% pure argon.] To fill the sample vessel, the gas may be used
directly or
it may be dried first by slowly passing it through a coiled tube immersed in
either liquid oxygen or a Dry Ice/ethyl alcohol mixture. See references
[17,41,42,59,79,80].
3.2.3 TRIPLE POINT OF WATER. 273.16.K (0.01C)
The triple-point temperature of water is assigned the value 273.16 K on the
Kelvin Thermodynamic Temperature Scale and also on the ITS-90. It is the
reference temperature for resistance ratios in platinum resistance thermometry.
The water used in preparing triple point of water cells is pure water of
naturally-occurring isotopic composition. Figure 6 shows two commonly used
types of triple point of water cells.
Triple point of water cells are usually prepared from river water that has been
purified by chemical treatment and distillation. River water is expected to have
concentrations of deuterium and the heavier isotopes of oxygen that are lower
than that of ocean water. The extreme difference in the triple points of
naturally occurring water, including polar water, is given as 0.25 mK [100].
It is expected that differences among water triple-point cells of river water
would be much smaller than 0.25 mK. (The isotopic composition difference
between river water and ocean water [100] has been estimated to cause no more
than a 0.050 mK difference in the triple-point temperature.) While the basic
material is plentifully available, preparation of water triple-point cells
requires a special effort [5,40]. Although the effect on the triple-point
temperature is negligible, a trace of air always remains in most sealed triple
point of water cells. When a cell at room temperature is gently inverted from one
end to the other and a sharp "click" is produced through the water hammer action,
the amount of gas in the cell wi11 have negligible influence on the triple-point
temperature.
3.2.3.1 REALIZATION AND APPLICATION OF THE TRIPLE POINT OF WATER
In preparation for producing an ice mantle that is required for realizing the
triple-point temperature of water, the thermometer well of the cell is wiped
thoroughly dry, sealed with a rubber stopper, and the cell placed in an ice bath to
cool to a few degrees above the ice point. When the cell has been cooled in this
manner, an ice mantle of fairly uniform thickness can be obtained. Withdraw
the cell from the ice bath, set it upright on a stand, and place one drop of
ethyl alcohol at the bottom of the well. Introduce small amounts of crushed Dry
Ice into the bottom of the well and continue to do so until a thick mantle is formed
at the bottom. Then, fill the well with crushed Dry Ice to the water level of the
cell. Continue to add crushed Dry Ice to the well so as to maintain the level of
Dry Ice at the water level. If the Dry Ice level becomes low before more is added,
the ice mantle may crack. If the cell were precooled as indicated above, a solid
ice bridge may form at the water level. If such a bridge forms, melt it immediately
with heat from the hands while gently shaking the cell. The solid ice bridge can
completely seal the cell at the top and any subsequent formation of ice could
produce enough pressure to rupture the glass c e l l . W h e n a m a n t l e o f
approximately the desired thickness (4 to 8 mm) is formed, stop adding Dry Ice,
replace the cell in the ice bath with the well opening slightly above the water
surface of the ice bath, and leave the cell there until all of the Dry Ice
evaporates. Then, fill the well with ice water and store the cell in an ice bath
or ice pack for a day before using it. When the ice mantle is frozen by using Dry
Ice, a process that usually requires less than one hour, the strains in the ice
cause the "triple-point temperature" to be about 0.2 mK low. These are removed by
letting the mantle anneal for one day.
Other methods can be used also to prepare the ice mantle. With ethyl alcohol in
the thermometer well, any "cold finger" technique can be used. This technique
includes successively inserting liquid nitrogen cooled rods, using a
closed-end tube containing crushed Dry Ice, or using a heat-pipe cooler. These
methods require more time to freeze the mantle,,but the strain produced in the ice
will be less than those produced by the Dry Ice technique.
After the strains in the ice mantle have been relieved by storing the cell in an
ice bath for at least one day, insert momentarily a glass rod into the well in
order to melt a thin layer of ice next to the well. This forms an ice-water
interface immediately adjacent to the thermometer well. The test for this "inner
melt" is made by giving the cell a rotatory impulse to determine whether
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
Figure 7. An SPRT in a Type A triple point of water cell immersed in an ice bath.
A - platinum resistance thermometer, B - heavy black felt to shield against
ambient radiation, C - polyethylene tube for guiding the SPRT into the
thermometer well (the tube has a small hole near the top of the thermometer well to
allow water, but not ice, to enter the tube.), D - water vapor, E borosilicate glass cell, F - water from the ice bath, G - thermometer well
(precision bore glass), H ice mantle I - air-free water, J - aluminum
bushing with internal taper,at the upper end to guide the SPRT into its close
fitting inner bore, K polyurethane sponge for cushioning the SPRT, L
finely divided ice and water.
the ice mantle rotates freely about the axis of the thermometer well. The outer ice
water interface guards and thermally stabilizes the inner ice-water
interface temperature that is measured with the SPRT.
Figure 7 shows a triple point of water cell immersed in an ice bath with an SPRT
inserted into the thermometer well. An SPRT should be precooled in a glass tube of
water in an ice bath before it is inserted into the triple-point well so that the
thickness of the water layer next to the thermometer well will not become
excessive. Also, the time required for the SPRT to come into thermal
equilibrium will be shortened. Heavy felt cloth should be used to cover the ice bath
in order to prevent ambient radiation from entering the bath and reaching the
thermometer element, which otherwise would cause the thermometer to give a
slightly high (erroneous) reading. A plastic foam cushion should be placed at the
bottom of the thermometer well to protect the well and the SPRT. Since water is a
poor thermal conductor, a close fitting aluminum sleeve should be used to enhance
the thermal conduction.
The thermometer current should be imposed immediately after insertion of the SPRT
into the cell so that readings can be made under conditions of steady-state self
heating. Five to ten minutes or longer may be required before steady-state
conditions are reached. To avoid errors due to variations in the self heating
that arise from variations in the thermal contact of the thermometer with
its surroundings, it is best to read the SPRT at two currents and extrapolate the
readings to zero power in the SPRT.
3.2.4 FREEZING. MELTING. OR TRIPLE POINTS OF METALS: Hg Ga. In. Sn. Zn. Al. Ag
Au. or Cu
The realization of metal fixed points requires the continuous presence of
liquid-solid or liquid-solid-vapor phases in thermal equilibrium. With SPRTs, the
liquid-solid interface, i.e., the equilibrium whose temperature is measured, must
surround and must be as close to the temperature sensing element as possible.
Since the first cryoscopic constants of metals are relatively low, the fixed-point
metal samples should be at least 99.9999% pure. Figure 8 shows idealized
liquid/solid equilibrium conditions inside fixed point cells used in freezing and
melting experiments. Figure 9 shows a representative arrangement of an SPRT inserted
inside a metal fixed point cell. Ideally, and similar to the water triple-point
cell, an outer liquid-solid interface, which completely surrounds the inner
interface, exists close to the container wall. This outer interface, which has a
temperature very close to that of the inner interface, thermally protects and
thermally stabilizes the inner interface. In freezing experiments, a layer of
solid is first formed at the crucible wall, then a thin layer of solid is induced
on the thermometer well by inserting cooling rods. As freezing advances, the outer
interface approaches the inner interface until all of the material is solid. In
melting experiments, a layer of liquid is first formed next to the crucible, then
a thin layer of liquid is formed next to the thermometer well by inserting a
warming rod or a long heater. As melting advances, the outer liquid/solid
interface approaches the inner interface.
Since different furnace or bath designs are required for fixed-point cells
operated at different temperatures, they will1 be discussed along with each of
the f i x e d p o i n t s , o r r e f e r e n c e s w i l l b e m a d e t o a p p r o p r i a t e s o u r c e s o f
Z-169
descriptions.
A
In radiation thermometry, the liquid-solid phase of the metal fixed point must
completely surround the blackbody radiator capacity
3.2.4.1 CONTAINER MATERIAL
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Containers for the fixed-point metals must not contaminate the metal sample, and the
container material must be rugged enough to retain its integrity under thermal
cycling between the temperature of use and ambient temperature. The container
material preferably should be inert to air at temperatures of use;if not, e.g.,
graphite above about 200 C, the container plus the fixed-point material must be
protectively enclosed in an inert gas such as nitrogen, argon, or helium, using
either a borosilicate or fused silica glass envelope. It should be assumed that
the fixed-point material itself will react chemically with air and, thus, the
material must be protected.*
76 cm
Figure 9 shows a representative fixed-point cell that can be used for

calibrating long-stem type SPRTs. In the following sections, individual types
will be described.
46 cm
3.2.4.2.1.1 MERCURY SAMPLE
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25.2 cm
Figure 9. An SPRT in a metal freezing-point cell.

A - platinum resistance thermometer, B - to helium gas supply and pressure
gauge, C - thermometer gas seal with silicone rubber, D - silicone rubber
stopper, E - thermal insulation (washed Fiberfrax),F - thermometer guide tube
[precision bore tube, ground (matt finish) to uniform outside diameter], G heat shunt (graphite) in close contact with F and with H, H - borosilicate
glass cell [precision bore tube ground (matt finish ) to uniform outside
diameter], I - graphite cap (lid) for the graphite crucible, J - graphite
thermometer well, K - metal sample, L - graphite crucible, M - thermal
insulation (Fiberfrax paper) between the graphite crucible and the
borosilicate glass cell.
9.5 O.D.
x 0.9 Wall
Melting
Sample
Liquid Sample
Solid Sample
Thermometer
Well
Resistance
Thermometer
210
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10 O.D.
x1 Wall
38 O.D .
x2 Wall
Freezing
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Borosilicate
Glass
Figure 8. Idealized liquid/solid equilibrium conditions inside fixed point

cells used in freezing and melting experiments. In freezing experiments, a
layer of solid is first formed at the crucible wall, then a thin layer of solid
is induced on the thermometer well by inserting cooling rods. In melting
experiments, a layer of liquid is first formed next to the crucible, then a
thin layer of liquid is formed next to the thermometer well by inserting a
warming rod or a long heater, As melting advances, the outer liquid/solid
interface approaches the inner interface.
9.5 O.D.
x0.13 Wall
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13
9.5 O.D.
x0.9 Wall
38.1 O.D.
x1.7 Wall
445
Sample Cell
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216
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Cell Holder
197
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25
Any container material can be used with mercury that is sufficiently rigid and
does not dissolve in, or chemically react with, mercury in the temperature range of
storage and application. The choice will depend upon whether the mercury fixedpoint cell is to be used at its triple point, at its freezing point, or
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32 cm
3.2.4.2.1 MERCURY TRIPLE POINT
3.2.4.2.1.2 CONTAINERS FOR MERCURY
10 cm
3.2.4.2 METAL FIXED POINT DEVICES FOR CALIBRATING SPRTs
On the ITS-90, the triple point of mercury (equilibrium phase state of mercury
solid, liquid, and vapor phases) is assigned the value 234.3156 K (-38.8344C).
Depending upon the choice of container material and operating procedure, it may be
more practical to realize the mercury freezing point at one standard
atmosphere, the value being 234.3210 K (-38.8290 C). Mercury samples with
impurity content of 1 part in 108 or less can be prepared by potassium hydroxide and
nitric acid washings, followed by triple distillation [48]. The alkali and acid
washings can be carried out by vigorously bubbling clean filtered air, through
the mixture of mercury and the alkali or the acid. To remove any remaining
oxidizable impurities, the first two distillations should be carried out under
reduced pressures with a fine stream of clean filtered air bubbling into the
mercury in the distillation container. The third distillation should be done
under high vacuum to remove the noble metals. With the high-purity mercury
(99.999999%), both freezing and melting techniques give triple-point temperatures
that agree to within 0.1 mK over most of the liquid-solid range. [The first
cryoscopic constant of mercury is 0.00503/K. Consequently, the liquidus point
of an ideal mercury solution of 99.999999% purity would be approximately 0.002
mK lower than that of 100% pure mercury.]
B
C
D
1.0 Thick
1.6 Thick
Type 304
Stainless Steel
Dimensions in mm
Figure 10. Two mercury triple-point cells, one constructed of borosilicate

glass and one of Type 304 stainless steel. The two small-diameter tubes at the
top facilitate the cleaning of the cells before filling and sealing. The glass
cell is sealed by melting the small-diameter tubes, but the stainless steel cell
is sealed by pinching flat the small-diameter tubes and electric-arc welding
them, thereby serving them at the middle of the flat.
Z-170
at either one.
A
VALVE AND
VACUUM
3.2.4.2.1.3 METAL CONTAINERS
Mercury is capable of dissolving most metals, at least at the

low levels of
impurity content (<l ppm) that are the permitted maxima for metal fixed points Iron,
nickel, chromium, and tantalum have been reported to be soluble at only 1 ppm or
less; hence, stainless steel is an adequate container for mercury in most
temperature standard applications [53,103). (Note: the solubility of nicke1 in
mercury may be close to the limit of 1 ppm.) Mercury triple-point cells can be
prepared by pinching and welding the small diameter tubes used
for cleaning,
evacuating, and filling (see fig. 10).
C
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D
E
3.2.4.2.1.4 CONTAINERS OF GLASS

It is expected that some metal impurities in glasses [single metal oxide
(e.g.,fused silica glass) or mixed metal oxide (e.g., borosilicate glass)] or
"ceramics" can be leached out by mercury when the mercury is stored in them for many
years. Traditionally, "soft glass" has been considered suitable for storing
mercury [48]; however, soft glass, without special treatment, may be susceptible
to breakage when thermally shocked. Borosilicate glass and fused silica glass
are more practical choices for mercury containers. Figure 11 shows a borosilicate
glass mercury triple-point cell inside a stainless steel holder.
F
G
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3.2.4.2.1.5 CONTAINERS OF PLASTIC

Organic plastics, such as polyethylene polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon), or
polytrifluorochloroethylene (Kel-F), all of which are free of metals, can be used
to contain mercury and be used at the mercury freezing point. A stainless steel
holder similar to that used for the glass mercury cell and for the stainless
steel mercury cell (see fig.11) or similar to the holder used for the indium cell
(see fig. 12) could be used as the external holder for a plastic mercury cell.
Although plastic cells have not been used yet in preparing mercury fixed point
cells, it would be practical and desirable to use plastic cells for realizing the
mercury fixed point. Since the vapor pressure of mercury at room temperature is
sufficiently high that mercury vapors can be transported u n d e r v a c u u m
conditions, the vapors should be confined by an atmosphere of helium or other
inert gases.
A ="O" ring tube seal

B = Thermometer well
C = Ethyl alcohol in well
D = Indium gasket seal
E = Insulation, rolled paper tissue
F = Stainless steel jacket
G = Tubular connection for
cleaning and filling
H = Insulation tissue paper
rolled around (l) for centering
I = Copper foil cylinder
J = Borosilicate glass cell
K = Mercury
L = Thermometer cushion
(fused quartz wool)
M = Stand for mercury cell
N = Inculation (Aluminum
silicate wool)
3.2.4.2.1.6 ASSEMBLY OF MERCURY CELLS

A purified mercury sample can be vacuum distilled into glass containers, with the
glass filling tube then sealed under vacuum with a flame [43]. The mercury sample
may be vacuum distilled into stainless steel containers and the filling tube
pinched, and then cut and sealed using electric-arc welding techniques [43].
3.2.4.2.1.7 REALIZATION AND APPLICATION
When the total impurity content of a mercury sample is about one part in 108, both
freezing and melting techniques yield triple-point temperatures agreeing to
within 0.1 mK over most of the liquid-solid range. A dual-stage refrigerator
can yield a temperature near -40C and, hence, could be used for freezing mercury,
but a much simpler stainless steel vacuum enclosure placed in a Dry Ice/ethyl
alcohol mixture (-78 C) can reduce the freezing rate of mercury to give a freeze
duration of about 10 hours or more with 2.2 kg of mercury, and that is perfectly
adequate. Figure 11 shows such a stainless steel enclosure that has been used
with a borosilicate-glass mercury cell at the NIST.
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,,,
Figure 11. A borosilicate glass, mercury triple point cell in a stainless steel
container. A stainless-steel, mercury triple-point cell may also be mounted inside
the stainless steel container. With the high-purity mercury sample, both freezing
and melting techniques yield triple-point values agreeing to within 0.1 mK over
most of the liquid-solid range.
To start a freeze, fill the stainless steel enclosure that contains the mercury
triple-point cell with dry air and immerse it in a Dry Ice/ethyl alcohol bath.
Fill the themometer well with ethyl alcohol and insert therein an SPRT for
monitoring the temperature of the cell. Usually, mercury supercools about 6 C in
a borosilicate glass cell but only about 3 C in a stainless steel cell. When
recilescence is observed, evacuate the stainless steel holder. Remove the
monitoring SPRT from the well and replace it with a thin-wall stainless steel
tube that contains ethyl alcohol and that has been cooled in a tube of ethyl
alcohol immersed in a Dry Ice/ethyl alcohol bath. Insert successively into the
stainless steel tube two or three liquid-nitrogen cooled glass rods, for about
5 minutes each, in order to freeze a thin layer of mercury around the thermometer
well. The purpose of the stainless steel tube is to collect the frost that forms on
the rods when they are removed from the liquid nitrogen. Remove the stainless steel
tube and replace it with the monitoring SPRT, which has been cooling in the tube
of cold ethyl alcohol. Switch on the thermometer measuring current. (Note: it may
be necessary to refill the thermometer well with a small amount of cold ethyl
alcohol from the Dry-ice cooled tube before the monitoring SPRT is inserted into
the well. The well should be completely filled with ethyl alcohol when the SPRT is
in the well.) With the induced inner freeze around the thermometer well,
temperature equilibrium is reached in about 5 minutes. After the resistance of
the monitoring SPRT is read, other cooled SPRTs are successively inserted
into the mercury cell and calibrated. The final reading in a cell is made with the
monitoring SPRT in order to check the extent of the freeze. This final reading of
the monitoring SPRT must agree with the initial reading to within 0.1 mK.
See reference {43} for more details on the calibration procedure at the
mercury triple point.
,,
,,
,,
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
20.5 cm
3.2.4.2.2 MELTING POINT OF GALLIUM

The melting point of gallium is assigned a temperature of 302.9146 K (29.7646C) on
the ITS-90. Gallium of 99.99999% purity can be obtained commercially. At such high
purity, both freezing and melting techniques should yield liquid-solid
equilibrium temperatures that agree to within 0.1 mK. Since the metal expands
about 3% on freezing, plastic containers, such as polyethylene, polypropylene,
or polytetrafluoroethylene, are the most suitable. These are sufficiently
flexible at around 30 C to accommodate the volume change in the gallium. In
assembling the gallium fixed-point cell, the supercooled metal can be poured
directly into the container. A second more rugged container of Nylon, glass, or
stainless steel should enclose the flexible container so that the pressure of the
inert gas over the metal can be controlled at one atmosphere or be evacuated to
observe the triple point. A gallium fixed-point cell, consisting of an all plastic
container,
that
is
used
at
the
NIST
is
shown
in
figure
13.
Since gallium supercools as much as 25 C to 70 C, depending upon the
plastic material that is in contact with it, the most convenient method of observing
its liquid-solid equilibrium temperature is the melting technique.
[The first
4.5 cm
F
J
Figure 13. An all-plastic gallium melting/triple-point cell. The triple-point is

realized by using the melting technique. The cell is periodically evacuated through
the valve.
A - valve (Zytel), B - bath lid (Plexiglass), C - support rod (Nylon), D - pumping
tube (polyethylene), E - cap (Nylon), F - sample container (Teflon), G - case
(Nylon), H - thermometer well (Nylon), I - gallium metal, J - base of the case
Z-171
Figure 12.
Photograph of an all-plastic indium cell and its stainless steel container
Z-172
cryoscopic constant of gallium is 0.00732/K. Consequently, the liquidus point

of an ideal gallium solution of 99.99999% purity would be approximately 0.01 mK
lower than that of 100% pure gallium.]
In order to solidify the gallium metal in a fixed-point cell, initially in the
supercooled state (e.g., at room temperature), first insert successively two or
three liquid-nitrogen-cooled copper rods into the thermometer well of the cell
to induce nucleation, and then place the cell in an ice bath for about one hour
or longer. The cell with the solidified gallium may then be placed in an oil
bath at a temperature of about 40 *C to partially melt the sample to form an
outer liquid-solid interface. To form a liquid-solid interface next to the
thermometer well (an inner melt), the bath oil may be circulated through the
thermometer well by pumping the oil through a tube placed in the well. After
about 20 minutes in the hot oil bath, about 25% of the gallium will be melted.
The inner liquid-solid interface can also be prepared by using an electric heater
in the well. The amount of electric energy required, e.g., to form about a 7 mm
shell of liquid around the thermometer well, can be calculated from the outer
dimensions of the thermometer well and the heat of fusion of gallium (see table
7). The gallium cell is then securely mounted, completely immersed so that the
thermometer well will be filled with the bath oil, in a stirred oil bath,
controlled at a temperature about 10 mK above the liquid-solid equilibrium
temperature (melting point or the triple point). Also, the cell can immersed in
a fairly close-fitting, oil-filled aluminum or copper block, controlled at a
temperature about 10 mK above the equilibrium temperature. The monitoring PRT
is heated and then inserted into the thermometer well of the gallium cell.
Readings are taken after about 20 minutes of equilibration in the cell. The
monitoring SPRT is replaced in the cell with a preheated test SPRT and
measurements on it are made after about 20 minutes. A number of SPRTs can be
successively calibrated in the same "melt". When all of the test SPRTs have
been calibrated, a final measurement in the cell is made on the monitoring SPRT.
This reading of the monitoring SPRT should agree with the initial reading to
within 0.1 mK. Also, measurements with different melts should agree to within
0.1 mK. See references [16,26,65,68,94].
3.2.4.2.3 FREEZING POINT OF INDIUM
The freezing point of indium is assigned the value 429.7485 K (156.5985 C) on
the ITS-90. Metal samples of 99.9999% purity and higher are commercially
available. The freezing point of indium is at a sufficiently low temperature
to
permit
the
use
of
containers
of
high
temperature
plastics
[Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon), polyimide/amide, and others), borosilicate
glass, and stainless steel (4,69,14,92). See figure 14 for an example of a
Teflon container used for indium at the NIST. As used with metals that freeze
at higher temperatures, graphite can also be used with indium. The metal is
available in the form of small pellets, wire, and rods. Suitable amounts for
a sample can be easily weighed into the container. (The first cryoscopic
constant of indium is 0.00212/K. Consequently, the liquidus point of an ideal
indium solution of 99.9999% purity would be approximately 0.5 mK lower than that
of 100% pure indium.]
CAP (TEFLON)
9 mm
1 mm
5 mm DIA. HOLE
THROUGH CAP
34.34 mm ID
44.34 mm OD
2 mm
18.70 mm OD
25
mm
15
mm
5 mm

A tube furnace containing the indium-point cell is controlled about 5 C above
the freezing point of indium until the metal is completely melted. (It is
convenient to control the furnace temperature automatically and melt the metal
sample overnight so that the freezing of the metal may be s started in the
morning.) Insert the check SPRT into the cel1 well and when the SPRT indicates
that the sample is about 5 above the freezing temperature, change the furnace
temperature control settings to control at 5 C below the freezing point. When
the check SPRT indicate. recalescence, change the furnace temperature control
settings to control at 1 C to 0.5 C below the freezing point. Withdraw the
check SPRT from the cell well and insert successively in the well two fused
silica glass rods, each initially at room temperature, for about 5 minutes each
and then insert the cool check SPRT in order to freeze a thin mantle around the
thermometer well. (To avoid the consequence of inserting borosilicate glass
rods into the aluminum or silver point cell to form the mantle around the
thermometer well, all glass rods used for this purpose in the laboratory should
be fused silica glass.) Within 20 to 30 minutes, the readings on the check SPRT
should indicate that the cell is at temperature equilibrium. After the readings
on the check SPRT are completed, test SPRTs, that have been heated in an
auxiliary furnace, are successively inserted into the cell well and calibrated.
After all of the test SPRTs have been calibrated the preheated check SPRT is
inserted again into the cell well and read. This second reading should agree
with the first to within 0.1 mK. See references (4,69,74,92].
3.2.4.2.4 FREEZING POINT OF TIN
The freezing point of tin is assigned the value 505.078 K (231.928 C) Metal
samples of 99.9999% purity are commercially available. Graphite containers are
commonly and successfully used for tin. Although the use of materials such as
boron nitride (BN) has not been reported, it could be a suitable container for
tin. High purity tin has been found to supercool 25 C or more [73,76]; hence,
the freeze is nucleated by rapid cooling outside the furnace. The metal is
available in the form of small pellets and in rods suitable for filling the
graphite container. A method for filling graphite containers and installing the
graphite thermometer wells is described in reference [46]. [The first cryoscopic
constant of tin is 0.00329/K. Consequently, the liquidus point of an ideal tin
solution of 99.9999% purity would be approximately 0.3 mK lower than that of 100%
pure tin.]
A tube furnace [46] containing the tin freezing-point cell is controlled about
5 C above the freezing-point temperature until the metal is completely melted.
(It is convenient to control the furnace temperature automatically and melt the
metal overnight so that freezing of the metal can be started early in the
morning.) Insert the check SPRT into the cell well and, when the SPRT indicates
that the sample temperature is about 5 C above the freezing point, change the
furnace temperature control settings to control at 1 C to 0.5 C below the
freezing point. When the check SPRT indicates that the cell temperature is
close to the freezing-point value, withdraw the cell and the SPRT from the
furnace. The cell will then cool rapidly and when the SPRT detects recalescence,
replace the cell in the furnace. Withdraw the check SPRT from the cell well.
Insert successively in the well two fused silica glass rods, each initially at
room temperature, for about, 5 minutes each, and then the cool check SPRT in
order to freeze a thin mantle around the thermometer well. Within about 20 to 30
minutes the readings on the check SPRT, should indicate that the cell is at
temperature equilibrium. After the readings on the check SPRT are completed,
test SPRTs, that have been heated in an auxiliary furnace, are successively
inserted into the cell well and calibrated. After all of the test SPRTs have
been calibrated, the check SPRT is heated and inserted again into the cell well
and read. This reading should agree with the initial reading to within 0.1 mK.
See references [43,46,73,76].
3.2.4.2.5 FREEZING POINT OF ZINC
The freezing point of zinc is assigned the value 692.677 K (419.527 C) Metal
samples of 99.9999% purity are commercially available. High purity liquid zinc
has been found to supercool about 0.02 C to 0.06 C; hence, unlike the freezing
procedure used with the tin-point cell, its freeze can be initiated in the
furnace without withdrawing the cell from the furnace. Graphite containers are
commonly and successfully used for zinc. Although the use of materials such as
boron nitride (BN) has not been reported, it could be a suitable container for
zinc. The metal is available in the form of small pellets and in rods suitable
for filling graphite containers. [The first cryoscopic constant of zinc is
0.00185/K. Consequently, the liquidus point of an ideal zinc solution of 99.9999%
purity would be approximately 0.5 mK lower than that of 100% pure zinc.]
115
mm
CONTAINER (TEFLON)
THERMOMETER WELL
(TEFLON)
240 mm
5 mm
0.005" SPIRAL GROOVE ALONG

INSIDE OF THERMOMETER WELL
(1 OR 2 THREADS/in.)
36.34 mm ID
40.34 mm OD
111
mm
25
mm
12.70 mm (0.500in.) ID
14.70 mm OD
1 mm
10 mm
3 mm
5 mm
3 mm
10 mm ID 14 mm OD
30 mm OD FUSED
SILICA TUBE
Figure 14. An all-plastic indium freezing-point cell to be used

steel container, such as that shown in figure 12. The argon gas
the stainless steel container is adjusted to one atmosphere at the
A similar all-plastic cell and stainless steel container may be
the mercury freezing point or meIting point at one atmosphere.
in a stainless
pressure inside
freezing point.
used to realize
A tube furnace containing the zinc-point cell is controlled about 5 C above the
freezing point until the metal is completely melted. If the furnace temperature
is maintained at a higher temperature, the zinc will melt faster, but the zinc
should never be heated by more than about 5 C above its melting point. (It is
convenient to control the furnace temperature automatically and melt the zinc
sample overnight so that the freezing of the metal can be started early in the
morning and the calibration of six or more test SPRTs can be completed during
the same day.) Insert the zinc-point check SPRT into the cell well. When the
SPRT indicates that the melt is about 5 C above the freezing point, change the
furnace temperature control settings to control at 5 C below the freezing point
in order to initiate rapid cooling for nucleation. When the check SPRT indicates
recalescence, change the furnace temperature control settings to control at 1 C
to 0.5 C below the freezing point. Withdraw the check SPRT from the cell well
and insert successively into the well two fused silica glass rods, each initially
at room temperature, for about 5 minutes each, and then insert again the cool
check SPRT. This freezes a thin mantle around the thermometer well. Within
about 20 to 30 minutes, the readings on the check SPRT should indicate that the
cell is at temperature equilibrium. After the readings on the check SPRT are
completed, test SPRTs, that have been heated in an auxiliary furnace, are
successively inserted into the cell well and calibrated. After all of the test
SPRTs are calibrated, the preheated check SPRT is inserted again into the cell
well and measurements made on it. This second reading should agree with the
first to within 0.1 mK. references [41,73,75].
Z-173

,,
@@
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TO PURIFIED
ARGON SOURCE
TO HIGH
VACUUM
A
B
8.3 cm
D
E
5.5 cm
5.5 cm
E
F
E
3.5 cm
51.3 cm
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28 cm
E
G
H
I
J
K
L
C
N
D
O
5.1 cm
Figure 15. A graphite freezing point cell enclosed inside a fused silica tube
with tube connection to high vacuum, purified argon gas source, and pressure
gauge.
A - connection to high vacuum, purified argon source, and pressure gauge, B
fused-silica-to-Kovar graded seal, C - fused-silica connecting tube, outer
surface matte finished to minimize radiation piping, D - thermometer guide
tube, E - heat shunts (Inconel disks), F - thermal insulation (Fiberfrax), G fused-silica outer envelope, H - graphite lid, I - graphite thermometer
well, J - fused-silica thermometer well, K - fused-silica fiber-woven tape for
cushioning the graphite freezing-point cell inside the fused-silica enclosure,
L - metal sample, M - graphite crucible, N - fused-silica fiber pad for
cushioning the thermometer, 0 - Fiberfrax paper liner.
Figure 16. A method for filling a graphite freezing-point cell by melting the
metal sample in the graphite crucible. The required amount of sample is placed
in the graphite crucible and the crucible is inserted into the fused silica
tube. To protect the sample, the fused silica tube is evacuated or filled with
an inert gas (e.g., purified argon) before melting the metal in a tube furnace.
Depending upon the geometry of the sample, the melting of two or more batches
of sample may be required.
A - Silicone rubber stopper, B - fused silica tube, C - graphite crucible,
D - metal sample.
3.2.4.2.6 FREEZING POINT OF ALUMINUM

A
The freezing point of aluminum is assigned the value 933.473 K (660.323 C).
Metal samples of 99.9999% purity are commercially available. High purity
graphite containers have been used successfully with aluminum. High purity
liquid aluminum has been found to supercool about 1 C to 2 C; hence, its freeze
can be initiated in the furnace without withdrawing the cell from the furnace.
Aluminum is highly reactive, particularly at elevated temperatures; liquid
aluminum is capable of dissolving many metals. Liquid aluminum reacts with
moisture, forming the oxide and dissolving the hydrogen. The compounds Al4C3 and
aluminum oxycarbide have been found in aluminum samples cast in graphite at
1000 C. Because of the high chemical reactivity of aluminum, the graphite cell
containing the metal must be completely protected by enclosing the cell in a
fused silica envelope (see fig. 15). The argon or helium gas that is used to
pressurize the freezing metal at one atmosphere must be thoroughly devoid of
moisture, hydrogen, oxygen, hydrocarbons, and other substances that would react
with liquid aluminum. The cell must not be heated more than 5 C above the
aluminum freezing point. [The first cryoscopic constant of aluminum is
0.00149/K. Consequently, the liquidus point of an ideal aluminum solution of
99.9999% purity would be approximately 0.7 K lower than that of 100% pure
aluminum.]
B
560 mm
C
D
E
F
153
mm
219
mm
I
560 mm
3.2.4.2.6.1 ASSEMBLY OF AN ALUMINUM-POINT CELL
High purity aluminum can be obtained in the form of shots or rods. Determine.
the internal volume of the graphite container, taking into account the
thermometer well. Determine the mass of liquid aluminum required to fill the
cell to within 0.5 cm of the graphite lid. Weight out aluminum shots or cut and
clean aluminum rods that correspond to this mass. The rods should be cut with
a carbide tipped tool and cleaned by etching in a hot (about 200 C) solution
consisting (by volume) of reagent grade phosphoric acid (15 parts, sulfuric
acid (5 parts), and nitric acid (7 part), and then carefully rinsing many times
in distilled water. Load the graphite crucible with the aluminum sample and
then slide it into an extra-long fused-silica test tube such as that shown in
figure 16. Insert the test tube into the tube furnace and evacuate it. While
continuing to evacuate the tube, set the furnace temperature to control at about
5 C above the melting point of aluminum. When the sample has completely melted,
cool it to room temperature, while continuing to pump the tube. If aluminum
shot, or rods of odd sizes, are used, the graphite cell will require several
loadings and meltings before the desired amount of total sample has been loaded
into the cell. When the graphite crucible is appropriately loaded with the
sample, replace the silicone rubber stopper at the mouth of the extra-long test
tube of figure 16 with the device for inserting the graphite thermometer well
and lid (see reference [45] or fig. 17). Insert the test tube into the tube
furnace, evacuate it, and then fill it with high purity argon to a pressure
slightly above ambient. Melt the aluminum sample and push the graphite well and
lid into the cell. Cool the sample to room temperature, while maintaining the
argon pressure in the test tube slightly above the ambient pressure. Finally,
assemble the graphite cel1 containing the aluminum sample into the
desired
freezing - point cell configuration (see references [43,45,701] or fig. 15).
244
mm
Figure 17. An apparatus for installing a graphite thermometer well and lid in a
graphite crucible containing a molten metal sample.
A - stainless steel pusher rod, B - silicone rubber gas seal (permits linear
motion of the pusher rod A), C - inlet for purified argon gas that is used in
purging and maintaining positive pressure of the gas during the assembly process,
D - silicone rubber stopper, E - stainless steel flange attached to the pusher
rod for pressing against the graphite lid and thermometer well during assembly.
F - graphite lid for the crucible, G - slit on the pusher rod (the two halves
spring outward to hold the graphite thermometer well and lid while melting the
metal sample), H - graphite thermometer well, I - fused-silica tube, J - a part
of the fused-silica tube where its I.D. matches closely with the O.D. of the
crucible and its lid so that the lid can be easily guided onto the opening of
the crucible, K - graphite crucible, L - molten metal sample.
Z-174

SPRTs that are to be calibrated at the aluminum point and higher must
have fused silica, sapphire, or ceramic insulation for the resistance
element and its extension leads. Such high temperature SPRTs should be
handled by procedures that avoid thermally shocking them.
A tube furnace containing the aluminum point cell is controlled about 5C
above the freezing point of aluminum until the metal is completely melted.
It is convenient to control the furnace temperature automatically and melt
the metal overnight so that the freezing of the metal can be started early
in the morning and the calibration of two or three test SPRTs completed
during the same day. Insert the aluminum point check SPRT stepwise into
the cell well. Since the SPRT will cool considerably between the time it
is withdrawn from any auxiliary preheat furnace and inserted into the
aluminum point cell, the SPRT is heated in the section of the thermometer
guide tube that is maintained close to the furnace temperature. The SPRT
is inserted initially to a location where its tip is about 3 cm above the
graphite cell lid. After about 5 minutes, the SPRT is inserted an
additional 5 cm and after another 5 minutes, another 5 cm, and so on until
the tip of the SPRT is at the bottom of the thermometer well. When the
SPRT indicates that the sample is about 5C above the freezing point,
change the furnace temperature control settings to control at 5C below
the freezing point in order to initiate rapid cooling for nucleation. When
the check SPRT indicates recalescence, change the furnace temperature
control settings to control at 1C to 0.5C below the freezing point.
Withdraw the check SPRT stepwise from the cell, first to a location about
3 cm above the graphite cell lid. After about 5 minutes, withdraw the SPRT
another 5 cm,and after another 5 minutes, another 5 cm, and so on until
the SPRT is completely out of the thermometer guide tube. Next, insert
successively into the cell well two fused silica glass rods, each
initially at room temperature, for about 5 minutes each to freeze a thin
mantle of solid aluminum around the thermometer well. Again insert the
check SPRT stepwise, as described above, into the cell. Within 20 to 30
minutes, the readings on the check SPRT should indicate that the cell is
at temperature equilibrium. After the readings on the check SPRT are
completed, the SPRT is removed from the cell stepwise, as described above.
The test SPRTs are then successively inserted stepwise, calibrated, and
removed stepwise as described for the check SPRT. After all of the test
SPRTS have been calibrated, the check SPRT is inserted again into the
cell well and measurements made. This second reading at temperature
equilibrium should agree with the first to within 0.1 mK.
When SPRTs are cooled rapidly from the aluminum point to ambient
temperature, lattice vacancies are quenched in and these must be removed
before the SPRTs are calibrated at the triple point of water. To relieve
any quenched in lattice vacancies, the SPRTs that have been calibrated at
the aluminum point should be heated in an auxiliary furnace at about 660C
for about 30 minutes and then gradually cooled to about 500C over 3 hours
or more before withdrawing from the furnace to cool at ambient
temperature. See references (43, 45, 70).
3.2.4.2.7 FREEZING POINT OF SILVER
The freezing point of silver is assigned the value 1234.93 K (961,78C).
Metal samples of 99.9999% purity are commercially available in the form of
pellets.
High purity graphite containers have been used successfully with silver.
Liquid silver has been found to supercool not more than 0.5C; hence, its
freeze can be initiated in the furnace without withdrawing the cell from
the furnace. See references [3,15,72,98].
Oxygen is known to dissolve in liquid silver and lower the freezing
point. Although the dissociation pressure of Ag20 is expected to be quite
high at the freezing point of silver, the lowering of the freezing point
may be a combination of the solution of Ag20 and of oxygen in liquid
silver. (The dissociation pressure of Ag20 is given as 414 atmospheres at
507C.) In a graphite environment at the freezing point of silver, a small
amount of the oxygen will eventually react with the graphite; however, a
newly prepared cell should be pumped at high vacuum at about 1000C for a
week before back filling to one atmosphere with purified argon, nitrogen,
or helium. [The first cryoscopic constant of silver is very small
(0.000891/K). Consequently, the liquidus point of an ideal silver solution
of 99.9999% purity would be approximately 1.1 mK lower than that of 100%
pure silver.]
The freezing-point cell of silver may be assembled by a procedure similar
to that used with aluminum. See section 3.2.4.2.6.1.
SPRTs that are to be calibrated at the silver freezing point must have
fused silica, sapphire, or ceramic insulation for the resistance coil and
its extension leads. Such high temperature SPRTs should be handled by
procedures that avoid thermally shocking them.
A tube furnace containing the silver freezing point cell is controlled at
about 5C above the freezing point until the metal is completely melted.
(It is convenient to control the furnace temperature automatically and
melt the metal overnight so that the freezing of the metal can be started
early in the morning and the calibration of two or three test SPRTs
completed during the same day.) Insert the silver point check SPRT
stepwise into the cell well. Since the SPRT will cool considerably between
the time it is withdrawn from any auxiliary preheat furnace and inserted
into the silver point cell, the SPRT is heated in the section of the
thermometer guide tube that is maintained close to the furnace
temperature. The SPRT is inserted initially to a location where its tip is
about 3 cm above the graphite cell lid. After about 5 minutes, the SPRT is
inserted an additional 5 cm, and after another 5 minutes, another 5 cm,
and so on until the tip of the SPRT is at the bottom of the thermometer
well. When the SPRT indicates that the temperature of the sample is about
5C above the freezing point, change the furnace temperature control
settings to control at 5C below the freezing point in order to initiate
rapid cooling for nucleation. When the check SPRT indicates recalescence,
change the furnace temperature control settings to control at 1C to 0.5C
below the freezing point. Withdraw the check SPRT stepwise from the cell
well, first to a location about 3 cm above the graphite cell lid. After
about 5 minutes, withdraw the SPRT an additional 5 cm, and after another 5
minutes, another 5 cm, and so on until the SPRT is completely out of the
thermometer guide tube. Next, insert successively into the cell well two
fused-silica glass rods, each initially at room temperature, for about 5
minutes each in order to freeze a thin mantle of solid silver around the
thermometer well. Then, insert again the check SPRT stepwise, as described
above, into the cell. Within about 20 to 30 minutes, the readings on the
check SPRT should indicate that the cell is at temperature equilibrium.
After the readings on the check SPRT are completed, it is removed from the
cell stepwise, as described above. The test SPRTs are then successively
inserted stepwise, calibrated, and removed stepwise as described for thecheck SPRT. After all of the test SPRTs have been calibrated, the check
SPRT is inserted again into the cell well and read. This second reading
should agree with the first to within 0.2 mK.
When SPRTs are cooled rapidly from the silver point to ambient
temperature, lattice vacancies are quenched in and these must be removed
before the SPRTs are measured at the triple point of water. To relieve
any quenched in lattice vacancies, the SPRTs that have been calibrated at
the silver point are heated in an auxiliary furnace at about 960C for
30 minutes or so and then gradually cooled to about 500 C over 3.5 hours
or more before withdrawing from the furnace to cool at ambient
temperature. In order to protect the platinum of the SPRT from
contamination by diffusion of metals at high temperatures (above 660C,
the SPRTs should be enclosed in a platinum tube or other protective
device.
3.2.5 CONTROL CHARTS OF CHECK THERMOMETERS
Control charts should be kept for all of the check thermometers associated
with the various fixed points. Each of these charts will usually consist
of a chronological graph of the check thermometer resistance value, R(X),
obtained from measurements in the fixed-point cell X, and of the ratio,
W(X) = R(X)/R(TPW), of the resistance value R(X) to the resistance value,
R(TPW), obtained from measurements in a triple point of water cell.
Presumably, such charts have been kept by those involved in precision
thermometry. Entries on such control charts are made each time the
particular fixed point cell is used. Since those involved in precision
thermometry would have used triple point of water cells for their work
based on the IPTS-68 and they would have used W(X), the same control chart
can be continued with the ITS-90. The reason, of course, is that the
behavior of the fixed point cells is independent of the scale. Not all of
the fixed points of the ITS-90, however, are the same as those of the
IPTS-68. The ITS-90 uses some of the IPTS-68 fixed points but it also uses
other fixed points. See reference (64).
Some metrologists may not have used W(X) as defined above, but may have
used the W(t) of the IPTS-68. In that case, there will be a discontinuity
in their control charts involving W when they implement the ITS-90 and
begin using W(X). The magnitude of the discontinuity will simply be the
ratio R(273.16 K)/R(273.15 K).
Control charts involving only R(X) as a function of time will not have any
discontinuity due to the change in the scale. Depending on the temperature
of interest, of course, there may be need to start additional control
charts.
3.3 RADIATION THERMOMETRY
Above the freezing point of silver (1234.93 K), the ITS-90 is defined in
terms of Plancks radiation law. The values of temperatures T90 on the
ITS-90 are obtained from the observed ratios of the spectral concentrations
of the radiance L of a blackbody at the wavelength (in vacuum) at T90 and
at the reference temperature T90(X) according to eq. (31).
Inside a closed cavity, the radiation densities at different wavelengths
depend only upon the temperature of the cavity walls. When a practical
radiator is designed with a small hole in the wall to observe the
radiation density at , there arises the question of how much the observed
radiation departs from the blackbody radiation for a radiator design of a
given geometry and material of construction. There are numerous papers on
the theoretical analysis of the emissivities, associated with cavity
geometry and construction materials and descriptions of radiator designs
that have been used in radiation thermometry (8, 9, 34, 35, 54, 77, 87, 89, 95).
The emissivities of cavities constructed of specular reflectors and
diffuse reflectors have been analyzed (87). It is expected that at high
temperatures many materials become oxidized and, consequently, become
diffuse reflectors. Although it is difficult to determine the actual
temperature gradients in a cavity, the effect of temperature gradients has
also been treated (10, 11). The effective emissivity of a graphite
blackbody cavity has been computed to be 0.99997 0.00003 (77).
For radiation thermometer calibrations at the silver, gold, or copper
fixed point, the blackbody cavity should be constructed of graphite and
surrounded by the freezing or melting metal contained in graphite to
retain the high purity of the metal that is used. [The first cryoscopic
constants of all three of these metals are extremely low (silver:
0.000891/K; gold: 0.000831/K; Cu: 0.000857/K). Consequently, the idealsolution liquidus points of these metals of 99.9999% purity would be
approximately 1.1 mK to 1.2 mK lower than that of 100% pure metals.]
References [27, 55, 56, 57, 62, 77] give some details of construction of
suitable graphite fixed point blackbody cavities. The metal should be
protected from air using an inert gas, such as argon, nitrogen, or helium,
at a pressure slightly above ambient. The graphite container or auxiliary
graphite scavengers can remove small amounts of oxygen impurities. For the
blackbody cavity at the platinum point, pure alumina has been used in an
oxidizing atmosphere to avoid the reaction between platinum metal and
alumina in which oxygen gas is formed and metallic aluminum is dissolved
in the platinum [33,86].
Usually, optical pyrometers or photoelectric pyrometers are used to
determine the ratio of the radiances of a source of unknown temperature with
that of the reference source. The optical system of the instrument is
designed to focus a nearly monochromatic image of the radiation source onto
a photodetector, which until about the mid 1950s was only the human eye;
now the eye has been replaced in high precision measurements by
photoelectric detectors because of their greater accuracy and their
suitability for automation of the measurements. Two methods are commonly
used to determine the ratios of spectral radiances. Either the photoelectric
pyrometer is designed for comparing the two radiation sources by null
detection operation, similar in principle to the disappearing filament
Z-175
optical pyrometers using suitable neutral filters or sectored discs for

attenuating the radiation of one source, or for measuring directly the radiation
density in terms of the detector output, e.g., photocell current. The latter
requires high stability and linearity of signal processing [34,77). The optics of
the system may comprise refracting components (lenses) or reflecting
components (mirrors) [28,34,54,57,87].
Equation (31) requires the ratio of monochromatic radiances. Usually,
interference filters are used for this purpose. The bandwidth should be narrow
with high transmittance while completely blocking out wavelengths outside the
desired band. The temperature error is smaller the narrower the bandwidth. The
temperature of the filters should be controlled, since they are sensitive to
temperature changes. The photoelectric detector should be protected from
undesired radiations from outside the solid angle defined by the aperture of the
blackbody cavity. Where the output of the photocell is used to determine the
ratio of the radiances, the linearity of the detector should be carefully checked
or calibrated.
For details of optical pyrometer operation and attendant sources of error, see
references [28,34,54,57,77,87].
4. CALIBRATION OF THERMOMETERS ON THE ITS-90 AT VARIOUS LEVELS OF UNCERTAINTY AND
SOME APPROXIMATIONS OF THE SCALE
In a standards laboratory, the design of apparatus and equipment for calibration
of thermometers on the ITS-90 should be based on the desired accuracy, the number of
thermometers and thermometric instruments that must be calibrated per year, the
cost of realizing the ITS-90 (the fixed points and the measurement
equipment), the cost of applying and maintaining the ITS-90, and the cost of
research to maintain and make necessary improvements on the realization of the
ITS-90. In a national standards laboratory, the efforts are directed toward the
accurate realization of the ITS-90.
On 1 January 1990, no laboratory was able to calibrate thermometers over the
complete range of the ITS-90 in accordance with the strict definition of the
scale. Also, it is thought that on that date there was no immediate, widespread
requirement for experimental calibration conversion from the IPTS-68(75) to
ITS-90 over the complete range. Since the differences between IPTS-68(75) and
ITS-90 were known, arithmetical conversions should have met most of the
immediate requirements. Also, where stable thermometers have been used to
maintain the EPT-76 or parts of the IPTS-68(75), the scales on those reference
thermometers could be converted
to ITS-90, using the published approximate
differences between the scales, and then those thermometers can be used to
calibrate other thermometers on the ITS-90. To realize the ITS-90 as defined
and for international traceability, however, it is essential for the national
calibration laboratory to have all of the fixed-point apparatus and measurement
equipment. Furthermore, without continued research and comparison with other
standards laboratories, the question regarding the accuracy of the realization
of the scale will remain. The ITS-90 temperature calibrations are based on the
thermal equilibrium states (vapor-liquid or liquid-solid equilibrium at known
pressures, or vapor-liquid-solid triple points) of pure substances. Substances,
however, have some impurity content; the amount must be small enough to have
negligible effect on the measurement of temperature. Obviously, the fixed-point
device and the experimental procedure must be designed so that during
calibration, the thermometer will be in thermal equilibrium with the
equilibrium state of the defining fixed point. A method for checking whether or
not the thermometer is in thermal equilibrium with a metal fixed-point standard
device is to reduce the immersion in the device a known amount or vary the
experimental conditions. The observed temperature change of the thermometer
must correspond with the hydrostatic head effect of the liquid metal in the
device, or there must be no observed temperature change with experimental
conditions (such as changing furnace temperatures of metal fixed-point cells).
In order to determine the precision of the calibration process, it is essential
to use check thermometers with every calibration. The results of the check
thermometers will show whether the calibration process is under statistical
control or not. The accumulated results show the precision of the gross
calibration process.
Since some parts of this section deal with approximations of the ITS-90, and
will make reference to the scale differences given in table 1, the methods by
which the table was constructed will be described. The differences (T90 - T76)
between 5 K and 27 K were obtained using the same relation [99] as that used for
(TNPL-75- T90). namely,
(T90 - T76)/mK = - 0.00.56(T90/K)2.
(40)
The differences (T90 - T90) between 14 K and 100 K were obtained by Working Group 4
of the CCT by graphical interpolation of data from the published literature. The
differences (T 90 - T 68 ), or (t 90 - t 68 ), between -200 C and 630 C were
obtained by Working Group 4 of the CCT from published data on two SPRTs, one
SPRT covering the range, below 0 C, and the other covering the range from 0 C
to 630 C. A polynomial of the form:
8
(t90 - t68)/C = ai(t90/630)i
i=1
was fitted to the data from
a1 = -0.148759
a2 = -0.267408
a3 = 1.080760
a4 = 1.269056
(41)
-200 C to 630 C and the coefficients are:

a5 = -4.089591
a6 = -1.871251
a7 = 7.438081
a8 = -3.536296
- 0.25 [(t90/C + 273.15)/(1337.33)]2.
The NIST offers calibration services for various thermometers and pyrometers
covering the range from 0.65 K to 4200 C (see NIST SP 250). Of this range, the
Chemical Process Metrology Division offers calibrations for contact thermometers
covering the range from 0.65 K to 2400 K, and the Radiometric Physics Division
offers calibrations for non-contact thermometers (radiation pyrometers) covering
the range from 1234.93 K (961.78 Q to 4200 C. Calibrations of only contacttype. thermometers will be discussed here. The types of contact thermometers
calibrated include rhodium-iron resistance thermometers (RIRTs), germanium
resistance thermometers (GRTs), standard platinum resistance thermometers
(SPRTS), thermocouples (t/c), liquid-in-glass thermometers, thermistor
thermometers, industrial platinum resistance thermometers (IPRTs), digital
thermometers, and other special thermometers that are compatible with the NIST
calibration equipment.
4.1 RHODIUM-IRON RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
At temperatures below 13.8033 K, RIRTs and GRTs are, at the present time, the
only thermometers that are suitable for precision temperature measurements. Also,
RIRTs (and to a lesser extent GRTs) are suitable for use at temperatures up to
the triple point of neon (24.5561 K). In the range from 0.65 K to about 25 K,
RIRTs have -reproducibilities of about 0.2 mK. Consequently, RIRTs dont
degrade the realization of the ITS-90 significantly.
When the ITS-90 is realized, as defined, at NIST, some NIST RIRTs will be
calibrated at many temperatures through the Use of vapor-pressure thermometry and
gas thermometry to produce reference-standard RIRTs, which will be
periodically recalibrated. The resistance temperature data of these RIRTs will
be represented by a polynomial.
Customer RIRTs are calibrated by comparison with reference-standard RIRTs. A
polynomial is fitted by the method of least squares to the RIRT resistancetemperature data so obtained and the results are reported in terms of the
polynomial that is selected.
Until the NIST completes the development of the CVGT and vapor-pressure
thermometry apparatus with which the reference-standard RIRTs will be calibrated,
calibrations of customer RIM are performed by comparison against referencestandard RIRTs that have been calibrated on the NPL-75 Scale [13) or on the
EPT-76 and converted to the ITS-90.
To convert a calibration of an RIRT on the EPT-76 to an approximate calibration
on the ITS-90, use the EPT-76 calibration res instance temperature data change
the T76 values to T90 values Using the (T90 - T76) differences given in table 1, or
calculated with eq (40), to produce a new set of. resistance-temperature values,
and then fit a polynomial of the required degree to these data. Using the
coefficients of the polynomial so determined, produce the desired calibration table.
A typical calibration report on the EPT-76 and one on the ITS-90 are given in
appendix 3, sections 6.3.6 and 6.3.7, respectively.
4.2 GERMANIUM RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
GRTs are comparable with, but not quite as stable as RIRTs. They are calibrated
in a manner similar to that of the RIRTs and their results similarly reported.
At NIST, customer GRTs are calibrated by comparison with reference to standard
RIRTs.
Anyone with a calibration on the EPT-76 may convert it to an approximate ITS-90
calibration by the same procedure as just outlined for RIRTs.
4.3 STANDARD PLATINUM RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
Both capsule and long-stem type SPRTs are calibrated at the NIST. They will be
discussed separately.
4.3.1 CAPSULE SPRTS (13.8033 K TO 429.7485 K OR 505.078 K)
The polynomial with these coefficients reproduces the tabulated differences [83]
to within 1 mK above 0C and to within 1.5 mK below 0C. The differences
(T 90 - T 68 ) between 630C and 1064C were obtained by Working Group 4 by
graphical interpolation from published data [14). The differences (T90 - T68)
above 1064 C were obtained from the equation:
(t90 - t68)/C
For nonstandard types of thermometers used to approximate the ITS-90, the level of
uncertainty is higher than the numbers just given because of the inherent
instability of these thermometers. In all cases, these types of thermometers are
calibrated by comparison with one or more standard instruments of the scale, e.g.,
vapor-pressure thermometry; vapor-pressure thermometry and gas thermometry; vaporpressure thermometry, gas thermometry, and platinum resistance thermometry; gas
thermometry and platinum resistance :thermometry; platinum resistance
thermometry; or pyrometers or spectral radiometers.
(42)
In section 3, we discussed the direct realization of the ITS-90, using the

standard instruments of the scale, i.e. , the realization of the scale at the
lowest level of uncertainty. Of course, even the standard interpolating
instruments used at the same thermodynamic temperature will indicate temperatures
that differ slightly due to the devices having nonideal behavior and the scales
being expressed in as simple a form as possible. The differences in indicated
temperatures, however, are negligible for all practical purposes, being of the
order of 0.5 mK for temperatures above about 5 K (i.e., assuming no errors in
calibration). The realization of the ITS-90 in the liquid helium range of
temperatures (0.65 K to 5.0 K) through helium vapor pressure- temperature
relations can be accurate to about 0.1 mK or 0.2 mK.
For temperatures in the range from 13.8033 K to 273.16 K, capsule SPRTs are the
most suitable thermometers. NIST has reference capsule SPRTs that have been,
or will have been, calibrated at the defining fixed points in this range. Those
SPRTs are used in calibrating customer thermometers by the comparison technique
over the range from about 13 K to 84 K. The temperatures at which comparisons
are made are at, or within a few mK of, the defining fixed-point temperatures
of the ITS-90 and at temperatures approximately mid-way between the fixed-point,
values. Data at the temperatures intermediate to the fixed-point values are
incorporated as a check on the calibration process. At and above the argon
triple point (83.8058 K), customer capsule SPRTs are calibrated by the fixedpoint method. See section 6.3 for an example of how to calculate the
coefficients of the deviation functions.
4.3.2 LONG-STEM TYPE SPRTS (83.8058 TO 1234.93 K)
Long-stem type SPRTs are used in the range from 83.8058 K to 1234.93 K. Two
different long-stem type SPRTs are required to cover this whole range, one type
being the customary SPRT having a nominal 25.5 0 resistance at 0 *C and used in
Z-176
the range from 83.8058 K to 692.677 K or to 933.473 K, and the second type having
a somewhat longer stem and having a nominal 0.25 or 2.5 resistance and used
in the range from 273.15 K to 1234.93 K. Such thermometers are very stable if
handled carefully, In this range of temperature, SPRTs are calibrated by the
fixed-point method, different sets of fixed points being required for different
temperature subranges. The required fixed points for the different subranges
were specified in section 2 of this document. In the fixed-point method,
corrections
for hydrostatic heads and gas pressure over the metals, of the
freezing point and melting-point cells are made (see table 6). Similarly,
corrections for hydrostatic heads present in metal and in gas triple-point cells
are made. As a check on the accuracy of the calibration, measurements are made
at one or more redundant defining fixed points lying within the temperature
range of calibration or at a well characterized secondary fixed point, such as
the cadmium freezing point, that lies within the temperature range of
calibration. The value of the temperature of a check point calculated from the
calibration
constants should agree closely with the accepted value of
that
point. If
not, then either an error was made in the calibration, one or more
fixed point cells are defective, or the thermometer is defective.
The procedures indicated in section 3.2 for realizing the
various fixed-point
temperatures and for handling SPRTs are followed lowed care fully during
calibration of platinum thermometers, especially so for calibration at the
aluminum and silver freezing
points (see sec. 3.2.4.2.7.1 for a discussion of
lattice defects). See section 6.3 for an example of how the coefficients of the
deviation functions are calculated from the data for the two sets of fixed
points.
4.3.3
CONVERSION OF THE IPTS-68 CONSTANTS
APPROXIMATE ITS - 90 CONSTANTS AND W ( T 90 ) TABLES
For SPRTs
calibrations
temperatures
the freezing
AND
W ( T 68)
TABLES
that have been calibrated recently on the IPTS-68(75), their

may be. converted to approximate, calibrations on the ITS-90 at
between the triple point of equilibrium hydrogen (13.8033 K) and
point of zinc (692.677 K).
To make the conversion, first obtain values of W(T68), i.e. R(T68)/R(OC), from
the, IPTS-68(75) calibrations, at values of T68 corresponding to the temperatures
of the relevant fixed points of the ITS-90 in the appropriate range in which the
conversion is desired. [Note : for a fixed point, the temperature values T68 and
T90 are different, but the hotness is the same and so the resistance of a given
SPRT remains unchanged. The temperature values on the two scales are defined to
be the same only at the triple point of water and at the absolute zero of the
temperature scales. Due to the nature of the scales, however., there are other
temperature values of these scales that are also the same, which are fortuitous.
See fig. 1, which shows the difference of t90 and t68 as a function of t90. ] Using
these values of W ( T 68) at the appropriate ITS-90 fixed-point temperatures,
calculate values of W(T90), i.e., R(T90)/R(273.16 K), by dividing the values of
W(T68) at the appropriate fixed-point temperatures by the value of W(273.16 K),
i.e., the, value of W(T68) at the triple point of water. Table 8 shows samples of
such conversions for a capsule-type SPRT and for a long-stem type SPRT
calibrated on the IPTS-68(75). The calibration constants of the IPTS-68(75)
equations for the two SPRTs are given also in table 8. The values of W(T90) so
Difference Between ITS-90 Calibration and IPTS-68 Calibration

Converted to ITS-90, Chino RS8YA-5, 25.5 ohm
T90-T90(68)
mK
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
-0.1
-0.1
50
100
150
200
250
300
TO
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
Temperature, K
Figure 18. Differences between T90 and (T90) as calculated from IPTS-68 calibration for the long-
Z-177
Table 8. Example of conversion of calibrations of SPRTs on the IPTS-68 to

approximate calibrations on the ITS-90
Capsule SPRT, S/N 1812284 : e-H2 TP to Sn FP
IPTS-68 CALIBRATION CONSTANTS
R(0 C) = 25.4964808
A1 = 1.6314209x10-4
D1 = 1.4525327x10-4
A2 = 2.1616630x10-4
D2 = 2.2572375x10-10
a = 3.9262754x10-3
B1 = -8.7377446x10-7
d = 1.4964667
C1 = 4.0321350x10-7
B2 = -1.7113512x10-7
C2 = 6.6163769x10-8
A3 = 4.5449999x10-7
A4 = 3.0860000xl0-7
B3 = -7.7242433x10-6
C3 = 3.9028516x10-8
C4 = 1.0880791x10-4
4.3.4 UNCERTAINTIES OF CALIBRATIONS AND THEIR PROPAGATION

Both systematic and random errors of measurements introduced in a calibration
are propagated throughout the temperature range of the calibration. It is the
total uncertainty arising from both of these types of errors, however, that is
of interest to the customer and user of a calibrated thermometer. International
comparisons of fixed-point cells below 90 K [79] and other data suggest that the
uncertainties (at the 10 level) in the realizations of the defining fixed points
of the ITS-90 are about 0.2 mK for the triple points 0f hydrogen and neon,
0.1 mK for the triple point of oxygen through the melting point of gallium,
0.7 K at the freezing point of indium, 1 mK from the freezing point of tin
through the freezing point of aluminum, and 2 mK for the freezing point of
silver.
The uncertainty of temperature measurements in the liquid helium range (0.65 K
to 5.0 K) results from the uncertainty of the helium vapor-pressure
measurements. The uncertainty (at the 1 o level) throughout this range of
temperature is estimated to be approximately 0.1 mK to 0.2 mK.
ITS-90 CALIBRATION CONSTANTS CONVERTED FROM THE IPTS-68 CONSTANTS

R(273.16) = 25.4974973
a1 = -2.5239001x10-4
b1 = 1.2277862x10-4
C1 = -2.3783015x10-6
ag = -2.5287142x10-4
bg = 1.1130131x10-5
C2 = -4.3892024x10-6
C3 = -1.5608728x10-6
C4 = -2.1374663x10-7
C5 = -1.0344171x10-8
For the CVGT, the uncertainty in the measured temperature over its temperature
range (3.0 K to 24. 5561 K) arises from uncertainties of realizations of the
triple points of neon and of equilibrium hydrogen, of the measurement of the
CVGT gas pressure and of the measurement of the vapor pressure of helium. The
uncertainty (at the 1o level) throughout this range of temperature is estimated
to be approximately 0.1 mK to 0.2 mK.
Uncertainties introduced by a
particular CVGT design may add to these uncertainties.
Long-Stem SPRT. SIN RS8YA-5 : Ar TP to Zn FP

IPTS-68 CALIBRATION CONSTANTS
R(0 C) = 25.5086208
A4 =
A = 3.9856609x10-3
a = 3.9268986x10-3
B = -5.8762238x10-6
d = 1.49640322
C4 = 9.3183900x10-7
2.6581418x10-14
ITS-90 CALIBRATION CONSTANTS CONVERTED FROM THE IPTS-68 CONSTANTS

R(273.16 K) = 25.5096386
a4 = -9.3225823x10-5
a8 = -9.1058813x10-5
b4 = -9.9914440x10-6
b8 = -7.6061559x10-6
obtained may then be used with the appropriate relations described in section 2
to obtain the constants of the ITS-90 deviation equations for the SPRTs. In
tab1e 8 we list the value of the deviation constants that were calculated from the
sample data presented there. For comparison, values of the conversion from W(T68) to
W(T90) as well as measured values of W(T90), for the various relevant fixed-point
temperatures T68 and T90, respectively, are given in table 9. The deviations in the
values of the last two columns of table 9 for the capsule SPRT reflect the
inconsistency between the NBS-IPTS-68(75) wire scale and the difference between
the IPTS-68(75) and the ITS-90 as given in table 1. Note that for the long-stem
SPRT, the zero deviations for tin and zinc are a consequence of those fixed
points having been used in both cases and the
Table 9. Values of W(T68) and W(T0) for various fixed-point temperatures T68 and
Capsule SPRT (S/N 1812284)

Fixed Point
T68/K
W(T68) meas..
e-H2
e-H2
e-H2
Ne
o2
Ar
Hg
H2O
Ga
In
Sn
TP
BP
BP
TP
TP
TP
TP
TP
MP
FP
FP
13.81
17.04200
20.280
24.5616
54.361
83.79723
234.3086
273.16
302.9218
429.7848
505.1181
0.00119822**
0.00231120**
0.00425962**
0.00848337**
0.09182547**
0.21598575**
0.84421212**
1.00003987**
1.11815352**
1.60970773**
1.89263856**
Ar
Hg
H2O
Ga
In
Sn
Zn
TP
TP
TP
MP
FP
FP
FP
83.79723
234.3086
273.16
302.9218
429.7848
505.1181
692.73
0.21592943**
0.84418993**
1.00003976
1.11817175***
1.60980450***
1.89278557
2.56885786
T90/K
13.8033
17.0357
20.2711
24.5561
54.3584
83.8058
234.3156
273.16
302.9146
429.7485
505.078
W(T90) calc.*
W(T90) meas..
0.00119817
0.00231111
0.00425945
0.00848303
0.09182180
0.21597714
0.84417846
1.00000000
1.11810895
1.60964355
1.89256311
0.00119721
0.00231049
0.00425815
0.00848391
0.09182102
0.21597795
0.84417781
1.00000000
1.11810896
1.60964566
1.89256311
0.21592084
0.84415637
1.00000000
1.11812729
1.60974050
1.89271033
2.56875573
4.3.5 ESTIMATES OF POSSIBLE ERRORS INTRODUCED BY EXTRAPOLATIONS BEYOND THE

RANGE OF CALIBRATION
It is unwise and is poor practice to use any thermometer beyond the temperature
range over which it was calibrated. Nevertheless, some users persist in doing
just that. In some cases, especially if the extrapolation is for only a few
kelvins, the error introduced may be rather small. The errors of some typical
extrapolations calculated and depicted for NIST SPRTs, are shown in figures
21, 22, 23, 24, and 25.
The curve in figure 21 shows the error introduced for a NIST SPRT by
extrapolating the deviation function, determined from calibration over the range
from the triple point of argon to the triple point of water, downward from the
argon triple point to 54 K. Extrapolating downward to about the boiling point
of nitrogen (77 K) results in a fairly insignificant error in this case and,
thus, can be done with the usual caution that some thermometers may not be as
good as that of figure 21.
Figure 22 depicts the results for another NIST SPRT. The curve shows the error
introduced by extrapolating the deviation function, determined from calibration
over the range from the triple point of mercury to the melting point of gallium,
downward from the mercury triple point to 84 K.
Long-Stem SPRT (S/N RS8YA-5):

83.8058
234.3156
273.16
302.9146
429.7485
505.078
692.677
In the calibration of SPRTs over any given subrange, the possible error in the
realization of each of the fixed points and any error of measurement must be
considered and they will be propagated independently of that incurred at the
other fixed points involved. The total uncertainty of measurements at a given
temperature is then the root-mean-square of the appropriate contributing
uncertainties. Curve, showing the propagation of a (unit error ) incurred at
each of the defining fixed points of the two major ranges are shown in figures
19 and 20. Figure 19 shows the propagation of errors associated with the fixed
point, below 213.16 K; and figure 20 shows curves for the fixed points used in
the calibration of SPRTs in the range from 273.15 K to 1234.93 K. The labels
on the various curves indicate the fixed-point in which there is the unit error
in its temperature, and the other fixed points without error. As an example,
consider the curve labelled Sn(Ag, Al, Zn) of figure 20. The symbol Sn indicates
that the unit error occurs in the Sn freezing-point temperature; that is clearly
indicated by a unit offset of the curve at that point. The symbols in
parenthesis,i.e., (Ag, Al, Zn), indicate that the Ag, Al, and Zn freezing points
were made at those fixed-point temperatures without error. Also, it is assumed
that the measurements at the triple point of water were without error. The other
labelled curves are similarly interpreted. The straight lines labelled TPW show
the errors propagated for an error of 0.1 mK made by the user in the triple
point of water.
Figure 23 displays the results for the same NIST SPRT as used for figure 22, but
the curve in this case shows the error introduced by extrapolating the deviation
function, determined from calibration over the range from the triple point of
mercury to the melting point of gallium, downward from the mercury triple point
to only 200 K. A sizable error is shown for observations that would be made at
Dry Ice temperatures (-78 C).
0.21592281
0.84415625
1.00000000
1.11812699
1.60974062
1.89271033
2.56875573
Values of W(T90) calc. were obtained by conversion of corresponding values of

W(T68) meas.
These values were calculated from NBS-IPTS-68 calibration constants, based on

the NBS wire scale and calibration at the triple point of water and the freezing
point of tin (and the freezing point of zinc for the long-stem SPRT).
**
These values were calculated from IPTS-68 calibration constants determined

from fixed points.
***
conversion process having been consistent. The deviations for the other fixed
points (Ar, Hg, Ga, and In) reflect the non-uniqueness of this SPRT and possible
errors incurred in measurements at those fixed points.
The results of tables 8 and 9 for the long-stem SPRT, with regard to the
differences between temperatures determined from an actual ITS-90 calibration
and those deterimined from an IPTS-68 calibration but then calculated for
approximate ITS-90 values, are shown in figure 18. Note that at temperatures
above 273.16 K. the zero deviation of figure 18 is a consequence of the fact that
the same fixed points (tin and zinc ) have been used in both cases and the
conversion process having been consistent.
Figure 24 depicts the results for several NIST SPRTs, but the curves in this
case show the errors introduced by extrapolating their deviation functions,
determined from calibration over the range from the triple point of water to the
freezing point of zinc, downward from the triple point of water to -50 C.
Figure 25 displays the results for several NIST SPRTs, but in this case the
curves show the errors introduced by extrapolating their deviation functions,
determined from calibration over the range from the triple point of water to the
freezing point of zinc, upward from the freezing point of zinc to 934 K (660 C).
As a general rule and good practice, one should never extrapolate any of the
ITS-90 deviation functions beyond their range of application. If however, the
estimated uncertainty introduced by extrapolating a deviation function beyond
the range of calibration is acceptable, then the user may do so, but with the
knowledge that his thermometer may yield results with a larger uncertainty than
that estimated. The user that makes such extrapolations should realize that not
all SPRTs wi1l behave as indicated in figures 21 through 25. The results
depicted in these figures are examples only and are valid for only those SPRTs
indicated. Other SPRTs may be better or worse.
Z-178
ITS-90 Propagation of Calibration Errors

in Platinum Resistance Thermometry
2.0
2.0
1.5
20.3(e-H2, 17, Ne, O2, Ar, Hg)
17(e-H2, 17, Ne, O2, Ar, Hg)
error
in mK
1.5
Hg(e-H2, 17, 20.3, Ne, O2, Ar)
Ar(e-H2, 17, 20.3, Ne, O2, Hg)
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
e-H2(17, 20.3, Ne,

O2, Ar, Hg)
-1.0
-1.0
O2(e-H2, 17, 20.3, Ne, Hg, Ar)
-1.5
-1.5
Ne(e-H2, 17, 20.3, O2, Ar, Hg)
-2.0
-2.0
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
200
175
225
275
250
Temperature, K
Figure 19.
Propagation of errors from errors of calibration of SPRTs between 13.8033 K and
273.16 K. The curves show the error in the temperature values caused by a unit positive or unit
negative error of calibration at each of the fixed points in the range, namely, the triple points
of equilibrium hydrogen, neon, oxygen, argon, and mercury. The calibration at the triple point of
water is assumed to have been made without error. The curves are identified by the fixed point
ITS-90 Propagation of Calibration Errors

in Platinum Resistance Thermometry
1.5
1.5
Sn(Ag,Al,Zn)
Al(Ag,Zn,Sn)
Zn(Ag,Al,Sn)
Ag(Al,Zn,Sn)
1.0
0.5
1.0
0.5
TPW
Error in degrees
per degree error
in calibration
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5
250
350
450
550
650
750
850
950
1050
1150
1250
Temperature, K
Figure 20.
Propagation of errors from errors of calibration of SPRTs between 273.15 K and
1234.93 K. The curves show the error in the temperature values caused by a unit positive or unit
negative error of calibration at each of the fixed points in the range, namely, gallium, indium,
tin, zinc, aluminum, and silver points. The calibration at the triple point of water is assumed to
have been made without error. The curves are identified by the fixed point with error outside the
parenthesis and the three fixed points without error inside the parenthesis. Also included in this
figure are error curves for errors made by the user at the triple point of water; these curves
Z-179
ITS-90, 25.2 ohm Capsule PRT 1812284

Oxygen Subrange - Extrapolated Argon Subrange
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
-0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0.2
-0.3
-0.3
-0.4
-0.4
-0.5
-0.5
-0.6
-0.6
-0.7
-0.7
-0.8
-0.8
-0.9
-0.9
error
in mK
-1.0
-1.0
50
75
100
125
175
150
Temperature, K
200
225
250
275
Figure 21. Error curve for a NIST SPRT; the curve shows the error introduced by extrapolating its
deviation function, determined from calibration over the range from the triple point of argon to
the triple point of water, downward from the triple point of argon to 54K.
ITS-90, Chino Model R800-2, RS8YA-5, 25.5 ohm

Ar to T3 Subrange - Extrapolated Hg to Ga Subrange
20
50
15
15
10
10
error
in mK
5
-5
-5
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
Temperature, K
Figure 22. Curve for a NIST SPRT that shows the error introduced by extrapolating its deviation
function, determined from calibration over the range from the triple point of mercury to the
melting point of gallium, downward from the triple point of mercury to 84K
Z-180
ITS-90, Chino Model R800-2, RS8YA-5, 25.5 ohm

Ar to T3 Subrange - Extrapolated Hg to Ga Subrange
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
error
in mK 0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
205
200
210
215
220
225
230 235 240
245
250
255 260
265
270 275
Temperature, K
Figure 23. Curve for the NIST SPRT of figure 22 that shows the error introduced by extrapolating
its deviation function, determined from calibration over the range from the triple point of
mercury to the melting point of gallium, downward from the triple point of mercury to only 200 K.
ITS-90, 25.5 ohm PRTs

Ar Subrange - Extrapolated Zn Subrange
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0
-1.0
error
in mC -1.5
-1.5
35
32
-2.0
-2.0
34
31
30
-2.5
-2.5
-3.0
-3.0
-50
-45
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
Temperature, C
Figure 25. Curves for several NIST SPRTs that show the errors introduced by extrapolating their
deviation functions, determined from calibration over the range from the triple point of water to
the freezing point of zinc, downward to the triple point of water to -50C.
Z-181
ITS-90, 25.5 ohm PRTs

Al Subrange - Extrapolated Zn Subrange
3.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
30
1.0
1.0
31
33
0.0
0.0
error -1.0
in mK
-- 1 . 0
32
-- 2 . 0
-- 2 . 0
-- 3 . 0
-- 3 . 0
35
-- 4 . 0
-- 4 . 0
34
-- 5 . 0
-- 5 . 0
250
350
450
550
650
750
850
950
Temperature, K
Figure 25. Curves for several NIST SPRTs that show the errors introduced by extrapolating their
deviation functions, determined from calibration over the range from the triple point of water to
the freezing point of zinc, upward from the freezing point of zinc to 934 K (660C). Also shown are
subrange inconsistencies for the subrange triple point of water to zinc, relative to the subrange
4.4 THERMOCOUPLES (77 K TO 2400 K)
Table 10. Example of a conversion of calibration values of a type K thermocouple

on the IPTS-68 to an approximate calibration on the ITS-90
There are numerous letter-designated types of thermocouples. The Type S

thermocouple was the standard instrument of the IPTS-68(75) in the range from
630.74 C to 1064.43 C, but it is not a standard instrument of the ITS-90.
Customer thermocouples are calibrated at NIST by using a set of temperature
fixed points, by comparison with SPRTs, or by comparison with referencestandard thermocouples that have been calibrated either by comparison with an
SPRT or a radiation pyrometer, or through the use of fixed points. For details
of the calibration procedures and of the uncertainties involved, see NIST SP
250-35 [22] and NIST Monograph 175 (23] (or Monograph 125 (82]).
Calibration Values
on IPTS-68
t68
(C)
0.0
100.0
200.0
300.0
400.0
500.0
600.0
700.0
800.0
900.0
1000.0
1100.0
Usually, the calibration data for most types of thermocouples are analyzed
relative to reference tables, such as those given in NBS Monograph 125 [82].
Monograph 125, of course, has reference tables for thermocouples based on the
IPTS-68(75). This monograph has been revised and updated to give reference
tables for all letter-designated thermocouples based on the ITS-90. The revised
version of Monograph 125 is Monograph 175 (23) and it supersedes Monograph 125.
The electromotive-force-temperature data for a thermocouple calibrated on the
IPTS-68(75) can be converted to an approximate ITS-90 calibration through the
use of the differences (t90 - t68,) given in table 1 of this document and the S
values in mV/C for the relevant thermocouple given in Monograph 175 or
Monograph 125. An example of this conversion is given in table 10. A typical
calibration report is presented in appendix 3 (see sec. 6.3.8).
emf68
(mV)
0.000
4.092
8.130
12.195
16.383
20.633
24.904
29.136
33.288
37.338
41.281
45.118
Calibration Values
on IPTS-90
S
(mV/C)
Monograph
125
0.0395
0.414
0.0400
0.0415
0.0422
0.0426
0.0425
0.0419
0.0410
0.0400
0.0389
0.0378
t90-t68
(C)
Table 1
0.000
-0.026
-0.040
-0.039
-0.048
-0.079
-0.115
0.20
0.34
-0.01
-0.19
-0.26
[-S(t90-t68)]
(mV)
0.000
-0.001
-0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.003
-0.005
0.008
0.014
0.000
-0.007
-0.010
t90
(C)
emf90a
(mV)
0.0
100.0
200.0
300.0
400.0
500.0
600.0
700.0
800.0
900.0
1000.0
1100.0
0.000
4.093
8.132
12.197
16.385
20.636
24.909
29.128
29.128
37.338
41.288
45.128
emf90 - emf68 -
4.5 LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETERS

Liquid-in-glass thermometers have uncertainties of realization as small as 30
mK in the temperature range from 0C to about 100 C, but deteriorates at
lower and higher temperaures. Liquid-in-glass (primarily,Mercury-in-glass)
thermometers are calibrated at NIST by comparison with SPRTs in liquid baths of
various kinds that cover different temperature ranges. For details of the
calibration procedures and of the uncertainties involved, see NIST SP 250-23
(105]. An example of a calibration report, based on the IPTS-68(75), of a
liquid-in-glass thermometer is given in appendix 3 (see sec. 6.3.9). A
calibration report for the same thermometer, with the IPTS-68(75) calibration
converted to an approximate ITS-90 calibration through the use of (t90 - t68)
differences given in table 7 is given also in appendix 3 (see sec. 6.3.10).
4.6 INDUSTRIAL PLATINUM RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
Industrial platinum resistance thermometers (IPRTs) are designed primarily for
use in the temperature range from about 77 K (approximate liquid nitrogen
boiling point) to
500 C. Typically, the manufacturer of IPRTs quotes minimum
instabilities of the IPRTs at the 0. 1 K level over this range of
temperatures. Some IPRTs may be somewhat better than this but others may be
considerably worse. As seen from table 1, the maximum difference of (T9o - T68)
below
500C
is
about
0.08
K,
and
therefore
the
difference in temperature due to the change in temperature scales is within the
instability of many IPRTs. Continued use of the IPTS-68(75) and of equations
and standards [American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
Standard,E1137,and International ElectrotechnicalCommission (IEC) Standard,
Publication 751] referenced to the IPTS-68(75),therefore, would result in an
increase in uncertainty of temperature of only about 0.1 K if the temperature
were expressed as being on the ITS-90. (Note: the ASTM and the IEC are
converting their respective IPRT tables from the IPTS-68(75) to the ITS-90. ASTM
Committee E-20 on Temperature Measurements is responsible for this conversion
for the ASTM).
When IPRTs are calibrated on the ITS-90, of course, they may be calibrated in
the same manner as is used for SPRTs. A better method of calibrating IPRTs,
however, is to obtain resistance-temperature data by comparison with a
calibrated SPRT at numerous temperatures the range of interest and then fit a
p o l y n o m i a l i n t 9o t o R ( t 90) / R ( 0 C ) , o r t o R ( t 90) / R ( 0 . 0 l C ) d a t a b y a
least squares technique.
4.7 THERMISTOR
THERMOMETERS.
THERMOMETERS,
DIGITAL
THERMOMETERS,
AND
OTHER
TYPES
OF
Thermistor thermometers, digital thermometers (with resistance, thermocouple, or

diode sensors), and other types of thermometers are calibrated at NIST by
comparison with SPRTs in liquid baths. The calibration procedures followed are
similar to those used with liquid-in-glass thermometers. The uncertainties of
calibration range from as small as 2 mk for thermistor thermometers to tenths
Z-182
of kelvins for the others. The temperatures of calibration for these types
ofthermometers usually lie somewhere within the range from about 77 K to 850 K
Bead-in-glass probe type thermistors used in the moderate temperature range are
quite stable and they may be used to approximate the ITS-90 at a level of about
1 . 5mK to 2.0 mK [67] . In their case , a polynomial, the degree of which
depends on the temperature range of the calibration, is fitted to resistancetemperature data and the results reported in terms of that polynomial. A
calibration on the IPTS-68 (75) may be converted to an approximate ITS-90
calibration by the same procedure as outlined for RIRTs .
4.8 THE LOGO OF THE NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STANDARDS LABORATORIES FOR THE ITS-90
The National Conference of Standards Laboratories (NCSL) formed an Ad Hoc
Committee on the Change of the Temperature Scale at the beginning of l988 in
order to publicize the new temperature scale (ITS-90) and to facilitate its
implementation. At the NCSL meeting in July 1989, the Ad Hoc Committee adopted a
logo available from the NCSL [1800 30th Street, Suite 305B , Boulder, CO 80301,
Tel. (303) 440-3339 ] , that may be affixed to thermometers that have been
calibrated on the ITS-90. The purpose of the logo, illustrated in figure 26, is
to indicate at a glance, without having to refer to documentation, those
thermometers in a laboratory that have been calibrated on the new scale. This is
particularly useful for those laboratories that have their various thermometers
calibrated on a prescribed schedule, with different thermometers being
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Z-183
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Points
[33]
Darling, A. S. and Selman, G. L., Some Effects of Environment on the
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Temperature, Its Measurement and
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Triple Points of Oxygen and Argon, Metrologia 12 93-100 (1976).
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4
He Between 13.81 K and 287 K Using a Constant-Volume Gas Thermometer, Metrologia
23, 61-86 (1986/87)
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Reproduced with permission of National Institute of Standards and Technology
Z-185
The International
Temperature Scale of 1990
metrologia Springer-Verlag 1990
This copy incorporates textual corrections detailed in Metrologia 27, 107 (1990)
The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)

H. Preston-Thomas
Introductory Note
President of the Comit Consultatif de

Thermomtrie and Vice-President of the Comit
International des Poids et Mesures Division of Physics,
National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, K1A
OS1 Canada
Received: October 24, 1989
The official French text of the ITS-90 is published by

the BIPM as part of the Prochs-verbaux of the Comit
International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM). However,
the English version of the text reproduced here has
been authorized by the Comit Consultatif de
Thermomtrie (CCT) and approved by the CIPM.
The International
2. Principles of the International

Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)
The International Temperature Scale of 1990 was

adopted by the International Committee of Weights and
Measures at its meeting in 1989, in accordance with the
request embodied in Resolution 7 of the 18th General
Conference of Weights and Measures of 1987. This
scale supersedes the International Practical Temperature
Scale of 1968 (amended edition of 1975) and the 1976
Provisional 0.5 K to 30 K Temperature Scale.
The ITS-90 extends upwards from 0.65 K to the

highest temperature practicably measurable in terms
of the Planck radiation law using monochromatic
radiation. The ITS-90 comprises a number of ranges
and sub-ranges throughout each of which
temperatures T90 are defined. Several of these ranges
or sub-ranges overlap, and where such overlapping
occurs, differing definitions of T90 exist: these differing
definitions have equal status. For measurements of the
very highest precision there may be detectable
numerical differences between measurements made at
the same temperature but in accordance with differing
definitions. Similarly, even using one definition, at a
temperature between defining fixed points two
acceptable interpolating instruments (e.g. resistance
thermometers) may give detectably differing numerical
values of T90. In virtually all cases these differences
are of negligible practical importance and are at the
minimum level consistent with a scale of no more than
reasonable complexity; for further information on this
point see Supplementary information for the ITS-90
(BIPM-1990).
The ITS-90 has been constructed in such a way that,
throughout its range, for any given temperature the
numerical value of T90 is a close approximation to the
numerical value of T according to best estimates at the
time the scale was adopted. By comparison with direct
measurements of thermodynamic temperatures,
measurements of T90 are more easily made, are more
precise and are highly reproducible.
There are significant numerical differences between
the values of T90 and the corresponding values of T90
measured on the International Practical Temperature
Scale of 1968 (IPTS-68), see Fig. 1 and Table 6.
Similarly there were differences between the IPTS-68
and the International Practical Temperature Scale of
1948 (IPTS-48), and between the International
Temperature Scale of 1948 (ITS-48) and the
International Temperature Scale of 1927 (ITS-27).
See the Appendix, and, for more detailed information,
Supplementary Information for the ITS-90.
1. Units of Temperature
The unit of the fundamental physical quantity known as
thermodynamic temperature, symbol T, is th kelvin
symbol K, defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water 1.
Because of the way earlier temperature scales were
defined, it remains common practice to express a
temperature in terms of its difference from 273.15 K,
the ice point. A thermodynamic temperature, T,
expressed in this way is known as a Celsius
temperature, symbol t, defined by:
t / C=T/K 273.15 .
(1)
The unit of Celsius temperature is the degree Celsius,
symbol C, which is by definition equal in magnitude to
the kelvin. A difference of temperature may be
expressed in kelvins or degrees Celsius.
defines both International Kelvin Temperatures, symbol
T90, and International Celsius Temperatures, symbol
t 90. The relation between T90 and t 90 is the same as
that between T and t, i.e.:
t 90 /C = T90 /K 273.15 .
(2)
The unit of the physical quantity T90 is the kelvin,
symbol K, and the unit of the physical quantity t90 is the
degree Celsius, symbol C, as is the case for the
thermodynamic temperature T and the Celsius
temperature t.
1
Comptes Rendux des Sances de la Treizime Confrence
Gnrale des Poids et Mesures (1967-1968). Resolutions
3 and 4, p. 104
Reprinted with permission of Bureau International des Poids et Mesures.
Z- 186
The International Temperature Scale of 1990 Contd
Temperature difference (t 90-t 68)/C
0.02
0
0.4
-0.02
-0.04
0.2
-200
200
400
0
0
0
-0.2
100
-0.01
-0.2
-0.02
-200
200
400
600
800
1000
t 90/C
FIG. 1. The differences (t 90 t 68) as a function of Celsius temperatue t 90
3. Definition of the International

3.1. From 0.65 K: Helium Vapour-Pressure

Temperature Equations
In this range T90 is defined in terms of the vapour
pressure p of 3He and 4He using equations of the form:
Between 0.65 K and 5.0 K T90 is defined in terms of the

vapour-pressure temperature relations 3He and 4He.
9
Between 3.0 K and the triple point of neon (24.5561 K)
T90 /K = A0 + Ai [(ln (p /Pa) B )/C ) i .
(3)
i=1
T90 is defined by means of a helium gas thermometer
calibrated at three experimentally realizable temperatures
The values of the constants A0, Ai, B and C are given
having assigned numerical values (defining fixed points)
in Table 3 for 3He in the range of 0.65 K to 3.2 K, and
and using specified interpolation procedures.
for 4He in the ranges 1.25 K to 2.1768 K (the l point)
Between the triple point of equilibrium hydrogen
and 2.1768 K to 5.0 K.
(13.8033 K) and the freezing point of silver (961.78 C)
3.2 From 3.0 K to the Triple Point of Neon (24.5561 K):
T90 is defined by means of platinum resistance
Gas Thermometer
thermometers calibrated at specified sets of defining
fixed points and using specified interpolation
In this range T90 is defined in terms of a 3He or a 4He
procedures.
gas thermometer of the constant-volume type that has
been calibrated at three temperatures. These are the
Above the freezing point of silver (961.78C) T90 is
triple point of neon (24.5561 K), the triple point of
defined in terms of a defining fixed point and the
equilibrium hydrogen (13.8033 K), and a temperature
Planck radiation law.
is between 3.0 K and 5.0 K. This last temperature is
The defining fixed points of the ITS-90 are listed in
determined using a 3He or a 4He vapour pressure
Table 1. The effects of pressure, arising from
thermometer as specified in Sect. 3.1.
significant depths of immersion of the sensor or from
other causes, on the temperature of most of these
points are given in Table 2.
Z- 187
Table 1. Defining fixed points of the ITS-90

Number Temperature
T90 /K
t 90 /C
1
He
0,65 K to 3,2 K
3
2
3
270.15 to
268.15
13.8033 259.3467
17
256.15
20.3
5
6
7
8
24.5561 248.5939
54.3584 218.7916
83.8058 189.3442
234.3156 38.8344
e-H2
e-H2
(or He)
e-H2
(or He)
Ne
O2
Ar
Hg
273.16
302.9146
429.7485
505.078
H2O
Ga
In
Sn
T
M
F
F
1.000 000 00
1.118 138 89
1.609 801 85
1.892 797 68
Zn
Al
Ag
Au
Cu
F
F
F
F
F
2.568 917 30
3.376 008 60
4.286 420 53
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
3 to 5
Table 3. Values of the constants for the helium vapour

pressure Eqs. (3), and the temperature range for which
each equation, identified by its set of constants, is valid
Sub- Stateb Wr(T90)

stancea
252.85
692.677
933.473
1234.93
1337.33
1357.77
0.01
29.7646
156.5985
231.928
419.527
660.323
961.78
1064.18
1084.62
He
V
T
V
(or G)
V
(or G)
T
T
T
T
0.0001 190 07
0.008 449 74
0.091 718 04
0.215 859 75
0.844 142 11
All substances except 3He are of natural isotopic composition. e-H2

is hydrogen at the equilibrium concentration of the ortho- and paramolecular forms
b
For complete definitions and advice on the realization of these
various states, see Supplementary Information for the ITS-90. The
symbols have the following meanings: V: vapour pressure point; T:
triple point (temperature at which the solid liquid and vapour phases are
in equilibrium); G: gas thermometer point; M, F: melting point, freezing
point (temperature, at a pressure of 101 325 Pa, at which the solid and
liquid phases are in equilibrium)
a
Table 2. Effect of pressure on the temperatures

of some defining fixed points
Substance
e-Hydrogen (T)
Neon (T)
Oxygen (T)
Argon (T)
Mercury (T)
Water (T)
Gallium
Indium
Assignment
value of
equilibrium
temperature
T90 /K
Temperature
with pressure, p
(dT/dp)/
(10 -8 K Pa -1)*
13.8033
24.5561
54.3584
83.8058
34
16
12
25
234.3156
273.16
302.9146
429.7485
5.4
7.5
2.0
4.9
Variation
with depth, l
(dT/dl)/
(10-3 K m-1)**
0.25
1.9
1.5
3.3
7.1
0.73
1.2
3.3
Tin
Zinc
Aluminium
Silver
505.078
692.677
933.473
1234.93
3.3
4.3
7.0
6.0
2.2
2.7
1.6
5.4
Gold
Copper
1337.33
1357.77
6.1
3.3
10
2.6
* Equivalent to millikelvins per standard atmosphere

** Equivalent to millikelvins per metre of liquid
The Reference pressure for melting and freezing points is the

standard atmosphere (p0=101 325 Pa). For triple points (T) the
pressure effect is a consequence only of the hydrostatic head of liquid
in the cell
He
1,25 K to 2,1768 K
He
2,1768 K to 5,0 K
A0
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
1.053 447
0.980 106
0.676 380
0.372 692
0.151 656
0.002 263
1.392 408
0.527 153
0.166 756
0.050 988
0.026 514
0.001 975
3.146 631
1.357 655
0.413 923
0.091 159
0.016 349
0.001 826
A6
A7
A8
0.006 596
0.088 966
0.004 770
0.017 976
0.005 409
0.013 259
0.00 4325
0.00 4973
0
A9
B
C
0.054 943
7.3
4.3
0
5.6
2.9
0
10.3
1.9
3.2.1. From 4.2 K to the Triple Point of Neon (24.5561

K) with 4He as the Thermometric Gas. In this range T90
is defined by the relation:
T90 = a + bp + cp 2 ,
(4)
where p is the pressure in the gas thermometer and a, b
and c are coefficients the numerical values of which are
obtained from measurements made at the three defining
fixed points given in Sect. 3.2. but with the further
restriction that the lowest one of these points lies
between 4.2 K and 5.0 K.
3.2.2. From 3.0 K to the Triple Point of Neon
(24.5561 K) with 3He or 4He as the Thermometric Gas.
For a 3He gas thermometer, and for a 4He gas
thermometer used below 4.2 K, the non-ideality of the
gas must be accounted for explicitly, using the
appropriate second virial coefficient B3 (T90) or B4 (T90).
In this range T90 is defined by the relation:
a + bp + cp 2
T90 = ,
(5)
1 + BX (T90) N /V
where p is the pressure in the gas thermometer, a, b
and c are coefficients the numerical values of which
are obtained from measurements at three defining
temperatures as given in Sect. 3.2, N /V is the gas
density with N being the quantity of gas and V the
volume of the bulb, X is 3 or 4 according to the isotope
used, and the values of the second virial coefficients
are given by the relations:
For 3He,
B (T90)/m3 mol 1 = {16.69 336.98 (T90 /K) 1
(6a)
+ 91.04 (T90 /K) 2 13.82 (T90 /K) 3} 10 6 .
For 4He,
B4 (T90)/m3 mol-1 = {16.708 374.05 (T90 /K) 1
(6b)
383.53 (T90 /K) 2 + 1799.2 (T90 /K) 3
4033.2 (T90 /K) 4 + 3252.8 (T90 /K) 3} 10 6 .
Z- 188
Table 4. The constants A 0, A i; B o, B i; C 0, C i; D 0 and

D i in the reference functions of equations (9a); (9b);
(10a); and (10b), respectively
A0 2.135 347 29
A1
3.183 247 20
A2 1.801 435 97
A3
0.717 272 04
B0
B1
B2
B3
A4
0.503 440 27
A5 0.618 993 95
A6 0.053 323 22
A7
0.280 213 62
B4
0.142 648 498
B5
0.077 993 465
B6
0.012 475 611
B7 0.032 267 127
A8
0.107 152 24
A9 0.293 028 65
A10 0.044 598 72
A11 0.118 686 32
A12 0.052 481 34
B8
B9
B10
B11
B12
C0
2.781 572 54
C1
1.646 509 16
C2 0.137 143 90
C3 0.006 497 67
D0 439.932 854
D1 472.418 020
D2 37.684 494
D3
7.472 018
C4 0.002 344 44
C5
0.005 118 68
C6
0.001 879 82
C7 0.002 044 72
D4
2.920 828
D5
0.005 184
D6 0.963 864
D7 0.188 732
C8 0.000 461 22 D8
C9
0.000 457 24 D9
0.183 324 722

0.240 975 303
0.209 108 771
0.190 439 972
B13 0.091 173 542

B14
0.001 317 696
B15
0.026 025 526
0.075 291 522

0.056 470 670
0.076 201 285
0.123 893 204
0.029 201 193
0.191 203
0.049 025
Temperatures are determined in terms of the ratio of

the resistance R (T90) at a temperature T90 and the
resistance R (273.16 K) at the triple point of water.
This ratio, W (T90), is 2:
W (T90) = R (T90)/R (273.16 K) .
(7)
An acceptable platinum resistance thermometer must
be made from pure, strain-free platinum, and it must
satisfy at least one of the following two relations:
W (29.7646 C) 1.118 07 ,
(8a)
W ( 38.8344 C) 0.844 235 .
(8b)
An acceptable platinum resistance thermometer that is
to be used up to the freezing point of silver must also
satisfy the relation:
W (961.78 C) 4.2844 .
(8c)
In each of the resistance thermometer ranges, T90
is obtained from W (T90) as given by the appropriate
reference function {Eqs. (9b) or (10b)}, and the
deviation W (T90) Wr (T90). At the defining fixed
points this deviation is obtained directly from the
calibration of the thermometer: at intermediate
temperatures it is obtained by means of the
appropriate deviation function {Eqs. (12), (13)
and (14)}.
(i) For the range 13.8033 K to 273.16 K the
following reference function is defined:
12
In (T90)/273.16 K) + 1,5 i
In [Wr (T90)] = A0 + A i
.(9a)
i=1
1,5
An inverse function, equivalent to Eq. (9a) to within 0,1
mK, is:
15
i
Wr (T90)1/6 0.65
T90 /273.16 K = B 0 + B i
.(9b)
i=1
0.35
The values of the constants A0, A i, B 0 and B i are given
in Table 4.
A thermometer may be calibrated for use throughout
this range or, using progressively fewer calibration
points, for ranges with low temperature limits of
24.5561 K, 54.3584 K and 83.8058 K, all having an
upper limit of 273.16 K.
(ii) For the range 0 C to 961.78 C the following
reference function is defined:
9
T90 /K 754.15 i
Wr (T90 ) = C 0 + C i
.
(10a)
i=1
481
An inverse function, equivalent to equation (10a) to
within 0,13 mK is:
9
Wr (T90) 2.64 i
T90 /K 273.15 = D 0 + D i
.(10b)
i=1
1.64
The values of the constants C 0, C i, D 0 and D i are
given in Table 4.
The accuracy with which T90 can be realized using

Eqs. (4) and (5) depends on the design of the gas
thermometer and the gas density used. Design criteria
and current good practice required to achieve a
selected accuracy are given in Supplementary
Information for the ITS-90.
3.3. The Triple Point of Equilibrium Hydrogen
(13.8033 K) to the Freezing Point of Silver (961.78 C):
Platinum Resistance Thermometer
In this range T90 is defined by means of a platinum
resistance thermometer calibrated at specified sets
of defining fixed points, and using specified reference
and deviation functions for interpolation at intervening
temperatures.
No single platinum resistance thermometer can provide
high accuracy, or is even likely to be usable, over all of
the temperature range 13.8033 K to 961.78 C. The
choice of temperature range, or ranges, from among
those listed below for which a particular thermometer
can be used is normally limited by its construction.
For practical details and current good practice, in
particular concerning types of thermometer available,
their acceptable operating ranges, probable
accuracies, permissible leakage resistance, resistance
values, and thermal treatment, see Supplementary
Information for ITS-90. It is particularly important to
take account of the appropriate heat treatments that
should be followed each time a platinum resistance
thermometer is subjected to a temperature above
about 420C.
2
Note that this definition of W (T90) differs from the corresponding
definition used in the ITS-27, ITS-48, IPTS-48, and IPTS-68: for all of
these earlier scales W (T) was defined in terms of reference temperature
of 0C, which since 1954 has itself been defined as 273.15 K
Z- 189
A thermometer may be calibrated for use throughout

this range or, using fewer calibration points, for ranges
with upper limits of 660.323 C, 419.527 C, 231.928
C, 156.5985 C or 29.7646 C, all having a lower limit
of 0C.
(iii) A thermometer may be calibrated for use in the
range 234.3156 K ( 38.8344 C) to 29.7646 C, the
calibration being made at these temperatures and at
the triple point of water. Both reference functions {Eqs.
(9) and (10)} are required to cover this range.
The defining fixed points and deviation functions for the
various ranges are given below, and in summary from
in Table 5.
3.3.1. The Triple Point of Equilibrium Hydrogen
(13.8033 K) to the Triple Point of Water (273.16 K).
The thermometer is calibrated at the triple points of
equilibrium hydrogen (13.8033 K), neon (24.5561 K),
oxygen (54.3584 K), argon (83.8058 K), mercury
(234.3156 K), and water (273.16 K), and at two
additional temperatures close to 17.0 K and 20.3 K.
These last two may be determined either: by using a
gas thermometer as described in Sect. 3.2, in which
case the two temperatures must lie within the ranges
16.9 K to 17.1 K and 20.2 K to 20.4 K respectively; or
by using the vapour pressure-temperature relation of
equilibrium hydrogen, in which case the tow
temperatures must lie within the ranges 17.025 K to
17.045 K and 20.26 K to 20.28 K respectively, with the
precise values being determined from Eqs. (11a) and
(11b) respectively:
T90/K 17.035 = (p/kPa 33.3213)/13.32
(11a)
T90/K 20.27 = (p/kPa 101.292)/30 .
(11b)
The deviation function is 3:
W (T90) Wr (T90) = a [W (T90)1] + b [W (T90)1] 2
5
+ c i [ln W (T90)]
i+n
(12)
i=1
with values for the coefficients a, b and ci being

obtained from measurements at the defining fixed
points and with n = 2.
For this range and for the sub-ranges 3.3.1.1 to 3.3.1.3
the required values Wr (T90) are obtained from Eq. (9a)
or from Table 1.
3.3.1.1. The Triple Point of Neon (24.5561 K) to the
Triple Point of Water (273.16 K). The thermometer is
calibrated at the triple points of equilibrium hydrogen
(13.8033 K), neon (24.5561 K), oxygen (54.3584 K),
argon (83.8058 K), mercury (234.3156 K) and water
(273.16 K).
The deviation function is given by Eq. (12) with values
for the coefficients a, b, c1, c2 and c3 being obtained
from measurements at the defining fixed points and
with c4 = c5 = n = 0.
3.3.1.2 The Triple Point of Oxygen (54.3584 K) to the
3
This deviation function {and also those of Eqs. (13) and (14)} may
be expressed in terms of Wr rather than W; for this procedure see
Supplementary Information for ITS-90
Table 5. Deviation functions and calibration points for

platinum resistance thermometers in the various
ranges in which they define T90
a Ranges with an upper limit of 273,16 K
Section
Lower
temperature limit
T /K
3.3.1
13.8033
Deviation functions
Calibration
points (see
Table 1)
a [W (T90) 1]+b [W (T90) 1] 2 2-9

5
+ ci [ln W (T90)] i + n, n = 2
i=1
3.3.1.1
3.3.1.2
24.5561
54.3584
As for 3.3.1 with c4 = c5 = n = 0

As for 3.3.1 with
c2 = c3 =c4 = c5 = 0, n = 1
2, 5-9
6-9
3.3.1.3
83.8058
a [W (T90) 1]
+b [W (T90) 1] ln W (T90)
7-9
b Ranges with a lower limit of 0C

Section
Upper
temperature limit
t /C
3.3.2* 961.78
3.3.2.1
3.3.2.2
3.3.2.3
3.3.2.4
3.3.2.5
660.323
419.527
231.928
156.5982
29.7646
Deviation functions
Calibration
points (see
Table 1)
a [W (T90) 1]+b [W (T90) 1] 2

+ c [W (T90) 1] 3, + d [W (T90)
W (660.323 C)]2
As for 3.3.2 with d = 0
As for 3.3.2 with c = d = 0
As for 3.3.2 with b = c = d = 0
As for 3.3.2 with b = c = d = 0
9, 12-15
9, 12 - 14
9, 12, 13
9, 11, 12
9, 11
9, 10
c Range from 234.3156 K ( 38.8344 C) to 29.7646C

3.3.3
8-10
* Calibration points 9, 12-14 are used with d = 0 for t 90 660.323 C;

the values of a, b and c thus obtained are retained for t 90 > 660.323 C
with d being determined from calibration point 15
calibrated at the triple points of oxygen (54.3584 K),

argon (83.8058 K), mercury (234.3156 K) and water
(273.16 K).
The deviation function is given by Eq. (12) with values
for the coefficients a, b and c 1 being obtained from
measurements at the defining fixed points, with c2 = c3
= c4 = c 5 = 0 and with n = 1.
3.3.1.3. The Triple Point of Argon (83.8058 K) to the
calibrated at the triple points of argon (83.8058 K),
mercury (234.3156 K) and water (273.16 K).
The deviation function is:
W (T90) Wr (T90) = a [W (T90)1]
+ b [W (T90)1] In W (T90)
(13)
with the values of a and b being obtained from
measurements at the defining fixed points.
3.3.2. From 0 C to the Freezing Point of Silver
(961.78 C). The thermometer is calibrated at the triple
Z- 190
point of water (0.01 C), and at the freezing points of

tin (231.928 C), zinc (419.527 C), aluminium
(660.323 C) and silver (961.78 C).
The deviation function is:
W (T90) Wr (T90) = a [W (T90)1] + b [W (T90)1] 2(14)
+ c [W (T90)1] 3 + d [W (T90)W (660.323 C)] 2 .
For temperatures below the freezing point of aluminium
d = 0, with the values of a, b and c being determined
from the measured deviations from Wr (T90) at the
freezing points of tin, zinc and aluminium. From the
freezing point of aluminium to the freezing point of
silver the above values of a, b and c are retained and
the value of d is determined from the measured
deviation from Wr (T90) at the freezing point of silver.
For this range and for the sub-ranges 3.3.2.1 to 3.3.2.5
the required values for Wr (T90) are obtained from Eq.
(10a) or from Table 1.
3.3.2.1. From 0 C to the Freezing Point of Aluminium
(660.323 C). The thermometer is calibrated at the
triple point of water (0.01 C), and at the freezing
points of tin (231.928 C), zinc (419.527 C) and
aluminium (660.323 C).
The deviation function is given by Eq. (14), with the values
of a, b and c being determined from measurements at the
defining fixed points and with d = 0.
3.3.2.2. From 0 C to the Freezing Point of Zinc
triple point of water (0.0 C), and at the freezing points
of tin (231.928 C) and zinc (419.527 C).
The deviation function is given by Eq. (14), with the
values of a and b being obtained from measurements
at the defining fixed points and with c = d = 0.
3.3.2.3. From 0 C to the Freezing Point of Tin
triple point of water (0.01 C), and at the freezing
points of indium (156.5985 C) and tin (231.928 C).
The deviation function is given by Eq. (14), with the
3.3.2.4.From 0 C to the Freezing Point of Indium
triple point of water (0.01 C), and at the freezing point
of indium (156.5985 C).
The deviation function is given by Eq. (14) with the
value of a being obtained from measurements at the
defining fixed points and with b = c = d = 0.
3.3.2.5. From 0 C to the Melting Point of Gallium
triple point of water (0.01 C), and the melting point of
gallium (29.7646 C).
value of a being obtained from measurements at the
defining fixed points and with b = c = d = 0.
3.3.3. The Triple Point of Mercury (38.8344 C) to

the Melting Point of Gallium (29.7646 C). The
thermometer is calibrated at the triple points of mercury
( 38.8344 C), and water (0.01 C), and at the
melting point of gallium (29.7646 C).
The required values of Wr (T90) are obtained from Eqs.
(9a) and (10a) for measurements below and above
273.16 K respectively, or from Table 1.
3.4. The Range Above the Freezing Point of Silver
(961.78 C): Planck Radiation Law
Above the freezing point of silver the temperature T90
is defined by the equation:
Ll(T90)
exp (c 2 [lT90(X)] 1)1
= .
(15)
Ll [(T90 (X)]
exp (c 2 [lT90] 1)1
where T90 (X) refers to any one of the silver {T90 (Ag) =
1234.93 K}, the gold {T90 (Au) = 1337.33 K} or the
copper {T90(Cu) = 1357.77 K} freezing points4 and in
which Ll(T90) and Ll[T90 (X)] are the spectral
concentrations of the radiance of a blackbody at the
wavelength (in vacuo) l at T90 and at T90 (X)
respectively, and c 2 = 0.014388 m K.
For practical details and current good practice for
optical pyrometry, see Supplementary Information for
the ITS-90 (BIPM-1990).
4. Supplementary Information and Differences
from Earlier Scales
The apparatus, methods and procedures that will serve
to realize the ITS-90 are given in Supplementary
Information for the ITS-90. This document also gives
an account of the earlier International Temperature
Scales and the numerical differences between
successive scales that include, where practicable,
mathematical functions for differences T90 T68. A
number of useful approximations to the ITS-90 are
given in Techniques for Approximating the ITS-90.
These two documents have been prepared by the
Comit Consultatif de Thermomtrie and are
published by the BIPM; they are revised and
updated periodically.
The differences T90 T68 are shown in Fig. 1 and
Table 6. The number of significant figures given in
Table 6 allows smooth interpolations to be made.
However, the reproducibility of the IPTS-68 is, in
many areas, substantially worse than is implied by
this number.
4
The T90 values of the freezing points of silver, gold and copper are
believed to be self consistent to such a degree that the substitution of
any one of them in place of one of the other two as the reference
temperature T90 (X) will not result in significant differences in the
measured values of T90.
Z- 191
Table 6. Differences between ITS-90 and EPT-76, and between ITS-90 and IPTS-68 for specified values of T90
and t 90
T90 /K
0
10
20
T90 /K
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
T90/K
100
200
t 90 /C
100
0
t 90 /C
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
t 90 /C
1000
2000
3000
(T90 T76)/mK
4
5
0.1
1.1
1.3
3.2
3.5
6
0.2
1.4
3.8
7
0.3
1.6
4.1
8
0.4
1.8
9
0.5
2.0
0.007
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.008
0.008
30
0.014
0.008
(T90 T68)/K
4
5
0.006
0.003
0.006
0.005
0.008
0.007
0.006
0.007
0.003
0.002
0.005
0.005
0.007
0.008
0.008
0.008
0.008
0.008
40
50
0.014
0.014
0.007
0.005
6
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.007
0.001
0.006
0.008
0.008
0.008
60
0.014
0.003
7
0.006
0.004
0.007
0.007
0.000
0.006
0.008
0.008
0.009
70
0.013
0.001
8
0.008
0.005
0.006
0.006
0.001
0.007
0.008
0.008
0.009
80
0.012
9
0.009
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.002
0.007
0.008
0.008
0.009
90
0.012
30
0.014
0.006
30
0.007
0.032
0.040
0.040
0.056
0.090
0.125*
0.31
0.25
0.08
0.22
300
0.35
0.93
1.78
(t 90 t 68)/C
40
50
0.014
0.013
0.008
0.009
40
50
0.010
0.013
0.034
0.036
0.040
0.040
0.040
0.041
0.059
0.062
0.094
0.098
0.08
0.03
0.33
0.35
0.22
0.18
0.10
0.12
0.23
0.24
400
500
0.39
0.44
1.00
1.07
1.89
1.99
60
0.012
0.010
60
0.016
0.037
0.040
0.042
0.065
0.101
0.02
0.36
0.14
0.14
0.25
600
0.49
1.15
2.10
70
0.010
0.011
70
0.018
0.038
0.039
0.043
0.068
0.105
0.06
0.36
0.10
0.16
0.25
700
0.54
1.24
2.21
80
0.008
0.012
80
0.021
0.039
0.039
0.045
0.072
0.108
0.11
0.36
0.06
0.17
0.26
800
0.60
1.32
2.32
90
0.008
0.012
90
0.024
0.039
0.039
0.046
0.075
0.112
0.16
0.35
0.03
0.18
0.26
900
0.66
1.41
2.43
0.6
2.2
0.7
2.5
0.8
2.7
1.0
3.0
0.009
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.003
0.007
0.008
0.008
0
0.009
0.011
0.008
0.007
0.006
0.005
0.003
0.007
0.008
0.008
10
0.011
0.010
0
10
0.013
0.013
0.000
0.002
0
10
0.000 0.002
0.026 0.028
0.040 0.040
0.039 0.039
0.048 0.051
0.079 0.083
0.115 0.118
0.20
0.24
0.34
0.32
0.01
0.03
0.19
0.20
0
100
0.26
0.72
0.79
1.50
1.59
0.007
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.008
0.008
20
0.013
0.009
20
0.014
0.004
20
0.005
0.030
0.040
0.039
0.053
0.087
0.122
0.28
0.29
0.06
0.21
200
0.30
0.85
1.69
* A discontinuity in the first derivative of (t 90 t 68) occurs at a temperature of t 90 = 630.6 C, at which (t 90 t 68) = 0.125 C
Appendix

The International Temperature Scale of 1927 was adopted by
the seventh General Conference of Weights and Measures to
overcome the practical difficulties of the direct realization of
thermodynamic temperatures by gas thermometry, and as a
universally acceptable replacement for the differing existing
national temperature scales. The ITS-27 was formulated so as
to allow measurements of temperature to be made precisely
and reproducibly, with as close an approximation to
thermodynamic temperatures as could be determined at that
time. Between the oxygen boiling point and the gold freezing
point it was based upon a number of reproducible
temperatures, or fixed points, to which numerical values were

assigned, and two standard interpolating instruments. Each of
these interpolating instruments was calibrated at several of the
fixed points, this giving the constants for the interpolating
formula in the appropriate temperature range. A platinum
resistance thermometer was used for the low part and a
platinum rhodium/platinum thermocouple for temperatures
above 660 C. For the region above the gold freezing point,
temperatures were defined in terms of the Wien radiation law:
in practice, this invariably resulted in the selection of an optical
pyrometer as the realizing instrument.

The International Temperature Scale of 1948 was adopted by
Z- 192
the ninth General Conference. Changes from the ITS-27 were:

the lower limit of platinum resistance thermometer range was
changed from 190 C to the defined oxygen boiling point of
182.97 C, and the junction of the platinum resistance
thermometer range and the thermocouple range became the
measured antimony freezing point (about 630 C) in place
660 C; the silver freezing point was defined as being 960.8 C
instead of 960.5 C; the gold freezing point replaced the gold
melting point (1063 C); the Planck radiation law replaced the
Wien law; the value assigned to the second radiation constant
became 1.438 x 10 2 m K in place of 1.432 x 10 2 m K; the
permitted ranges for the constants of the interpolation formula
for the standard resistance thermometer and thermocouple
were modified; the limitation on lT for optical pyrometry
(lT<3x10 3 m K) was changed on the requirement that
visible radiation be used.
(27.102 K), the triple point of oxygen (54.361 K), and the
freezing point of tin (231.9681 C) which became a permitted
alternative to the boiling point of water; the boiling point of
sulphur was deleted; the values assigned to four fixed points
were changed the boiling point of oxygen (90.188 K), the
freezing point of zinc (419.58 C), the freezing point of silver
(961.93 C), and the freezing point of gold (1064.43 C): the
interpolating formulae for the resistance thermometer range
became much more complex; the value assigned to the
second radiation constant c 2 became 1.4388 x 10 2 m K;
the permitted ranges of the constants for the interpolation
formulae for the resistance thermometer and thermocouple
were again modified.
The International Practical Temperature Scale

of 1948 (Amended Edition of 1960) (IPTS-48)
The International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968,

amended edition of 1975, was adopted by the fifteenth General
Conference in 1975. As was the case for the IPTS-48 with
respect to the ITS-48, the IPTS-68 (75) introduced no
numerical changes. Most of the extensive textural changes
were; the oxygen point was defined as the condensation point
rather than the boiling point; the triple point of argon (83.798 K)
was introduced as a permitted alternative to the condensation
point of oxygen; new values of the isotopic composition of
naturally occurring neon were adopted; the recommendation to
use values of T given by the 1958 4He and 1962 3He vaporpressure scales was rescinded.
The International Practical Temperature Scale of 1948,

amended edition of 1960, was adopted by the eleventh General
Conference: the tenth General Conference had already
adopted the triple point of water as the sole point defining the
kelvin, the unit of thermodynamic temperature. In addition to the
introduction of the word Practical, the modifications to the ITS48 were: the triple point of water, defined as being 0,01 C,
replaced the freezing point of zinc, defined as being
419.505 C, became a preferred alternative to the sulphur
boiling point (444.6 C) as a calibration point; the permitted
ranges for the constants of the interpolation formulae for the
standard resistance thermometer and the thermocouple were
further modified; the restriction to visible radiation for optical
pyrometry was removed.
Inasmuch as the numerical values of temperature on the
IPTS-48 were the same as on the ITS-48, the former was not a
revision of the scale of 1948 but merely an amended form of it.
The International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968

(IPTS-68)
In 1968 the International Committee of Weights and Measures
promulgated the International Practical Temperature Scale of
1968, having been empowered to do so by the thirteenth
General Conference of 1967 1968. The IPTS-68
incorporated very extensive changes from the IPTS-48. These
included numerical changes, designed to bring to more nearly
in accord with thermodynamic temperatures, that were
sufficiently large to be apparent to many users. Other changes
were as follows: the lower limit of the scale was extended down
to 13.81 K; at even lower temperatures (0.5 K to 5.2 K), the use
of two helium vapour pressure scales was recommended; six
new defining fixed points were introduced the triple point of
equilibrium hydrogen (13.81 K), an intermediate equilibrium
hydrogen point (17.042 K), the normal boiling point of
equilibrium hydrogen (20.28 K), the boiling point of neon
The International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968

(Amended Edition of 1975) (IPTS-68)
The 1976 Provisional 0,5 K to 30 K Temperature Scale

(EPT-76)
The 1976 Provisional 0.5 K to 30 K Temperature Scale was
introduced to meet two important requirements: these were to
provide means of substantially reducing the errors (with respect
to corresponding thermodynamic values) below 27 K that were
then known to exist in the IPTS-68 and throughout the
temperature ranges of the 4He and 3He vapour pressure scales
of 1958 and 1962 respectively, and to bridge the gap between
5.2 K and 13.81 K in which there had not previously been an
international scale. Other objectives in devising the ETP-76
were that it should be thermodynamically smooth, that it should
be continuous with the IPTS-68 at 27.1 K, and that is should
agree with thermodynamic temperature T as closely as these
two conditions allow. In contrast with the IPTS-68, and to
ensure its rapid adoption, several methods of realizing the
ETP-76 were approved. These included: using a
thermodynamic interpolation instrument and one or more of
eleven assigned reference points; taking differences from the
IPTS-68 above 13.81 K; taking differences from certain wellestablished laboratory scales. Because there was a certain
lack of internal consistency it was admitted that slight
ambiguities between realizations might be introduced.
However the advantages gained by adopting the EPT-76 as a
working scale until such time as the IPTS-68 should be revised
and extended were considered to outweigh the disadvantages.
Z- 193
International Standards
International Standards Agencies
Argentina
Germany
Mexico
South Africa
Australia
Hungary
Netherlands
Spain
Austria
India
New Zealand
Sweden
Belgium
Indonesia
Norway
Switzerland
Canada
Iran
Pakistan
United Kingdom
Denmark
Ireland
Poland
Egypt
Israel
Portugal
Finland
Italy
Romania
Venezuela
France
Japan
Singapore
Yugoslavia
United States
1st
Digit
Protection from
Solid Objects
No Protection
Protected against solid objects

greater than 50 mm

greater than 12 mm

greater than 2.5 mm

greater than 1.0 mm
Dust Protected
Dust Tight
International Power Plugs

and Sockets
Continental
Europe
IP Codes
(Ingress Protection)
IEC 529 outlines an international
classification system for the sealing
effectiveness of enclosures of
electrical equipment against the
intrusion into the equipment of
foreign bodies (i.e., tools, dust,
fingers) and moisture. This
classification system utilises the
letters IP (Ingress Protection)
followed by two digits. An X is used
for one of the digits if there is only
one class of protection; i.e., IPX4,
which addressed moisture
resistance only.
Europlug
(ungrounded)
Australia
Australia
(ungrounded)
United
Kingdom
Degrees of Protection
First Digit
India
The first digit of the IP code

indicates the degree that persons
are protected against contact with
moving parts (other than rotating
shafts, etc.) and the degree that
equipment is protected against solid
bodies intruding into a enclosure.
Israel
Degrees of Protection
Second Digit
Denmark
France
The second digit indicates the

degree of protection of the
equipment inside the enclosure
against the harmful entry of various
forms of moisture (e.g., dripping,
spraying, submersion, etc.).
Italy
Japan
North
America
2nd
Digit
Protection from
Moisture
No Protection
Protected against vertically

dripping water
Protected against
dripping water when
tilted up to 15
Protected against
spraying water @ up to
60 from vertical
Protected against
splashing water
from all directions
Protected against
water jets
Protected against
heavy seas & streaming
water
Protected against
effects of short-term
immersion
Protected against
submersion
Switzerland
Reproduced with permission of Panel

Components Corp.
IEC 906-1
18.5
19
Z-194
Standards
NEMA, UL and CSA Ratings
Whats in a rating?
NEMA, UL and CSA Ratings
As a way of standardizing enclosure

performance, organizations like NEMA, UL,
CSA, IEC, VDE and TUV use rating systems
to identify an enclosures ability to resist
external environmental influences.
Resistance to everything from dripping liquid
to hose-down to total submersion is defined
by the ratings systems. While these ratings
systems are all intended to provide
information to help you make a safer, more
informed product choice, there are
differences among them.
NEMA, UL and CSA are standard-writing

organizations commonly recognized in North
America. Their ratings are based on similar
application descriptions and expected
performance. UL and CSA both require
enclosure testing by qualified evaluators. They
also send site inspectors to make sure a
manufacturer adheres to prescribed
manufacturing methods and material
specifications. NEMA, on the other hand, does
not require independent testing and leaves
compliance completely up to the manufacturer.
North American enclosure ratings systems

also include a 4X rating that indicates
resistance to corrosion. This rating is based
on the enclosures ability to withstand
prolonged exposure to salt water spray.
While a 4X rating is a good indicator that an
enclosure can resist corrosion, it does not
provide information on how a specific
corrosive agent will affect a given enclosure
material. It is best to conduct a full analysis of
the specific application and environment to
determine the best enclosure choice.
Exposure type non-hazardous location

NEMA
Enclosure
Rating
National Electrical
Manufacturers
Association
(NEMA Standard 250)
and Electrical and
Electronic Mfg.
Association of
Canada (EEMAC)
Underwriters
Laboratories Inc.
(UL 50 and UL508)
Canadian
Standards
Association
(Standard C22.2 No.94)
LISTED
Enclosures are intended for indoor

use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against contact with the
enclosed equipment or locations where
unusual service conditions do not exist
Indoor use primarily to provide

protection against contact with
the enclosed equipment and
against a limited amount of
falling dirt.
General purpose enclosure.

Protects against accidental contact
with live parts.

protection against limited amounts
of falling water and dirt.
Indoor use to provide a degree

of protection against limited
amounts of falling water and
dirt.
Indoor use to provide a degree

of protection against dripping and
light splashing of non-corrosive
liquids and falling dirt.
Type 3
Enclosures are intended for

outdoor use primarily to provide
a degree of protection against
windblown dust, rain and sleet;
undamaged by the formation
of ice on the enclosure.
Outdoor use to provide a

degree of protection against
windblown dust and windblown
rain; undamaged by the
formation of ice on the
enclosure.
Indoor or outdoor use; provides

rain, snow, and windblown dust;
undamaged by the external
formation of ice on the enclosure.
Type 3R
Enclosures are intended for outdoor

protection against falling rain and
sleet; undamaged by the formation
Outdoor use to provide a

degree of protection against
falling rain; undamaged by the
formation of ice on the
enclosure.

rain and snow; undamaged by the
external formation of ice on the
enclosure.
Type 4

indoor or outdoor use primarily
to provide a degree of protection
against windblown dust and rain.
splashing water, and hosedirected water; undamaged by
the formation of ice on the enclosure.
Either indoor or outdoor use to

provide a degree of protection
against falling rain, splashing
water, and hose-directed water;

rain, snow, windblown dust,
splashing and hose-directed water;
undamaged by the external formation

or outdoor use primarily to provide
corrosion,windblown dust and
rain, splashing water, and hosedirected water; undamaged by the
formation of ice on the enclosure.
Either indoor or outdoor use to

provide a degree of protection
against falling rain, splashing
water, and hose-directed water;
of ice on the enclosure;
resists corrosion.

rain, snow, windblown dust,
splashing and hose-directed water;
undamaged by the external formation
of ice on the enclosure; resists corrosion.
Type 6

use indoors or outdoors where
occasional submersion is
encountered; limited depth;
undamaged by the formation of ice
on the enclosure; resists corrosion.
Indoor or outdoor use to provide

entry of water during temporary
submersion at a limited depth;
undamaged by the formation of
ice on the enclosure.

the entry of water during temporary
submersion.
Type 12

indoor use primarily to provide
dust, falling dirt, and dripping
non-corrosive liquids.
Indoor use to provide a degree of

protection against dust, dirt, fiber
flyings, dripping water, and
external condensation of
non-corrosive liquids.
Indoor use; provides a degree of

protection against circulating dust, lint,
fibers and flyings; dripping and light
splashing of non-corrosive liquids; not
provided with knockouts.
Type 13

indoor use primarily to provide
dust, spraying of water, oil, and
non-corrosive coolant.
Indoor use to provide a degree of

protection against lint, dust seepage,
external condensation and spraying of
water, oil, and non-corrosive liquids.
Indoor use; provides a degree of

protection against circulating dust, lint,
fibers and flyings, seepage and spraying of
non-corrosive liquids, including oils and
coolants.
Type 1
Type 2
Type 4X
This material is reproduced with permission

from NEMA. The preceding descriptions,
however, are not intended to be complete
representations of National Electrical
Manufacturers Association standards for
enclosures nor those of the Electrical and
Electronic Manufacturers Association of
Canada
This material is reproduced with permission from

Underwriters Laboratories Inc. Enclosures for
Electrical Equipment, UL 50.Copyright 1995;
and Industrial Control Equipment, 508, Copyright
1996 by Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
Underwriters Laboratories Inc.(UL) shall not be
responsible for the use of or reliance upon a UL
Standard by anyone. UL shall not incur any
obligation or liability for damages, including
consequential damages, arising out of or in
connection with, interpretation of, or reliance
upon a UL Standard.
Z-195
This material is reproduced with permission from

Canadian Standards Association.
Standards
CE and IEC Classifications
CE
Applicable European Directives
The CE Mark is a European Union (EU)

compliance symbol and acronym for
Conformit Europenne. The CE Mark
indicates that a product complies with all
European directives and essential
Harmonized Standards for health, safety,
environment, and
consumer protection
that may apply to that
product. In addition,
the CE Mark promotes
free trade movement
from outside and within
the EU.
73/23/EEC Low Voltage Directive for

Electrical Equipment within Certain
Voltage Limits
For industrial control equipment, the CE

Mark is not intended to be applied to
empty enclosures because such
enclosures are inactive components of a
final assembly. The responsibility for
insuring compliance to all applicable EU
Directives and Harmonized Standards
belongs with the final equipment
manufacturer.
EN60204-1 (IEC204-1) Electrical

Equipment of Industrial Machines
Hoffman enclosures are designed in

compliance with European standards
and are eligible to receive a
Manufacturers Declaration of
Conformity. The certificate assists the
final equipment manufacturer in
obtaining the CE Mark. Contact
Applications Engineering at (612) 4222868 for further information.
Hoffman enclosures meet the
requirements of the applicable
European standards specified below.
89/336/EEC EMC Directive Relating to

Note: The EMC Directive is only
secondarily applicable since an empty
enclosure does not produce
electromagnetic interference.
Applicable European Standards

EN60529-1 (IEC529-1) Degrees of
Protection Provided by Enclosures
International Standards IP
Protection Classification
IEC Publication 529, Classification of
Degrees of Protection by Enclosures,
provides a system for specifying
enclosures of electrical equipment on
the basis of the degree of protection
required. IEC 529 does
not specify degrees of
protection against risk
of explosions or
conditions such as
moisture (produced, for
example, by
condensation),
corrosive vapors, fungus, or vermin.
NEMA Standards Publication 250 does
not test for environmental conditions

such as corrosion, rust, icing, oil, and
coolants. For this reason, and because
the tests and evaluations for other
characteristics are not identical, the IEC
enclosure classification designations
cannot be exactly equated with NEMA
enclosure Type numbers.
The table on below provides a crossreference from NEMA enclosure Type
numbers to IEC enclosure classification
designations. This cross-reference is a
Hoffman approximation based on the
most current available information on
enclosure test performance and is not
sanctioned by NEMA, IEC, VDE, or any
affiliated agency.
To use the table, first find the
appropriate NEMA rating along the
vertical axis and then read across the
horizontal axis for the corresponding IP
rating. Do not use this table to convert
IEC classification designations to NEMA
Type numbers.
In Europe, IEC ratings are based on performance criteria similar to NEMA. Nevertheless, there are differences in how enclosure performance is
interpreted. For example, UL and CSA test requirements specify that an enclosure fails the watertight test if even a single drop of water enters
the enclosure. In the IEC standards for each protection level (IP), a certain amount of water is allowed to enter the enclosure. IEC does not
specify degrees of protection against risk of explosions or conditions such as moisture or corrosive vapors. NEMA, on the other hand, does
specify for most environmental conditions. For this reason, and because the tests and evaluations for other characteristics are not identical, the
IEC enclosure classification designations cannot be exactly equated with NEMA enclosure Type numbers.
Cross Reference (Approximate) NEMA, UL, CSA, vs. IEC Enclosure Type
(Cannot be used to convert IEC Classifications to NEMA Type numbers)
Enclosure
Rating
Type 1
Type 2
Type 3
Type 3R
Type 3S
Type 4
Type 4X
Type 6
Type 12
Type 13
IP23
IP30
IP32
IP55
IP64
IP65
IP66
IP67
IEC 529 has no equivalents to NEMA enclosure Types 7, 8, 9, 10, or 11.

Indicates compliance
Z-196
Application Notes
Low Cost Non-Electronic Temperature Gages
When the need arises for measuring
temperatures in various industrial
situations, most engineers think in terms
of expensive electronic temperature
measuring equipment. In many cases,
though, you can do the job with less
costly and much simpler methods. When
the need is only for an indication that a
pre-determined temperature has or has
not been reached, heat-sensitive
materials in the form of crayons, paints,
pellets, or labels can do the job readily,
inexpensively, and accurately enough for
most industrial applications.
WHAT ARE THESE NON-ELECTRONIC
TEMPERATURE INDICATING
DEVICES?
These heat-sensitive, fusible materials
consist of crystalline solids. When heated,
a temperature will be reached in which
the solids change sharply to a liquid. The
melting point is reproducible and is
virtually unaffected by ambient conditions
that may cause errors with other
temperature-sensing methods. For
example, electrical means of measuring
temperatures often function erratically in
the presence of static electricity, electrical
noise or ionized air near electrical
equipment.
ADVANTAGES OVER ELECTRONIC
DEVICES
This family of fusible temperature
indicators has several advantages over
other methods of determining surface
temperature. First, the temperature
indications obtained are unquestionably
those of the surface being tested. The
temperature sensitive material is applied
directly to the surface, and therefore
changes state in direct response to that
surface, and only that surface.
A second advantage of using fusible
temperature indicators is the fact that
there is no delay in obtaining a signal.
Since a mark left by a crayon or a lacquer
has an extremely small mass, it attains
rapid equilibrium with the surface. The
use of a massive probe tends to prolong
response time and could result in an
erroneously low reading. With the use of
fusible temperature indicators, there is no
conduction of heat away from the
surface. Nor is there any dependence on
the duration of heating.
The third advantage of fusible indicators
is that the technique for using them is
simple and economical. Determining
surface temperatures by most other
means requires some technical
competence and skill and, in many cases,
sophisticated instrumentation. Surface
temperature readings can be obtained
from fusible indicators with little effort,
training, and expense.
WHAT FORMS DO THESE

TEMPERATURE INDICATORS TAKE?
1. Crayons: The most commonly used of
all the fusible indicators is the
temperature sensitive stick, or crayon.
Each crayon has a calibrated melting
point. These indicators are manufactured
in 100 different temperature ratings and
range from 100F to 2500F. Each has a
temperature indicating accuracy within
1% of its temperature rating.
Using the crayons is simple. The
workpiece to be tested is marked with a
crayon. When the pre-determined melting
point of the crayon mark is attained, the
mark instantly liquifies, notifying the
observer that the workpiece has reached
that temperature.
However, under some circumstances,
premarking with a crayon is not practical.
This can be the case if a prolonged
heating period is involved (the crayon
mark may evaporate), if the surface is
highly polished and does not readily
accept a crayon mark, or if the material
being marked is such that it absorbs the
liquid phase of the crayon. In such
instances, the operator can repeatedly
stroke the workpiece with the crayon. The
point at which the surface reaches the
desired temperature is determined by
noting when the crayon ceases to make
dry marks and instead leaves a liquid
smear.
2. Lacquers: Another form of heat
sensitive material is a dull lacquer-type
liquid that turns glossy and transparent at
a predetermined temperature. This phase
changing liquid is a fusible coating
material that offers greater flexibility than
crayons as to the types of surfaces on
which it can be applied.
Chemically, this lacquer-type fluid
contains a solid material that has a
calibrated melting point. These solids are
suspended in an inert, volatile, but nonflammable vehicle. Upon reaching its
rated temperature, the dull lacquer mark
liquifies. On subsequent cooling,
however, the fluid does not revert to its
original dull appearance, but rather to a
glossy or crystalline coating. This shiny
state of appearance is evidence that the
lacquer has reached the rated
temperature.
Due to their physical properties, these
lacquers are often used instead of
crayons on very smooth surfaces (glass,
plastic film, laminated plastic), soft
surfaces (paper, cloth), or on surfaces not
readily accessible for application of a
crayon mark during heating. Within
seconds after application, the lacquer
dries to a dull matte finish. Response is
only a fraction of a second when the
temperature to be indicated is reached.
This time can be reduced to milliseconds
by applying a mark of minimal thickness.
Z-197
These fluids are available in over 100

different temperature ratings, covering the
range from 100F to 2500F. As with the
crayon type indicators, accuracy is within
1%. The temperature ratings available
range from 100F to 350F in
6 increments, from 350F to 500F in
12 increments, from 500F to 750F in
25 increments, and from 750F to 2500F
in 50 increments.
The temperature-sensitive lacquers are
supplied in the proper consistency for
brushing. If spraying or dipping is
preferred, a special thinner is added to
alter the viscosity without impairing the
temperature indicating performance.
3. Pellets: The first commercial form of
the fusible indicator was the pellet, which
continues to be useful in certain
applications. Pellets are most frequently
employed when extended heating periods
are involved or when oxidation of a metal
workpiece might obscure a crayon mark.
Pellets are also ideal when a relatively
large bulk of indicator material is
necessary because observations must be
made from a distance. Another major use
of pellet-type indicators is for determining
specific air-space temperatures. A typical
application is the monitoring of heat
zones in industrial ovens and furnaces.
Phase change temperature indicating
pellets are available in flat tablets, 716 in
diameter and 18 thick. For special
applications, smaller 18 by 18 thick pellets
are also available. One application for
these miniature pellets is that of thermal
fuses. The solid pellet acts as a circuit
breaker as it melts and releases tension
on a spring which, in relaxing, opens a
contact, in turn, cutting off electrical
continuity.
Pellets come in the extended range from
100F to 3000F. For temperature
measurements in hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, or other reducing
environments, a special series of pellets
is also available.
4. Labels: Another variation of the
phase-change indicators is the
temperature sensitive label. These
adhesive backed monitors consist of one
or more heat sensitive indicators sealed
under transparent, heat-resistant
windows. The centers of these indicators
turn from white to black at the
temperature ratings as shown on the
label face. This color change, caused by
the temperature-sensitive substance
being absorbed into its backing material,
is irreversible. After registering the
temperature history of the workpiece, the
exposed monitor label can then be
removed and affixed to a service report to
remain part of a permanent record.
Reproduced with permision of Penton
Publishing
ITS-90 Thermocouple Direct &

Inverse Polynomials
Direct Polynomials provide the thermoelectric voltage (V) from a known temperature (C); Inverse Polynomials
provide the temperature (C) from a known thermoelectric voltage (V).
Type J Thermocouples - coefficients, ci, of reference
equations giving the thermoelectric voltage, E, as a
function of temperature t90, for the indicated temperature
ranges. The equations are of the form:
Type J Thermocouples - coefficients of approximate

inverse functions giving temperature, t90 , as a function of
the thermoelectric voltage, E, in selected temperature and
voltage ranges. The functions are of the form:
E =
t90 = c0 + c1E + c2 E 2+ci E i
ci (t90)i
where E is in microvolts and t90 is in degrees Celsius.
i=0

-210
to
760C
Temperature
Range:
c0
c1
c2
c3
c4
c5
c6
c7
c8
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
760
to
1,200C
0.000 000 000 0 ....

5.038 118 781 5 x101
3.047 583 693 0 x 10-2
-8.568 106 572 0 x 10-5
1.322 819 529 5 x 10-7
-1.705 295 833 7 x 10-10
2.094 809 069 7 x 10-13
-1.253 839 533 6 x 10-16
1.563 172 569 7 x 10-20
2.964 562 568 1 x 105

-1.497 612 778 6 x 103
3.178 710 392 4
-3.184 768 670 1 x 10-3
1.572 081 900 4 x 10-6
-3.069 136 905 6 x 10-10
Temperature
Range:
Voltage
Range:
c0 =
c1 =
c2 =
c3 =
c4 =
c5 =
c6 =
c7 =
c8 =
Error
Range:
Type K Thermocouples - coefficients 0, 1 and i , of

reference equations giving the thermoelectric voltage, E, as
a function of temperature, t90 for the indicated temperature
ranges. The equation below 0C is of the form:
0e 1 (t90 - 126.9686)2
i=0
where E is the natural logarithm constant, E is in

microvolts and t90 is in degrees Celsius.
Temperature Range:
270 to 0C
0 to 1372C
0.03
to
-0.04C
i=0
E =( ci (t90) +
0.04
to
-0.04C
t90 = co + c1E + c2E2 ciE i
the equation above 0C is of the form:

i
0.03
to
-0.05C
760
to
1,200C
42,919
to
69,553 V
-3.113 581 87 x 103
3.005 436 84 x 10-1
-9.947 732 30 x 10-6
1.702 766 30 x 10-10
-1.430 334 68 x 10-15
4.738 860 84 x 10-21
Type K Thermocouples - coefficients of approximate

inverse functions giving temperature, t90, as a function of
the thermoelectric voltage, E, in selected temperature and
voltage ranges. The functions are of the form:
E = ( c1 (t90) i
n
-210
0
to
to
0C
760C
-8,095
0
to
to
0 V
42,919 V
0.000 000 0 ....
0.000 000 ....
1.952 826 8 x 10-2 1.978 425 x 10-2
-6
-1.228 618 5 x 10
-2.001 204 x 10-7
-1.075 217 8 x 10-9 1.036 969 x 10-11
-5.908 693 3 x 10-13 -2.549 687 x 10-16
-1.725 671 3 x 10-16 3.585 153 x 10-21
-2.813 151 3 x 10-20 -5.344 285 x 10-26
-2.396 337 0 x 10-24 5.099 890 x 10-31
-8.382 332 1 x 10-29
c0 =
c1 =
c2 =
c3 =
c4 =
c5 =
c6 =
c7 =
c8 =
c9 =
c10 =
c0 =
c1 =
c2 =
c3 =
c4 =
c5 =
c6 =
c7 =
c8 =
c9 =
0 =
1 =
Coefficients
0.000 000 000 0 ....
3.945 012 802 5 x 101
2.362 237 359 8 x 10-2
-3.285 890 678 4 x 10-4
-4.990 482 877 7 x 10-6
-6.750 905 917 3 x 10-8
-5.741 032 742 8 x 10-10
-3.108 887 289 4 x 10-12
-1.045 160 936 5 x 10-14
-1.988 926 687 8 x 10-17
-1.632 269 748 6 x 10-20
1.760 041 368 6 x 101
3.892 120 497 5 x 101
1.855 877 003 2 x 10-2
-9.945 759 287 4 x 10-5
3.184 094 571 9 x 10-7
-5.607 284 488 9 x 10-10
5.607 505 905 9 x 10-13
-3.202 072 000 3 x 10-16
9.715 114 715 2 x 10-20
-1.210 472 127 5 x 10-23
1.185 976 x 102
-1.183 432 x 10-4
Temperature
Range:
Voltage
Range:
c0 =
c1 =
c2 =
c3 =
c4 =
c5 =
c6 =
c7 =
c8 =
c9 =
Error
Range:
Z-198
-200
0
to
to
0C
500C
-5891
0
to
to
0 V
20,644 V
0.000 000 0 ....
0.000 000 ....
2.517 346 2 x 10-2
2.508 355 x 10-2
-6
-1.166 287 8 x 10
7.860 106 x 10-8
-9
-1.083 363 8 x 10
-2.503 131 x 10-10
-8.977 354 0 x 10-13 8.315 270 x 10-14
-3.734 237 7 x 10-16 -1.228 034 x 10-17
-8.663 264 3 x 10-20 9.804 036 x 10-22
-1.045 059 8 x 10-23 -4.413 030 x 10-26
-5.192 057 7 x 10-28 1.057 734 x 10-30
-1.052 755 x 10-35
0.04C
to
-0.02C
0.04C
to
-0.05C
500
to
1,372C
20,644
to
54,886 V
-1.318 058 x 102
4.830 222 x 10-2
-1.646 031 x 10-6
5.464 731 x 10-11
-9.650 715 x 10-16
8.802 193 x 10-21
-3.110 810 x 10-26
0.06C
to
-0.05C
ITS-90 Thermocouple Direct & Inverse

Polynomials Contd
Type T Thermocouples - coefficients, ci , of reference
function of temperature, t90, for the indicated
temperature ranges. The equations are of the form:
Type T Thermocouples - coefficients of approximate

inverse functions giving temperature, t90, as a function
of the thermoelectric voltage, E, in selected temperature
and voltage ranges. The functions are of the form:
t90 = c0 + c1E + c2 E 2+ciE i
E =( ci (t90)i
i=0

Temperature
Range:
c0
c1
c2
c3
c4
c5
c6
c7
c8
c9
c10
c11
c12
c13
c14
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
-270
to
0C
0.000 000 000 0....
3.874 810 636 4 x101
4.419 443 434 7 x 10-2
1.184 432 310 5 x 10-4
2.003 297 355 4 x 10-5
9.013 801 955 9 x 10-7
2.265 115 659 3 x 10-8
3.607 115 420 5 x 10-10
3.849 393 988 3 x 10-12
2.821 352 192 5 x 10-14
1.425 159 477 9 x 10-16
4.876 866 228 6 x 10-19
1.079 553 927 0 x 10-21
1.394 502 706 2 x 10-24
7.979 515 392 7 x 10-28
0
to
400
Temperature
Range:
0.000 000 000 0....

3.874 810 636 4 x101
3.329 222 788 0 x10-2
2.061 824 340 4 x 10-4
-2.188 225 684 6 x 10-6
1.099 688 092 8 x 10-8
-3.081 575 877 2 x 10-11
4.547 913 529 0 x 10-14
-2.751 290 167 3 x 10-17
Voltage:
Range:
E = ( ci (t90)i
i=0
c0
c1
c2
c3
c4
c5
c6
c7
c8
c9
c10
c11
c12
c13
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
-270
to
0C
0.000 000 000 0 ....
5.866 550 870 8 x101
4.541 097 712 4 x 10-2
-7.799 804 868 6 x 10-4
-2.580 016 084 3 x 10-5
-5.945 258 305 7 x 10-7
-9.321 405 866 7 x 10-9
-1.028 760 553 4 x 10-10
-8.037 012 362 1 x 10-13
-4.397 949 739 1 x 10-15
-1.641 477 635 5 x 10-17
-3.967 361 951 6 x 10-20
-5.582 732 872 1 x 10-23
-3.465 784 201 3 x 10-26
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Error
Range:
Type E Thermocouples - coefficients, ci, of reference

Temperature
Range:
c0
c1
c2
c3
c4
c5
c6
c7
-200
to
0C
-5,603
to
0 V
0.000 000 0....
2.592 919 2 x 10-2
-2.131 696 7 x 10-7
7.901 869 2 x 10-10
4.252 777 7 x 10-13
1.330 447 3 x 10-16
2.024 144 6 x 10-20
1.266 817 1 x 10-24
0
to
400C
0
to
20,872 V
0.000 000 .... -2
2.592 800 x 10
-7.602 961 x 10-7
4.637 791 x 10-11
-2.165 394 x 10-15
6.048 144 x 10-20
-7.293 422 x 10-25
0.04
to
-0.02C
0.03
to
-0.03C
Type E Thermocouples - coefficients of approximate

t90 = c0 + c1E + c2E 2+ ciE i
Temperature
Range:
0
to
400C
0.000 000 000 0 ....
5.866 550 871 0 x101
4.503 227 558 2 x10-2
2.890 840 721 2 x 10-5
-3.305 689 665 2 x 10-7
6.502 440 327 0 x 10-10
-1.919 749 550 4 x 10-1
-1.253 660 049 7 x 10-15
2.148 921 756 9 x 10-18
-1.438 804 178 2 x 10-21
3.596 089 948 1 x 10-25
Voltage
Range:
c0
c1
c2
c3
c4
c5
c6
c7
c8
c9
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Error
Range:
Z-199
-200
to
0C
-8,825
to
0 V
0.000 000 0 ....
1.697 728 8 x 10-2
-4.351 497 0 x 10-7
-1.585 969 7 x 10-10
-9.250 287 1 x 10-14
-2.608 431 4 x 10-17
-4.136 019 9 x 10-21
-3.403 403 0 x 10-25
-1.156 489 0 x 10-29
0.03
to
-0.01C
0
to
1,000C
0
to
76,373 V
0.000 000 0 ....
1.705 703 5 x 10-2
-2.330 175 9 x 10-7
6.543 558 5 x 10-12
-7.356 274 9 x 10-17
-1.789 600 1 x 10-21
8.403 616 5 x 10-26
-1.373 587 9 x 10-30
1.062 982 3 x 10-35
-3.244 708 7 x 10-41
0.02
to
-0.02C
Type N Thermocouples - coefficients, ci , of reference

Temperature
Range:
c0
c1
c2
c3
c4
c5
c6
c7
c8
c9
c10
E = ( ci (t90)i
i=0
Type N Thermocouples coefficients of approximate inverse

functions giving temperature, t90, as
a function of the thermoelectric
voltage, E, in selected temperature
and voltage ranges. The functions
are of the form:
t90 = c0 + c1E + c2E 2+ ci E i

where E is in microvolts and t90 is in
degrees Celsius.
-200
to
0C
-3,990
to
0 V
Temperature
Range:
Voltage
Range:
c0 =
c1 =
c2 =
c3 =
c4 =
c5 =
c6 =
c7 =
c8 =
c9 =
Error
Range:
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0
to
600C
0
to
20,613 V
0.000 000 0 ....

3.843 684 7 x 10-2
1.101 048 5 x 10-6
5.222 931 2 x 10-9
7.206 052 5 x 10-12
5.848 858 6 x 10-15
2.775 491 6 x 10-18
7.707.516 6 x 10-22
1.158 266 5 x 10-25
7.313 886 8 x 10-30
0.03
to
-0.02C
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
47,513 V
0.02
to
-0.04C
0.06
to
-0.06C
c0
c1
c2
c3
c4
c5
c6
c7
c8
0
to
1,300C
0
t90 = c0 + c1E + c2E 2+ ci E i
i=0
0
to
630.615C
0.000 000 000 0 ....
-2.465 081 834 6 x10-1
5.904 042 117 1 x 10-3
-1.325 793 163 6 x 10-6
1.566 829 190 1 x 10-9
-1.694 452 924 0 x 10-12
6.229 034 709 4 x 10-16
600
to
1,300C
20,613
to
47,513 V
Type B Thermocouples - coefficients of approximate

E = ( ci (t90)i
Temperature
Range:
0
to
1,300C
0.000 000 000 0....
2.592 939 460 1 x 101
1.571 014 188 0 x 10-2
4.382 562 723 7 x 10-5
-2.526 116 979 4 x 10-7
6.431 181 933 9 x 10-10
-1.006 347 151 9 x 10-12
9.974 533 899 2 x 10-16
-6.086 324 560 7 x 10-19
2.084 922 933 9 x 10-22
-3.068 219 615 1 x 10-26
0.000 00 ....
1.972 485 x 101
0.000 000 0 ....
3.868 96 x 10-2
3.300 943 x 10-2 3.878 327 7 x 10-2
-6
-7
-1.082 67 x 10
-3.915 159 x 10
-1.161 234 4 x 10-6
4.702 05 x 10-11 9.855 391 x 10-12 6.952 565 5 x 10-11
-2.121 69 x 10-18 -1.274 371 x 10-16 -3.009 007 7 x 10-15
-1.172 72 x 10-19 7.767 022 x 10-22 8.831 158 4 x 10-20
5.392 80 x 10-24
-1.621 383 9 x 10-24
-7.981 56 x 10-29
1.669 336 2 x 10-29
-7.311 754 0 x 10-35
0.03
to
-0.02C
Type B Thermocouples - coefficients, ci , of reference

-270
to
0C
0.000 000 000 0....
2.615 910 596 2 x101
1.095 748 422 8 x 10-2
-9.384 111 155 4 x 10-5
-4.641 203 975 9 x 10-8
-2.630 335 771 6 x 10-9
-2.265 343 800 3 x 10-11
-7.608 930 079 1 x 10-14
-9.341 966 783 5 x 10-17
Temperature
Range:
630.615
to
1,820C
-3.893 816 862 1 x 103
2.857 174 747 0 x 101
-8.488 510 478 5 x 10-2
1.578 528 016 4 x 10-4
-1.683 534 486 4 x 10-7
1.110 979 401 3 x 10-10
-4.451 543 103 3 x 10-14
9.897 564 082 1 x 10-18
-9.379 133 028 9 x 10-22
Voltage
Range:
c0
c1
c2
c3
c4
c5
c6
c7
c8
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Error
Range:
Z-200
250
to
700C
291
to
2,431 V
9.842 332 1 x 101
6.997 150 0 x 10-1
-8.476 530 4 x 10-4
1.005 264 4 x 10-6
-8.334 595 2 x 10-10
4.550 854 2 x 10-13
-1.552 303 7 x 10-16
2.988 675 0 x 10-20
-2.474 286 0 x 10-24
0.03
to
-0.02C
700
to
1,820C
2,431
to
13,820 V
-2.131 507 1 x 102
2.851 050 4 x 10-1
-5.274 288 7 x 10-5
9.916 080 4 x 10-9
-1.296 530 3 x 10-12
1.119 587 0 x 10-16
-6.062 519 9 x 10-21
1.866 169 6 x 10-25
-2.487 858 5 x 10-30
0.02
to
-0.01C
ITS-90 Thermocouple Direct & Inverse

Polynomials Contd
Type R Thermocouples coefficients, ci , of reference equations
giving the thermoelectric voltage, E, as
a function of temperature, t90, for the
indicated temperature ranges. The
equations are of the for:
Temperature
Range:
c0
c1
c2
c3
c4
c5
c6
c7
c8
c9
E = ( ci (t90)i
i=0

degrees Celsius.
Type R Thermocouples coefficients of approximate
inverse functions giving
temperature, t90 , as a
function of the
thermoelectric voltage, E, in
selected temperature and
voltage ranges. The
functions are of the form:
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
-50C
to
250C
-226
to
1,923 V
Temperature
Range:
Voltage
Range:
c0
c1
c3
c4
c5
c6
c7
c8
c9
c10
t90 = c0 + c1E + c2E2+ciEi

where E is in microvolts and
t90 is in degrees Celsius.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.02
to
-0.02C
c0
c1
c2
c3
c4
c5
c6
c7
c8
i=0

degrees Celsius.
Type S Thermocouples coefficients of approximate

inverse functions giving
temperature, t90 , as a
function of the
thermoelectric voltage, E, in
selected temperature and
voltage ranges. The
functions are of the form:
t90 = c0 + c1E + c2E 2+ci E i

where E is in microvolts and
t90 is in degrees Celsius.
Temperature
Range:
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.005
to
-0.005C
c0 =
c1 =
c2 =
c3 =
c4 =
c5 =
c6 =
c7 =
c8 =
c9 =
Error
Range:
0.02
to
-0.02C
Voltage
Range:
-8.199 599 416 x 101

1.553 962 042 x 10-1
4.279 433 549 x 10-10
-1.191 577 910 x 10-14
1.492 290 091 x 10-19
0.001
to
-0.0005C
1.329 004 450 85 x 103

3.345 093 113 44 ....
6.548 051 928 18 x 10-3
-1.648 562 592 09 x 10-6
1.299 896 051 74 x 10-11
0.0002
to
-0.0002C
3.406 177 836 x 104

-7.023 729 171 ....
-5.582 903 813 x 10-4
-1.952 394 635 x 10-8
2.560 740 231 x 10-13
0.002
to
-0.001C
1,664.5
to
1,768.1C
1.466 282 326 36 x 105
-2.584 305 167 52 x 102
1.636 935 746 41 x 10-1
-3.304 390 469 87 x 10-5
-9.432 236 906 12 x 10-12
250
1,064
to
to
1,200C
1,664.5C
1,874
10,332
to
to
11,950 V
17,536 V
1.291 507 177 x 101
-8.087 801 117 x 101
1.466 298 863 x 10-1
1.621 573 104 x 10-1
-5
-1.534 713 402 x 10
-8.536 869 453 x 10-6
3.145 945 973 x 10-9
4.719 686 976 x 10-10
-4.163 257 839 x 10-13 -1.441 693 666 x 10-14
-17
2.081 618 890 x 10-19
3.187 963 771 x 10
-1.291 637 500 x 10-21
2.183 475 087 x 10-26
-1.447 379 511 x 10-31
8.211 272 125 x 10-36
0.01
to
-0.01C
Z-201
1,664.5
to
1,768.1C
19,739
to
21,103 V
1,064.18
to
1,664.5C
0.000 000 000 0 ....

5.403 133 086 31....
1.259 342 897 40 x 10-2
-2.324 779 686 89 x 10-5
3.220 288 230 36 x 10-8
-3.314 651 963 89 x 10-11
2.557 442 517 86 x 10-14
-1.250 688 713 93 x 10-17
2.714 431 761 45 x 10-21
-50
to
250C
-235
to
1,874 V
0.000 000 0 ....
1.849 494 60 x 10-1
-8.005 040 62 x 10-5
1.022 374 30 x 10-7
-1.522 485 92 x 10-10
1.888 213 43 x 10-13
-1.590 859 41 x 10-16
8.230 278 80 x 10-20
-2.341 819 44 x 10-23
2.797 862 60 x 10-27
1,064
to
1,664.5C
11,361
to
19,739 V
1.334 584 505 x 101

1.472 644 573 x 10-1
4.031 129 x 726 10-9
-6.249 428 360 x 10-13
6.468 412 046 x 10-17
-4.458 750 426 x 10-21
1.994 710 146 x 10-25
-5.313 401 790 x 10-30
6.481 976 217 x 10-35
-50
to
1,064.18C
Temperature
Range:
E = ( ci (t90)i
2,500
to
1,200C
1,923
to
13,228 V
0.000 000 0 ....

1.889 138 0 x 10-1
1.306 861 9 x 10-7
-2.270 358 0 x 10-10
3.514 565 9 x 10-13
-3.895 390 0 x 10-16
2.823.947 1 x 10-19
-1.260 728 1 x 10-22
3.135 361 1 x 10-26
-3.318 776 9 x 10-30
Error
Range:
Type S Thermocouples coefficients, ci , of reference equations

giving the thermoelectric voltage, E, as
a function of temperature, t90, for the
indicated temperature ranges. The
equations are of the for:
-50
1,064.18
1,664.5
to
to
to
1,064.18C
1,664.5C
1,768.1C
0.000 000 000 0 ....
2.951 579 253 16 x 103 1.522 321 182 09 x 105
5.289 617 297 65 ....
-2.520 612 513 32 ....
-2.688 198 885 45 x 102
1.391 665 897 82 x 10-2 1.595 645 018 65 x 10-2 1.712 802 804 71 x 10-1
-2.388 556 930 17 x 10-5 -7.640 859 475 76 x 10-6 -3.458 957 064 53 x 10-5
3.569 160 010 63 x 10-8 2.053 052 910 24 x 10-9 -9.346 339 710 46 x 10-12
-4.623 476 662 98 x 10-11 -2.933 596 681 73 x 10-13
5.007 774 410 34 x 10-14
-3.731 058 861 91 x 10-17
1.577 164 823 67 x 10-20
-2.810 386 252 51 x 10-24
1,664.5
to
1,768.1C
17,536
to
18,693 V
5.333 875 126 x 104
-1.235 892 298 x 101
1.092 657 613 x 10-3
-4.265 693 686 x 10-8
6.247 205 420 x 10-13
0.002
to
-0.002C
Tungsten-Rhenium
Thermocouples Calibration Equivalents
CALIBRATIONS G AND C
CALIBRATION D
The nominal emf versus temperature values for

WM26Re (type G) and W5ReM26Re (type C)
thermocouples are defined by fifth degree
polynominals. The emf in absolute millivolts (IPTS68)
is determined, using the equation and coefficients
shown below, from the temperature in Fahrenheit
degrees.
A similar equation is used to generate emf versus

temperature values for W3ReM25Re thermocouples.
For this combination, however, the curve is broken into
two functions and the temperature is expressed in
Celsius degrees.
Gen. Form: EMF = AT + BT2 + CT3 + DT4 + ET5 + K
Gen. Form: EMF = AT + BT2 + CT3 + DT4 + ET5
Temp. Range: 32F to 4200F (0 to 2315C)
Temp. Range: 32 to 4208F (0 to 2320C)
THERMOCOUPLE WIRE IDENTIFICATION GUIDE

Coefficients
W/W26Re
A
0.2883146 x 10-3
B
0.6783829 x 10-5
C
-0.1795965 x 10-8
D
0.2125270 x 10-12
E
-0.1176051 x 10-16
K
-0.1580014 x 10-1
W5Re/W26Re
0.7190027 x 10-2
0.3956443 x 10-5
-0.1842722 x 10-8
0.3471851 x 10-12
-0.2616792 x 10-16
-0.234471
Coefficients
T<783C
A
9.5685256 x 10-3
B
2.0592621 x 10-5
C
-1.8464573 x 10-8
D
7.9498033 x 10-12
E
-1.4240735 x 10-15
T 783 C
9.9109462 x 10-3
1.8666488 x 10-5
-1.4935266 x 10-8
5.3743821 x 10-12
-7.9026726 x 10-16
Reprinted with Permission, from the Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Copyright
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103
THERMOCOUPLE WIRE IDENTIFICATION GUIDE

Letter
Code
G
C
D
Alloy Combination
+Lead
-Lead
TUNGSTEN
W
TUNGSTEN
26% RHENIUM
W-26% Re
Color
Coding
Ext. Grade
+ WHITE
+
-RED
WHITE BLUE TRACE
TUNGSTEN
TUNGSTEN
5% RHENIUM 26% RHENIUM
W-5% Re
W-26% Re
+ WHITE
+
-RED
WHITE RED TRACE
TUNGSTEN
TUNGSTEN
3% RHENIUM 25% RHENIUM
W-3% Re
W-56% Re
+ WHITE
+
-RED
WHITE YELLOW TRACE
Maximum Useful
Temperature Range
EMF(mV)
Over Useful
Temperature
Range
Standard
Limits of Error
Comments
Environment
Bare WIre
32 TO 4208F
0 TO 2320C
Thermocouple Grade
32 to 500F
0 to 260C
Extension Grade
0 TO 38.564
4.5C TO 425C
1.0% TO 2320C
Vacuum Inert Hydrogen.

Beware of Embrittlement.
Not Practical Below 750F
Not for Oxidizing
Atmosphere
32 TO 4208F
0 TO 2320C
Thermocouple Grade
32 to 1600F
0 to 870C
Extension Grade
0 TO 37.066
4.5C TO 425C
1.0% TO 2320C

Not for Oxidizing
Atmosphere
32 TO 4208F
0 TO 2320C
Thermocouple Grade
32 to 5000F
0 to 260C
Extension Grade
0 TO 39.506
4.5C TO 425C
1.0% TO 2320C

Not for Oxidizing
Atmosphere
Z-202
Revised Thermocouple
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
Thermocouple
Grade
Iron
vs.
Copper-Nickel
+
Extension
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 1382F
0 to 750C
Extension Grade
32 to 392F
0 to 200C
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 2.2C or 0.75%
Special: 1.1C or 0.4%
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
Reducing, Vacuum, Inert; Limited Use in
Oxidizing at High Temperatures;
Not Recommended for Low Temperatures
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES C
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0C
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
-3
-2
-1
10
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
500
510
520
530
540
27.393
27.953
28.516
29.080
29.647
27.449
28.010
28.572
29.137
29.704
27.505
28.066
28.629
29.194
29.761
27.561
28.122
28.685
29.250
29.818
27.617
28.178
28.741
29.307
29.874
27.673
28.234
28.798
29.363
29.931
27.729
28.291
28.854
29.420
29.988
27.785
28.347
28.911
29.477
30.045
27.841
28.403
28.967
29.534
30.102
27.897
28.460
29.024
29.590
30.159
27.953
28.516
29.080
29.647
30.216
500
510
520
530
540
-6.159
-5.801
-5.426
-5.037
-4.633
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
550
560
570
580
590
30.216
30.788
31.362
31.939
32.519
30.273
30.845
31.419
31.997
32.577
30.330
30.902
31.477
32.055
32.636
30.387
30.960
31.535
32.113
32.694
30.444
31.017
31.592
32.171
32.752
30.502
31.074
31.650
32.229
32.810
30.559
31.132
31.708
32.287
32.869
30.616
31.189
31.766
32.345
32.927
30.673
31.247
31.823
32.403
32.985
30.730
31.304
31.881
32.461
33.044
30.788
31.362
31.939
32.519
33.102
550
560
570
580
590
-4.257
-3.829
-3.389
-2.938
-2.478
-4.215
-3.786
-3.344
-2.893
-2.431
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
600
610
620
630
640
33.102
33.689
34.279
34.873
35.470
33.161
33.748
34.338
34.932
35.530
33.219
33.807
34.397
34.992
35.590
33.278
33.866
34.457
35.051
35.650
33.337
33.925
34.516
35.111
35.710
33.395
33.984
34.575
35.171
35.770
33.454
34.043
34.635
35.230
35.830
33.513
34.102
34.694
35.290
35.890
33.571
34.161
34.754
35.350
35.950
33.630
34.220
34.813
35.410
36.010
33.689
34.279
34.873
35.470
36.071
600
610
620
630
640
-2.055
-1.578
-1.093
-0.600
-0.101
-2.008
-1.530
-1.044
-0.550
-0.050
-1.961
-1.482
-0.995
-0.501
0.000
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
650
660
670
680
690
36.071
36.675
37.284
37.896
38.512
36.131
36.736
37.345
37.958
38.574
36.191
36.797
37.406
38.019
38.636
36.252
36.858
37.467
38.081
38.698
36.312
36.918
37.528
38.142
38.760
36.373
36.979
37.590
38.204
38.822
36.433
37.040
37.651
38.265
38.884
36.494
37.101
37.712
38.327
38.946
36.554
37.162
37.773
38.389
39.008
36.615
37.223
37.835
38.450
39.070
36.675
37.284
37.896
38.512
39.132
650
660
670
680
690
0.354
0.865
1.381
1.902
2.427
0.405
0.916
1.433
1.954
2.480
0.456
0.968
1.485
2.006
2.532
0.507
1.019
1.537
2.059
2.585
0
10
20
30
40
700
710
720
730
740
39.132
39.755
40.382
41.012
41.645
39.194
39.818
40.445
41.075
41.708
39.256
39.880
40.508
41.138
41.772
39.318
39.943
40.570
41.201
41.835
39.381
40.005
40.633
41.265
41.899
39.443
40.068
40.696
41.328
41.962
39.505
40.131
40.759
41.391
42.026
39.568
40.193
40.822
41.455
42.090
39.630
40.256
40.886
41.518
42.153
39.693
40.319
40.949
41.581
42.217
39.755
40.382
41.012
41.645
42.281
700
710
720
730
740
2.903
3.436
3.971
4.510
5.052
2.956
3.489
4.025
4.564
5.106
3.009
3.543
4.079
4.618
5.160
3.062
3.596
4.133
4.672
5.215
3.116
3.650
4.187
4.726
5.269
50
60
70
80
90
750
760
770
780
790
42.281
42.919
43.559
44.203
44.848
42.344
42.983
43.624
44.267
44.913
42.408
43.047
43.688
44.332
44.977
42.472
43.111
43.752
44.396
45.042
42.536
43.175
43.817
44.461
45.107
42.599
43.239
43.881
44.525
45.171
42.663
43.303
43.945
44.590
45.236
42.727
43.367
44.010
44.655
45.301
42.791
43.431
44.074
44.719
45.365
42.855
43.495
44.139
44.784
45.430
42.919
43.559
44.203
44.848
45.494
750
760
770
780
790
5.595
6.141
6.689
7.239
7.789
5.650
6.196
6.744
7.294
7.844
5.705
6.251
6.799
7.349
7.900
5.759
6.306
6.854
7.404
7.955
5.814
6.360
6.909
7.459
8.010
100
110
120
130
140
800
810
820
830
840
45.494
46.141
46.786
47.431
48.074
45.559
46.205
46.851
47.495
48.138
45.624
46.270
46.915
47.560
48.202
45.688
46.334
46.980
47.624
48.267
45.753
46.399
47.044
47.688
48.331
45.818
46.464
47.109
47.753
48.395
45.882
46.528
47.173
47.817
48.459
45.947
46.593
47.238
47.881
48.523
46.011
46.657
47.302
47.946
48.587
46.076
46.722
47.367
48.010
48.651
46.141
46.786
47.431
48.074
48.715
800
810
820
830
840
150 8.010 8.065 8.120 8.175 8.231 8.286 8.341 8.396 8.452 8.507 8.562
160 8.562 8.618 8.673 8.728 8.783 8.839 8.894 8.949 9.005 9.060 9.115
170 9.115 9.171 9.226 9.282 9.337 9.392 9.448 9.503 9.559 9.614 9.669
180 9.669 9.725 9.780 9.836 9.891 9.947 10.002 10.057 10.113 10.168 10.224
190 10.224 10.279 10.335 10.390 10.446 10.501 10.557 10.612 10.668 10.723 10.779
150
160
170
180
190
850
860
870
880
890
48.715
49.353
49.989
50.622
51.251
48.779
49.417
50.052
50.685
51.314
48.843
49.481
50.116
50.748
51.377
48.907
49.544
50.179
50.811
51.439
48.971
49.608
50.243
50.874
51.502
49.034
49.672
50.306
50.937
51.565
49.098
49.735
50.369
51.000
51.627
49.162
49.799
50.432
51.063
51.690
49.226
49.862
50.495
51.126
51.752
49.290
49.926
50.559
51.188
51.815
49.353
49.989
50.622
51.251
51.877
850
860
870
880
890
200
210
220
230
240
10.779
11.334
11.889
12.445
13.000
10.834
11.389
11.945
12.500
13.056
10.890
11.445
12.000
12.556
13.111
10.945
11.501
12.056
12.611
13.167
11.001
11.556
12.111
12.667
13.222
11.056
11.612
12.167
12.722
13.278
11.112
11.667
12.222
12.778
13.333
11.167
11.723
12.278
12.833
13.389
11.223
11.778
12.334
12.889
13.444
11.278
11.834
12.389
12.944
13.500
11.334
11.889
12.445
13.000
13.555
200
210
220
230
240
900
910
920
930
940
51.877
52.500
53.119
53.735
54.347
51.940
52.562
53.181
53.796
54.408
52.002
52.624
53.243
53.857
54.469
52.064
52.686
53.304
53.919
54.530
52.127
52.748
53.366
53.980
54.591
52.189
52.810
53.427
54.041
54.652
52.251
52.872
53.489
54.102
54.713
52.314
52.934
53.550
54.164
54.773
52.376
52.996
53.612
54.225
54.834
52.438
53.057
53.673
54.286
54.895
52.500
53.119
53.735
54.347
54.956
900
910
920
930
940
250
260
270
280
290
13.555
14.110
14.665
15.219
15.773
13.611
14.166
14.720
15.275
15.829
13.666
14.221
14.776
15.330
15.884
13.722
14.277
14.831
15.386
15.940
13.777
14.332
14.887
15.441
15.995
13.833
14.388
14.942
15.496
16.050
13.888
14.443
14.998
15.552
16.106
13.944
14.499
15.053
15.607
16.161
13.999
14.554
15.109
15.663
16.216
14.055
14.609
15.164
15.718
16.272
14.110
14.665
15.219
15.773
16.327
250
260
270
280
290
950
960
970
980
990
54.956
55.561
56.164
56.763
57.360
55.016
55.622
56.224
56.823
57.419
55.077
55.682
56.284
56.883
57.479
55.138
55.742
56.344
56.942
57.538
55.198
55.803
56.404
57.002
57.597
55.259
55.863
56.464
57.062
57.657
55.319
55.923
56.524
57.121
57.716
55.380
55.983
56.584
57.181
57.776
55.440
56.043
56.643
57.240
57.835
55.501
56.104
56.703
57.300
57.894
55.561
56.164
56.763
57.360
57.953
950
960
970
980
990
300
310
320
330
340
16.327
16.881
17.434
17.986
18.538
16.383
16.936
17.489
18.041
18.594
16.438
16.991
17.544
18.097
18.649
16.493
17.046
17.599
18.152
18.704
16.549
17.102
17.655
18.207
18.759
16.604
17.157
17.710
18.262
18.814
16.659
17.212
17.765
18.318
18.870
16.715
17.268
17.820
18.373
18.925
16.770
17.323
17.876
18.428
18.980
16.825
17.378
17.931
18.483
19.035
16.881
17.434
17.986
18.538
19.090
300
310
320
330
340
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
57.953
58.545
59.134
59.721
60.307
58.013
58.604
59.193
59.780
60.365
58.072
58.663
59.252
59.838
60.423
58.131
58.722
59.310
59.897
60.482
58.190
58.781
59.369
59.956
60.540
58.249
58.840
59.428
60.014
60.599
58.309
58.899
59.487
60.073
60.657
58.368
58.957
59.545
60.131
60.715
58.427
59.016
59.604
60.190
60.774
58.486
59.075
59.663
60.248
60.832
58.545
59.134
59.721
60.307
60.890
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
350
360
370
380
390
19.090
19.642
20.194
20.745
21.297
19.146
19.697
20.249
20.800
21.352
19.201
19.753
20.304
20.855
21.407
19.256
19.808
20.359
20.911
21.462
19.311
19.863
20.414
20.966
21.517
19.366
19.918
20.469
21.021
21.572
19.422
19.973
20.525
21.076
21.627
19.477
20.028
20.580
21.131
21.683
19.532
20.083
20.635
21.186
21.738
19.587
20.139
20.690
21.241
21.793
19.642
20.194
20.745
21.297
21.848
350
360
370
380
390
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
60.890
61.473
62.054
62.634
63.214
60.949
61.531
62.112
62.692
63.271
61.007
61.589
62.170
62.750
63.329
61.065
61.647
62.228
62.808
63.387
61.123
61.705
62.286
62.866
63.445
61.182
61.763
62.344
62.924
63.503
61.240
61.822
62.402
62.982
63.561
61.298
61.880
62.460
63.040
63.619
61.356
61.938
62.518
63.098
63.677
61.415
61.996
62.576
63.156
63.734
61.473
62.054
62.634
63.214
63.792
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
400
410
420
430
440
21.848
22.400
22.952
23.504
24.057
21.903
22.455
23.007
23.559
24.112
21.958
22.510
23.062
23.614
24.167
22.014
22.565
23.117
23.670
24.223
22.069
22.620
23.172
23.725
24.278
22.124
22.676
23.228
23.780
24.333
22.179
22.731
23.283
23.835
24.389
22.234
22.786
23.338
23.891
24.444
22.289
22.841
23.393
23.946
24.499
22.345
22.896
23.449
24.001
24.555
22.400
22.952
23.504
24.057
24.610
400
410
420
430
440
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
63.792
64.370
64.948
65.525
66.102
63.850
64.428
65.006
65.583
66.160
63.908
64.486
65.064
65.641
66.218
63.966
64.544
65.121
65.699
66.275
64.024
64.602
65.179
65.756
66.333
64.081
64.659
65.237
65.814
66.391
64.139
64.717
65.295
65.872
66.448
64.197
64.775
65.352
65.929
66.506
64.255
64.833
65.410
65.987
66.564
64.313
64.890
65.468
66.045
66.621
64.370
64.948
65.525
66.102
66.679
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
450
460
470
480
490
24.610
25.164
25.720
26.276
26.834
24.665
25.220
25.775
26.332
26.889
24.721
25.275
25.831
26.387
26.945
24.776
25.331
25.886
26.443
27.001
24.832
25.386
25.942
26.499
27.057
24.887
25.442
25.998
26.555
27.113
24.943
25.497
26.053
26.610
27.169
24.998
25.553
26.109
26.666
27.225
25.053
25.608
26.165
26.722
27.281
25.109
25.664
26.220
26.778
27.337
25.164
25.720
26.276
26.834
27.393
450
460
470
480
490
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
66.679
67.255
67.831
68.406
68.980
66.737
67.313
67.888
68.463
69.037
66.794
67.370
67.946
68.521
69.095
66.852
67.428
68.003
68.578
69.152
66.910
67.486
68.061
68.636
69.209
66.967
67.543
68.119
68.693
69.267
67.025
67.601
68.176
68.751
69.324
67.082
67.658
68.234
68.808
69.381
67.140
67.716
68.291
68.865
69.439
67.198
67.773
68.348
68.923
69.496
67.255
67.831
68.406
68.980
69.553
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
10
10
-200
-8.095 -8.076 -8.057 -8.037 -8.017 -7.996 -7.976 -7.955 -7.934 -7.912 -7.890 -200
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
-7.890
-7.659
-7.403
-7.123
-6.821
-7.868
-7.634
-7.376
-7.094
-6.790
-7.846
-7.610
-7.348
-7.064
-6.759
-7.824
-7.585
-7.321
-7.035
-6.727
-7.801
-7.559
-7.293
-7.005
-6.695
-7.778
-7.534
-7.265
-6.975
-6.663
-7.755
-7.508
-7.237
-6.944
-6.631
-7.731
-7.482
-7.209
-6.914
-6.598
-7.707
-7.456
-7.181
-6.883
-6.566
-7.683
-7.429
-7.152
-6.853
-6.533
-7.659
-7.403
-7.123
-6.821
-6.500
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
-6.500
-6.159
-5.801
-5.426
-5.037
-6.467
-6.124
-5.764
-5.388
-4.997
-6.433
-6.089
-5.727
-5.350
-4.957
-6.400
-6.054
-5.690
-5.311
-4.917
-6.366
-6.018
-5.653
-5.272
-4.877
-6.332
-5.982
-5.616
-5.233
-4.836
-6.298
-5.946
-5.578
-5.194
-4.796
-6.263
-5.910
-5.541
-5.155
-4.755
-6.229
-5.874
-5.503
-5.116
-4.714
-6.194
-5.838
-5.465
-5.076
-4.674
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
-4.633
-4.215
-3.786
-3.344
-2.893
-4.591
-4.173
-3.742
-3.300
-2.847
-4.550
-4.130
-3.698
-3.255
-2.801
-4.509
-4.088
-3.654
-3.210
-2.755
-4.467
-4.045
-3.610
-3.165
-2.709
-4.425
-4.002
-3.566
-3.120
-2.663
-4.384
-3.959
-3.522
-3.075
-2.617
-4.342
-3.916
-3.478
-3.029
-2.571
-4.300
-3.872
-3.434
-2.984
-2.524
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
-2.431
-1.961
-1.482
-0.995
-0.501
-2.385
-1.913
-1.433
-0.946
-0.451
-2.338
-1.865
-1.385
-0.896
-0.401
-2.291
-1.818
-1.336
-0.847
-0.351
-2.244
-1.770
-1.288
-0.798
-0.301
-2.197
-1.722
-1.239
-0.749
-0.251
-2.150
-1.674
-1.190
-0.699
-0.201
-2.103
-1.626
-1.142
-0.650
-0.151
0
10
20
30
40
0.000
0.507
1.019
1.537
2.059
0.050
0.558
1.071
1.589
2.111
0.101
0.609
1.122
1.641
2.164
0.151
0.660
1.174
1.693
2.216
0.202
0.711
1.226
1.745
2.269
0.253
0.762
1.277
1.797
2.322
0.303
0.814
1.329
1.849
2.374
50
60
70
80
90
2.585
3.116
3.650
4.187
4.726
2.638
3.169
3.703
4.240
4.781
2.691
3.222
3.757
4.294
4.835
2.744
3.275
3.810
4.348
4.889
2.797
3.329
3.864
4.402
4.943
2.850
3.382
3.918
4.456
4.997
100
110
120
130
140
5.269
5.814
6.360
6.909
7.459
5.323
5.868
6.415
6.964
7.514
5.378
5.923
6.470
7.019
7.569
5.432
5.977
6.525
7.074
7.624
5.487
6.032
6.579
7.129
7.679
5.541
6.087
6.634
7.184
7.734
Z-203

Thermocouple Grade
328 to 2282F
200 to 1250C
Extension Grade
32 to 392F
0 to 200C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Standard: 2.2C or 0.75% Above 0C
2.2C or 2.0% Below 0C
Clean Oxidizing and Inert; Limited Use in
Vacuum or Reducing; Wide Temperature
Range; Most Popular Calibration
Thermocouple
Grade
Nickel-Chromium
vs.
Nickel-Aluminum
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Extension
Grade

C
-10
-9
10
-260
-250
-6.458 -6.457 -6.456 -6.455 -6.453 -6.452 -6.450 -6.448 -6.446 -6.444 -6.441 -260
-6.441 -6.438 -6.435 -6.432 -6.429 -6.425 -6.421 -6.417 -6.413 -6.408 -6.404 -250
250
260
270
280
290
10.153
10.561
10.971
11.382
11.795
10.194
10.602
11.012
11.423
11.836
10.235
10.643
11.053
11.465
11.877
10.276
10.684
11.094
11.506
11.919
10.316
10.725
11.135
11.547
11.960
10.357
10.766
11.176
11.588
12.001
10.398
10.807
11.217
11.630
12.043
10.439
10.848
11.259
11.671
12.084
10.480
10.889
11.300
11.712
12.126
10.520
10.930
11.341
11.753
12.167
10.561
10.971
11.382
11.795
12.209
250
260
270
280
290
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
-6.404
-6.344
-6.262
-6.158
-6.035
-6.399
-6.337
-6.252
-6.147
-6.021
-6.393
-6.329
-6.243
-6.135
-6.007
-6.388
-6.322
-6.233
-6.123
-5.994
-6.382
-6.314
-6.223
-6.111
-5.980
-6.377
-6.306
-6.213
-6.099
-5.965
-6.370
-6.297
-6.202
-6.087
-5.951
-6.364
-6.289
-6.192
-6.074
-5.936
-6.358
-6.280
-6.181
-6.061
-5.922
-6.351
-6.271
-6.170
-6.048
-5.907
-6.344
-6.262
-6.158
-6.035
-5.891
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
300
310
320
330
340
12.209
12.624
13.040
13.457
13.874
12.250
12.665
13.081
13.498
13.916
12.291
12.707
13.123
13.540
13.958
12.333
12.748
13.165
13.582
14.000
12.374
12.790
13.206
13.624
14.042
12.416
12.831
13.248
13.665
14.084
12.457
12.873
13.290
13.707
14.126
12.499
12.915
13.331
13.749
14.167
12.540
12.956
13.373
13.791
14.209
12.582
12.998
13.415
13.833
14.251
12.624
13.040
13.457
13.874
14.293
300
310
320
330
340
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
-5.891
-5.730
-5.550
-5.354
-5.141
-5.876
-5.713
-5.531
-5.333
-5.119
-5.861
-5.695
-5.512
-5.313
-5.097
-5.845
-5.678
-5.493
-5.292
-5.074
-5.829
-5.660
-5.474
-5.271
-5.052
-5.813
-5.642
-5.454
-5.250
-5.029
-5.797
-5.624
-5.435
-5.228
-5.006
-5.780
-5.606
-5.415
-5.207
-4.983
-5.763
-5.588
-5.395
-5.185
-4.960
-5.747
-5.569
-5.374
-5.163
-4.936
-5.730
-5.550
-5.354
-5.141
-4.913
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
350
360
370
380
390
14.293
14.713
15.133
15.554
15.975
14.335
14.755
15.175
15.596
16.017
14.377
14.797
15.217
15.638
16.059
14.419
14.839
15.259
15.680
16.102
14.461
14.881
15.301
15.722
16.144
14.503
14.923
15.343
15.764
16.186
14.545
14.965
15.385
15.806
16.228
14.587
15.007
15.427
15.849
16.270
14.629
15.049
15.469
15.891
16.313
14.671
15.091
15.511
15.933
16.355
14.713
15.133
15.554
15.975
16.397
350
360
370
380
390
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
-4.913
-4.669
-4.411
-4.138
-3.852
-4.889
-4.644
-4.384
-4.110
-3.823
-4.865
-4.618
-4.357
-4.082
-3.794
-4.841
-4.593
-4.330
-4.054
-3.764
-4.817
-4.567
-4.303
-4.025
-3.734
-4.793
-4.542
-4.276
-3.997
-3.705
-4.768
-4.516
-4.249
-3.968
-3.675
-4.744
-4.490
-4.221
-3.939
-3.645
-4.719
-4.463
-4.194
-3.911
-3.614
-4.694
-4.437
-4.166
-3.882
-3.584
-4.669
-4.411
-4.138
-3.852
-3.554
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
400
410
420
430
440
16.397
16.820
17.243
17.667
18.091
16.439
16.862
17.285
17.709
18.134
16.482
16.904
17.328
17.752
18.176
16.524
16.947
17.370
17.794
18.218
16.566
16.989
17.413
17.837
18.261
16.608
17.031
17.455
17.879
18.303
16.651
17.074
17.497
17.921
18.346
16.693
17.116
17.540
17.964
18.388
16.735
17.158
17.582
18.006
18.431
16.778
17.201
17.624
18.049
18.473
16.820
17.243
17.667
18.091
18.516
400
410
420
430
440
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
-3.554
-3.243
-2.920
-2.587
-2.243
-3.523
-3.211
-2.887
-2.553
-2.208
-3.492
-3.179
-2.854
-2.519
-2.173
-3.462
-3.147
-2.821
-2.485
-2.138
-3.431
-3.115
-2.788
-2.450
-2.103
-3.400
-3.083
-2.755
-2.416
-2.067
-3.368
-3.050
-2.721
-2.382
-2.032
-3.337
-3.018
-2.688
-2.347
-1.996
-3.306
-2.986
-2.654
-2.312
-1.961
-3.274
-2.953
-2.620
-2.278
-1.925
-3.243
-2.920
-2.587
-2.243
-1.889
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
450
460
470
480
490
18.516
18.941
19.366
19.792
20.218
18.558
18.983
19.409
19.835
20.261
18.601
19.026
19.451
19.877
20.303
18.643
19.068
19.494
19.920
20.346
18.686
19.111
19.537
19.962
20.389
18.728
19.154
19.579
20.005
20.431
18.771
19.196
19.622
20.048
20.474
18.813
19.239
19.664
20.090
20.516
18.856
19.281
19.707
20.133
20.559
18.898
19.324
19.750
20.175
20.602
18.941
19.366
19.792
20.218
20.644
450
460
470
480
490
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
-1.889
-1.527
-1.156
-0.778
-0.392
-1.854
-1.490
-1.119
-0.739
-0.353
-1.818
-1.453
-1.081
-0.701
-0.314
-1.782
-1.417
-1.043
-0.663
-0.275
-1.745
-1.380
-1.006
-0.624
-0.236
-1.709
-1.343
-0.968
-0.586
-0.197
-1.673
-1.305
-0.930
-0.547
-0.157
-1.637
-1.268
-0.892
-0.508
-0.118
-1.600
-1.231
-0.854
-0.470
-0.079
-1.564
-1.194
-0.816
-0.431
-0.039
-1.527
-1.156
-0.778
-0.392
0.000
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
500
510
520
530
540
20.644
21.071
21.497
21.924
22.350
20.687
21.113
21.540
21.966
22.393
20.730
21.156
21.582
22.009
22.435
20.772
21.199
21.625
22.052
22.478
20.815
21.241
21.668
22.094
22.521
20.857
21.284
21.710
22.137
22.563
20.900
21.326
21.753
22.179
22.606
20.943
21.369
21.796
22.222
22.649
20.985
21.412
21.838
22.265
22.691
21.028
21.454
21.881
22.307
22.734
21.071
21.497
21.924
22.350
22.776
500
510
520
530
540
0
10
20
30
40
0.000
0.397
0.798
1.203
1.612
0.039
0.437
0.838
1.244
1.653
0.079
0.477
0.879
1.285
1.694
0.119
0.517
0.919
1.326
1.735
0.158
0.557
0.960
1.366
1.776
0.198
0.597
1.000
1.407
1.817
0.238
0.637
1.041
1.448
1.858
0.277
0.677
1.081
1.489
1.899
0.317
0.718
1.122
1.530
1.941
0.357
0.758
1.163
1.571
1.982
0.397
0.798
1.203
1.612
2.023
0
10
20
30
40
550
560
570
580
590
22.776
23.203
23.629
24.055
24.480
22.819
23.245
23.671
24.097
24.523
22.862
23.288
23.714
24.140
24.565
22.904
23.331
23.757
24.182
24.608
22.947
23.373
23.799
24.225
24.650
22.990
23.416
23.842
24.267
24.693
23.032
23.458
23.884
24.310
24.735
23.075
23.501
23.927
24.353
24.778
23.117
23.544
23.970
24.395
24.820
23.160
23.586
24.012
24.438
24.863
23.203
23.629
24.055
24.480
24.905
550
560
570
580
590
50
60
70
80
90
2.023
2.436
2.851
3.267
3.682
2.064
2.478
2.893
3.308
3.723
2.106
2.519
2.934
3.350
3.765
2.147
2.561
2.976
3.391
3.806
2.188
2.602
3.017
3.433
3.848
2.230
2.644
3.059
3.474
3.889
2.271
2.685
3.100
3.516
3.931
2.312
2.727
3.142
3.557
3.972
2.354
2.768
3.184
3.599
4.013
2.395
2.810
3.225
3.640
4.055
2.436
2.851
3.267
3.682
4.096
50
60
70
80
90
600
610
620
630
640
24.905
25.330
25.755
26.179
26.602
24.948
25.373
25.797
26.221
26.644
24.990
25.415
25.840
26.263
26.687
25.033
25.458
25.882
26.306
26.729
25.075
25.500
25.924
26.348
26.771
25.118
25.543
25.967
26.390
26.814
25.160
25.585
26.009
26.433
26.856
25.203
25.627
26.052
26.475
26.898
25.245
25.670
26.094
26.517
26.940
25.288
25.712
26.136
26.560
26.983
25.330
25.755
26.179
26.602
27.025
600
610
620
630
640
100
110
120
130
140
4.096
4.509
4.920
5.328
5.735
4.138
4.550
4.961
5.369
5.775
4.179
4.591
5.002
5.410
5.815
4.220
4.633
5.043
5.450
5.856
4.262
4.674
5.084
5.491
5.896
4.303
4.715
5.124
5.532
5.937
4.344
4.756
5.165
5.572
5.977
4.385
4.797
5.206
5.613
6.017
4.427
4.838
5.247
5.653
6.058
4.468
4.879
5.288
5.694
6.098
4.509
4.920
5.328
5.735
6.138
100
110
120
130
140
650
660
670
680
690
27.025
27.447
27.869
28.289
28.710
27.067
27.489
27.911
28.332
28.752
27.109
27.531
27.953
28.374
28.794
27.152
27.574
27.995
28.416
28.835
27.194
27.616
28.037
28.458
28.877
27.236
27.658
28.079
28.500
28.919
27.278
27.700
28.121
28.542
28.961
27.320
27.742
28.163
28.584
29.003
27.363
27.784
28.205
28.626
29.045
27.405
27.826
28.247
28.668
29.087
27.447
27.869
28.289
28.710
29.129
650
660
670
680
690
150
160
170
180
190
6.138
6.540
6.941
7.340
7.739
6.179
6.580
6.981
7.380
7.779
6.219
6.620
7.021
7.420
7.819
6.259
6.660
7.060
7.460
7.859
6.299
6.701
7.100
7.500
7.899
6.339
6.741
7.140
7.540
7.939
6.380
6.781
7.180
7.579
7.979
6.420
6.821
7.220
7.619
8.019
6.460
6.861
7.260
7.659
8.059
6.500
6.901
7.300
7.699
8.099
6.540
6.941
7.340
7.739
8.138
150
160
170
180
190
700
710
720
730
740
29.129
29.548
29.965
30.382
30.798
29.171
29.589
30.007
30.424
30.840
29.213
29.631
30.049
30.466
30.881
29.255
29.673
30.090
30.507
30.923
29.297
29.715
30.132
30.549
30.964
29.338
29.757
30.174
30.590
31.006
29.380
29.798
30.216
30.632
31.047
29.422
29.840
30.257
30.674
31.089
29.464
29.882
30.299
30.715
31.130
29.506
29.924
30.341
30.757
31.172
29.548
29.965
30.382
30.798
31.213
700
710
720
730
740
200
210
220
230
240
8.138
8.539
8.940
9.343
9.747
8.178
8.579
8.980
9.383
9.788
8.218
8.619
9.020
9.423
9.828
8.258
8.659
9.061
9.464
9.869
8.298
8.699
9.101
9.504
9.909
8.338
8.739
9.141
9.545
9.950
8.378 8.418 8.458 8.499 8.539

8.779 8.819 8.860 8.900 8.940
9.181 9.222 9.262 9.302 9.343
9.585 9.626 9.666 9.707 9.747
9.991 10.031 10.072 10.113 10.153
200
210
220
230
240
750
760
770
780
790
31.213
31.628
32.041
32.453
32.865
31.255
31.669
32.082
32.495
32.906
31.296
31.710
32.124
32.536
32.947
31.338
31.752
32.165
32.577
32.988
31.379
31.793
32.206
32.618
33.029
31.421
31.834
32.247
32.659
33.070
31.462
31.876
32.289
32.700
33.111
31.504
31.917
32.330
32.742
33.152
31.545
31.958
32.371
32.783
33.193
31.586
32.000
32.412
32.824
33.234
31.628
32.041
32.453
32.865
33.275
750
760
770
780
790
10
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
10
Z-204
Reference Tables
TYPE
Thermocouple
Grade
Nickel-Chromium
vs.
Nickel-Aluminum
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Extension
Grade

Thermocouple Grade
328 to 2282F
200 to 1250C
Extension Grade
32 to 392F
0 to 200C
LIMITS OF ERROR
10
10
800
810
820
830
840
33.275
33.685
34.093
34.501
34.908
33.316
33.726
34.134
34.542
34.948
33.357
33.767
34.175
34.582
34.989
33.398
33.808
34.216
34.623
35.029
33.439
33.848
34.257
34.664
35.070
33.480
33.889
34.297
34.704
35.110
33.521
33.930
34.338
34.745
35.151
33.562
33.971
34.379
34.786
35.192
33.603
34.012
34.420
34.826
35.232
33.644
34.053
34.460
34.867
35.273
33.685
34.093
34.501
34.908
35.313
800
810
820
830
840
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
45.119
45.497
45.873
46.249
46.623
45.157
45.534
45.911
46.286
46.660
45.194
45.572
45.948
46.324
46.697
45.232
45.610
45.986
46.361
46.735
45.270
45.647
46.024
46.398
46.772
45.308
45.685
46.061
46.436
46.809
45.346
45.723
46.099
46.473
46.847
45.383
45.760
46.136
46.511
46.884
45.421
45.798
46.174
46.548
46.921
45.459
45.836
46.211
46.585
46.958
45.497
45.873
46.249
46.623
46.995
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
850
860
870
880
890
35.313
35.718
36.121
36.524
36.925
35.354
35.758
36.162
36.564
36.965
35.394
35.798
36.202
36.604
37.006
35.435
35.839
36.242
36.644
37.046
35.475
35.879
36.282
36.685
37.086
35.516
35.920
36.323
36.725
37.126
35.556
35.960
36.363
36.765
37.166
35.596
36.000
36.403
36.805
37.206
35.637
36.041
36.443
36.845
37.246
35.677
36.081
36.484
36.885
37.286
35.718
36.121
36.524
36.925
37.326
850
860
870
880
890
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
46.995
47.367
47.737
48.105
48.473
47.033
47.404
47.774
48.142
48.509
47.070
47.441
47.811
48.179
48.546
47.107
47.478
47.848
48.216
48.582
47.144
47.515
47.884
48.252
48.619
47.181
47.552
47.921
48.289
48.656
47.218
47.589
47.958
48.326
48.692
47.256
47.626
47.995
48.363
48.729
47.293
47.663
48.032
48.399
48.765
47.330
47.700
48.069
48.436
48.802
47.367
47.737
48.105
48.473
48.838
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
900
910
920
930
940
37.326
37.725
38.124
38.522
38.918
37.366
37.765
38.164
38.561
38.958
37.406
37.805
38.204
38.601
38.997
37.446
37.845
38.243
38.641
39.037
37.486
37.885
38.283
38.680
39.076
37.526
37.925
38.323
38.720
39.116
37.566
37.965
38.363
38.760
39.155
37.606
38.005
38.402
38.799
39.195
37.646
38.044
38.442
38.839
39.235
37.686
38.084
38.482
38.878
39.274
37.725
38.124
38.522
38.918
39.314
900
910
920
930
940
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
48.838
49.202
49.565
49.926
50.286
48.875
49.239
49.601
49.962
50.322
48.911
49.275
49.637
49.998
50.358
48.948
49.311
49.674
50.034
50.393
48.984
49.348
49.710
50.070
50.429
49.021
49.384
49.746
50.106
50.465
49.057
49.420
49.782
50.142
50.501
49.093
49.456
49.818
50.178
50.537
49.130
49.493
49.854
50.214
50.572
49.166
49.529
49.890
50.250
50.608
49.202
49.565
49.926
50.286
50.644
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
950
960
970
980
990
39.314
39.708
40.101
40.494
40.885
39.353
39.747
40.141
40.533
40.924
39.393
39.787
40.180
40.572
40.963
39.432
39.826
40.219
40.611
41.002
39.471
39.866
40.259
40.651
41.042
39.511
39.905
40.298
40.690
41.081
39.550
39.944
40.337
40.729
41.120
39.590
39.984
40.376
40.768
41.159
39.629
40.023
40.415
40.807
41.198
39.669
40.062
40.455
40.846
41.237
39.708
40.101
40.494
40.885
41.276
950
960
970
980
990
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
50.644
51.000
51.355
51.708
52.060
50.680
51.036
51.391
51.744
52.095
50.715
51.071
51.426
51.779
52.130
50.751
51.107
51.461
51.814
52.165
50.787
51.142
51.497
51.849
52.200
50.822
51.178
51.532
51.885
52.235
50.858
51.213
51.567
51.920
52.270
50.894
51.249
51.603
51.955
52.305
50.929
51.284
51.638
51.990
52.340
50.965
51.320
51.673
52.025
52.375
51.000
51.355
51.708
52.060
52.410
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
41.276
41.665
42.053
42.440
42.826
41.315
41.704
42.092
42.479
42.865
41.354
41.743
42.131
42.518
42.903
41.393
41.781
42.169
42.556
42.942
41.431
41.820
42.208
42.595
42.980
41.470
41.859
42.247
42.633
43.019
41.509
41.898
42.286
42.672
43.057
41.548
41.937
42.324
42.711
43.096
41.587
41.976
42.363
42.749
43.134
41.626
42.014
42.402
42.788
43.173
41.665
42.053
42.440
42.826
43.211
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
52.410
52.759
53.106
53.451
53.795
52.445
52.794
53.140
53.486
53.830
52.480
52.828
53.175
53.520
53.864
52.515
52.863
53.210
53.555
53.898
52.550
52.898
53.244
53.589
53.932
52.585
52.932
53.279
53.623
53.967
52.620
52.967
53.313
53.658
54.001
52.654
53.002
53.348
53.692
54.035
52.689
53.037
53.382
53.727
54.069
52.724
53.071
53.417
53.761
54.104
52.759
53.106
53.451
53.795
54.138
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
43.211
43.595
43.978
44.359
44.740
43.250
43.633
44.016
44.397
44.778
43.288
43.672
44.054
44.435
44.816
43.327
43.710
44.092
44.473
44.853
43.365
43.748
44.130
44.512
44.891
43.403
43.787
44.169
44.550
44.929
43.442
43.825
44.207
44.588
44.967
43.480
43.863
44.245
44.626
45.005
43.518
43.901
44.283
44.664
45.043
43.557
43.940
44.321
44.702
45.081
43.595
43.978
44.359
44.740
45.119
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
1350 54.138 54.172 54.206 54.240 54.274 54.308 54.343 54.377 54.411 54.445 54.479 1350
1360 54.479 54.513 54.547 54.581 54.615 54.649 54.683 54.717 54.751 54.785 54.819 1360
1370 54.819 54.852 54.886
1370
10
Z-205
10

Thermocouple Grade
328 to 1652F
200 to 900C
Extension Grade
32 to 392F
0 to 200C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Oxidizing or Inert; Limited Use in Vacuum or
Reducing; Highest EMF Change per Degree
Reference Tables
Thermocouple
Grade
TYPE
Nickel-Chromium
vs.
Copper-Nickel
Extension
Grade

C
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
10
-260
-250
-9.835 -9.833 -9.831 -9.828 -9.825 -9.821 -9.817 -9.813 -9.808 -9.802 -9.797 -260
-9.797 -9.790 -9.784 -9.777 -9.770 -9.762 -9.754 -9.746 -9.737 -9.728 -9.718 -250
350
360
370
380
390
24.964
25.757
26.552
27.348
28.146
25.044
25.836
26.631
27.428
28.226
25.123
25.916
26.711
27.507
28.306
25.202
25.995
26.790
27.587
28.386
25.281
26.075
26.870
27.667
28.466
25.360
26.154
26.950
27.747
28.546
25.440
26.233
27.029
27.827
28.626
25.519
26.313
27.109
27.907
28.706
25.598
26.392
27.189
27.986
28.786
25.678
26.472
27.268
28.066
28.866
25.757
26.552
27.348
28.146
28.946
350
360
370
380
390
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
-9.718
-9.604
-9.455
-9.274
-9.063
-9.709
-9.591
-9.438
-9.254
-9.040
-9.698
-9.577
-9.421
-9.234
-9.017
-9.688
-9.563
-9.404
-9.214
-8.994
-9.677
-9.548
-9.386
-9.193
-8.971
-9.666
-9.534
-9.368
-9.172
-8.947
-9.654
-9.519
-9.350
-9.151
-8.923
-9.642
-9.503
-9.331
-9.129
-8.899
-9.630
-9.487
-9.313
-9.107
-8.874
-9.617
-9.471
-9.293
-9.085
-8.850
-9.604
-9.455
-9.274
-9.063
-8.825
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
400
410
420
430
440
28.946
29.747
30.550
31.354
32.159
29.026
29.827
30.630
31.434
32.239
29.106
29.908
30.711
31.515
32.320
29.186
29.988
30.791
31.595
32.400
29.266
30.068
30.871
31.676
32.481
29.346
30.148
30.952
31.756
32.562
29.427
30.229
31.032
31.837
32.642
29.507
30.309
31.112
31.917
32.723
29.587
30.389
31.193
31.998
32.803
29.667
30.470
31.273
32.078
32.884
29.747
30.550
31.354
32.159
32.965
400
410
420
430
440
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
-8.825
-8.561
-8.273
-7.963
-7.632
-8.799
-8.533
-8.243
-7.931
-7.597
-8.774
-8.505
-8.213
-7.899
-7.563
-8.748
-8.477
-8.183
-7.866
-7.528
-8.722
-8.449
-8.152
-7.833
-7.493
-8.696
-8.420
-8.121
-7.800
-7.458
-8.669
-8.391
-8.090
-7.767
-7.423
-8.643
-8.362
-8.059
-7.733
-7.387
-8.616
-8.333
-8.027
-7.700
-7.351
-8.588
-8.303
-7.995
-7.666
-7.315
-8.561
-8.273
-7.963
-7.632
-7.279
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
450
460
470
480
490
32.965
33.772
34.579
35.387
36.196
33.045
33.852
34.660
35.468
36.277
33.126
33.933
34.741
35.549
36.358
33.207
34.014
34.822
35.630
36.439
33.287
34.095
34.902
35.711
36.520
33.368
34.175
34.983
35.792
36.601
33.449
34.256
35.064
35.873
36.682
33.529
34.337
35.145
35.954
36.763
33.610
34.418
35.226
36.034
36.843
33.691
34.498
35.307
36.115
36.924
33.772
34.579
35.387
36.196
37.005
450
460
470
480
490
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
-7.279
-6.907
-6.516
-6.107
-5.681
-7.243
-6.869
-6.476
-6.065
-5.637
-7.206
-6.831
-6.436
-6.023
-5.593
-7.170
-6.792
-6.396
-5.981
-5.549
-7.133
-6.753
-6.355
-5.939
-5.505
-7.096
-6.714
-6.314
-5.896
-5.461
-7.058
-6.675
-6.273
-5.853
-5.417
-7.021
-6.636
-6.232
-5.810
-5.372
-6.983
-6.596
-6.191
-5.767
-5.327
-6.945
-6.556
-6.149
-5.724
-5.282
-6.907
-6.516
-6.107
-5.681
-5.237
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
500
510
520
530
540
37.005
37.815
38.624
39.434
40.243
37.086
37.896
38.705
39.515
40.324
37.167
37.977
38.786
39.596
40.405
37.248
38.058
38.867
39.677
40.486
37.329
38.139
38.948
39.758
40.567
37.410
38.220
39.029
39.839
40.648
37.491
38.300
39.110
39.920
40.729
37.572
38.381
39.191
40.001
40.810
37.653
38.462
39.272
40.082
40.891
37.734
38.543
39.353
40.163
40.972
37.815
38.624
39.434
40.243
41.053
500
510
520
530
540
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
-5.237
-4.777
-4.302
-3.811
-3.306
-5.192
-4.731
-4.254
-3.761
-3.255
-5.147
-4.684
-4.205
-3.711
-3.204
-5.101
-4.636
-4.156
-3.661
-3.152
-5.055
-4.589
-4.107
-3.611
-3.100
-5.009
-4.542
-4.058
-3.561
-3.048
-4.963
-4.494
-4.009
-3.510
-2.996
-4.917
-4.446
-3.960
-3.459
-2.944
-4.871
-4.398
-3.911
-3.408
-2.892
-4.824
-4.350
-3.861
-3.357
-2.840
-4.777
-4.302
-3.811
-3.306
-2.787
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
550
560
570
580
590
41.053
41.862
42.671
43.479
44.286
41.134
41.943
42.751
43.560
44.367
41.215
42.024
42.832
43.640
44.448
41.296
42.105
42.913
43.721
44.529
41.377
42.185
42.994
43.802
44.609
41.457
42.266
43.075
43.883
44.690
41.538
42.347
43.156
43.963
44.771
41.619
42.428
43.236
44.044
44.851
41.700
42.509
43.317
44.125
44.932
41.781
42.590
43.398
44.206
45.013
41.862
42.671
43.479
44.286
45.093
550
560
570
580
590
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
-2.787
-2.255
-1.709
-1.152
-0.582
-2.735
-2.201
-1.654
-1.095
-0.524
-2.682
-2.147
-1.599
-1.039
-0.466
-2.629
-2.093
-1.543
-0.982
-0.408
-2.576
-2.038
-1.488
-0.925
-0.350
-2.523
-1.984
-1.432
-0.868
-0.292
-2.469
-1.929
-1.376
-0.811
-0.234
-2.416
-1.874
-1.320
-0.754
-0.176
-2.362
-1.820
-1.264
-0.697
-0.117
-2.309
-1.765
-1.208
-0.639
-0.059
-2.255
-1.709
-1.152
-0.582
0.000
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
600
610
620
630
640
45.093
45.900
46.705
47.509
48.313
45.174
45.980
46.785
47.590
48.393
45.255
46.061
46.866
47.670
48.474
45.335
46.141
46.946
47.751
48.554
45.416
46.222
47.027
47.831
48.634
45.497
46.302
47.107
47.911
48.715
45.577
46.383
47.188
47.992
48.795
45.658
46.463
47.268
48.072
48.875
45.738
46.544
47.349
48.152
48.955
45.819
46.624
47.429
48.233
49.035
45.900
46.705
47.509
48.313
49.116
600
610
620
630
640
0
10
20
30
40
0.000
0.591
1.192
1.801
2.420
0.059
0.651
1.252
1.862
2.482
0.118
0.711
1.313
1.924
2.545
0.176
0.770
1.373
1.986
2.607
0.235
0.830
1.434
2.047
2.670
0.294
0.890
1.495
2.109
2.733
0.354
0.950
1.556
2.171
2.795
0.413
1.010
1.617
2.233
2.858
0.472
1.071
1.678
2.295
2.921
0.532
1.131
1.740
2.357
2.984
0.591
1.192
1.801
2.420
3.048
0
10
20
30
40
650
660
670
680
690
49.116
49.917
50.718
51.517
52.315
49.196
49.997
50.798
51.597
52.395
49.276
50.077
50.878
51.677
52.475
49.356
50.157
50.958
51.757
52.555
49.436
50.238
51.038
51.837
52.634
49.517
50.318
51.118
51.916
52.714
49.597
50.398
51.197
51.996
52.794
49.677
50.478
51.277
52.076
52.873
49.757
50.558
51.357
52.156
52.953
49.837
50.638
51.437
52.236
53.033
49.917
50.718
51.517
52.315
53.112
650
660
670
680
690
50
60
70
80
90
3.048
3.685
4.330
4.985
5.648
3.111
3.749
4.395
5.051
5.714
3.174
3.813
4.460
5.117
5.781
3.238
3.877
4.526
5.183
5.848
3.301
3.942
4.591
5.249
5.915
3.365
4.006
4.656
5.315
5.982
3.429
4.071
4.722
5.382
6.049
3.492
4.136
4.788
5.448
6.117
3.556
4.200
4.853
5.514
6.184
3.620
4.265
4.919
5.581
6.251
3.685
4.330
4.985
5.648
6.319
50
60
70
80
90
700
710
720
730
740
53.112
53.908
54.703
55.497
56.289
53.192
53.988
54.782
55.576
56.368
53.272
54.067
54.862
55.655
56.447
53.351
54.147
54.941
55.734
56.526
53.431
54.226
55.021
55.814
56.606
53.510
54.306
55.100
55.893
56.685
53.590
54.385
55.179
55.972
56.764
53.670
54.465
55.259
56.051
56.843
53.749
54.544
55.338
56.131
56.922
53.829
54.624
55.417
56.210
57.001
53.908
54.703
55.497
56.289
57.080
700
710
720
730
740
100
110
120
130
140
6.319
6.998
7.685
8.379
9.081
6.386
7.066
7.754
8.449
9.151
6.454
7.135
7.823
8.519
9.222
6.522
7.203
7.892
8.589
9.292
6.590
7.272
7.962
8.659
9.363
6.658
7.341
8.031
8.729
9.434
6.725
7.409
8.101
8.799
9.505
6.794
7.478
8.170
8.869
9.576
6.862
7.547
8.240
8.940
9.647
6.930
7.616
8.309
9.010
9.718
6.998
7.685
8.379
9.081
9.789
100
110
120
130
140
750
760
770
780
790
57.080
57.870
58.659
59.446
60.232
57.159
57.949
58.738
59.525
60.311
57.238
58.028
58.816
59.604
60.390
57.317
58.107
58.895
59.682
60.468
57.396
58.186
58.974
59.761
60.547
57.475
58.265
59.053
59.839
60.625
57.554
58.343
59.131
59.918
60.704
57.633
58.422
59.210
59.997
60.782
57.712
58.501
59.289
60.075
60.860
57.791
58.580
59.367
60.154
60.939
57.870
58.659
59.446
60.232
61.017
750
760
770
780
790
150
160
170
180
190
9.789
10.503
11.224
11.951
12.684
9.860
10.575
11.297
12.024
12.757
9.931
10.647
11.369
12.097
12.831
10.003
10.719
11.442
12.170
12.904
10.074
10.791
11.514
12.243
12.978
10.145
10.863
11.587
12.317
13.052
10.217
10.935
11.660
12.390
13.126
10.288
11.007
11.733
12.463
13.199
10.360
11.080
11.805
12.537
13.273
10.432
11.152
11.878
12.610
13.347
10.503
11.224
11.951
12.684
13.421
150
160
170
180
190
800
810
820
830
840
61.017
61.801
62.583
63.364
64.144
61.096
61.879
62.662
63.442
64.222
61.174
61.958
62.740
63.520
64.300
61.253
62.036
62.818
63.598
64.377
61.331
62.114
62.896
63.676
64.455
61.409
62.192
62.974
63.754
64.533
61.488
62.271
63.052
63.832
64.611
61.566
62.349
63.130
63.910
64.689
61.644
62.427
63.208
63.988
64.766
61.723
62.505
63.286
64.066
64.844
61.801
62.583
63.364
64.144
64.922
800
810
820
830
840
200
210
220
230
240
13.421
14.164
14.912
15.664
16.420
13.495
14.239
14.987
15.739
16.496
13.569
14.313
15.062
15.815
16.572
13.644
14.388
15.137
15.890
16.648
13.718
14.463
15.212
15.966
16.724
13.792
14.537
15.287
16.041
16.800
13.866
14.612
15.362
16.117
16.876
13.941
14.687
15.438
16.193
16.952
14.015
14.762
15.513
16.269
17.028
14.090
14.837
15.588
16.344
17.104
14.164
14.912
15.664
16.420
17.181
200
210
220
230
240
850
860
870
880
890
64.922
65.698
66.473
67.246
68.017
65.000
65.776
66.550
67.323
68.094
65.077
65.853
66.628
67.400
68.171
65.155
65.931
66.705
67.478
68.248
65.233
66.008
66.782
67.555
68.325
65.310
66.086
66.860
67.632
68.402
65.388
66.163
66.937
67.709
68.479
65.465
66.241
67.014
67.786
68.556
65.543
66.318
67.092
67.863
68.633
65.621
66.396
67.169
67.940
68.710
65.698
66.473
67.246
68.017
68.787
850
860
870
880
890
250
260
270
280
290
17.181
17.945
18.713
19.484
20.259
17.257
18.021
18.790
19.561
20.336
17.333
18.098
18.867
19.639
20.414
17.409
18.175
18.944
19.716
20.492
17.486
18.252
19.021
19.794
20.569
17.562
18.328
19.098
19.871
20.647
17.639
18.405
19.175
19.948
20.725
17.715
18.482
19.252
20.026
20.803
17.792
18.559
19.330
20.103
20.880
17.868
18.636
19.407
20.181
20.958
17.945
18.713
19.484
20.259
21.036
250
260
270
280
290
900
910
920
930
940
68.787
69.554
70.319
71.082
71.844
68.863
69.631
70.396
71.159
71.920
68.940
69.707
70.472
71.235
71.996
69.017
69.784
70.548
71.311
72.072
69.094
69.860
70.625
71.387
72.147
69.171
69.937
70.701
71.463
72.223
69.247
70.013
70.777
71.539
72.299
69.324
70.090
70.854
71.615
72.375
69.401
70.166
70.930
71.692
72.451
69.477
70.243
71.006
71.768
72.527
69.554
70.319
71.082
71.844
72.603
900
910
920
930
940
300
310
320
330
340
21.036
21.817
22.600
23.386
24.174
21.114
21.895
22.678
23.464
24.253
21.192
21.973
22.757
23.543
24.332
21.270
22.051
22.835
23.622
24.411
21.348
22.130
22.914
23.701
24.490
21.426
22.208
22.993
23.780
24.569
21.504
22.286
23.071
23.858
24.648
21.582
22.365
23.150
23.937
24.727
21.660
22.443
23.228
24.016
24.806
21.739
22.522
23.307
24.095
24.885
21.817
22.600
23.386
24.174
24.964
300
310
320
330
340
950
960
970
980
990
72.603
73.360
74.115
74.869
75.621
72.678
73.435
74.190
74.944
75.696
72.754
73.511
74.266
75.019
75.771
72.830
73.586
74.341
75.095
75.847
72.906
73.662
74.417
75.170
75.922
72.981
73.738
74.492
75.245
75.997
73.057
73.813
74.567
75.320
76.072
73.133
73.889
74.643
75.395
76.147
73.208
73.964
74.718
75.471
76.223
73.284
74.040
74.793
75.546
76.298
73.360
74.115
74.869
75.621
76.373
950
960
970
980
990
10
10
Z-206
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
-10
-9
10
-260
-250
-6.258 -6.256 -6.255 -6.253 -6.251 -6.248 -6.245 -6.242 -6.239 -6.236 -6.232 -260
-6.232 -6.228 -6.223 -6.219 -6.214 -6.209 -6.204 -6.198 -6.193 -6.187 -6.180 -250
2.079
2.512
2.953
3.403
3.860
2.122
2.556
2.998
3.448
3.907
2.165
2.600
3.043
3.494
3.953
2.208
2.643
3.087
3.539
3.999
2.251
2.687
3.132
3.585
4.046
2.294
2.732
3.177
3.631
4.092
2.338
2.776
3.222
3.677
4.138
2.381
2.820
3.267
3.722
4.185
2.425
2.864
3.312
3.768
4.232
2.468
2.909
3.358
3.814
4.279
50
60
70
80
90
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
-6.180
-6.105
-6.007
-5.888
-5.753
-6.174
-6.096
-5.996
-5.876
-5.739
-6.167
-6.087
-5.985
-5.863
-5.724
-6.160
-6.078
-5.973
-5.850
-5.710
-6.153
-6.068
-5.962
-5.836
-5.695
-6.146
-6.059
-5.950
-5.823
-5.680
-6.138
-6.049
-5.938
-5.809
-5.665
-6.130
-6.038
-5.926
-5.795
-5.650
-6.122
-6.028
-5.914
-5.782
-5.634
-6.114
-6.017
-5.901
-5.767
-5.619
-6.105
-6.007
-5.888
-5.753
-5.603
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
100
110
120
130
140
4.279
4.750
5.228
5.714
6.206
4.325
4.798
5.277
5.763
6.255
4.372
4.845
5.325
5.812
6.305
4.419
4.893
5.373
5.861
6.355
4.466
4.941
5.422
5.910
6.404
4.513
4.988
5.470
5.959
6.454
4.561
5.036
5.519
6.008
6.504
4.608
5.084
5.567
6.057
6.554
4.655
5.132
5.616
6.107
6.604
4.702
5.180
5.665
6.156
6.654
4.750
5.228
5.714
6.206
6.704
100
110
120
130
140
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
-5.603
-5.439
-5.261
-5.070
-4.865
-5.587
-5.421
-5.242
-5.050
-4.844
-5.571
-5.404
-5.224
-5.030
-4.823
-5.555
-5.387
-5.205
-5.010
-4.802
-5.539
-5.369
-5.186
-4.989
-4.780
-5.523
-5.351
-5.167
-4.969
-4.759
-5.506
-5.334
-5.148
-4.949
-4.737
-5.489
-5.316
-5.128
-4.928
-4.715
-5.473
-5.297
-5.109
-4.907
-4.693
-5.456
-5.279
-5.089
-4.886
-4.671
-5.439
-5.261
-5.070
-4.865
-4.648
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
150
160
170
180
190
6.704
7.209
7.720
8.237
8.759
6.754
7.260
7.771
8.289
8.812
6.805
7.310
7.823
8.341
8.865
6.855
7.361
7.874
8.393
8.917
6.905
7.412
7.926
8.445
8.970
6.956
7.463
7.977
8.497
9.023
7.006
7.515
8.029
8.550
9.076
7.057
7.566
8.081
8.602
9.129
7.107
7.617
8.133
8.654
9.182
7.158
7.668
8.185
8.707
9.235
7.209
7.720
8.237
8.759
9.288
150
160
170
180
190
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
-4.648
-4.419
-4.177
-3.923
-3.657
-4.626
-4.395
-4.152
-3.897
-3.629
-4.604
-4.372
-4.127
-3.871
-3.602
-4.581
-4.348
-4.102
-3.844
-3.574
-4.558
-4.324
-4.077
-3.818
-3.547
-4.535
-4.300
-4.052
-3.791
-3.519
-4.512
-4.275
-4.026
-3.765
-3.491
-4.489
-4.251
-4.000
-3.738
-3.463
-4.466
-4.226
-3.975
-3.711
-3.435
-4.443
-4.202
-3.949
-3.684
-3.407
-4.419
-4.177
-3.923
-3.657
-3.379
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
200 9.288 9.341 9.395 9.448 9.501 9.555

210 9.822 9.876 9.930 9.984 10.038 10.092
220 10.362 10.417 10.471 10.525 10.580 10.634
230 10.907 10.962 11.017 11.072 11.127 11.182
240 11.458 11.513 11.569 11.624 11.680 11.735
9.608
10.146
10.689
11.237
11.791
9.662
10.200
10.743
11.292
11.846
9.715
10.254
10.798
11.347
11.902
9.769
10.308
10.853
11.403
11.958
9.822
10.362
10.907
11.458
12.013
200
210
220
230
240
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
-3.379
-3.089
-2.788
-2.476
-2.153
-3.350
-3.059
-2.757
-2.444
-2.120
-3.322
-3.030
-2.726
-2.412
-2.087
-3.293
-3.000
-2.695
-2.380
-2.054
-3.264
-2.970
-2.664
-2.348
-2.021
-3.235
-2.940
-2.633
-2.316
-1.987
-3.206
-2.910
-2.602
-2.283
-1.954
-3.177
-2.879
-2.571
-2.251
-1.920
-3.148
-2.849
-2.539
-2.218
-1.887
-3.118
-2.818
-2.507
-2.186
-1.853
-3.089
-2.788
-2.476
-2.153
-1.819
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
250
260
270
280
290
12.013
12.574
13.139
13.709
14.283
12.069
12.630
13.196
13.766
14.341
12.125
12.687
13.253
13.823
14.399
12.181
12.743
13.310
13.881
14.456
12.237
12.799
13.366
13.938
14.514
12.293
12.856
13.423
13.995
14.572
12.349
12.912
13.480
14.053
14.630
12.405
12.969
13.537
14.110
14.688
12.461
13.026
13.595
14.168
14.746
12.518
13.082
13.652
14.226
14.804
12.574
13.139
13.709
14.283
14.862
250
260
270
280
290
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
-1.819
-1.475
-1.121
-0.757
-0.383
-1.785
-1.440
-1.085
-0.720
-0.345
-1.751
-1.405
-1.049
-0.683
-0.307
-1.717
-1.370
-1.013
-0.646
-0.269
-1.683
-1.335
-0.976
-0.608
-0.231
-1.648
-1.299
-0.940
-0.571
-0.193
-1.614
-1.264
-0.904
-0.534
-0.154
-1.579
-1.228
-0.867
-0.496
-0.116
-1.545
-1.192
-0.830
-0.459
-0.077
-1.510
-1.157
-0.794
-0.421
-0.039
-1.475
-1.121
-0.757
-0.383
0.000
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
300
310
320
330
340
14.862
15.445
16.032
16.624
17.219
14.920
15.503
16.091
16.683
17.279
14.978
15.562
16.150
16.742
17.339
15.036
15.621
16.209
16.802
17.399
15.095
15.679
16.268
16.861
17.458
15.153
15.738
16.327
16.921
17.518
15.211
15.797
16.387
16.980
17.578
15.270
15.856
16.446
17.040
17.638
15.328
15.914
16.505
17.100
17.698
15.386
15.973
16.564
17.159
17.759
15.445
16.032
16.624
17.219
17.819
300
310
320
330
340
0
10
20
30
40
0.000
0.391
0.790
1.196
1.612
0.039
0.431
0.830
1.238
1.654
0.078
0.470
0.870
1.279
1.696
0.117
0.510
0.911
1.320
1.738
0.156
0.549
0.951
1.362
1.780
0.195
0.589
0.992
1.403
1.823
0.234
0.629
1.033
1.445
1.865
0.273
0.669
1.074
1.486
1.908
0.312
0.709
1.114
1.528
1.950
0.352
0.749
1.155
1.570
1.993
0.391
0.790
1.196
1.612
2.036
0
10
20
30
40
350
360
370
380
390
17.819
18.422
19.030
19.641
20.255
17.879
18.483
19.091
19.702
20.317
17.939
18.543
19.152
19.763
20.378
17.999
18.604
19.213
19.825
20.440
18.060
18.665
19.274
19.886
20.502
18.120
18.725
19.335
19.947
20.563
18.180
18.786
19.396
20.009
20.625
18.241
18.847
19.457
20.070
20.687
18.301
18.908
19.518
20.132
20.748
18.362
18.969
19.579
20.193
20.810
18.422
19.030
19.641
20.255
20.872
350
360
370
380
390
10
10
-4

2.036
2.468
2.909
3.358
3.814
-5
Extension
Grade
50
60
70
80
90
-6
-7
Copper
vs.
Copper-Nickel

Thermocouple Grade
328 to 662F
200 to 350C
Extension Grade
76 to 212F
60 to 100C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Mild Oxidizing, Reducing Vacuum or Inert; Good
Where Moisture Is Present; Low Temperature
and Cryogenic Applications
-8
Thermocouple
Grade
-3
-2
-1
Z-207

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 2642F
0 to 1450C
Extension Grade
32 to 300F
0 to 150C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes;
Beware of Contamination; High Temperature
Extension
Grade
Thermocouple
Grade
NONE
ESTABLISHED
Platinum-10% Rhodium
vs.
Platinum
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90

C
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
10
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
-0.236
-0.194
-0.150
-0.103
-0.053
-0.232
-0.190
-0.146
-0.098
-0.048
-0.228
-0.186
-0.141
-0.093
-0.042
-0.224
-0.181
-0.136
-0.088
-0.037
-0.219
-0.177
-0.132
-0.083
-0.032
-0.215
-0.173
-0.127
-0.078
-0.027
-0.211
-0.168
-0.122
-0.073
-0.021
-0.207
-0.164
-0.117
-0.068
-0.016
-0.203
-0.159
-0.113
-0.063
-0.011
-0.199
-0.155
-0.108
-0.058
-0.005
-0.194
-0.150
-0.103
-0.053
0.000
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
550
560
570
580
590
4.732
4.833
4.934
5.035
5.137
4.742
4.843
4.944
5.045
5.147
4.752
4.853
4.954
5.055
5.157
4.762
4.863
4.964
5.066
5.167
4.772
4.873
4.974
5.076
5.178
4.782
4.883
4.984
5.086
5.188
4.793
4.893
4.995
5.096
5.198
4.803
4.904
5.005
5.106
5.208
4.813
4.914
5.015
5.116
5.218
4.823
4.924
5.025
5.127
5.228
4.833
4.934
5.035
5.137
5.239
550
560
570
580
590
0
10
20
30
40
0.000
0.055
0.113
0.173
0.235
0.005
0.061
0.119
0.179
0.241
0.011
0.067
0.125
0.185
0.248
0.016
0.072
0.131
0.191
0.254
0.022
0.078
0.137
0.197
0.260
0.027
0.084
0.143
0.204
0.267
0.033
0.090
0.149
0.210
0.273
0.038
0.095
0.155
0.216
0.280
0.044
0.101
0.161
0.222
0.286
0.050
0.107
0.167
0.229
0.292
0.055
0.113
0.173
0.235
0.299
0
10
20
30
40
600
610
620
630
640
5.239
5.341
5.443
5.546
5.649
5.249
5.351
5.454
5.557
5.660
5.259
5.361
5.464
5.567
5.670
5.269
5.372
5.474
5.577
5.680
5.280
5.382
5.485
5.588
5.691
5.290
5.392
5.495
5.598
5.701
5.300
5.402
5.505
5.608
5.712
5.310
5.413
5.515
5.618
5.722
5.320
5.423
5.526
5.629
5.732
5.331
5.433
5.536
5.639
5.743
5.341
5.443
5.546
5.649
5.753
600
610
620
630
640
50
60
70
80
90
0.299
0.365
0.433
0.502
0.573
0.305
0.372
0.440
0.509
0.580
0.312
0.378
0.446
0.516
0.588
0.319
0.385
0.453
0.523
0.595
0.325
0.392
0.460
0.530
0.602
0.332
0.399
0.467
0.538
0.609
0.338
0.405
0.474
0.545
0.617
0.345
0.412
0.481
0.552
0.624
0.352
0.419
0.488
0.559
0.631
0.358
0.426
0.495
0.566
0.639
0.365
0.433
0.502
0.573
0.646
50
60
70
80
90
650
660
670
680
690
5.753
5.857
5.961
6.065
6.170
5.763
5.867
5.971
6.076
6.181
5.774
5.878
5.982
6.086
6.191
5.784
5.888
5.992
6.097
6.202
5.794
5.898
6.003
6.107
6.212
5.805
5.909
6.013
6.118
6.223
5.815
5.919
6.024
6.128
6.233
5.826
5.930
6.034
6.139
6.244
5.836
5.940
6.044
6.149
6.254
5.846
5.950
6.055
6.160
6.265
5.857
5.961
6.065
6.170
6.275
650
660
670
680
690
100
110
120
130
140
0.646
0.720
0.795
0.872
0.950
0.653
0.727
0.803
0.880
0.958
0.661
0.735
0.811
0.888
0.966
0.668
0.743
0.818
0.896
0.974
0.675
0.750
0.826
0.903
0.982
0.683
0.758
0.834
0.911
0.990
0.690
0.765
0.841
0.919
0.998
0.698
0.773
0.849
0.927
1.006
0.705
0.780
0.857
0.935
1.013
0.713
0.788
0.865
0.942
1.021
0.720
0.795
0.872
0.950
1.029
100
110
120
130
140
700
710
720
730
740
6.275
6.381
6.486
6.593
6.699
6.286
6.391
6.497
6.603
6.710
6.296
6.402
6.508
6.614
6.720
6.307
6.412
6.518
6.624
6.731
6.317
6.423
6.529
6.635
6.742
6.328
6.434
6.539
6.646
6.752
6.338
6.444
6.550
6.656
6.763
6.349
6.455
6.561
6.667
6.774
6.360
6.465
6.571
6.678
6.784
6.370
6.476
6.582
6.688
6.795
6.381
6.486
6.593
6.699
6.806
700
710
720
730
740
150
160
170
180
190
1.029
1.110
1.191
1.273
1.357
1.037
1.118
1.199
1.282
1.365
1.045
1.126
1.207
1.290
1.373
1.053
1.134
1.216
1.298
1.382
1.061
1.142
1.224
1.307
1.390
1.069
1.150
1.232
1.315
1.399
1.077
1.158
1.240
1.323
1.407
1.085
1.167
1.249
1.332
1.415
1.094
1.175
1.257
1.340
1.424
1.102
1.183
1.265
1.348
1.432
1.110
1.191
1.273
1.357
1.441
150
160
170
180
190
750
760
770
780
790
6.806
6.913
7.020
7.128
7.236
6.817
6.924
7.031
7.139
7.247
6.827
6.934
7.042
7.150
7.258
6.838
6.945
7.053
7.161
7.269
6.849
6.956
7.064
7.172
7.280
6.859
6.967
7.074
7.182
7.291
6.870
6.977
7.085
7.193
7.302
6.881
6.988
7.096
7.204
7.312
6.892
6.999
7.107
7.215
7.323
6.902
7.010
7.117
7.226
7.334
6.913
7.020
7.128
7.236
7.345
750
760
770
780
790
200
210
220
230
240
1.441
1.526
1.612
1.698
1.786
1.449
1.534
1.620
1.707
1.794
1.458
1.543
1.629
1.716
1.803
1.466
1.551
1.638
1.724
1.812
1.475
1.560
1.646
1.733
1.821
1.483
1.569
1.655
1.742
1.829
1.492
1.577
1.663
1.751
1.838
1.500
1.586
1.672
1.759
1.847
1.509
1.594
1.681
1.768
1.856
1.517
1.603
1.690
1.777
1.865
1.526
1.612
1.698
1.786
1.874
200
210
220
230
240
800
810
820
830
840
7.345
7.454
7.563
7.673
7.783
7.356
7.465
7.574
7.684
7.794
7.367
7.476
7.585
7.695
7.805
7.378
7.487
7.596
7.706
7.816
7.388
7.497
7.607
7.717
7.827
7.399
7.508
7.618
7.728
7.838
7.410
7.519
7.629
7.739
7.849
7.421
7.530
7.640
7.750
7.860
7.432
7.541
7.651
7.761
7.871
7.443
7.552
7.662
7.772
7.882
7.454
7.563
7.673
7.783
7.893
800
810
820
830
840
250
260
270
280
290
1.874
1.962
2.052
2.141
2.232
1.882
1.971
2.061
2.151
2.241
1.891
1.980
2.070
2.160
2.250
1.900
1.989
2.078
2.169
2.259
1.909
1.998
2.087
2.178
2.268
1.918
2.007
2.096
2.187
2.277
1.927
2.016
2.105
2.196
2.287
1.936
2.025
2.114
2.205
2.296
1.944
2.034
2.123
2.214
2.305
1.953
2.043
2.132
2.223
2.314
1.962
2.052
2.141
2.232
2.323
250
260
270
280
290
850
860
870
880
890
7.893
8.003
8.114
8.226
8.337
7.904
8.014
8.125
8.237
8.348
7.915
8.026
8.137
8.248
8.360
7.926
8.037
8.148
8.259
8.371
7.937
8.048
8.159
8.270
8.382
7.948
8.059
8.170
8.281
8.393
7.959
8.070
8.181
8.293
8.404
7.970
8.081
8.192
8.304
8.416
7.981
8.092
8.203
8.315
8.427
7.992
8.103
8.214
8.326
8.438
8.003
8.114
8.226
8.337
8.449
850
860
870
880
890
300
310
320
330
340
2.323
2.415
2.507
2.599
2.692
2.332
2.424
2.516
2.609
2.702
2.341
2.433
2.525
2.618
2.711
2.350
2.442
2.534
2.627
2.720
2.360
2.451
2.544
2.636
2.730
2.369
2.461
2.553
2.646
2.739
2.378
2.470
2.562
2.655
2.748
2.387
2.479
2.571
2.664
2.758
2.396
2.488
2.581
2.674
2.767
2.405
2.497
2.590
2.683
2.776
2.415
2.507
2.599
2.692
2.786
300
310
320
330
340
900
910
920
930
940
8.449
8.562
8.674
8.787
8.900
8.460
8.573
8.685
8.798
8.912
8.472
8.584
8.697
8.810
8.923
8.483
8.595
8.708
8.821
8.935
8.494
8.607
8.719
8.832
8.946
8.505
8.618
8.731
8.844
8.957
8.517
8.629
8.742
8.855
8.969
8.528
8.640
8.753
8.866
8.980
8.539
8.652
8.765
8.878
8.991
8.550
8.663
8.776
8.889
9.003
8.562
8.674
8.787
8.900
9.014
900
910
920
930
940
350
360
370
380
390
2.786
2.880
2.974
3.069
3.164
2.795
2.889
2.983
3.078
3.173
2.805
2.899
2.993
3.088
3.183
2.814
2.908
3.002
3.097
3.192
2.823
2.917
3.012
3.107
3.202
2.833
2.927
3.021
3.116
3.212
2.842
2.936
3.031
3.126
3.221
2.851
2.946
3.040
3.135
3.231
2.861
2.955
3.050
3.145
3.240
2.870
2.965
3.059
3.154
3.250
2.880
2.974
3.069
3.164
3.259
350
360
370
380
390
950
960
970
980
990
9.014
9.128
9.242
9.357
9.472
9.025
9.139
9.254
9.368
9.483
9.037
9.151
9.265
9.380
9.495
9.048
9.162
9.277
9.391
9.506
9.060
9.174
9.288
9.403
9.518
9.071
9.185
9.300
9.414
9.529
9.082
9.197
9.311
9.426
9.541
9.094
9.208
9.323
9.437
9.552
9.105
9.219
9.334
9.449
9.564
9.117
9.231
9.345
9.460
9.576
9.128
9.242
9.357
9.472
9.587
950
960
970
980
990
400
410
420
430
440
3.259
3.355
3.451
3.548
3.645
3.269
3.365
3.461
3.558
3.655
3.279
3.374
3.471
3.567
3.664
3.288
3.384
3.480
3.577
3.674
3.298
3.394
3.490
3.587
3.684
3.307
3.403
3.500
3.596
3.694
3.317
3.413
3.509
3.606
3.703
3.326
3.423
3.519
3.616
3.713
3.336
3.432
3.529
3.626
3.723
3.346
3.442
3.538
3.635
3.732
3.355
3.451
3.548
3.645
3.742
400
410
420
430
440
1000 9.587 9.599 9.610 9.622 9.633 9.645 9.656 9.668 9.680 9.691 9.703 1000
1010 9.703 9.714 9.726 9.737 9.749 9.761 9.772 9.784 9.795 9.807 9.819 1010
1020 9.819 9.830 9.842 9.853 9.865 9.877 9.888 9.900 9.911 9.923 9.935 1020
1030 9.935 9.946 9.958 9.970 9.981 9.993 10.005 10.016 10.028 10.040 10.051 1030
1040 10.051 10.063 10.075 10.086 10.098 10.110 10.121 10.133 10.145 10.156 10.168 1040
450
460
470
480
490
3.742
3.840
3.938
4.036
4.134
3.752
3.850
3.947
4.046
4.144
3.762
3.859
3.957
4.056
4.154
3.771
3.869
3.967
4.065
4.164
3.781
3.879
3.977
4.075
4.174
3.791
3.889
3.987
4.085
4.184
3.801
3.898
3.997
4.095
4.194
3.810
3.908
4.006
4.105
4.204
3.820
3.918
4.016
4.115
4.213
3.830
3.928
4.026
4.125
4.223
3.840
3.938
4.036
4.134
4.233
450
460
470
480
490
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
10.168
10.285
10.403
10.520
10.638
10.180
10.297
10.414
10.532
10.650
10.191
10.309
10.426
10.544
10.662
10.203
10.320
10.438
10.556
10.674
10.215
10.332
10.450
10.567
10.686
10.227
10.344
10.461
10.579
10.697
10.238
10.356
10.473
10.591
10.709
10.250
10.367
10.485
10.603
10.721
10.262
10.379
10.497
10.615
10.733
10.273
10.391
10.509
10.626
10.745
10.285
10.403
10.520
10.638
10.757
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
500
510
520
530
540
4.233
4.332
4.432
4.532
4.632
4.243
4.342
4.442
4.542
4.642
4.253
4.352
4.452
4.552
4.652
4.263
4.362
4.462
4.562
4.662
4.273
4.372
4.472
4.572
4.672
4.283
4.382
4.482
4.582
4.682
4.293
4.392
4.492
4.592
4.692
4.303
4.402
4.502
4.602
4.702
4.313
4.412
4.512
4.612
4.712
4.323
4.422
4.522
4.622
4.722
4.332
4.432
4.532
4.632
4.732
500
510
520
530
540
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
10.757
10.875
10.994
11.113
11.232
10.768
10.887
11.006
11.125
11.244
10.780
10.899
11.017
11.136
11.256
10.792
10.911
11.029
11.148
11.268
10.804
10.922
11.041
11.160
11.280
10.816
10.934
11.053
11.172
11.291
10.828
10.946
11.065
11.184
11.303
10.839
10.958
11.077
11.196
11.315
10.851
10.970
11.089
11.208
11.327
10.863
10.982
11.101
11.220
11.339
10.875
10.994
11.113
11.232
11.351
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
10
10
Z-208
S
9
Reference Tables
NONE
ESTABLISHED
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Thermocouple
Grade
vs.
Platinum
+
Extension
Grade

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 2642F
0 to 1450C
Extension Grade
32 to 300F
0 to 150C
LIMITS OF ERROR
10
10
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
11.351
11.471
11.590
11.710
11.830
11.363
11.483
11.602
11.722
11.842
11.375
11.495
11.614
11.734
11.854
11.387
11.507
11.626
11.746
11.866
11.399
11.519
11.638
11.758
11.878
11.411
11.531
11.650
11.770
11.890
11.423
11.542
11.662
11.782
11.902
11.435
11.554
11.674
11.794
11.914
11.447
11.566
11.686
11.806
11.926
11.459
11.578
11.698
11.818
11.939
11.471
11.590
11.710
11.830
11.951
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
15.582
15.702
15.822
15.942
16.062
15.594
15.714
15.834
15.954
16.074
15.606
15.726
15.846
15.966
16.086
15.618
15.738
15.858
15.978
16.098
15.630
15.750
15.870
15.990
16.110
15.642
15.762
15.882
16.002
16.122
15.654
15.774
15.894
16.014
16.134
15.666
15.786
15.906
16.026
16.146
15.678
15.798
15.918
16.038
16.158
15.690
15.810
15.930
16.050
16.170
15.702
15.822
15.942
16.062
16.182
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
11.951
12.071
12.191
12.312
12.433
11.963
12.083
12.203
12.324
12.445
11.975
12.095
12.216
12.336
12.457
11.987
12.107
12.228
12.348
12.469
11.999
12.119
12.240
12.360
12.481
12.011
12.131
12.252
12.372
12.493
12.023
12.143
12.264
12.384
12.505
12.035
12.155
12.276
12.397
12.517
12.047
12.167
12.288
12.409
12.529
12.059
12.179
12.300
12.421
12.542
12.071
12.191
12.312
12.433
12.554
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
16.182
16.301
16.420
16.539
16.658
16.194
16.313
16.432
16.551
16.670
16.205
16.325
16.444
16.563
16.682
16.217
16.337
16.456
16.575
16.694
16.229
16.349
16.468
16.587
16.706
16.241
16.361
16.480
16.599
16.718
16.253
16.373
16.492
16.611
16.729
16.265
16.385
16.504
16.623
16.741
16.277
16.396
16.516
16.634
16.753
16.289
16.408
16.527
16.646
16.765
16.301
16.420
16.539
16.658
16.777
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
12.554
12.675
12.796
12.917
13.038
12.566
12.687
12.808
12.929
13.050
12.578
12.699
12.820
12.941
13.062
12.590
12.711
12.832
12.953
13.074
12.602
12.723
12.844
12.965
13.086
12.614
12.735
12.856
12.977
13.098
12.626
12.747
12.868
12.989
13.111
12.638
12.759
12.880
13.001
13.123
12.650
12.771
12.892
13.014
13.135
12.662
12.783
12.905
13.026
13.147
12.675
12.796
12.917
13.038
13.159
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
16.777
16.895
17.013
17.131
17.249
16.789
16.907
17.025
17.143
17.261
16.801
16.919
17.037
17.155
17.272
16.812
16.931
17.049
17.167
17.284
16.824
16.943
17.061
17.178
17.296
16.836
16.954
17.072
17.190
17.308
16.848
16.966
17.084
17.202
17.319
16.860
16.978
17.096
17.214
17.331
16.872
16.990
17.108
17.225
17.343
16.883
17.002
17.120
17.237
17.355
16.895
17.013
17.131
17.249
17.366
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
13.159
13.280
13.402
13.523
13.644
13.171
13.292
13.414
13.535
13.657
13.183
13.305
13.426
13.547
13.669
13.195
13.317
13.438
13.559
13.681
13.208
13.329
13.450
13.572
13.693
13.220
13.341
13.462
13.584
13.705
13.232
13.353
13.474
13.596
13.717
13.244
13.365
13.487
13.608
13.729
13.256
13.377
13.499
13.620
13.742
13.268
13.390
13.511
13.632
13.754
13.280
13.402
13.523
13.644
13.766
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
17.366
17.483
17.600
17.717
17.832
17.378
17.495
17.612
17.728
17.844
17.390
17.507
17.623
17.740
17.855
17.401
17.518
17.635
17.751
17.867
17.413
17.530
17.647
17.763
17.878
17.425
17.542
17.658
17.775
17.890
17.437
17.553
17.670
17.786
17.901
17.448
17.565
17.682
17.798
17.913
17.460
17.577
17.693
17.809
17.924
17.472
17.588
17.705
17.821
17.936
17.483
17.600
17.717
17.832
17.947
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
13.766
13.887
14.009
14.130
14.251
13.778
13.899
14.021
14.142
14.263
13.790
13.911
14.033
14.154
14.276
13.802
13.924
14.045
14.166
14.288
13.814
13.936
14.057
14.178
14.300
13.826
13.948
14.069
14.191
14.312
13.839
13.960
14.081
14.203
14.324
13.851
13.972
14.094
14.215
14.336
13.863
13.984
14.106
14.227
14.348
13.875
13.996
14.118
14.239
14.360
13.887
14.009
14.130
14.251
14.373
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
17.947
18.061
18.174
18.285
18.395
17.959
18.073
18.185
18.297
18.406
17.970
18.084
18.196
18.308
18.417
17.982
18.095
18.208
18.319
18.428
17.993
18.107
18.219
18.330
18.439
18.004
18.118
18.230
18.341
18.449
18.016
18.129
18.241
18.352
18.460
18.027
18.140
18.252
18.362
18.471
18.039
18.152
18.263
18.373
18.482
18.050
18.163
18.274
18.384
18.493
18.061
18.174
18.285
18.395
18.503
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
14.373
14.494
14.615
14.736
14.857
14.385
14.506
14.627
14.748
14.869
14.397
14.518
14.639
14.760
14.881
14.409
14.530
14.651
14.773
14.894
14.421
14.542
14.664
14.785
14.906
14.433
14.554
14.676
14.797
14.918
14.445
14.567
14.688
14.809
14.930
14.457
14.579
14.700
14.821
14.942
14.470
14.591
14.712
14.833
14.954
14.482
14.603
14.724
14.845
14.966
14.494
14.615
14.736
14.857
14.978
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
1750 18.503 18.514 18.525 18.535 18.546 18.557 18.567 18.578 18.588 18.599 18.609 1750
1760 18.609 18.620 18.630 18.641 18.651 18.661 18.672 18.682 18.693
1760
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
14.978
15.099
15.220
15.341
15.461
14.990
15.111
15.232
15.353
15.473
15.002
15.123
15.244
15.365
15.485
15.015
15.135
15.256
15.377
15.497
15.027
15.148
15.268
15.389
15.509
15.039
15.160
15.280
15.401
15.521
15.051
15.172
15.292
15.413
15.534
15.063
15.184
15.304
15.425
15.546
15.075
15.196
15.317
15.437
15.558
15.087
15.208
15.329
15.449
15.570
15.099
15.220
15.341
15.461
15.582
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
10
Z-209
10

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 2642F
0 to 1450C
Extension Grade
32 to 300F
0 to 150C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Extension
Grade
Reference Tables
Thermocouple
Grade
NONE
ESTABLISHED
TYPE
vs.
Platinum
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90

C
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
10
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
-0.226
-0.188
-0.145
-0.100
-0.051
-0.223
-0.184
-0.141
-0.095
-0.046
-0.219
-0.180
-0.137
-0.091
-0.041
-0.215
-0.175
-0.132
-0.086
-0.036
-0.211
-0.171
-0.128
-0.081
-0.031
-0.208
-0.167
-0.123
-0.076
-0.026
-0.204
-0.163
-0.119
-0.071
-0.021
-0.200
-0.158
-0.114
-0.066
-0.016
-0.196
-0.154
-0.109
-0.061
-0.011
-0.192
-0.150
-0.105
-0.056
-0.005
-0.188
-0.145
-0.100
-0.051
0.000
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
550
560
570
580
590
5.021
5.133
5.245
5.357
5.470
5.033
5.144
5.256
5.369
5.481
5.044
5.155
5.267
5.380
5.493
5.055
5.166
5.279
5.391
5.504
5.066
5.178
5.290
5.402
5.515
5.077
5.189
5.301
5.414
5.527
5.088
5.200
5.312
5.425
5.538
5.099
5.211
5.323
5.436
5.549
5.111
5.222
5.335
5.448
5.561
5.122
5.234
5.346
5.459
5.572
5.133
5.245
5.357
5.470
5.583
550
560
570
580
590
0
10
20
30
40
0.000
0.054
0.111
0.171
0.232
0.005
0.060
0.117
0.177
0.239
0.011
0.065
0.123
0.183
0.245
0.016
0.071
0.129
0.189
0.251
0.021
0.077
0.135
0.195
0.258
0.027
0.082
0.141
0.201
0.264
0.032
0.088
0.147
0.207
0.271
0.038
0.094
0.153
0.214
0.277
0.043
0.100
0.159
0.220
0.284
0.049
0.105
0.165
0.226
0.290
0.054
0.111
0.171
0.232
0.296
0
10
20
30
40
600
610
620
630
640
5.583
5.697
5.812
5.926
6.041
5.595
5.709
5.823
5.938
6.053
5.606
5.720
5.834
5.949
6.065
5.618
5.731
5.846
5.961
6.076
5.629
5.743
5.857
5.972
6.088
5.640
5.754
5.869
5.984
6.099
5.652
5.766
5.880
5.995
6.111
5.663
5.777
5.892
6.007
6.122
5.674
5.789
5.903
6.018
6.134
5.686
5.800
5.915
6.030
6.146
5.697
5.812
5.926
6.041
6.157
600
610
620
630
640
50
60
70
80
90
0.296
0.363
0.431
0.501
0.573
0.303
0.369
0.438
0.508
0.581
0.310
0.376
0.445
0.516
0.588
0.316
0.383
0.452
0.523
0.595
0.323
0.390
0.459
0.530
0.603
0.329
0.397
0.466
0.537
0.610
0.336
0.403
0.473
0.544
0.618
0.343
0.410
0.480
0.552
0.625
0.349
0.417
0.487
0.559
0.632
0.356
0.424
0.494
0.566
0.640
0.363
0.431
0.501
0.573
0.647
50
60
70
80
90
650
660
670
680
690
6.157
6.273
6.390
6.507
6.625
6.169
6.285
6.402
6.519
6.636
6.180
6.297
6.413
6.531
6.648
6.192
6.308
6.425
6.542
6.660
6.204
6.320
6.437
6.554
6.672
6.215
6.332
6.448
6.566
6.684
6.227
6.343
6.460
6.578
6.695
6.238
6.355
6.472
6.589
6.707
6.250
6.367
6.484
6.601
6.719
6.262
6.378
6.495
6.613
6.731
6.273
6.390
6.507
6.625
6.743
650
660
670
680
690
100
110
120
130
140
0.647
0.723
0.800
0.879
0.959
0.655
0.731
0.808
0.887
0.967
0.662
0.738
0.816
0.895
0.976
0.670
0.746
0.824
0.903
0.984
0.677
0.754
0.832
0.911
0.992
0.685
0.761
0.839
0.919
1.000
0.693
0.769
0.847
0.927
1.008
0.700
0.777
0.855
0.935
1.016
0.708
0.785
0.863
0.943
1.025
0.715
0.792
0.871
0.951
1.033
0.723
0.800
0.879
0.959
1.041
100
110
120
130
140
700
710
720
730
740
6.743
6.861
6.980
7.100
7.220
6.755
6.873
6.992
7.112
7.232
6.766
6.885
7.004
7.124
7.244
6.778
6.897
7.016
7.136
7.256
6.790
6.909
7.028
7.148
7.268
6.802
6.921
7.040
7.160
7.280
6.814
6.933
7.052
7.172
7.292
6.826
6.945
7.064
7.184
7.304
6.838
6.956
7.076
7.196
7.316
6.849
6.968
7.088
7.208
7.328
6.861
6.980
7.100
7.220
7.340
700
710
720
730
740
150
160
170
180
190
1.041
1.124
1.208
1.294
1.381
1.049
1.132
1.217
1.303
1.389
1.058
1.141
1.225
1.311
1.398
1.066
1.149
1.234
1.320
1.407
1.074
1.158
1.242
1.329
1.416
1.082
1.166
1.251
1.337
1.425
1.091
1.175
1.260
1.346
1.433
1.099
1.183
1.268
1.355
1.442
1.107
1.191
1.277
1.363
1.451
1.116
1.200
1.285
1.372
1.460
1.124
1.208
1.294
1.381
1.469
150
160
170
180
190
750
760
770
780
790
7.340
7.461
7.583
7.705
7.827
7.352
7.473
7.595
7.717
7.839
7.364
7.485
7.607
7.729
7.851
7.376
7.498
7.619
7.741
7.864
7.389
7.510
7.631
7.753
7.876
7.401
7.522
7.644
7.766
7.888
7.413
7.534
7.656
7.778
7.901
7.425
7.546
7.668
7.790
7.913
7.437
7.558
7.680
7.802
7.925
7.449
7.570
7.692
7.815
7.938
7.461
7.583
7.705
7.827
7.950
750
760
770
780
790
200
210
220
230
240
1.469
1.558
1.648
1.739
1.831
1.477
1.567
1.657
1.748
1.840
1.486
1.575
1.666
1.757
1.849
1.495
1.584
1.675
1.766
1.858
1.504
1.593
1.684
1.775
1.868
1.513
1.602
1.693
1.784
1.877
1.522
1.611
1.702
1.794
1.886
1.531
1.620
1.711
1.803
1.895
1.540
1.629
1.720
1.812
1.905
1.549
1.639
1.729
1.821
1.914
1.558
1.648
1.739
1.831
1.923
200
210
220
230
240
800
810
820
830
840
7.950
8.073
8.197
8.321
8.446
7.962
8.086
8.209
8.334
8.459
7.974
8.098
8.222
8.346
8.471
7.987
8.110
8.234
8.359
8.484
7.999
8.123
8.247
8.371
8.496
8.011
8.135
8.259
8.384
8.509
8.024
8.147
8.272
8.396
8.521
8.036
8.160
8.284
8.409
8.534
8.048
8.172
8.296
8.421
8.546
8.061
8.185
8.309
8.434
8.559
8.073
8.197
8.321
8.446
8.571
800
810
820
830
840
250
260
270
280
290
1.923
2.017
2.112
2.207
2.304
1.933
2.027
2.121
2.217
2.313
1.942
2.036
2.131
2.226
2.323
1.951
2.046
2.140
2.236
2.333
1.961
2.055
2.150
2.246
2.342
1.970
2.064
2.159
2.255
2.352
1.980
2.074
2.169
2.265
2.362
1.989
2.083
2.179
2.275
2.371
1.998
2.093
2.188
2.284
2.381
2.008
2.102
2.198
2.294
2.391
2.017
2.112
2.207
2.304
2.401
250
260
270
280
290
850
860
870
880
890
8.571
8.697
8.823
8.950
9.077
8.584
8.710
8.836
8.963
9.090
8.597
8.722
8.849
8.975
9.103
8.609
8.735
8.861
8.988
9.115
8.622
8.748
8.874
9.001
9.128
8.634
8.760
8.887
9.014
9.141
8.647
8.773
8.899
9.026
9.154
8.659
8.785
8.912
9.039
9.167
8.672
8.798
8.925
9.052
9.179
8.685
8.811
8.937
9.065
9.192
8.697
8.823
8.950
9.077
9.205
850
860
870
880
890
300
310
320
330
340
2.401
2.498
2.597
2.696
2.796
2.410
2.508
2.607
2.706
2.806
2.420
2.518
2.617
2.716
2.816
2.430
2.528
2.626
2.726
2.826
2.440
2.538
2.636
2.736
2.836
2.449
2.547
2.646
2.746
2.846
2.459
2.557
2.656
2.756
2.856
2.469
2.567
2.666
2.766
2.866
2.479
2.577
2.676
2.776
2.876
2.488
2.587
2.686
2.786
2.886
2.498
2.597
2.696
2.796
2.896
300
310
320
330
340
900
910
920
930
940
9.205
9.333
9.461
9.590
9.720
9.218
9.346
9.474
9.603
9.733
9.230
9.359
9.487
9.616
9.746
9.243
9.371
9.500
9.629
9.759
9.256
9.384
9.513
9.642
9.772
9.269
9.397
9.526
9.655
9.785
9.282
9.410
9.539
9.668
9.798
9.294
9.423
9.552
9.681
9.811
9.307
9.436
9.565
9.694
9.824
9.320
9.449
9.578
9.707
9.837
9.333
9.461
9.590
9.720
9.850
900
910
920
930
940
350
360
370
380
390
2.896
2.997
3.099
3.201
3.304
2.906
3.007
3.109
3.212
3.315
2.916
3.018
3.119
3.222
3.325
2.926
3.028
3.130
3.232
3.335
2.937
3.038
3.140
3.242
3.346
2.947
3.048
3.150
3.253
3.356
2.957
3.058
3.160
3.263
3.366
2.967
3.068
3.171
3.273
3.377
2.977
3.079
3.181
3.284
3.387
2.987
3.089
3.191
3.294
3.397
2.997
3.099
3.201
3.304
3.408
350
360
370
380
390
950 9.850 9.863 9.876

960 9.980 9.993 10.006
970 10.111 10.124 10.137
980 10.242 10.255 10.268
990 10.374 10.387 10.400
9.889
10.019
10.150
10.282
10.413
9.902
10.032
10.163
10.295
10.427
9.915
10.046
10.177
10.308
10.440
9.928
10.059
10.190
10.321
10.453
9.941
10.072
10.203
10.334
10.466
9.954
10.085
10.216
10.347
10.480
9.967
10.098
10.229
10.361
10.493
9.980
10.111
10.242
10.374
10.506
950
960
970
980
990
400
410
420
430
440
3.408
3.512
3.616
3.721
3.827
3.418
3.522
3.627
3.732
3.838
3.428
3.533
3.637
3.742
3.848
3.439
3.543
3.648
3.753
3.859
3.449
3.553
3.658
3.764
3.869
3.460
3.564
3.669
3.774
3.880
3.470
3.574
3.679
3.785
3.891
3.480
3.585
3.690
3.795
3.901
3.491
3.595
3.700
3.806
3.912
3.501
3.606
3.711
3.816
3.922
3.512
3.616
3.721
3.827
3.933
400
410
420
430
440
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
10.506
10.638
10.771
10.905
11.039
10.519
10.652
10.785
10.918
11.052
10.532
10.665
10.798
10.932
11.065
10.546
10.678
10.811
10.945
11.079
10.559
10.692
10.825
10.958
11.092
10.572
10.705
10.838
10.972
11.106
10.585
10.718
10.851
10.985
11.119
10.599
10.731
10.865
10.998
11.132
10.612
10.745
10.878
11.012
11.146
10.625
10.758
10.891
11.025
11.159
10.638
10.771
10.905
11.039
11.173
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
450
460
470
480
490
3.933
4.040
4.147
4.255
4.363
3.944
4.050
4.158
4.265
4.373
3.954
4.061
4.168
4.276
4.384
3.965
4.072
4.179
4.287
4.395
3.976
4.083
4.190
4.298
4.406
3.986
4.093
4.201
4.309
4.417
3.997
4.104
4.211
4.319
4.428
4.008
4.115
4.222
4.330
4.439
4.018
4.125
4.233
4.341
4.449
4.029
4.136
4.244
4.352
4.460
4.040
4.147
4.255
4.363
4.471
450
460
470
480
490
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
11.173
11.307
11.442
11.578
11.714
11.186
11.321
11.456
11.591
11.727
11.200
11.334
11.469
11.605
11.741
11.213
11.348
11.483
11.618
11.754
11.227
11.361
11.496
11.632
11.768
11.240
11.375
11.510
11.646
11.782
11.253
11.388
11.524
11.659
11.795
11.267
11.402
11.537
11.673
11.809
11.280
11.415
11.551
11.686
11.822
11.294
11.429
11.564
11.700
11.836
11.307
11.442
11.578
11.714
11.850
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
500
510
520
530
540
4.471
4.580
4.690
4.800
4.910
4.482
4.591
4.701
4.811
4.922
4.493
4.602
4.712
4.822
4.933
4.504
4.613
4.723
4.833
4.944
4.515
4.624
4.734
4.844
4.955
4.526
4.635
4.745
4.855
4.966
4.537
4.646
4.756
4.866
4.977
4.548
4.657
4.767
4.877
4.988
4.558
4.668
4.778
4.888
4.999
4.569
4.679
4.789
4.899
5.010
4.580
4.690
4.800
4.910
5.021
500
510
520
530
540
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
11.850
11.986
12.123
12.260
12.397
11.863
12.000
12.137
12.274
12.411
11.877
12.013
12.150
12.288
12.425
11.891
12.027
12.164
12.301
12.439
11.904
12.041
12.178
12.315
12.453
11.918
12.054
12.191
12.329
12.466
11.931
12.068
12.205
12.342
12.480
11.945
12.082
12.219
12.356
12.494
11.959
12.096
12.233
12.370
12.508
11.972
12.109
12.246
12.384
12.521
11.986
12.123
12.260
12.397
12.535
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
10
10
Z-210
Reference Tables
NONE
ESTABLISHED
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Thermocouple
Grade
vs.
Platinum
+
Extension
Grade

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 2642F
0 to 1450C
Extension Grade
32 to 300F
0 to 150C
LIMITS OF ERROR
10
10
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
12.535
12.673
12.812
12.950
13.089
12.549
12.687
12.825
12.964
13.103
12.563
12.701
12.839
12.978
13.117
12.577
12.715
12.853
12.992
13.131
12.590
12.729
12.867
13.006
13.145
12.604
12.742
12.881
13.019
13.158
12.618
12.756
12.895
13.033
13.172
12.632
12.770
12.909
13.047
13.186
12.646
12.784
12.922
13.061
13.200
12.659
12.798
12.936
13.075
13.214
12.673
12.812
12.950
13.089
13.228
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
17.451
17.591
17.732
17.872
18.012
17.465
17.605
17.746
17.886
18.026
17.479
17.619
17.760
17.900
18.040
17.493
17.633
17.774
17.914
18.054
17.507
17.647
17.788
17.928
18.068
17.521
17.661
17.802
17.942
18.082
17.535
17.676
17.816
17.956
18.096
17.549
17.690
17.830
17.970
18.110
17.563
17.704
17.844
17.984
18.124
17.577
17.718
17.858
17.998
18.138
17.591
17.732
17.872
18.012
18.152
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
13.228
13.367
13.507
13.646
13.786
13.242
13.381
13.521
13.660
13.800
13.256
13.395
13.535
13.674
13.814
13.270
13.409
13.549
13.688
13.828
13.284
13.423
13.563
13.702
13.842
13.298
13.437
13.577
13.716
13.856
13.311
13.451
13.590
13.730
13.870
13.325
13.465
13.604
13.744
13.884
13.339
13.479
13.618
13.758
13.898
13.353
13.493
13.632
13.772
13.912
13.367
13.507
13.646
13.786
13.926
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
18.152
18.292
18.431
18.571
18.710
18.166
18.306
18.445
18.585
18.724
18.180
18.320
18.459
18.599
18.738
18.194
18.334
18.473
18.613
18.752
18.208
18.348
18.487
18.627
18.766
18.222
18.362
18.501
18.640
18.779
18.236
18.376
18.515
18.654
18.793
18.250
18.390
18.529
18.668
18.807
18.264
18.404
18.543
18.682
18.821
18.278
18.417
18.557
18.696
18.835
18.292
18.431
18.571
18.710
18.849
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
13.926
14.066
14.207
14.347
14.488
13.940
14.081
14.221
14.361
14.502
13.954
14.095
14.235
14.375
14.516
13.968
14.109
14.249
14.390
14.530
13.982
14.123
14.263
14.404
14.544
13.996
14.137
14.277
14.418
14.558
14.010
14.151
14.291
14.432
14.572
14.024
14.165
14.305
14.446
14.586
14.038
14.179
14.319
14.460
14.601
14.052
14.193
14.333
14.474
14.615
14.066
14.207
14.347
14.488
14.629
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
18.849
18.988
19.126
19.264
19.402
18.863
19.002
19.140
19.278
19.416
18.877
19.015
19.154
19.292
19.430
18.891
19.029
19.168
19.306
19.444
18.904
19.043
19.181
19.319
19.457
18.918
19.057
19.195
19.333
19.471
18.932
19.071
19.209
19.347
19.485
18.946
19.085
19.223
19.361
19.499
18.960
19.098
19.237
19.375
19.512
18.974
19.112
19.250
19.388
19.526
18.988
19.126
19.264
19.402
19.540
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
14.629
14.770
14.911
15.052
15.193
14.643
14.784
14.925
15.066
15.207
14.657
14.798
14.939
15.080
15.221
14.671
14.812
14.953
15.094
15.235
14.685
14.826
14.967
15.108
15.249
14.699
14.840
14.981
15.122
15.263
14.713
14.854
14.995
15.136
15.277
14.727
14.868
15.009
15.150
15.291
14.741
14.882
15.023
15.164
15.306
14.755
14.896
15.037
15.179
15.320
14.770
14.911
15.052
15.193
15.334
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
19.540
19.677
19.814
19.951
20.087
19.554
19.691
19.828
19.964
20.100
19.567
19.705
19.841
19.978
20.114
19.581
19.718
19.855
19.992
20.127
19.595
19.732
19.869
20.005
20.141
19.609
19.746
19.882
20.019
20.154
19.622
19.759
19.896
20.032
20.168
19.636
19.773
19.910
20.046
20.181
19.650
19.787
19.923
20.060
20.195
19.663
19.800
19.937
20.073
20.208
19.677
19.814
19.951
20.087
20.222
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
15.334
15.475
15.616
15.758
15.899
15.348
15.489
15.630
15.772
15.913
15.362
15.503
15.645
15.786
15.927
15.376
15.517
15.659
15.800
15.941
15.390
15.531
15.673
15.814
15.955
15.404
15.546
15.687
15.828
15.969
15.419
15.560
15.701
15.842
15.984
15.433
15.574
15.715
15.856
15.998
15.447
15.588
15.729
15.871
16.012
15.461
15.602
15.743
15.885
16.026
15.475
15.616
15.758
15.899
16.040
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
20.222
20.356
20.488
20.620
20.749
20.235
20.369
20.502
20.633
20.762
20.249
20.382
20.515
20.646
20.775
20.262
20.396
20.528
20.659
20.788
20.275
20.409
20.541
20.672
20.801
20.289
20.422
20.554
20.685
20.813
20.302
20.436
20.567
20.698
20.826
20.316
20.449
20.581
20.711
20.839
20.329
20.462
20.594
20.724
20.852
20.342
20.475
20.607
20.736
20.864
20.356
20.488
20.620
20.749
20.877
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
16.040
16.181
16.323
16.464
16.605
16.054
16.196
16.337
16.478
16.619
16.068
16.210
16.351
16.492
16.633
16.082
16.224
16.365
16.506
16.647
16.097
16.238
16.379
16.520
16.662
16.111
16.252
16.393
16.534
16.676
16.125
16.266
16.407
16.549
16.690
16.139
16.280
16.422
16.563
16.704
16.153
16.294
16.436
16.577
16.718
16.167
16.309
16.450
16.591
16.732
16.181
16.323
16.464
16.605
16.746
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
1750 20.877 20.890 20.902 20.915 20.928 20.940 20.953 20.965 20.978 20.990 21.003 1750
1760 21.003 21.015 21.027 21.040 21.052 21.065 21.077 21.089 21.101
1760
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
16.746
16.887
17.028
17.169
17.310
16.760
16.901
17.042
17.183
17.324
16.774
16.915
17.056
17.197
17.338
16.789
16.930
17.071
17.211
17.352
16.803
16.944
17.085
17.225
17.366
16.817
16.958
17.099
17.240
17.380
16.831
16.972
17.113
17.254
17.394
16.845
16.986
17.127
17.268
17.408
16.859
17.000
17.141
17.282
17.423
16.873
17.014
17.155
17.296
17.437
16.887
17.028
17.169
17.310
17.451
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
10
Z-211
10

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 3092F
0 to 1700C
Extension Grade
32 to 212F
0 to 100C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Standard: 0.5C over 800C
Special: NOT ESTABLISHED
Beware of Contamination; High Temperature;
Common Use in Glass Industry
Extension
Grade
Thermocouple
Grade
NONE
ESTABLISHED
vs.
Platinum-6% Rhodium
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90

C
0
10
20
30
40
0.000 0.000 0.000 -0.001

-0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002
-0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003
-0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
-0.001
-0.002
-0.003
-0.002
0.000
-0.001
-0.002
-0.002
-0.001
0.001
-0.001
-0.002
-0.002
-0.001
0.001
-0.001
-0.002
-0.002
-0.001
0.001
-0.002
-0.003
-0.002
-0.001
0.002
10
-0.002 -0.002
-0.003 -0.003
-0.002 -0.002
-0.001 0.000
0.002 0.002
10
0
10
20
30
40
600
610
620
630
640
1.792
1.852
1.913
1.975
2.037
1.798
1.858
1.919
1.981
2.043
1.804
1.864
1.925
1.987
2.050
1.810
1.870
1.931
1.993
2.056
1.816
1.876
1.937
1.999
2.062
1.822
1.882
1.944
2.006
2.069
1.828
1.888
1.950
2.012
2.075
1.834
1.894
1.956
2.018
2.082
1.840
1.901
1.962
2.025
2.088
1.846
1.907
1.968
2.031
2.094
1.852
1.913
1.975
2.037
2.101
600
610
620
630
640
50
60
70
80
90
0.002
0.006
0.011
0.017
0.025
0.003
0.007
0.012
0.018
0.026
0.003
0.007
0.012
0.019
0.026
0.003
0.008
0.013
0.020
0.027
0.004
0.008
0.014
0.020
0.028
0.004
0.009
0.014
0.021
0.029
0.004
0.009
0.015
0.022
0.030
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.022
0.031
0.005
0.010
0.016
0.023
0.031
0.006
0.011
0.017
0.024
0.032
0.006
0.011
0.017
0.025
0.033
50
60
70
80
90
650
660
670
680
690
2.101
2.165
2.230
2.296
2.363
2.107
2.171
2.237
2.303
2.370
2.113
2.178
2.243
2.309
2.376
2.120
2.184
2.250
2.316
2.383
2.126
2.191
2.256
2.323
2.390
2.133
2.197
2.263
2.329
2.397
2.139
2.204
2.270
2.336
2.403
2.146
2.210
2.276
2.343
2.410
2.152
2.217
2.283
2.350
2.417
2.158
2.224
2.289
2.356
2.424
2.165
2.230
2.296
2.363
2.431
650
660
670
680
690
100
110
120
130
140
0.033
0.043
0.053
0.065
0.078
0.034
0.044
0.055
0.066
0.079
0.035
0.045
0.056
0.068
0.081
0.036
0.046
0.057
0.069
0.082
0.037
0.047
0.058
0.070
0.084
0.038
0.048
0.059
0.072
0.085
0.039
0.049
0.060
0.073
0.086
0.040
0.050
0.062
0.074
0.088
0.041
0.051
0.063
0.075
0.089
0.042
0.052
0.064
0.077
0.091
0.043
0.053
0.065
0.078
0.092
100
110
120
130
140
700
710
720
730
740
2.431
2.499
2.569
2.639
2.710
2.437
2.506
2.576
2.646
2.717
2.444
2.513
2.583
2.653
2.724
2.451
2.520
2.590
2.660
2.731
2.458
2.527
2.597
2.667
2.738
2.465
2.534
2.604
2.674
2.746
2.472
2.541
2.611
2.681
2.753
2.479
2.548
2.618
2.688
2.760
2.485
2.555
2.625
2.696
2.767
2.492
2.562
2.632
2.703
2.775
2.499
2.569
2.639
2.710
2.782
700
710
720
730
740
150
160
170
180
190
0.092
0.107
0.123
0.141
0.159
0.094
0.109
0.125
0.142
0.161
0.095
0.110
0.127
0.144
0.163
0.096
0.112
0.128
0.146
0.165
0.098
0.113
0.130
0.148
0.166
0.099
0.115
0.132
0.150
0.168
0.101
0.117
0.134
0.151
0.170
0.102
0.118
0.135
0.153
0.172
0.104
0.120
0.137
0.155
0.174
0.106
0.122
0.139
0.157
0.176
0.107
0.123
0.141
0.159
0.178
150
160
170
180
190
750
760
770
780
790
2.782
2.854
2.928
3.002
3.078
2.789
2.862
2.935
3.010
3.085
2.796
2.869
2.943
3.017
3.093
2.803
2.876
2.950
3.025
3.100
2.811
2.884
2.958
3.032
3.108
2.818
2.891
2.965
3.040
3.116
2.825
2.898
2.973
3.047
3.123
2.833
2.906
2.980
3.055
3.131
2.840
2.913
2.987
3.062
3.138
2.847
2.921
2.995
3.070
3.146
2.854
2.928
3.002
3.078
3.154
750
760
770
780
790
200
210
220
230
240
0.178
0.199
0.220
0.243
0.267
0.180
0.201
0.222
0.245
0.269
0.182
0.203
0.225
0.248
0.271
0.184
0.205
0.227
0.250
0.274
0.186
0.207
0.229
0.252
0.276
0.188
0.209
0.231
0.255
0.279
0.190
0.212
0.234
0.257
0.281
0.192
0.214
0.236
0.259
0.284
0.195
0.216
0.238
0.262
0.286
0.197
0.218
0.241
0.264
0.289
0.199
0.220
0.243
0.267
0.291
200
210
220
230
240
800
810
820
830
840
3.154
3.230
3.308
3.386
3.466
3.161
3.238
3.316
3.394
3.474
3.169
3.246
3.324
3.402
3.482
3.177
3.254
3.331
3.410
3.490
3.184
3.261
3.339
3.418
3.498
3.192
3.269
3.347
3.426
3.506
3.200
3.277
3.355
3.434
3.514
3.207
3.285
3.363
3.442
3.522
3.215
3.292
3.371
3.450
3.530
3.223
3.300
3.379
3.458
3.538
3.230
3.308
3.386
3.466
3.546
800
810
820
830
840
250
260
270
280
290
0.291
0.317
0.344
0.372
0.401
0.294
0.320
0.347
0.375
0.404
0.296
0.322
0.349
0.377
0.407
0.299
0.325
0.352
0.380
0.410
0.301
0.328
0.355
0.383
0.413
0.304
0.330
0.358
0.386
0.416
0.307
0.333
0.360
0.389
0.419
0.309
0.336
0.363
0.392
0.422
0.312
0.338
0.366
0.395
0.425
0.314
0.341
0.369
0.398
0.428
0.317
0.344
0.372
0.401
0.431
250
260
270
280
290
850
860
870
880
890
3.546
3.626
3.708
3.790
3.873
3.554
3.634
3.716
3.798
3.882
3.562
3.643
3.724
3.807
3.890
3.570
3.651
3.732
3.815
3.898
3.578
3.659
3.741
3.823
3.907
3.586
3.667
3.749
3.832
3.915
3.594
3.675
3.757
3.840
3.923
3.602
3.683
3.765
3.848
3.932
3.610
3.692
3.774
3.857
3.940
3.618
3.700
3.782
3.865
3.949
3.626
3.708
3.790
3.873
3.957
850
860
870
880
890
300
310
320
330
340
0.431
0.462
0.494
0.527
0.561
0.434
0.465
0.497
0.530
0.564
0.437
0.468
0.500
0.533
0.568
0.440
0.471
0.503
0.537
0.571
0.443
0.474
0.507
0.540
0.575
0.446
0.478
0.510
0.544
0.578
0.449
0.481
0.513
0.547
0.582
0.452
0.484
0.517
0.550
0.585
0.455
0.487
0.520
0.554
0.589
0.458
0.490
0.523
0.557
0.592
0.462
0.494
0.527
0.561
0.596
300
310
320
330
340
900
910
920
930
940
3.957
4.041
4.127
4.213
4.299
3.965
4.050
4.135
4.221
4.308
3.974
4.058
4.144
4.230
4.317
3.982
4.067
4.152
4.239
4.326
3.991
4.075
4.161
4.247
4.334
3.999
4.084
4.170
4.256
4.343
4.008
4.093
4.178
4.265
4.352
4.016
4.101
4.187
4.273
4.360
4.024
4.110
4.195
4.282
4.369
4.033
4.118
4.204
4.291
4.378
4.041
4.127
4.213
4.299
4.387
900
910
920
930
940
350
360
370
380
390
0.596
0.632
0.669
0.707
0.746
0.599
0.636
0.673
0.711
0.750
0.603
0.639
0.677
0.715
0.754
0.607
0.643
0.680
0.719
0.758
0.610
0.647
0.684
0.723
0.762
0.614
0.650
0.688
0.727
0.766
0.617
0.654
0.692
0.731
0.770
0.621
0.658
0.696
0.735
0.774
0.625
0.662
0.700
0.738
0.778
0.628
0.665
0.703
0.742
0.782
0.632
0.669
0.707
0.746
0.787
350
360
370
380
390
950
960
970
980
990
4.387
4.475
4.564
4.653
4.743
4.396
4.484
4.573
4.662
4.753
4.404
4.493
4.582
4.671
4.762
4.413
4.501
4.591
4.680
4.771
4.422
4.510
4.599
4.689
4.780
4.431
4.519
4.608
4.698
4.789
4.440
4.528
4.617
4.707
4.798
4.448
4.537
4.626
4.716
4.807
4.457
4.546
4.635
4.725
4.816
4.466
4.555
4.644
4.734
4.825
4.475
4.564
4.653
4.743
4.834
950
960
970
980
990
400
410
420
430
440
0.787
0.828
0.870
0.913
0.957
0.791
0.832
0.874
0.917
0.961
0.795
0.836
0.878
0.922
0.966
0.799
0.840
0.883
0.926
0.970
0.803
0.844
0.887
0.930
0.975
0.807
0.849
0.891
0.935
0.979
0.811
0.853
0.896
0.939
0.984
0.815
0.857
0.900
0.944
0.988
0.819
0.861
0.904
0.948
0.993
0.824
0.866
0.909
0.953
0.997
0.828
0.870
0.913
0.957
1.002
400
410
420
430
440
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
4.834
4.926
5.018
5.111
5.205
4.843
4.935
5.027
5.120
5.214
4.853
4.944
5.037
5.130
5.223
4.862
4.954
5.046
5.139
5.233
4.871
4.963
5.055
5.148
5.242
4.880
4.972
5.065
5.158
5.252
4.889
4.981
5.074
5.167
5.261
4.898
4.990
5.083
5.176
5.270
4.908
5.000
5.092
5.186
5.280
4.917
5.009
5.102
5.195
5.289
4.926
5.018
5.111
5.205
5.299
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
450
460
470
480
490
1.002
1.048
1.095
1.143
1.192
1.007
1.053
1.100
1.148
1.197
1.011
1.057
1.105
1.153
1.202
1.016
1.062
1.109
1.158
1.207
1.020
1.067
1.114
1.163
1.212
1.025
1.071
1.119
1.167
1.217
1.030
1.076
1.124
1.172
1.222
1.034
1.081
1.129
1.177
1.227
1.039
1.086
1.133
1.182
1.232
1.043
1.090
1.138
1.187
1.237
1.048
1.095
1.143
1.192
1.242
450
460
470
480
490
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
5.299
5.394
5.489
5.585
5.682
5.308
5.403
5.499
5.595
5.692
5.318
5.413
5.508
5.605
5.702
5.327
5.422
5.518
5.614
5.711
5.337
5.432
5.528
5.624
5.721
5.346
5.441
5.537
5.634
5.731
5.356
5.451
5.547
5.643
5.740
5.365
5.460
5.556
5.653
5.750
5.375
5.470
5.566
5.663
5.760
5.384
5.480
5.576
5.672
5.770
5.394
5.489
5.585
5.682
5.780
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
500
510
520
530
540
1.242
1.293
1.344
1.397
1.451
1.247
1.298
1.350
1.402
1.456
1.252
1.303
1.355
1.408
1.462
1.257
1.308
1.360
1.413
1.467
1.262
1.313
1.365
1.418
1.472
1.267
1.318
1.371
1.424
1.478
1.272
1.324
1.376
1.429
1.483
1.277
1.329
1.381
1.435
1.489
1.282
1.334
1.387
1.440
1.494
1.288
1.339
1.392
1.445
1.500
1.293
1.344
1.397
1.451
1.505
500
510
520
530
540
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
5.780
5.878
5.976
6.075
6.175
5.789
5.887
5.986
6.085
6.185
5.799
5.897
5.996
6.095
6.195
5.809
5.907
6.006
6.105
6.205
5.819
5.917
6.016
6.115
6.215
5.828
5.927
6.026
6.125
6.225
5.838
5.937
6.036
6.135
6.235
5.848
5.947
6.046
6.145
6.245
5.858
5.956
6.055
6.155
6.256
5.868
5.966
6.065
6.165
6.266
5.878
5.976
6.075
6.175
6.276
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
550
560
570
580
590
1.505
1.561
1.617
1.675
1.733
1.511
1.566
1.623
1.680
1.739
1.516
1.572
1.629
1.686
1.745
1.522
1.578
1.634
1.692
1.750
1.527
1.583
1.640
1.698
1.756
1.533
1.589
1.646
1.704
1.762
1.539
1.595
1.652
1.709
1.768
1.544
1.600
1.657
1.715
1.774
1.550
1.606
1.663
1.721
1.780
1.555
1.612
1.669
1.727
1.786
1.561
1.617
1.675
1.733
1.792
550
560
570
580
590
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
6.276
6.377
6.478
6.580
6.683
6.286
6.387
6.488
6.591
6.693
6.296
6.397
6.499
6.601
6.704
6.306
6.407
6.509
6.611
6.714
6.316
6.417
6.519
6.621
6.724
6.326
6.427
6.529
6.632
6.735
6.336
6.438
6.539
6.642
6.745
6.346
6.448
6.550
6.652
6.755
6.356
6.458
6.560
6.663
6.766
6.367
6.468
6.570
6.673
6.776
6.377
6.478
6.580
6.683
6.786
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
10
Z-212
10
Reference Tables
NONE
ESTABLISHED
TYPE
vs.
Platinum-6% Rhodium
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Thermocouple
Grade
Extension
Grade

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 3092F
0 to 1700C
Extension Grade
32 to 212F
0 to 100C
LIMITS OF ERROR
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
6.786
6.890
6.995
7.100
7.205
6.797
6.901
7.005
7.110
7.216
6.807
6.911
7.016
7.121
7.226
6.818
6.922
7.026
7.131
7.237
6.828
6.932
7.037
7.142
7.247
10
6.838
6.942
7.047
7.152
7.258
6.849
6.953
7.058
7.163
7.269
6.859
6.963
7.068
7.173
7.279
6.869
6.974
7.079
7.184
7.290
6.880
6.984
7.089
7.194
7.300
6.890
6.995
7.100
7.205
7.311
10
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
10.679
10.796
10.913
11.029
11.146
10.691
10.808
10.924
11.041
11.158
10.703
10.819
10.936
11.053
11.169
10.714
10.831
10.948
11.064
11.181
10.726
10.843
10.959
11.076
11.193
10.738
10.854
10.971
11.088
11.205
10.749
10.866
10.983
11.099
11.216
10.761
10.877
10.994
11.111
11.228
10.773
10.889
11.006
11.123
11.240
10.784
10.901
11.018
11.134
11.251
10.796
10.913
11.029
11.146
11.263
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
7.311
7.417
7.524
7.632
7.740
7.322
7.428
7.535
7.643
7.751
7.332
7.439
7.546
7.653
7.761
7.343
7.449
7.557
7.664
7.772
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
7.848
7.957
8.066
8.176
8.286
7.859
7.968
8.077
8.187
8.298
7.870
7.979
8.088
8.198
8.309
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
8.397
8.508
8.620
8.731
8.844
8.408
8.519
8.631
8.743
8.855
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
8.956
9.069
9.182
9.296
9.410
8.967
9.080
9.194
9.307
9.421
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
9.524
9.639
9.753
9.868
9.984
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
10.099
10.215
10.331
10.447
10.563
10.111
10.226
10.342
10.458
10.575
10.122
10.238
10.354
10.470
10.586
10.134
10.249
10.365
10.482
10.598
10.145
10.261
10.377
10.493
10.609
10.157
10.273
10.389
10.505
10.621
10.168
10.284
10.400
10.516
10.633
10.180
10.296
10.412
10.528
10.644
10.192
10.307
10.423
10.540
10.656
10.203
10.319
10.435
10.551
10.668
10.215
10.331
10.447
10.563
10.679
10
7.353
7.460
7.567
7.675
7.783
7.364
7.471
7.578
7.686
7.794
7.375
7.482
7.589
7.697
7.805
7.385
7.492
7.600
7.707
7.816
7.396
7.503
7.610
7.718
7.827
7.407
7.514
7.621
7.729
7.837
7.417
7.524
7.632
7.740
7.848
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
11.263
11.380
11.497
11.614
11.731
11.275
11.392
11.509
11.626
11.743
11.286
11.403
11.520
11.637
11.754
11.298
11.415
11.532
11.649
11.766
11.310
11.427
11.544
11.661
11.778
11.321
11.438
11.555
11.673
11.790
11.333
11.450
11.567
11.684
11.801
11.345
11.462
11.579
11.696
11.813
11.357
11.474
11.591
11.708
11.825
11.368
11.485
11.602
11.719
11.836
11.380
11.497
11.614
11.731
11.848
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
7.881
7.990
8.099
8.209
8.320
7.892
8.001
8.110
8.220
8.331
7.903
8.012
8.121
8.231
8.342
7.914
8.023
8.132
8.242
8.353
7.924
8.034
8.143
8.253
8.364
7.935
8.045
8.154
8.264
8.375
7.946
8.056
8.165
8.275
8.386
7.957
8.066
8.176
8.286
8.397
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
11.848
11.965
12.082
12.199
12.316
11.860
11.977
12.094
12.211
12.327
11.871
11.988
12.105
12.222
12.339
11.883
12.000
12.117
12.234
12.351
11.895
12.012
12.129
12.246
12.363
11.907
12.024
12.141
12.257
12.374
11.918
12.035
12.152
12.269
12.386
11.930
12.047
12.164
12.281
12.398
11.942
12.059
12.176
12.292
12.409
11.953
12.070
12.187
12.304
12.421
11.965
12.082
12.199
12.316
12.433
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
8.419
8.530
8.642
8.754
8.866
8.430
8.542
8.653
8.765
8.877
8.441
8.553
8.664
8.776
8.889
8.453
8.564
8.675
8.787
8.900
8.464
8.575
8.687
8.799
8.911
8.475
8.586
8.698
8.810
8.922
8.486
8.597
8.709
8.821
8.934
8.497
8.608
8.720
8.832
8.945
8.508
8.620
8.731
8.844
8.956
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
12.433
12.549
12.666
12.782
12.898
12.444
12.561
12.677
12.794
12.910
12.456
12.572
12.689
12.805
12.921
12.468
12.584
12.701
12.817
12.933
12.479
12.596
12.712
12.829
12.945
12.491
12.607
12.724
12.840
12.956
12.503
12.619
12.736
12.852
12.968
12.514
12.631
12.747
12.863
12.980
12.526
12.642
12.759
12.875
12.991
12.538
12.654
12.770
12.887
13.003
12.549
12.666
12.782
12.898
13.014
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
8.979
9.092
9.205
9.319
9.433
8.990
9.103
9.216
9.330
9.444
9.001
9.114
9.228
9.342
9.456
9.013
9.126
9.239
9.353
9.467
9.024
9.137
9.251
9.364
9.478
9.035
9.148
9.262
9.376
9.490
9.047
9.160
9.273
9.387
9.501
9.058
9.171
9.285
9.398
9.513
9.069
9.182
9.296
9.410
9.524
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
13.014
13.130
13.246
13.361
13.476
13.026
13.142
13.257
13.373
13.488
13.037
13.153
13.269
13.384
13.499
13.049
13.165
13.280
13.396
13.511
13.061
13.176
13.292
13.407
13.522
13.072
13.188
13.304
13.419
13.534
13.084
13.200
13.315
13.430
13.545
13.095
13.211
13.327
13.442
13.557
13.107
13.223
13.338
13.453
13.568
13.119
13.234
13.350
13.465
13.580
13.130
13.246
13.361
13.476
13.591
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
9.536 9.547 9.558 9.570 9.581 9.593 9.604 9.616 9.627 9.639
9.650 9.662 9.673 9.684 9.696 9.707 9.719 9.730 9.742 9.753
9.765 9.776 9.788 9.799 9.811 9.822 9.834 9.845 9.857 9.868
9.880 9.891 9.903 9.914 9.926 9.937 9.949 9.961 9.972 9.984
9.995 10.007 10.018 10.030 10.041 10.053 10.064 10.076 10.088 10.099
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
1800 13.591 13.603 13.614 13.626 13.637 13.649 13.660 13.672 13.683 13.694 13.706 1800
1810 13.706 13.717 13.729 13.740 13.752 13.763 13.775 13.786 13.797 13.809 13.820 1810
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
Z-213
10

Thermocouple Grade
450 to 2372F
270 to 1300C
Extension Grade
32 to 392F
0 to 200C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Alternative to Type K; More Stable
at High Temperatures
Thermocouple
Grade
Reference Tables
Nickel-14.2%
Chromium-1.4% Silicon
vs.
Nickel-4.4% Silicon0.1% Magnesium
+
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Extension
Grade

C
-10
-9
10
-260 - 4.345 - 4.345 - 4.344 - 4.344 - 4.343 - 4.342 - 4.341 - 4.340 - 4.339 - 4.337 -4.336 -260
-250 -4.338 -4.334 -4.332 -4.330 -4.328 -4.326 -4.324 -4.321 -4.319 -4.318 -4.313 -250
300 9.341 9.377 9.412 9.448 9.483 9.519 9.554 9.590 9.625
310 9.696 9.732 9.768 9.803 9.839 9.875 9.910 9.946 9.982
320 10.054 10.089 10.125 10.161 10.197 10.233 10.269 10.305 10.341
330 10.413 10.449 10.485 10.521 10.557 10.593 10.629 10.665 10.701
340 10.774 10.810 10.846 10.882 10.918 10.955 10.991 11.027 11.064
9.661
10.018
10.377
10.737
11.100
9.696
10.054
10.413
10.774
11.136
300
310
320
330
340
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
-4.313
-4.277
-4.226
-4.162
-4.083
-4.310
-4.273
-4.221
-4.154
-4.074
-4.307
-4.268
-4.215
-4.147
-4.066
-4.304
-4.263
-4.209
-4.140
-4.057
-4.300
-4.258
-4.202
-4.132
-4.048
-4.297
-4.254
-4.196
-4.124
-4.038
-4.293
-4.248
-4.189
-4.116
-4.029
-4.289
-4.243
-4.183
-4.108
-4.020
-4.285
-4.238
-4.176
-4.100
-4.010
-4.281
-4.232
- 4.169
-4.091
-4.000
-4.277
-4.226
-4.162
-4.083
-3.990
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
350
360
370
380
390
11.136
11.501
11.867
12.234
12.603
11.173
11.537
11.903
12.271
12.640
11.209
11.574
11.940
12.308
12.677
11.245
1.610
11.977
12.345
12.714
11.282
11.647
12.013
12.382
12.751
11.318
11.683
12.050
12.418
12.788
11.355
11.720
12.087
12.455
12.825
11.391
11.757
12.124
12.492
12.862
11.428
11.793
12.160
12.529
12.899
11.464
11.830
12.197
12.566
12.937
11.501
11.867
12.234
12.603
12.974
350
360
370
380
390
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
-3.990
-3.884
-3.766
-3.634
-3.491
-3.980
-3.873
-3.753
-3.621
-3.476
-3.970
-3.862
-3.740
-3.607
-3.461
-3.960
-3.850
-3.728
-3.593
-3.446
-3.950
-3.838
-3.715
-3.578
-3.431
-3.939
-3.827
-3.702
-3.564
-3.415
-3.928
-3.815
-3.688
-3.550
-3.400
-3.918
-3.803
-3.675
-3.535
-3.384
-3.907
-3.790
-3.662
-3.521
-3.368
-3.898
-3.778
-3.648
-3.506
-3.352
-3.884
-3.786
-3.634
-3.491
-3.336
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
400
410
420
430
440
12.974
13.346
13.719
14.094
14.469
13.011
13.383
13.756
14.131
14.507
13.048
13.420
13.794
14.169
14.545
13.085
13.457
13.831
14.206
14.582
13.122
13.495
13.869
14.244
14.620
13.159
13.532
13.906
14.281
14.658
13.197
13.569
13.944
14.319
14.695
13.234
13.607
13.981
14.356
14.733
13.271
13.644
14.019
14.394
14.771
13.308
13.682
14.056
14.432
14.809
13.346
13.719
14.094
14.469
14.846
400
410
420
430
440
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
-3.336
-3.171
-2.994
-2.808
-2.612
-3.320
-3.153
-2.976
-2.789
-2.592
-3.304
-3.136
-2.958
-2.769
-2.571
-3.288
-3.119
-2.939
-2.750
-2.551
-3.271
-3.101
-2.921
-2.730
-2.531
-3.255
-3.084
-2.902
-2.711
-2.510
-3.238
-3.066
-2.883
-2.691
-2.490
-3.221
-3.048
-2.865
-2.672
-2.469
-3.205
-3.030
-2.846
-2.652
-2.448
-3.188
-3.012
-2.827
-2.632
-2.428
-3.171
-2.994
-2.808
-2.612
-2.407
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
450
460
470
480
490
14.848
15.225
15.604
15.984
16.366
14.884
15.262
15.642
16.022
16.404
14.922
15.300
15.680
16.060
16.442
14.960
15.338
15.718
I 6.099
16.480
14.998
15.376
15.756
16.137
16.518
15.035
15.414
15.794
16.175
16.557
15.073
15.452
15.832
16.213
16.595
15.111
15.490
15.870
16.251
16.633
15.149
15.528
15.908
16.289
16.671
15.187
15.566
15.946
16.327
16.710
15.225
15.604
15.984
16.366
16.748
450
460
470
480
490
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
-2.407
-2.193
-1.972
-1.744
-1.509
-2.386
-2.172
-1.950
-1.721
-1.485
-2.385
-2.150
-1.927
-1.698
-1.462
-2.344
-2.128
-1.905
-1.674
-1.438
-2.322
-2.106
-1.882
-1.651
-1.414
-2.301
-2.084
-1.859
-1.627
-1.390
-2.280
-2.082
-1.836
-1.604
-1.366
-2.258
-2. 039
-1.813
-1.580
-1.341
-2.237
-2.017
-1.790
-1.557
-1.317
-2.215
-1.995
-1.767
-1.533
-1.293
-2.193
-1.972
-1.744
-1.509
-1.269
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
500
510
520
530
540
16.748
17.131
17.515
17.900
18.286
16.786
17.169
17.554
17.938
18.324
I 6.824
17.208
17.592
17.977
18.363
16.883
17.246
17.630
18.016
18.401
16.901
17.285
17.669
18.054
18.440
16.939
17.323
17.707
18.093
18.479
16.978
17.361
17.746
18.131
18.517
17.016
17.400
17.784
18.170
18.556
17.054
17.438
17.823
18.208
18.595
17.093
17.477
17.861
18.247
18.633
17.131
17.515
17.900
18.286
18.672
Soo
510
520
530
540
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
-1.269
-1.023
-0.772
-0.518
-0.260
-1.244
-0.998
-0.747
-0.492
-0.234
-1.220
-0.973
-0.722
-0.467
-0.209
-1.195
-0.948
-0.696
-0.441
-0.183
-1.171
-0.923
-0.671
-0.415
-0.157
-1.146
-0.898
-0.646
-0.390
-0.131
-1.122
-0.873
-0.620
-0.364
-0.104
-1.097
-0.848
-0.595
-0.338
-0.078
-1.072
-0.823
-0.589
-0.312
-0.052
-1.048
-0.798
-0.544
-0.286
-0.026
-1.023
-0.772
-0.518
-0.260
0.000
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
550
560
570
580
590
18.672
19.059
19.447
19.835
20.224
18.711
19.096
19.485
19.874
20.263
18.749
19.136
19.524
19.913
20.302
18.788
19.175
19.563
19.952
20.341
18.827
19.214
19.602
19.990
20.379
18.865
19.253
19.641
20.029
20.418
18.904
19.292
19.680
20.068
20.457
18.943
19.330
19.718
20.107
20.496
18.982
19.369
19.757
20.146
20.535
19.020
19.408
19.796
20.185
20.574
19.059
19.447
19.835
20.224
20.613
550
560
570
580
590
0
10
20
30
40
0.000
0.261
0.525
0.793
1.065
0.026
0.287
0.552
0.820
1.092
0.052
0.313
0.578
0.847
1.119
0.078
0.340
O.605
0.874
1.147
0.104 0.130
0.366 0.393
0.632 O.659
0.901 0.928
1.174 1.202
0.156
0.419
0.685
0.955
1.229
0.182
0.446
0.712
0.983
1.257
0.208
0.472
0.739
1.010
1.284
0.235
0.499
0.766
1.037
1.312
0.261
0.525
0.793
1.065
1.340
0
10
20
30
40
600
610
620
630
640
20.613
21.003
21.393
21.784
22.175
20.652
21.042
21.432
21.823
22.214
20.69l
21.081
21.471
21.862
22.253
20.730
21.120
21.510
21.901
22.292
20.769
21.159
21.549
21.940
22.331
20.808
21.198
21.588
21.979
22.370
20.847
21.237
21.628
22.018
22.410
20.886
21.276
21.667
22.058
22.449
20.925
21.315
21.706
22.097
22.488
20.964
21.354
21.745
22.136
22.527
21.003
21.393
21.784
22.175
22.566
600
610
620
630
640
50
60
70
80
90
1.340
1.619
1.902
2.189
2.480
1.368
1.647
1.930
2.218
2.509
1.395
1.675
1.959
2.247
2.538
1.423
1.703
1.988
2.276
2.568
1.451
1.732
2.016
2.305
2.597
1.479
1.760
2.045
2.334
2.826
1.507
1.788
2.074
2.363
2.656
1.535
1.817
2.102
2.392
2.685
1.563
1.845
2.131
2.421
2.715
1.501
1.873
2.160
2.450
2.744
1.619
1.902
2.189
2.480
2.774
50
60
70
80
90
650
660
670
680
690
22.556
22.958
23.350
23.742
24.134
22.605
22.997
23.389
23.781
24.173
22.644
23.036
23.428
23.820
24.213
22.684
23.075
23.467
23.860
24.252
22.723
23.115
23.507
23.899
24.291
22.762
23.154
23.546
23.938
24.330
22.801
23.193
23.585
23.977
24.370
22.840
23.232
23.624
24.016
24.409
22.879
23.271
23.663
24.056
24.448
22.919
23.311
23.703
24.095
24.487
22.958
23.350
23.742
24.134
24.527
650
660
670
680
690
100
110
120
130
140
2.774
3.072
3.374
3.680
3.989
2.804
3.102
3.405
3.711
4.020
2.833
3.133
3.435
3.742
4.051
2.863
3.163
3.466
3.772
4.083
2.893
3.193
3.496
3.803
4.114
2.923
3.223
3.527
3.834
4.145
2.953
3.253
3.557
3.865
4.176
2.983
3.283
3.588
3.896
4.208
3.012
3.314
3.619
3.927
4.239
3.042
3.344
3.649
3.958
4.270
3.072
3.374
3.680
3.989
4.302
100
110
120
130
140
700
710
720
730
740
24.527
24.919
25.312
25.705
26.098
24.566
24.959
25.351
25.744
26.137
24.605
24.998
25.391
25.783
26.176
24.644
25.037
25.430
25.823
26.216
24.684
25.076
25.469
25.862
26.255
24.723
25.116
25.508
25.901
26.294
24.762
25.155
25.548
25.941
26.333
24.801
25.194
25.587
25.980
26.373
24.841
25.233
25.626
26.019
26.412
24.880
25.273
25.666
26.058
26.451
24.919
25.312
25.705
26.098
26.491
700
710
720
730
740
150
160
170
180
190
4.302
4.618
4.937
5.259
5.585
4.333
4.650
4.969
5.292
5.618
4.365
4.681
5.001
5.324
5.650
4.396
4.713
5.033
5.357
5.683
4.428
4.745
5.066
5.389
5.716
4.459
4.777
5.098
5.422
5.749
4.491
4.809
5.130
5.454
5.782
4.523
4.841
5.162
5.487
5.815
4.554
4.873
5.195
5.520
5.847
4.586
4.905
5.227
5.552
5.880
4.618
4.937
5.259
5.585
5.913
I5O
160
170
ISO
190
750
760
770
780
790
26.491
26.883
27.276
27.669
28.062
26.530
26.923
27.316
27.708
28.101
26.569
26.962
27.355
27.748
28.140
26.608
27.001
27.394
27.787
28.180
26.648
27.041
27.433
27.826
28.219
26.687
27.080
27.473
27.866
28.258
26.726
27.119
27.512
27.905
28.297
26.766
27.158
27.551
27.944
28.337
26.805
27.198
27.591
27.983
28.376
26.844
27.237
27.630
28.023
28.415
26.883
27.276
27.669
28.062
28.455
75O
760
770
780
790
200
210
220
230
240
5.913 5.946
6.245 6.278
6.579 68.612
6.916 6.949
7.255 7.289
5.979
6.311
e.e"
6.983
7.323
6.013
6.345
6.680
7.017
7.357
6.046 6.079
6.378 6.411
8.713 15.747
7.051 7.085
7.392 7.426
6.112
6.445
6.781
7.119
7.460
6.145
6.478
6.814
7.153
7.494
6.178
6.512
6.848
7.187
7.528
6.211
6.545
6.882
7.221
7.583
6.245
6.579
6.918
7.255
7.597
200
210
220
230
240
800
810
820
830
840
28.455
28.847
29.239
29.632
30.024
28.494
28.886
29.279
29.671
30.063
28.533
28.926
29.318
29.710
30.102
28.572
28.965
29.357
29.749
30.141
28.612
29.004
29.396
29.789
30.181
28.651
29.043
29.436
29.828
30.220
28.690
29.083
29.475
29.867
30.259
28.729
29.122
29.514
29.906
30.298
28.769
29.161
29.553
29.945
30.337
28.808
29.200
29.592
29.985
30.376
28.847
29.239
29.632
30.024
30.416
800
810
820
830
840
250
260
270
280
290
7.597
7.941
8.288
8.637
8.988
7.666
8.010
8.358
8.707
9.058
7.700
8.045
8.392
8.742
9.094
7.734
8.080
8.427
8.777
9.129
7.803
8.149
8.497
8.847
9.200
7.838
8.184
8.532
8.882
9.235
7.872
8.218
8.567
8.918
9.270
7.907
8.253
8.602
8.953
9.306
7.941
8.288
8.637
8.988
9.341
250
260
270
280
290
850
860
870
880
890
30.416
30.807
31.199
31.590
31.981
30.455
30.846
31.238
31.629
32.020
30.494
30.886
31.277
31.668
32.059
30.533
30.925
31.316
31.707
32.098
30.572
30.964
31.355
31.746
32.137
30.611
31.003
31.394
31.785
32.176
30.651
31.042
31.433
31.824
32.215
30.690
31.081
31.473
31.863
32.254
30.729
31.120
31.512
31.903
32.293
30.768
31.160
31.551
31.942
32.332
30.807
31.199
31.590
31.981
32.371
850
860
870
880
890
10
10
7.631
7.976
8.323
8.672
9.023
-8
-7
-6
-5
7.769
8.114
8.462
8.812
9.164
-4
-3
-2
-1
Z-214
Reference Tables
Nickel-14.2%
vs.
+
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Thermocouple
Grade
Extension
Grade

Thermocouple Grade
450 to 2372F
270 to 1300C
Extension Grade
32 to 392F
0 to 200C
LIMITS OF ERROR
10
10
900
910
920
930
940
32.371
32.761
33.151
33.541
33.930
32.410
32.800
33.190
33.580
33.969
32.449
32.839
33.229
33.619
34.008
32.488
32.878
33.268
33.658
34.047
32.527
32.917
33.307
33.697
34.086
32.566
32.956
33.346
33.736
34.124
32.605
32.995
33.385
33.774
34.163
32.644
33.034
33.424
33.813
34.202
32.683
33.073
33.463
33.852
34.241
32.722
33.112
33.502
33.891
34.280
32.761
33.151
33.541
33.930
34.319
900
910
920
930
940
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
41.976
42.352
42.727
43.101
43.474
42.014
42.390
42.764
43.138
43.511
42.052
42.427
42.802
43.176
43.549
42.089
42.465
42.839
43.213
43.586
42.127
42.502
42.877
43.250
43.623
42.164
42.540
42.914
43.288
43.660
42.202
42.577
42.951
43.325
43.698
42.239
42.614
42.989
43.362
43.735
42.277
42.652
43.026
43.399
43.772
42.314
42.689
43.064
43.437
43.809
42.352
42.727
43.101
43.474
43.846
1150
1160
1170
1190
1190
950
960
970
980
990
34.319
34.707
35.095
35.482
35.869
34.358
34.746
35.134
35.521
35.908
34.396
34.785
35.172
35.560
35.946
34.435
34.823
35.211
35.598
35.985
34.474
34.862
35.250
35.637
36.024
34.513
34.901
35.289
35.676
36.062
34.552
34.940
35.327
35.714
36.101
34.591
34.979
35.366
35.753
36.140
34.629
35.017
35.405
35.792
36.178
34.668
35.056
35.444
35.831
36.217
34.707
35.095
35.482
35.889
36.256
950
960
970
980
990
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
43.846
44.218
44.588
44.958
45.326
43.884
44.255
44.625
44.995
45.363
43.921
44.292
44.662
45.032
45.400
43.958
44.329
44.699
45.069
45.437
43.995
44.366
44.736
45.105
45.474
44.032
44.403
44.773
45.142
45.510
44.069
44.440
44.810
45.179
45.547
44.106
44.477
44.847
45.216
45.584
44.144
44.514
44.884
45.253
45.621
44.181
44.551
44.921
45.290
45.657
44.218
44.551
44.958
45.326
45.694
1900
1210
1220
1230
1240
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
36.256
36.841
37.027
37.411
37.795
38.294
36.680
37.065
37.450
37.834
36.333
36.718
37.104
37.488
37.872
36.371
38.757
37.142
37.527
37.911
36.410
38.796
37.181
37.565
37.949
36.449
38.834
37.219
37.603
37.987
36.487
36.873
37.258
37.642
38.026
36.526
36.911
37.296
37.680
38.064
36.564
36.950
37.334
37.719
38.102
36.603
36.988
37.373
37.757
38.141
36.641
37.027
37.411
37.795
38.179
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
45.694
46.060
46.425
46.789
47.152
45.731
46.097
46.462
46.826
47.188
45.767
46.133
46.498
46.862
47.224
45.804
46.170
46.535
46.898
47.260
45.841
46.207
46.571
46.935
47.296
45.877
46.243
46.608
46.971
47.333
45.914
46.280
46.844
47.007
47.369
45.951
46.316
46.880
47.043
47.405
45.987
46.353
46.717
47.079
47.441
46.024
46.389
46.753
47.116
47.477
46.080
46.425
46.789
47.152
47.513
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
38.179
38.562
38.944
39.326
39.708
38.217
38.600
38.982
39.364
39.744
38.256
38.638
39.020
39.402
39.783
38.294
38.677
39.059
39.440
39.821
38.332
38.715
39.097
39.478
39.859
38.370
38.753
39.135
39.516
39.897
38.409
38.791
39.173
30.554
39.935
38.447
38.829
39.211
39.592
39.973
38.485
38.868
39.249
39.630
40.011
38.524
38.906
39.287
39.668
40.049
38.562
38.944
39.326
39.706
40.087
1050
1060
1070
1000
1090
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
40.087
40.466
40.845
41.223
41.600
40.125
40.504
40.883
41.260
41.638
40.163
40.542
40.920
41.298
41.675
40.201
40.580
40.958
41.336
41.713
40.238
40.818
40.996
41.374
41.751
40.276
40.655
41.034
41.411
41.788
40.314
40.693
41.072
41.449
41.826
40.352
40.731
41.109
41.487
41.864
40.390
40.769
41.147
41.525
41.901
40.428
40.807
41.185
41.562
41.939
40.466
40.845
41.223
41.6OO
41.976
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
10
10
Z-215

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 1382F
0 to 750C
Extension Grade
32 to 392F
0 to 200C
LIMITS OF ERROR
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES F
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32F
Thermocouple
Grade
Reference Tables
TYPE
Iron
vs.
Copper-Nickel
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Extension
Grade

F
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-340
-330
-320
-310
-300
-8.030
-7.915
-7.791
-7.659
-8.019
-7.903
-7.778
-7.645
-8.008
-7.890
-7.765
-7.632
-7.996
-7.878
-7.752
-7.618
-8.095
-7.985
-7.866
-7.739
-7.604
-8.085
-7.973
-7.854
-7.726
-7.590
-8.074
-7.962
-7.841
-7.713
-7.576
-8.063
-7.950
-7.829
-7.699
-7.562
-8.052
-7.938
-7.816
-7.686
-7.548
-8.041
-7.927
-7.804
-7.672
-7.534
-8.030
-7.915
-7.791
-7.659
-7.519
-340
-330
-320
-310
-300
300
310
320
330
340
7.949
8.255
8.562
8.869
9.177
-290
-280
-270
-260
-250
-7.519
-7.373
-7.219
-7.058
-6.890
-7.505
-7.357
-7.203
-7.041
-6.873
-7.491
-7.342
-7.187
-7.025
-6.856
-7.476
-7.327
-7.171
-7.008
-6.839
-7.462
-7.312
-7.155
-6.991
-6.821
-7.447
-7.296
-7.139
-6.975
-6.804
-7.432
-7.281
-7.123
-6.958
-6.787
-7.417
-7.265
-7.107
-6.941
-6.769
-7.403
-7.250
-7.090
-6.924
-6.752
-7.388
-7.234
-7.074
-6.907
-6.734
-7.373
-7.219
-7.058
-6.890
-6.716
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
-6.716
-6.536
-6.351
-6.159
-5.962
-6.699
-6.518
-6.332
-6.140
-5.942
-6.681
-6.500
-6.313
-6.120
-5.922
-6.663
-6.481
-6.294
-6.101
-5.902
-6.645
-6.463
-6.275
-6.081
-5.882
-6.627
-6.444
-6.256
-6.061
-5.862
-6.609
-6.426
-6.236
-6.042
-5.842
-6.591
-6.407
-6.217
-6.022
-5.821
-6.573
-6.388
-6.198
-6.002
-5.801
-6.555
-6.370
-6.179
-5.982
-5.781
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
-5.760
-5.553
-5.341
-5.125
-4.903
-5.740
-5.532
-5.320
-5.103
-4.881
-5.719
-5.511
-5.298
-5.081
-4.859
-5.699
-5.490
-5.277
-5.059
-4.836
-5.678
-5.469
-5.255
-5.037
-4.814
-5.657
-5.448
-5.233
-5.015
-4.791
-5.637
-5.426
-5.212
-4.992
-4.769
-5.616
-5.405
-5.190
-4.970
-4.746
-5.595
-5.384
-5.168
-4.948
-4.724
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
-4.678
-4.449
-4.215
-3.978
-3.737
-4.655
-4.425
-4.192
-3.954
-3.713
-4.633
-4.402
-4.168
-3.930
-3.688
-4.610
-4.379
-4.144
-3.906
-3.664
-4.587
-4.356
-4.121
-3.882
-3.640
-4.564
-4.332
-4.097
-3.858
-3.615
-4.541
-4.309
-4.073
-3.834
-3.591
-4.518
-4.286
-4.050
-3.810
-3.566
-90
-80
-70
-60
- 50
-3.493
-3.245
-2.994
-2.740
-2.483
-3.468
-3.220
-2.969
-2.714
-2.457
-3.443
-3.195
-2.943
-2.689
-2.431
-3.419
-3.170
-2.918
-2.663
-2.405
-3.394
-3.145
-2.893
-2.638
-2.379
-3.369
-3.120
-2.867
-2.612
-2.353
-3.344
-3.095
-2.842
-2.586
-2.327
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
-2.223
-1.961
-1.695
-1.428
-1.158
-2.197
-1.934
-1.669
-1.401
-1.131
-2.171
-1.908
-1.642
-1.374
-1.104
-2.145
-1.881
-1.615
-1.347
-1.076
-2.118
-1.855
-1.589
-1.320
-1.049
-2.092
-1.828
-1.562
-1.293
-1.022
-2.066
-1.802
-1.535
-1.266
-0.995
0
10
20
30
40
-0.886
-0.611
-0.334
-0.056
0.225
50
60
70
80
90
0.507
0.791
1.076
1.364
1.652
0.535
0.819
1.105
1.392
1.681
0.563
0.848
1.134
1.421
1.710
0.592
0.876
1.162
1.450
1.739
0.620
0.905
1.191
1.479
1.768
0.649
0.933
1.220
1.508
1.797
0.677
0.962
1.249
1.537
1.826
0.705
0.991
1.277
1.566
1.855
0.734
1.019
1.306
1.594
1.884
0.762
1.048
1.335
1.623
1.913
100
110
120
130
140
1.942
2.234
2.527
2.821
3.116
1.972
2.263
2.556
2.850
3.145
2.001
2.292
2.585
2.880
3.175
2.030
2.322
2.615
2.909
3.204
2.059
2.351
2.644
2.938
3.234
2.088
2.380
2.673
2.968
3.264
2.117
2.409
2.703
2.997
3.293
2.146
2.439
2.732
3.027
3.323
2.175
2.468
2.762
3.057
3.353
150
160
170
180
190
3.412
3.709
4.007
4.306
4.606
3.442
3.739
4.037
4.336
4.636
3.471
3.769
4.067
4.366
4.666
3.501
3.798
4.097
4.396
4.696
3.531
3.828
4.127
4.426
4.726
3.560
3.858
4.157
4.456
4.757
3.590
3.888
4.187
4.486
4.787
3.620
3.918
4.217
4.516
4.817
200
210
220
230
240
4.907
5.209
5.511
5.814
6.117
4.937
5.239
5.541
5.844
6.147
4.967
5.269
5.571
5.874
6.178
4.997
5.299
5.602
5.905
6.208
5.028
5.329
5.632
5.935
6.239
5.058
5.360
5.662
5.965
6.269
5.088
5.390
5.692
5.996
6.299
250
260
270
280
290
6.421
6.726
7.031
7.336
7.642
6.452
6.756
7.061
7.367
7.673
6.482
6.787
7.092
7.398
7.704
6.512
6.817
7.122
7.428
7.734
6.543
6.848
7.153
7.459
7.765
6.573
6.878
7.184
7.489
7.795
10
8.133
8.439
8.747
9.054
9.362
8.163
8.470
8.777
9.085
9.392
8.194
8.501
8.808
9.115
9.423
8.225
8.532
8.839
9.146
9.454
8.255
8.562
8.869
9.177
9.485
300
310
320
330
340
-290
-280
-270
-260
-250
350 9.485 9.515 9.546 9.577 9.608 9.639 9.669 9.700 9.731
360 9.793 9.823 9.854 9.885 9.916 9.947 9.977 10.008 10.039
370 10.101 10.131 10.162 10.193 10.224 10.255 10.285 10.316 10.347
380 10.409 10.440 10.470 10.501 10.532 10.563 10.594 10.625 10.655
390 10.717 10.748 10.779 10.810 10.840 10.871 10.902 10.933 10.964
9.762
10.070
10.378
10.686
10.995
9.793
10.101
10.409
10.717
11.025
350
360
370
380
390
-6.536
-6.351
-6.159
-5.962
-5.760
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
400
410
420
430
440
11.025
11.334
11.642
11.951
12.260
11.056
11.365
11.673
11.982
12.290
11.087
11.396
11.704
12.013
12.321
11.118
11.426
11.735
12.044
12.352
11.149
11.457
11.766
12.074
12.383
11.180
11.488
11.797
12.105
12.414
11.211
11.519
11.828
12.136
12.445
11.241
11.550
11.858
12.167
12.476
11.272
11.581
11.889
12.198
12.506
11.303
11.612
11.920
12.229
12.537
11.334
11.642
11.951
12.260
12.568
400
410
420
430
440
-5.574
-5.363
-5.146
-4.926
-4.701
-5.553
-5.341
-5.125
-4.903
-4.678
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
450
460
470
480
490
12.568
12.877
13.185
13.494
13.802
12.599
12.907
13.216
13.524
13.833
12.630
12.938
13.247
13.555
13.864
12.661
12.969
13.278
13.586
13.894
12.691
13.000
13.308
13.617
13.925
12.722
13.031
13.339
13.648
13.956
12.753
13.062
13.370
13.679
13.987
12.784
13.093
13.401
13.709
14.018
12.815
13.123
13.432
13.740
14.049
12.846
13.154
13.463
13.771
14.079
12.877
13.185
13.494
13.802
14.110
450
460
470
480
490
-4.495
-4.262
-4.026
-3.786
-3.542
-4.472
-4.239
-4.002
-3.761
-3.517
-4.449
-4.215
-3.978
-3.737
-3.493
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
500
510
520
530
540
14.110
14.418
14.727
15.035
15.343
14.141
14.449
14.757
15.065
15.373
14.172
14.480
14.788
15.096
15.404
14.203
14.511
14.819
15.127
15.435
14.233
14.542
14.850
15.158
15.466
14.264
14.573
14.881
15.189
15.496
14.295
14.603
14.911
15.219
15.527
14.326
14.634
14.942
15.250
15.558
14.357
14.665
14.973
15.281
15.589
14.388
14.696
15.004
15.312
15.620
14.418
14.727
15.035
15.343
15.650
500
510
520
530
540
-3.320
-3.070
-2.817
-2.560
-2.301
-3.295
-3.044
-2.791
-2.535
-2.275
-3.270
-3.019
-2.766
-2.509
-2.249
-3.245
-2.994
-2.740
-2.483
-2.223
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
550
560
570
580
590
15.650
15.958
16.266
16.573
16.881
15.681
15.989
16.296
16.604
16.911
15.712
16.020
16.327
16.635
16.942
15.743
16.050
16.358
16.665
16.973
15.773
16.081
16.389
16.696
17.003
15.804
16.112
16.419
16.727
17.034
15.835
16.143
16.450
16.758
17.065
15.866
16.173
16.481
16.788
17.096
15.897
16.204
16.512
16.819
17.126
15.927
16.235
16.542
16.850
17.157
15.958
16.266
16.573
16.881
17.188
550
560
570
580
590
-2.040
-1.775
-1.508
-1.239
-0.967
-2.013
-1.749
-1.482
-1.212
-0.940
-1.987
-1.722
-1.455
-1.185
-0.913
-1.961
-1.695
-1.428
-1.158
-0.886
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
600
610
620
630
640
17.188
17.495
17.802
18.109
18.416
17.219
17.526
17.833
18.140
18.446
17.249
17.556
17.863
18.170
18.477
17.280
17.587
17.894
18.201
18.508
17.311
17.618
17.925
18.232
18.538
17.341
17.649
17.955
18.262
18.569
17.372
17.679
17.986
18.293
18.600
17.403
17.710
18.017
18.324
18.630
17.434
17.741
18.048
18.354
18.661
17.464
17.771
18.078
18.385
18.692
17.495
17.802
18.109
18.416
18.722
600
610
620
630
640
-0.858 -0.831 -0.803 -0.776 -0.749 -0.721 -0.694 -0.666 -0.639 -0.611
-0.583 -0.556 -0.528 -0.501 -0.473 -0.445 -0.418 -0.390 -0.362 -0.334
-0.307 -0.279 -0.251 -0.223 -0.195 -0.168 -0.140 -0.112 -0.084 -0.056
-0.028 0.000 0.028 0.056 0.084 0.112 0.140 0.168 0.196 0.225
0.253 0.281 0.309 0.337 0.365 0.394 0.422 0.450 0.478 0.507
0
10
20
30
40
650
660
670
680
690
18.722
19.029
19.336
19.642
19.949
18.753
19.060
19.366
19.673
19.979
18.784
19.090
19.397
19.704
20.010
18.814
19.121
19.428
19.734
20.041
18.845
19.152
19.458
19.765
20.071
18.876
19.182
19.489
19.795
20.102
18.906
19.213
19.520
19.826
20.132
18.937
19.244
19.550
19.857
20.163
18.968
19.274
19.581
19.887
20.194
18.998
19.305
19.612
19.918
20.224
19.029
19.336
19.642
19.949
20.255
650
660
670
680
690
0.791
1.076
1.364
1.652
1.942
50
60
70
80
90
700
710
720
730
740
20.255
20.561
20.868
21.174
21.480
20.286
20.592
20.898
21.205
21.511
20.316
20.623
20.929
21.235
21.542
20.347
20.653
20.960
21.266
21.572
20.378
20.684
20.990
21.297
21.603
20.408
20.715
21.021
21.327
21.634
20.439
20.745
21.052
21.358
21.664
20.469
20.776
21.082
21.389
21.695
20.500
20.806
21.113
21.419
21.726
20.531
20.837
21.143
21.450
21.756
20.561
20.868
21.174
21.480
21.787
700
710
720
730
740
2.205
2.497
2.791
3.086
3.382
2.234
2.527
2.821
3.116
3.412
100
110
120
130
140
750
760
770
780
790
21.787
22.093
22.400
22.706
23.013
21.817
22.124
22.430
22.737
23.044
21.848
22.154
22.461
22.768
23.074
21.879
22.185
22.492
22.798
23.105
21.909
22.216
22.522
22.829
23.136
21.940
22.246
22.553
22.860
23.166
21.971
22.277
22.584
22.890
23.197
22.001
22.308
22.614
22.921
23.228
22.032
22.338
22.645
22.952
23.258
22.063
22.369
22.676
22.982
23.289
22.093
22.400
22.706
23.013
23.320
750
760
770
780
790
3.650
3.948
4.246
4.546
4.847
3.679
3.977
4.276
4.576
4.877
3.709
4.007
4.306
4.606
4.907
150
160
170
180
190
800
810
820
830
840
23.320
23.627
23.934
24.241
24.549
23.350
23.657
23.964
24.272
24.579
23.381
23.688
23.995
24.303
24.610
23.412
23.719
24.026
24.333
24.641
23.442
23.749
24.057
24.364
24.672
23.473
23.780
24.087
24.395
24.702
23.504
23.811
24.118
24.426
24.733
23.535
23.842
24.149
24.456
24.764
23.565
23.872
24.180
24.487
24.795
23.596
23.903
24.210
24.518
24.826
23.627
23.934
24.241
24.549
24.856
800
810
820
830
840
5.118
5.420
5.723
6.026
6.330
5.148
5.450
5.753
6.056
6.360
5.178
5.480
5.783
6.087
6.391
5.209
5.511
5.814
6.117
6.421
200
210
220
230
240
850
860
870
880
890
24.856
25.164
25.473
25.781
26.090
24.887
25.195
25.504
25.812
26.121
24.918
25.226
25.534
25.843
26.152
24.949
25.257
25.565
25.874
26.183
24.979
25.288
25.596
25.905
26.214
25.010
25.318
25.627
25.936
26.245
25.041
25.349
25.658
25.967
26.276
25.072
25.380
25.689
25.998
26.307
25.103
25.411
25.720
26.028
26.338
25.134
25.442
25.750
26.059
26.369
25.164
25.473
25.781
26.090
26.400
850
860
870
880
890
6.604
6.909
7.214
7.520
7.826
6.634
6.939
7.245
7.550
7.857
6.665
6.970
7.275
7.581
7.887
6.695
7.000
7.306
7.612
7.918
6.726
7.031
7.336
7.642
7.949
250
260
270
280
290
900
910
920
930
940
26.400
26.710
27.020
27.330
27.642
26.431
26.741
27.051
27.362
27.673
26.462
26.772
27.082
27.393
27.704
26.493
26.803
27.113
27.424
27.735
26.524
26.834
27.144
27.455
27.766
26.555
26.865
27.175
27.486
27.797
26.586
26.896
27.206
27.517
27.829
26.617
26.927
27.237
27.548
27.860
26.648
26.958
27.268
27.579
27.891
26.679
26.989
27.299
27.610
27.922
26.710
27.020
27.330
27.642
27.953
900
910
920
930
940
10
10
Z-216
1
7.979
8.286
8.593
8.900
9.208
2
8.010
8.317
8.624
8.931
9.238
3
8.041
8.347
8.654
8.962
9.269
4
8.071
8.378
8.685
8.992
9.300
8.102
8.409
8.716
9.023
9.331
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Thermocouple
Grade
Iron
vs.
Copper-Nickel
+
Extension
Grade

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 1382F
0 to 750C
Extension Grade
32 to 392F
0 to 200C
LIMITS OF ERROR
10
10
950
960
970
980
990
27.953
28.266
28.579
28.892
29.206
27.985
28.297
28.610
28.923
29.238
28.016
28.328
28.641
28.955
29.269
28.047
28.359
28.672
28.986
29.301
28.078
28.391
28.704
29.018
29.332
28.109
28.422
28.735
29.049
29.363
28.141
28.453
28.767
29.080
29.395
28.172
28.485
28.798
29.112
29.426
28.203
28.516
28.829
29.143
29.458
28.234
28.547
28.861
29.175
29.489
28.266
28.579
28.892
29.206
29.521
950
960
970
980
990
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
50.060
50.411
50.762
51.112
51.460
50.095
50.446
50.797
51.147
51.495
50.130
50.481
50.832
51.181
51.530
50.165
50.517
50.867
51.216
51.565
50.200
50.552
50.902
51.251
51.599
50.235
50.587
50.937
51.286
51.634
50.271
50.622
50.972
51.321
51.669
50.306
50.657
51.007
51.356
51.704
50.341
50.692
51.042
51.391
51.738
50.376
50.727
51.077
51.425
51.773
50.411
50.762
51.112
51.460
51.808
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
29.521
29.836
30.153
30.470
30.788
29.552
29.868
30.184
30.502
30.819
29.584
29.900
30.216
30.533
30.851
29.616
29.931
30.248
30.565
30.883
29.647
29.963
30.279
30.597
30.915
29.679
29.995
30.311
30.629
30.947
29.710
30.026
30.343
30.660
30.979
29.742
30.058
30.375
30.692
31.011
29.773
30.089
30.406
30.724
31.043
29.805
30.121
30.438
30.756
31.074
29.836
30.153
30.470
30.788
31.106
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
51.808
52.154
52.500
52.844
53.188
51.843
52.189
52.534
52.879
53.222
51.877
52.224
52.569
52.913
53.256
51.912
52.258
52.603
52.947
53.290
51.947
52.293
52.638
52.982
53.325
51.981
52.327
52.672
53.016
53.359
52.016
52.362
52.707
53.050
53.393
52.051
52.396
52.741
53.085
53.427
52.085
52.431
52.776
53.119
53.462
52.120
52.465
52.810
53.153
53.496
52.154
52.500
52.844
53.188
53.530
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
31.106
31.426
31.746
32.068
32.390
31.138
31.458
31.778
32.100
32.422
31.170
31.490
31.811
32.132
32.455
31.202
31.522
31.843
32.164
32.487
31.234
31.554
31.875
32.196
32.519
31.266
31.586
31.907
32.229
32.551
31.298
31.618
31.939
32.261
32.584
31.330
31.650
31.971
32.293
32.616
31.362
31.682
32.003
32.325
32.648
31.394
31.714
32.035
32.358
32.681
31.426
31.746
32.068
32.390
32.713
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
53.530
53.871
54.211
54.550
54.888
53.564
53.905
54.245
54.584
54.922
53.598
53.939
54.279
54.618
54.956
53.632
53.973
54.313
54.652
54.990
53.667
54.007
54.347
54.686
55.023
53.701
54.041
54.381
54.719
55.057
53.735
54.075
54.415
54.753
55.091
53.769
54.109
54.449
54.787
55.124
53.803
54.143
54.483
54.821
55.158
53.837
54.177
54.516
54.855
55.192
53.871
54.211
54.550
54.888
55.225
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
32.713
33.037
33.363
33.689
34.016
32.746
33.070
33.395
33.722
34.049
32.778
33.102
33.428
33.754
34.082
32.810
33.135
33.460
33.787
34.115
32.843
33.167
33.493
33.820
34.148
32.875
33.200
33.526
33.853
34.180
32.908
33.232
33.558
33.885
34.213
32.940
33.265
33.591
33.918
34.246
32.973
33.298
33.624
33.951
34.279
33.005
33.330
33.656
33.984
34.312
33.037
33.363
33.689
34.016
34.345
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
55.225
55.561
55.896
56.230
56.564
55.259
55.595
55.930
56.264
56.597
55.293
55.628
55.963
56.297
56.630
55.326
55.662
55.997
56.330
56.663
55.360
55.695
56.030
56.364
56.697
55.393
55.729
56.063
56.397
56.730
55.427
55.762
56.097
56.430
56.763
55.461
55.796
56.130
56.464
56.796
55.494
55.829
56.164
56.497
56.829
55.528
55.863
56.197
56.530
56.863
55.561
55.896
56.230
56.564
56.896
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
34.345
34.674
35.005
35.337
35.670
34.378
34.707
35.038
35.370
35.703
34.411
34.740
35.071
35.403
35.736
34.444
34.773
35.104
35.437
35.770
34.476
34.806
35.138
35.470
35.803
34.509
34.840
35.171
35.503
35.837
34.542
34.873
35.204
35.536
35.870
34.575
34.906
35.237
35.570
35.903
34.608
34.939
35.270
35.603
35.937
34.641
34.972
35.304
35.636
35.970
34.674
35.005
35.337
35.670
36.004
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
56.896
57.227
57.558
57.888
58.217
56.929
57.260
57.591
57.920
58.249
56.962
57.293
57.624
57.953
58.282
56.995
57.326
57.657
57.986
58.315
57.028
57.360
57.690
58.019
58.348
57.062
57.393
57.723
58.052
58.381
57.095
57.426
57.756
58.085
58.414
57.128
57.459
57.789
58.118
58.446
57.161
57.492
57.822
58.151
58.479
57.194
57.525
57.855
58.184
58.512
57.227
57.558
57.888
58.217
58.545
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
36.004
36.339
36.675
37.013
37.352
36.037
36.373
36.709
37.047
37.386
36.071
36.406
36.743
37.081
37.420
36.104
36.440
36.777
37.114
37.454
36.138
36.473
36.810
37.148
37.488
36.171
36.507
36.844
37.182
37.522
36.205
36.541
36.878
37.216
37.556
36.238
36.574
36.912
37.250
37.590
36.272
36.608
36.945
37.284
37.624
36.305
36.642
36.979
37.318
37.658
36.339
36.675
37.013
37.352
37.692
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
58.545
58.872
59.199
59.526
59.851
58.578
58.905
59.232
59.558
59.884
58.610
58.938
59.265
59.591
59.916
58.643
58.971
59.297
59.623
59.949
58.676
59.003
59.330
59.656
59.982
58.709
59.036
59.363
59.689
60.014
58.741
59.069
59.395
59.721
60.047
58.774
59.101
59.428
59.754
60.079
58.807
59.134
59.460
59.786
60.112
58.840
59.167
59.493
59.819
60.144
58.872
59.199
59.526
59.851
60.177
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
37.692
38.033
38.375
38.718
39.063
37.726
38.067
38.409
38.753
39.097
37.760
38.101
38.444
38.787
39.132
37.794
38.135
38.478
38.822
39.166
37.828
38.169
38.512
38.856
39.201
37.862
38.204
38.546
38.890
39.235
37.896
38.238
38.581
38.925
39.270
37.930
38.272
38.615
38.959
39.305
37.964
38.306
38.650
38.994
39.339
37.999
38.341
38.684
39.028
39.374
38.033
38.375
38.718
39.063
39.408
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
60.177
60.501
60.826
61.149
61.473
60.209
60.534
60.858
61.182
61.505
60.242
60.566
60.890
61.214
61.537
60.274
60.599
60.923
61.246
61.570
60.307
60.631
60.955
61.279
61.602
60.339
60.663
60.987
61.311
61.634
60.371
60.696
61.020
61.343
61.667
60.404
60.728
61.052
61.376
61.699
60.436
60.761
61.085
61.408
61.731
60.469
60.793
61.117
61.440
61.763
60.501
60.826
61.149
61.473
61.796
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
39.408
39.755
40.103
40.452
40.801
39.443
39.790
40.138
40.487
40.836
39.478
39.825
40.173
40.522
40.872
39.512
39.859
40.207
40.556
40.907
39.547
39.894
40.242
40.591
40.942
39.582
39.929
40.277
40.626
40.977
39.616
39.964
40.312
40.661
41.012
39.651
39.998
40.347
40.696
41.047
39.686
40.033
40.382
40.731
41.082
39.720
40.068
40.417
40.766
41.117
39.755
40.103
40.452
40.801
41.152
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
61.796
62.118
62.441
62.763
63.085
61.828
62.151
62.473
62.795
63.117
61.860
62.183
62.505
62.827
63.149
61.893
62.215
62.537
62.860
63.181
61.925
62.247
62.570
62.892
63.214
61.957
62.280
62.602
62.924
63.246
61.989
62.312
62.634
62.956
63.278
62.022
62.344
62.666
62.988
63.310
62.054
62.376
62.699
63.020
63.342
62.086
62.409
62.731
63.053
63.374
62.118
62.441
62.763
63.085
63.406
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
41.152
41.504
41.856
42.210
42.564
41.187
41.539
41.892
42.245
42.599
41.222
41.574
41.927
42.281
42.635
41.258
41.610
41.962
42.316
42.670
41.293
41.645
41.998
42.351
42.706
41.328
41.680
42.033
42.387
42.741
41.363
41.715
42.068
42.422
42.777
41.398
41.751
42.104
42.458
42.812
41.433
41.786
42.139
42.493
42.848
41.469
41.821
42.174
42.528
42.883
41.504
41.856
42.210
42.564
42.919
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
63.406
63.728
64.049
64.370
64.691
63.439
63.760
64.081
64.402
64.723
63.471
63.792
64.113
64.435
64.756
63.503
63.824
64.146
64.467
64.788
63.535
63.856
64.178
64.499
64.820
63.567
63.889
64.210
64.531
64.852
63.599
63.921
64.242
64.563
64.884
63.632
63.953
64.274
64.595
64.916
63.664
63.985
64.306
64.627
64.948
63.696
64.017
64.338
64.659
64.980
63.728
64.049
64.370
64.691
65.012
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
42.919
43.274
43.631
43.988
44.346
42.954
43.310
43.667
44.024
44.382
42.990
43.346
43.702
44.060
44.418
43.025
43.381
43.738
44.096
44.454
43.061
43.417
43.774
44.131
44.490
43.096
43.452
43.809
44.167
44.525
43.132
43.488
43.845
44.203
44.561
43.167
43.524
43.881
44.239
44.597
43.203
43.559
43.917
44.275
44.633
43.239
43.595
43.953
44.310
44.669
43.274
43.631
43.988
44.346
44.705
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
65.012
65.333
65.654
65.974
66.295
65.044
65.365
65.686
66.006
66.327
65.076
65.397
65.718
66.038
66.359
65.109
65.429
65.750
66.070
66.391
65.141
65.461
65.782
66.102
66.423
65.173
65.493
65.814
66.134
66.455
65.205
65.525
65.846
66.166
66.487
65.237
65.557
65.878
66.199
66.519
65.269
65.590
65.910
66.231
66.551
65.301
65.622
65.942
66.263
66.583
65.333
65.654
65.974
66.295
66.615
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
44.705
45.064
45.423
45.782
46.141
44.741
45.099
45.458
45.818
46.177
44.777
45.135
45.494
45.853
46.212
44.812
45.171
45.530
45.889
46.248
44.848
45.207
45.566
45.925
46.284
44.884
45.243
45.602
45.961
46.320
44.920
45.279
45.638
45.997
46.356
44.956
45.315
45.674
46.033
46.392
44.992
45.351
45.710
46.069
46.428
45.028
45.387
45.746
46.105
46.464
45.064
45.423
45.782
46.141
46.500
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
66.615
66.935
67.255
67.575
67.895
66.647
66.967
67.287
67.607
67.927
66.679
66.999
67.319
67.639
67.959
66.711
67.031
67.351
67.671
67.991
66.743
67.063
67.383
67.703
68.023
66.775
67.095
67.415
67.735
68.055
66.807
67.127
67.447
67.767
68.087
66.839
67.159
67.479
67.799
68.119
66.871
67.191
67.511
67.831
68.150
66.903
67.223
67.543
67.863
68.182
66.935
67.255
67.575
67.895
68.214
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
46.500
46.858
47.216
47.574
47.931
46.535
46.894
47.252
47.610
47.967
46.571
46.930
47.288
47.646
48.003
46.607
46.966
47.324
47.681
48.038
46.643
47.001
47.359
47.717
48.074
46.679
47.037
47.395
47.753
48.110
46.715
47.073
47.431
47.788
48.145
46.751
47.109
47.467
47.824
48.181
46.786
47.145
47.503
47.860
48.217
46.822
47.181
47.538
47.896
48.252
46.858
47.216
47.574
47.931
48.288
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
68.214
68.534
68.853
69.171
69.490
68.246
68.566
68.884
69.203
69.521
68.278
68.597
68.916
69.235
69.553
68.310
68.629
68.948
69.267
68.342
68.661
68.980
69.299
68.374
68.693
69.012
69.330
68.406
68.725
69.044
69.362
68.438
68.757
69.076
69.394
68.470
68.789
69.108
69.426
68.502
68.821
69.139
69.458
68.534
68.853
69.171
69.490
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
48.288
48.644
48.999
49.353
49.707
48.324
48.679
49.034
49.389
49.742
48.359
48.715
49.070
49.424
49.778
48.395
48.750
49.105
49.460
49.813
48.430
48.786
49.141
49.495
49.848
48.466
48.822
49.176
49.530
49.883
48.502
48.857
49.212
49.566
49.919
48.537
48.893
49.247
49.601
49.954
48.573
48.928
49.283
49.636
49.989
48.608
48.964
49.318
49.672
50.024
48.644
48.999
49.353
49.707
50.060
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
10
10
Z-217

Thermocouple Grade
328 to 2282F
200 to 1250C
Extension Grade
32 to 392F
0 to 200C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Thermocouple
Grade
Nickel-Chromium
vs.
Nickel-Aluminum
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Extension
Grade

F
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-450
-4
-3
-2
-1
10
-6.458 -6.457 -6.457 -6.456 -6.456 -450
100
110
120
130
140
1.521
1.749
1.977
2.207
2.436
1.543
1.771
2.000
2.230
2.459
1.566
1.794
2.023
2.253
2.483
1.589
1.817
2.046
2.276
2.506
1.612
1.840
2.069
2.298
2.529
1.635
1.863
2.092
2.321
2.552
1.657
1.886
2.115
2.344
2.575
1.680
1.909
2.138
2.367
2.598
1.703
1.931
2.161
2.390
2.621
1.726
1.954
2.184
2.413
2.644
1.749
1.977
2.207
2.436
2.667
100
110
120
130
140
-440
-430
-420
-410
-400
-6.456
-6.446
-6.431
-6.409
-6.380
-6.455
-6.445
-6.429
-6.406
-6.377
-6.454
-6.444
-6.427
-6.404
-6.373
-6.454
-6.443
-6.425
-6.401
-6.370
-6.453
-6.441
-6.423
-6.398
-6.366
-6.452
-6.440
-6.421
-6.395
-6.363
-6.451
-6.438
-6.419
-6.392
-6.359
-6.450
-6.436
-6.416
-6.389
-6.355
-6.449
-6.435
-6.414
-6.386
-6.352
-6.448
-6.433
-6.411
-6.383
-6.348
-6.446
-6.431
-6.409
-6.380
-6.344
-440
-430
-420
-410
-400
150
160
170
180
190
2.667
2.897
3.128
3.359
3.590
2.690
2.920
3.151
3.382
3.613
2.713
2.944
3.174
3.405
3.636
2.736
2.967
3.197
3.428
3.659
2.759
2.990
3.220
3.451
3.682
2.782
3.013
3.244
3.474
3.705
2.805
3.036
3.267
3.497
3.728
2.828
3.059
3.290
3.520
3.751
2.851
3.082
3.313
3.544
3.774
2.874
3.105
3.336
3.567
3.797
2.897
3.128
3.359
3.590
3.820
150
160
170
180
190
-390
-380
-370
-360
-350
-6.344
-6.301
-6.251
-6.195
-6.133
-6.340
-6.296
-6.246
-6.189
-6.126
-6.336
-6.292
-6.241
-6.183
-6.119
-6.332
-6.287
-6.235
-6.177
-6.113
-6.328
-6.282
-6.230
-6.171
-6.106
-6.323
-6.277
-6.224
-6.165
-6.099
-6.319
-6.272
-6.218
-6.158
-6.092
-6.315
-6.267
-6.213
-6.152
-6.085
-6.310
-6.262
-6.207
-6.146
-6.078
-6.306
-6.257
-6.201
-6.139
-6.071
-6.301
-6.251
-6.195
-6.133
-6.064
-390
-380
-370
-360
-350
200
210
220
230
240
3.820
4.050
4.280
4.509
4.738
3.843
4.073
4.303
4.532
4.760
3.866
4.096
4.326
4.555
4.783
3.889
4.119
4.349
4.578
4.806
3.912
4.142
4.372
4.601
4.829
3.935
4.165
4.395
4.623
4.852
3.958
4.188
4.417
4.646
4.874
3.981
4.211
4.440
4.669
4.897
4.004
4.234
4.463
4.692
4.920
4.027
4.257
4.486
4.715
4.943
4.050
4.280
4.509
4.738
4.965
200
210
220
230
240
-340
-330
-320
-310
-300
-6.064
-5.989
-5.908
-5.822
-5.730
-6.057
-5.981
-5.900
-5.813
-5.720
-6.049
-5.973
-5.891
-5.804
-5.711
-6.042
-5.965
-5.883
-5.795
-5.701
-6.035
-5.957
-5.874
-5.786
-5.691
-6.027
-5.949
-5.866
-5.776
-5.682
-6.020
-5.941
-5.857
-5.767
-5.672
-6.012
-5.933
-5.848
-5.758
-5.662
-6.004
-5.925
-5.840
-5.749
-5.652
-5.997
-5.917
-5.831
-5.739
-5.642
-5.989
-5.908
-5.822
-5.730
-5.632
-340
-330
-320
-310
-300
250
260
270
280
290
4.965
5.192
5.419
5.644
5.869
4.988
5.215
5.441
5.667
5.892
5.011
5.238
5.464
5.690
5.914
5.034
5.260
5.487
5.712
5.937
5.056
5.283
5.509
5.735
5.959
5.079
5.306
5.532
5.757
5.982
5.102
5.328
5.554
5.779
6.004
5.124
5.351
5.577
5.802
6.026
5.147
5.374
5.599
5.824
6.049
5.170
5.396
5.622
5.847
6.071
5.192
5.419
5.644
5.869
6.094
250
260
270
280
290
-290
-280
-270
-260
-250
-5.632
-5.529
-5.421
-5.308
-5.190
-5.622
-5.519
-5.410
-5.296
-5.178
-5.612
-5.508
-5.399
-5.285
-5.166
-5.602
-5.497
-5.388
-5.273
-5.153
-5.592
-5.487
-5.377
-5.261
-5.141
-5.581
-5.476
-5.365
-5.250
-5.129
-5.571
-5.465
-5.354
-5.238
-5.117
-5.561
-5.454
-5.343
-5.226
-5.104
-5.550
-5.443
-5.331
-5.214
-5.092
-5.540
-5.432
-5.320
-5.202
-5.079
-5.529
-5.421
-5.308
-5.190
-5.067
-290
-280
-270
-260
-250
300
310
320
330
340
6.094
6.317
6.540
6.763
6.985
6.116
6.339
6.562
6.785
7.007
6.138
6.362
6.585
6.807
7.029
6.161
6.384
6.607
6.829
7.052
6.183
6.406
6.629
6.852
7.074
6.205
6.429
6.652
6.874
7.096
6.228
6.451
6.674
6.896
7.118
6.250
6.473
6.696
6.918
7.140
6.272
6.496
6.718
6.941
7.163
6.295
6.518
6.741
6.963
7.185
6.317
6.540
6.763
6.985
7.207
300
310
320
330
340
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
-5.067
-4.939
-4.806
-4.669
-4.527
-5.054
-4.926
-4.793
-4.655
-4.513
-5.042
-4.913
-4.779
-4.641
-4.498
-5.029
-4.900
-4.766
-4.627
-4.484
-5.016
-4.886
-4.752
-4.613
-4.469
-5.003
-4.873
-4.738
-4.599
-4.455
-4.991
-4.860
-4.724
-4.584
-4.440
-4.978
-4.847
-4.711
-4.570
-4.425
-4.965
-4.833
-4.697
-4.556
-4.411
-4.952
-4.820
-4.683
-4.542
-4.396
-4.939
-4.806
-4.669
-4.527
-4.381
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
350
360
370
380
390
7.207
7.429
7.650
7.872
8.094
7.229
7.451
7.673
7.894
8.116
7.251
7.473
7.695
7.917
8.138
7.273
7.495
7.717
7.939
8.161
7.296
7.517
7.739
7.961
8.183
7.318
7.540
7.761
7.983
8.205
7.340
7.562
7.783
8.005
8.227
7.362
7.584
7.806
8.027
8.250
7.384
7.606
7.828
8.050
8.272
7.407
7.628
7.850
8.072
8.294
7.429
7.650
7.872
8.094
8.316
350
360
370
380
390
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
-4.381
-4.231
-4.076
-3.917
-3.754
-4.366
-4.215
-4.060
-3.901
-3.738
-4.351
-4.200
-4.044
-3.885
-3.721
-4.336
-4.185
-4.029
-3.869
-3.705
-4.321
-4.169
-4.013
-3.852
-3.688
-4.306
-4.154
-3.997
-3.836
-3.671
-4.291
-4.138
-3.981
-3.820
-3.655
-4.276
-4.123
-3.965
-3.803
-3.638
-4.261
-4.107
-3.949
-3.787
-3.621
-4.246
-4.091
-3.933
-3.771
-3.604
-4.231
-4.076
-3.917
-3.754
-3.587
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
400
410
420
430
440
8.316
8.539
8.761
8.985
9.208
8.338
8.561
8.784
9.007
9.231
8.361
8.583
8.806
9.029
9.253
8.383
8.605
8.828
9.052
9.275
8.405
8.628
8.851
9.074
9.298
8.427
8.650
8.873
9.096
9.320
8.450
8.672
8.895
9.119
9.343
8.472
8.694
8.918
9.141
9.365
8.494
8.717
8.940
9.163
9.388
8.516
8.739
8.962
9.186
9.410
8.539
8.761
8.985
9.208
9.432
400
410
420
430
440
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
-3.587
-3.417
-3.243
-3.065
-2.884
-3.571
-3.400
-3.225
-3.047
-2.865
-3.554
-3.382
-3.207
-3.029
-2.847
-3.537
-3.365
-3.190
-3.011
-2.829
-3.520
-3.348
-3.172
-2.993
-2.810
-3.503
-3.330
-3.154
-2.975
-2.792
-3.486
-3.313
-3.136
-2.957
-2.773
-3.468
-3.295
-3.119
-2.938
-2.755
-3.451
-3.278
-3.101
-2.920
-2.736
-3.434
-3.260
-3.083
-2.902
-2.718
-3.417
-3.243
-3.065
-2.884
-2.699
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
450 9.432 9.455 9.477 9.500 9.522 9.545 9.567 9.590 9.612 9.635 9.657
460 9.657 9.680 9.702 9.725 9.747 9.770 9.792 9.815 9.837 9.860 9.882
470 9.882 9.905 9.927 9.950 9.973 9.995 10.018 10.040 10.063 10.086 10.108
480 10.108 10.131 10.153 10.176 10.199 10.221 10.244 10.267 10.289 10.312 10.334
490 10.334 10.357 10.380 10.402 10.425 10.448 10.471 10.493 10.516 10.539 10.561
450
460
470
480
490
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
-2.699
-2.511
-2.320
-2.126
-1.929
-2.680
-2.492
-2.301
-2.106
-1.909
-2.662
-2.473
-2.282
-2.087
-1.889
-2.643
-2.454
-2.262
-2.067
-1.869
-2.624
-2.435
-2.243
-2.048
-1.850
-2.605
-2.416
-2.223
-2.028
-1.830
-2.587
-2.397
-2.204
-2.008
-1.810
-2.568
-2.378
-2.185
-1.988
-1.790
-2.549
-2.359
-2.165
-1.969
-1.770
-2.530
-2.339
-2.146
-1.949
-1.749
-2.511
-2.320
-2.126
-1.929
-1.729
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
500
510
520
530
540
10.561
10.789
11.017
11.245
11.474
10.584
10.811
11.039
11.268
11.497
10.607
10.834
11.062
11.291
11.519
10.629
10.857
11.085
11.313
11.542
10.652
10.880
11.108
11.336
11.565
10.675
10.903
11.131
11.359
11.588
10.698
10.925
11.154
11.382
11.611
10.720
10.948
11.176
11.405
11.634
10.743
10.971
11.199
11.428
11.657
10.766
10.994
11.222
11.451
11.680
10.789
11.017
11.245
11.474
11.703
500
510
520
530
540
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
-1.729
-1.527
-1.322
-1.114
-0.905
-1.709
-1.507
-1.301
-1.094
-0.883
-1.689
-1.486
-1.281
-1.073
-0.862
-1.669
-1.466
-1.260
-1.052
-0.841
-1.649
-1.445
-1.239
-1.031
-0.820
-1.628
-1.425
-1.218
-1.010
-0.799
-1.608
-1.404
-1.198
-0.989
-0.778
-1.588
-1.384
-1.177
-0.968
-0.756
-1.568
-1.363
-1.156
-0.947
-0.735
-1.547
-1.343
-1.135
-0.926
-0.714
-1.527
-1.322
-1.114
-0.905
-0.692
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
550
560
570
580
590
11.703
11.933
12.163
12.393
12.624
11.726
11.956
12.186
12.416
12.647
11.749
11.978
12.209
12.439
12.670
11.772
12.001
12.232
12.462
12.693
11.795
12.024
12.255
12.485
12.716
11.818
12.047
12.278
12.508
12.739
11.841
12.070
12.301
12.531
12.762
11.864
12.093
12.324
12.554
12.785
11.887
12.116
12.347
12.577
12.808
11.910
12.140
12.370
12.600
12.831
11.933
12.163
12.393
12.624
12.855
550
560
570
580
590
0
10
20
30
40
-0.692
-0.478
-0.262
-0.044
0.176
-0.671 -0.650 -0.628 -0.607 -0.586 -0.564 -0.543 -0.521 -0.500 -0.478
-0.457 -0.435 -0.413 -0.392 -0.370 -0.349 -0.327 -0.305 -0.284 -0.262
-0.240 -0.218 -0.197 -0.175 -0.153 -0.131 -0.109 -0.088 -0.066 -0.044
-0.022 0.000 0.022 0.044 0.066 0.088 0.110 0.132 0.154 0.176
0.198 0.220 0.242 0.264 0.286 0.308 0.330 0.353 0.375 0.397
0
10
20
30
40
600
610
620
630
640
12.855
13.086
13.318
13.549
13.782
12.878
13.109
13.341
13.573
13.805
12.901
13.132
13.364
13.596
13.828
12.924
13.155
13.387
13.619
13.851
12.947
13.179
13.410
13.642
13.874
12.970
13.202
13.433
13.665
13.898
12.993
13.225
13.457
13.689
13.921
13.016
13.248
13.480
13.712
13.944
13.040
13.271
13.503
13.735
13.967
13.063
13.294
13.526
13.758
13.991
13.086
13.318
13.549
13.782
14.014
600
610
620
630
640
50
60
70
80
90
0.397
0.619
0.843
1.068
1.294
0.619
0.843
1.068
1.294
1.521
50
60
70
80
90
650
660
670
680
690
14.014
14.247
14.479
14.713
14.946
14.037
14.270
14.503
14.736
14.969
14.060
14.293
14.526
14.759
14.993
14.084
14.316
14.549
14.783
15.016
14.107
14.340
14.573
14.806
15.039
14.130
14.363
14.596
14.829
15.063
14.154
14.386
14.619
14.853
15.086
14.177
14.410
14.643
14.876
15.109
14.200
14.433
14.666
14.899
15.133
14.223
14.456
14.689
14.923
15.156
14.247
14.479
14.713
14.946
15.179
650
660
670
680
690
10
10
0.419
0.642
0.865
1.090
1.316
0.441
0.664
0.888
1.113
1.339
0.463
0.686
0.910
1.136
1.362
0.486
0.709
0.933
1.158
1.384
0.508
0.731
0.955
1.181
1.407
0.530
0.753
0.978
1.203
1.430
0.552
0.776
1.000
1.226
1.453
0.575
0.798
1.023
1.249
1.475
0.597
0.821
1.045
1.271
1.498
Z-218
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Thermocouple
Grade
Nickel-Chromium
vs.
Nickel-Aluminum
Extension
Grade

Thermocouple Grade
328 to 2282F
200 to 1250C
Extension Grade
32 to 392F
0 to 200C
LIMITS OF ERROR
10
10
700
710
720
730
740
15.179
15.413
15.647
15.881
16.116
15.203
15.437
15.671
15.905
16.139
15.226
15.460
15.694
15.928
16.163
15.250
15.483
15.717
15.952
16.186
15.273
15.507
15.741
15.975
16.209
15.296
15.530
15.764
15.998
16.233
15.320
15.554
15.788
16.022
16.256
15.343
15.577
15.811
16.045
16.280
15.366
15.600
15.834
16.069
16.303
15.390
15.624
15.858
16.092
16.327
15.413
15.647
15.881
16.116
16.350
700
710
720
730
740
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
29.315
29.548
29.780
30.012
30.243
29.338
29.571
29.803
30.035
30.267
29.362
29.594
29.826
30.058
30.290
29.385
29.617
29.849
30.081
30.313
29.408
29.640
29.873
30.104
30.336
29.431
29.664
29.896
30.128
30.359
29.455
29.687
29.919
30.151
30.382
29.478
29.710
29.942
30.174
30.405
29.501
29.733
29.965
30.197
30.429
29.524
29.757
29.989
30.220
30.452
29.548
29.780
30.012
30.243
30.475
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
750
760
770
780
790
16.350
16.585
16.820
17.055
17.290
16.374
16.608
16.843
17.078
17.314
16.397
16.632
16.867
17.102
17.337
16.421
16.655
16.890
17.125
17.361
16.444
16.679
16.914
17.149
17.384
16.468
16.702
16.937
17.173
17.408
16.491
16.726
16.961
17.196
17.431
16.514
16.749
16.984
17.220
17.455
16.538
16.773
17.008
17.243
17.478
16.561
16.796
17.031
17.267
17.502
16.585
16.820
17.055
17.290
17.526
750
760
770
780
790
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
30.475
30.706
30.937
31.167
31.398
30.498
30.729
30.960
31.190
31.421
30.521
30.752
30.983
31.213
31.444
30.544
30.775
31.006
31.236
31.467
30.567
30.798
31.029
31.260
31.490
30.590
30.821
31.052
31.283
31.513
30.613
30.844
31.075
31.306
31.536
30.637
30.868
31.098
31.329
31.559
30.660
30.891
31.121
31.352
31.582
30.683
30.914
31.144
31.375
31.605
30.706
30.937
31.167
31.398
31.628
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
800
810
820
830
840
17.526
17.761
17.997
18.233
18.469
17.549
17.785
18.020
18.256
18.492
17.573
17.808
18.044
18.280
18.516
17.596
17.832
18.068
18.303
18.539
17.620
17.855
18.091
18.327
18.563
17.643
17.879
18.115
18.351
18.587
17.667
17.902
18.138
18.374
18.610
17.690
17.926
18.162
18.398
18.634
17.714
17.950
18.185
18.421
18.657
17.738
17.973
18.209
18.445
18.681
17.761
17.997
18.233
18.469
18.705
800
810
820
830
840
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
31.628
31.857
32.087
32.316
32.545
31.651
31.880
32.110
32.339
32.568
31.674
31.903
32.133
32.362
32.591
31.697
31.926
32.156
32.385
32.614
31.720
31.949
32.179
32.408
32.636
31.743
31.972
32.202
32.431
32.659
31.766
31.995
32.224
32.453
32.682
31.789
32.018
32.247
32.476
32.705
31.812
32.041
32.270
32.499
32.728
31.834
32.064
32.293
32.522
32.751
31.857
32.087
32.316
32.545
32.774
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
850
860
870
880
890
18.705
18.941
19.177
19.414
19.650
18.728
18.965
19.201
19.437
19.674
18.752
18.988
19.224
19.461
19.697
18.776
19.012
19.248
19.485
19.721
18.799
19.035
19.272
19.508
19.745
18.823
19.059
19.295
19.532
19.768
18.846
19.083
19.319
19.556
19.792
18.870
19.106
19.343
19.579
19.816
18.894
19.130
19.366
19.603
19.839
18.917
19.154
19.390
19.626
19.863
18.941
19.177
19.414
19.650
19.887
850
860
870
880
890
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
32.774
33.002
33.230
33.458
33.685
32.796
33.025
33.253
33.480
33.708
32.819
33.047
33.275
33.503
33.730
32.842
33.070
33.298
33.526
33.753
32.865
33.093
33.321
33.548
33.776
32.888
33.116
33.344
33.571
33.798
32.911
33.139
33.366
33.594
33.821
32.933
33.161
33.389
33.617
33.844
32.956
33.184
33.412
33.639
33.867
32.979
33.207
33.435
33.662
33.889
33.002
33.230
33.458
33.685
33.912
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
900
910
920
930
940
19.887
20.123
20.360
20.597
20.834
19.910
20.147
20.384
20.621
20.857
19.934
20.171
20.407
20.644
20.881
19.958
20.194
20.431
20.668
20.905
19.981
20.218
20.455
20.692
20.929
20.005
20.242
20.479
20.715
20.952
20.029
20.265
20.502
20.739
20.976
20.052
20.289
20.526
20.763
21.000
20.076
20.313
20.550
20.786
21.023
20.100
20.336
20.573
20.810
21.047
20.123
20.360
20.597
20.834
21.071
900
910
920
930
940
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
33.912
34.139
34.365
34.591
34.817
33.935
34.161
34.388
34.614
34.840
33.957
34.184
34.410
34.637
34.862
33.980
34.207
34.433
34.659
34.885
34.003
34.229
34.456
34.682
34.908
34.025
34.252
34.478
34.704
34.930
34.048
34.275
34.501
34.727
34.953
34.071
34.297
34.524
34.750
34.975
34.093
34.320
34.546
34.772
34.998
34.116
34.343
34.569
34.795
35.020
34.139
34.365
34.591
34.817
35.043
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
950
960
970
980
990
21.071
21.308
21.544
21.781
22.018
21.094
21.331
21.568
21.805
22.042
21.118
21.355
21.592
21.829
22.066
21.142
21.379
21.616
21.852
22.089
21.165
21.402
21.639
21.876
22.113
21.189
21.426
21.663
21.900
22.137
21.213
21.450
21.687
21.924
22.160
21.236
21.473
21.710
21.947
22.184
21.260
21.497
21.734
21.971
22.208
21.284
21.521
21.758
21.995
22.232
21.308
21.544
21.781
22.018
22.255
950
960
970
980
990
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
35.043
35.268
35.493
35.718
35.942
35.065
35.291
35.516
35.740
35.964
35.088
35.313
35.538
35.763
35.987
35.110
35.336
35.560
35.785
36.009
35.133
35.358
35.583
35.807
36.032
35.156
35.381
35.605
35.830
36.054
35.178
35.403
35.628
35.852
36.076
35.201
35.426
35.650
35.875
36.099
35.223
35.448
35.673
35.897
36.121
35.246
35.471
35.695
35.920
36.144
35.268
35.493
35.718
35.942
36.166
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
22.255
22.492
22.729
22.966
23.203
22.279
22.516
22.753
22.990
23.226
22.303
22.540
22.776
23.013
23.250
22.326
22.563
22.800
23.037
23.274
22.350
22.587
22.824
23.061
23.297
22.374
22.611
22.847
23.084
23.321
22.397
22.634
22.871
23.108
23.345
22.421
22.658
22.895
23.132
23.368
22.445
22.682
22.919
23.155
23.392
22.468
22.705
22.942
23.179
23.416
22.492
22.729
22.966
23.203
23.439
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
36.166
36.390
36.613
36.836
37.059
36.188
36.412
36.635
36.859
37.081
36.211
36.434
36.658
36.881
37.104
36.233
36.457
36.680
36.903
37.126
36.256
36.479
36.702
36.925
37.148
36.278
36.501
36.725
36.948
37.170
36.300
36.524
36.747
36.970
37.193
36.323
36.546
36.769
36.992
37.215
36.345
36.568
36.792
37.014
37.237
36.367
36.591
36.814
37.037
37.259
36.390
36.613
36.836
37.059
37.281
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
23.439
23.676
23.913
24.149
24.386
23.463
23.700
23.936
24.173
24.409
23.487
23.723
23.960
24.197
24.433
23.510
23.747
23.984
24.220
24.457
23.534
23.771
24.007
24.244
24.480
23.558
23.794
24.031
24.267
24.504
23.581
23.818
24.055
24.291
24.527
23.605
23.842
24.078
24.315
24.551
23.629
23.865
24.102
24.338
24.575
23.652
23.889
24.126
24.362
24.598
23.676
23.913
24.149
24.386
24.622
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
37.281
37.504
37.725
37.947
38.168
37.304
37.526
37.748
37.969
38.190
37.326
37.548
37.770
37.991
38.212
37.348
37.570
37.792
38.013
38.235
37.370
37.592
37.814
38.036
38.257
37.393
37.615
37.836
38.058
38.279
37.415
37.637
37.858
38.080
38.301
37.437
37.659
37.881
38.102
38.323
37.459
37.681
37.903
38.124
38.345
37.481
37.703
37.925
38.146
38.367
37.504
37.725
37.947
38.168
38.389
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
24.622
24.858
25.094
25.330
25.566
24.646
24.882
25.118
25.354
25.590
24.669
24.905
25.142
25.377
25.613
24.693
24.929
25.165
25.401
25.637
24.717
24.953
25.189
25.425
25.660
24.740
24.976
25.212
25.448
25.684
24.764
25.000
25.236
25.472
25.708
24.787
25.024
25.260
25.495
25.731
24.811
25.047
25.283
25.519
25.755
24.835
25.071
25.307
25.543
25.778
24.858
25.094
25.330
25.566
25.802
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
38.389
38.610
38.830
39.050
39.270
38.411
38.632
38.852
39.072
39.292
38.433
38.654
38.874
39.094
39.314
38.455
38.676
38.896
39.116
39.335
38.477
38.698
38.918
39.138
39.357
38.499
38.720
38.940
39.160
39.379
38.522
38.742
38.962
39.182
39.401
38.544
38.764
38.984
39.204
39.423
38.566
38.786
39.006
39.226
39.445
38.588
38.808
39.028
39.248
39.467
38.610
38.830
39.050
39.270
39.489
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
25.802
26.037
26.273
26.508
26.743
25.825
26.061
26.296
26.532
26.767
25.849
26.084
26.320
26.555
26.790
25.873
26.108
26.343
26.579
26.814
25.896
26.132
26.367
26.602
26.837
25.920
26.155
26.390
26.626
26.861
25.943
26.179
26.414
26.649
26.884
25.967
26.202
26.437
26.673
26.907
25.990
26.226
26.461
26.696
26.931
26.014
26.249
26.484
26.720
26.954
26.037
26.273
26.508
26.743
26.978
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
39.489
39.708
39.927
40.145
40.363
39.511
39.730
39.949
40.167
40.385
39.533
39.752
39.970
40.189
40.407
39.555
39.774
39.992
40.211
40.429
39.577
39.796
40.014
40.232
40.450
39.599
39.817
40.036
40.254
40.472
39.620
39.839
40.058
40.276
40.494
39.642
39.861
40.080
40.298
40.516
39.664
39.883
40.101
40.320
40.537
39.686
39.905
40.123
40.341
40.559
39.708
39.927
40.145
40.363
40.581
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
26.978
27.213
27.447
27.681
27.915
27.001
27.236
27.471
27.705
27.939
27.025
27.259
27.494
27.728
27.962
27.048
27.283
27.517
27.752
27.986
27.072
27.306
27.541
27.775
28.009
27.095
27.330
27.564
27.798
28.032
27.119
27.353
27.588
27.822
28.056
27.142
27.377
27.611
27.845
28.079
27.166
27.400
27.635
27.869
28.103
27.189
27.424
27.658
27.892
28.126
27.213
27.447
27.681
27.915
28.149
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
40.581
40.798
41.015
41.232
41.449
40.603
40.820
41.037
41.254
41.470
40.624
40.842
41.059
41.276
41.492
40.646
40.864
41.081
41.297
41.514
40.668
40.885
41.102
41.319
41.535
40.690
40.907
41.124
41.341
41.557
40.711
40.929
41.146
41.362
41.578
40.733
40.950
41.167
41.384
41.600
40.755
40.972
41.189
41.405
41.622
40.777
40.994
41.211
41.427
41.643
40.798
41.015
41.232
41.449
41.665
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
28.149
28.383
28.616
28.849
29.082
28.173
28.406
28.640
28.873
29.106
28.196
28.430
28.663
28.896
29.129
28.219
28.453
28.686
28.919
29.152
28.243
28.476
28.710
28.943
29.176
28.266
28.500
28.733
28.966
29.199
28.289
28.523
28.756
28.989
29.222
28.313
28.546
28.780
29.013
29.245
28.336
28.570
28.803
29.036
29.269
28.360
28.593
28.826
29.059
29.292
28.383
28.616
28.849
29.082
29.315
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
41.665
41.881
42.096
42.311
42.526
41.686
41.902
42.118
42.333
42.548
41.708
41.924
42.139
42.354
42.569
41.730
41.945
42.161
42.376
42.591
41.751
41.967
42.182
42.397
42.612
41.773
41.988
42.204
42.419
42.633
41.794
42.010
42.225
42.440
42.655
41.816
42.032
42.247
42.462
42.676
41.838
42.053
42.268
42.483
42.698
41.859
42.075
42.290
42.505
42.719
41.881
42.096
42.311
42.526
42.741
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
10
10
Z-219

Thermocouple Grade
328 to 2282F
200 to 1250C
Extension Grade
32 to 392F
0 to 200C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Thermocouple
Grade
Nickel-Chromium
vs.
Nickel-Aluminum
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Extension
Grade

F
10
10
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
42.741
42.955
43.169
43.382
43.595
42.762
42.976
43.190
43.403
43.616
42.783
42.998
43.211
43.425
43.638
42.805
43.019
43.233
43.446
43.659
42.826
43.040
43.254
43.467
43.680
42.848
43.062
43.275
43.489
43.701
42.869
43.083
43.297
43.510
43.723
42.891
43.104
43.318
43.531
43.744
42.912
43.126
43.339
43.552
43.765
42.933
43.147
43.361
43.574
43.787
42.955
43.169
43.382
43.595
43.808
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
2250
2260
2270
2280
2290
50.006
50.206
50.405
50.604
50.802
50.026
50.226
50.425
50.624
50.822
50.046
50.246
50.445
50.644
50.842
50.066
50.266
50.465
50.664
50.862
50.086
50.286
50.485
50.684
50.882
50.106
50.306
50.505
50.703
50.901
50.126
50.326
50.525
50.723
50.921
50.146
50.346
50.545
50.743
50.941
50.166
50.366
50.564
50.763
50.961
50.186
50.385
50.584
50.783
50.981
50.206
50.405
50.604
50.802
51.000
2250
2260
2270
2280
2290
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
43.808
44.020
44.232
44.444
44.655
43.829
44.041
44.253
44.465
44.676
43.850
44.063
44.275
44.486
44.697
43.872
44.084
44.296
44.507
44.719
43.893
44.105
44.317
44.528
44.740
43.914
44.126
44.338
44.550
44.761
43.935
44.147
44.359
44.571
44.782
43.957
44.169
44.380
44.592
44.803
43.978
44.190
44.402
44.613
44.824
43.999
44.211
44.423
44.634
44.845
44.020
44.232
44.444
44.655
44.866
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2300
2310
2320
2330
2340
51.000
51.198
51.395
51.591
51.787
51.020
51.217
51.414
51.611
51.806
51.040
51.237
51.434
51.630
51.826
51.060
51.257
51.453
51.650
51.845
51.079
51.276
51.473
51.669
51.865
51.099
51.296
51.493
51.689
51.885
51.119
51.316
51.512
51.708
51.904
51.139
51.336
51.532
51.728
51.924
51.158
51.355
51.552
51.748
51.943
51.178
51.375
51.571
51.767
51.963
51.198
51.395
51.591
51.787
51.982
2300
2310
2320
2330
2340
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
44.866
45.077
45.287
45.497
45.706
44.887
45.098
45.308
45.518
45.727
44.908
45.119
45.329
45.539
45.748
44.929
45.140
45.350
45.560
45.769
44.950
45.161
45.371
45.580
45.790
44.971
45.182
45.392
45.601
45.811
44.992
45.203
45.413
45.622
45.832
45.014
45.224
45.434
45.643
45.852
45.035
45.245
45.455
45.664
45.873
45.056
45.266
45.476
45.685
45.894
45.077
45.287
45.497
45.706
45.915
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
2350 51.982
2360 52.177
2370 52.371
2380 52.565
239052.759
52.002
52.197
52.391
52.585
52.778
52.021
52.216
52.410
52.604
52.797
52.041
52.235
52.430
52.623
52.817
52.060
52.255
52.449
52.643
52.836
52.080
52.274
52.468
52.662
52.855
52.099
52.294
52.488
52.681
52.875
52.119
52.313
52.507
52.701
52.894
52.138
52.333
52.527
52.720
52.913
52.158
52.352
52.546
52.739
52.932
52.177
52.371
52.565
52.759
52.952
2350
2360
2370
2380
2390
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
45.915
46.124
46.332
46.540
46.747
45.936
46.145
46.353
46.560
46.768
45.957
46.165
46.373
46.581
46.789
45.978
46.186
46.394
46.602
46.809
45.999
46.207
46.415
46.623
46.830
46.019
46.228
46.436
46.643
46.851
46.040
46.249
46.457
46.664
46.871
46.061
46.269
46.477
46.685
46.892
46.082
46.290
46.498
46.706
46.913
46.103
46.311
46.519
46.726
46.933
46.124
46.332
46.540
46.747
46.954
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
2400
2410
2420
2430
2440
52.952
53.144
53.336
53.528
53.719
52.971
53.163
53.355
53.547
53.738
52.990
53.183
53.375
53.566
53.757
53.010
53.202
53.394
53.585
53.776
53.029
53.221
53.413
53.604
53.795
53.048
53.240
53.432
53.623
53.814
53.067
53.260
53.451
53.643
53.833
53.087
53.279
53.470
53.662
53.852
53.106
53.298
53.490
53.681
53.871
53.125
53.317
53.509
53.700
53.890
53.144
53.336
53.528
53.719
53.910
2400
2410
2420
2430
2440
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
46.954
47.161
47.367
47.573
47.778
46.975
47.181
47.387
47.593
47.798
46.995
47.202
47.408
47.614
47.819
47.016
47.223
47.429
47.634
47.839
47.037
47.243
47.449
47.655
47.860
47.057
47.264
47.470
47.675
47.880
47.078
47.284
47.490
47.696
47.901
47.099
47.305
47.511
47.716
47.921
47.119
47.326
47.531
47.737
47.942
47.140
47.346
47.552
47.757
47.962
47.161
47.367
47.573
47.778
47.983
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
2450
2460
2470
2480
2490
53.910
54.100
54.289
54.479
54.668
53.929
54.119
54.308
54.498
54.687
53.948
54.138
54.327
54.517
54.705
53.967
54.157
54.346
54.536
54.724
53.986
54.176
54.365
54.554
54.743
54.005
54.195
54.384
54.573
54.762
54.024
54.214
54.403
54.592
54.781
54.043
54.233
54.422
54.611
54.800
54.062
54.252
54.441
54.630
54.819
54.081
54.271
54.460
54.649
54.837
54.100
54.289
54.479
54.668
54.856
2450
2460
2470
2480
2490
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
47.983
48.187
48.391
48.595
48.798
48.003
48.208
48.411
48.615
48.818
48.024
48.228
48.432
48.635
48.838
48.044
48.248
48.452
48.656
48.859
48.065
48.269
48.473
48.676
48.879
48.085
48.289
48.493
48.696
48.899
48.105
48.310
48.513
48.717
48.919
48.126
48.330
48.534
48.737
48.940
48.146
48.350
48.554
48.757
48.960
48.167
48.371
48.574
48.777
48.980
48.187
48.391
48.595
48.798
49.000
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
2500 54.856 54.875 54.894
2200
2210
2220
2230
2240
49.000
49.202
49.404
49.605
49.806
49.021
49.223
49.424
49.625
49.826
49.041
49.243
49.444
49.645
49.846
49.061
49.263
49.465
49.666
49.866
49.081
49.283
49.485
49.686
49.886
49.101
49.303
49.505
49.706
49.906
49.122
49.323
49.525
49.726
49.926
49.142
49.344
49.545
49.746
49.946
49.162
49.364
49.565
49.766
49.966
49.182
49.384
49.585
49.786
49.986
49.202
49.404
49.605
49.806
50.006
2200
2210
2220
2230
2240
10
Z-220
2500
10
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-450
-4
Thermocouple
Grade
Nickel-Chromium
vs.
Copper-Nickel
+
Extension
Grade

Thermocouple Grade
328 to 1652F
200 to 900C
Extension Grade
32 to 392F
0 to 200C
LIMITS OF ERROR
1.7C or 1.0C Below 0C

-3
-2
-1
10
-9.835 -9.834 -9.833 -9.832 -9.830 -450
100
110
120
130
140
2.281
2.628
2.977
3.330
3.685
2.316
2.663
3.012
3.365
3.720
2.351
2.698
3.048
3.400
3.756
2.385
2.733
3.083
3.436
3.792
2.420
2.767
3.118
3.471
3.827
2.454
2.802
3.153
3.507
3.863
2.489
2.837
3.188
3.542
3.899
2.524
2.872
3.224
3.578
3.935
2.558
2.907
3.259
3.613
3.970
2.593
2.942
3.294
3.649
4.006
2.628
2.977
3.330
3.685
4.042
100
110
120
130
140
-440
-430
-420
-410
-400
-9.830
-9.809
-9.775
-9.729
-9.672
-9.829
-9.806
-9.771
-9.724
-9.666
-9.827
-9.803
-9.766
-9.718
-9.659
-9.825
-9.800
-9.762
-9.713
-9.653
-9.823
-9.797
-9.758
-9.707
-9.646
-9.821
-9.793
-9.753
-9.702
-9.639
-9.819
-9.790
-9.749
-9.696
-9.632
-9.817
-9.786
-9.744
-9.690
-9.625
-9.814
-9.782
-9.739
-9.684
-9.618
-9.812
-9.779
-9.734
-9.678
-9.611
-9.809
-9.775
-9.729
-9.672
-9.604
-440
-430
-420
-410
-400
150
160
170
180
190
4.042
4.403
4.766
5.131
5.500
4.078
4.439
4.802
5.168
5.537
4.114
4.475
4.839
5.205
5.574
4.150
4.511
4.875
5.242
5.611
4.186
4.547
4.912
5.278
5.648
4.222
4.584
4.948
5.315
5.685
4.258
4.620
4.985
5.352
5.722
4.294
4.656
5.021
5.389
5.759
4.330
4.693
5.058
5.426
5.796
4.366
4.729
5.095
5.463
5.833
4.403
4.766
5.131
5.500
5.871
150
160
170
180
190
-390
-380
-370
-360
-350
-9.604
-9.525
-9.436
-9.338
-9.229
-9.597
-9.517
-9.427
-9.327
-9.218
-9.589
-9.508
-9.417
-9.317
-9.207
-9.581
-9.500
-9.408
-9.306
-9.195
-9.574
-9.491
-9.398
-9.295
-9.184
-9.566
-9.482
-9.388
-9.285
-9.172
-9.558
-9.473
-9.378
-9.274
-9.160
-9.550
-9.464
-9.368
-9.263
-9.148
-9.542
-9.455
-9.358
-9.252
-9.136
-9.534
-9.446
-9.348
-9.241
-9.124
-9.525
-9.436
-9.338
-9.229
-9.112
-390
-380
-370
-360
-350
200
210
220
230
240
5.871
6.244
6.620
6.998
7.379
5.908
6.281
6.658
7.036
7.417
5.945
6.319
6.695
7.074
7.455
5.982
6.356
6.733
7.112
7.493
6.020
6.394
6.771
7.150
7.532
6.057
6.432
6.809
7.188
7.570
6.094
6.469
6.847
7.226
7.608
6.132
6.507
6.884
7.264
7.647
6.169
6.544
6.922
7.302
7.685
6.207
6.582
6.960
7.341
7.723
6.244
6.620
6.998
7.379
7.762
200
210
220
230
240
-340
-330
-320
-310
-300
-9.112
-8.986
-8.852
-8.710
-8.561
-9.100
-8.973
-8.839
-8.696
-8.546
-9.088
-8.960
-8.825
-8.681
-8.530
-9.075
-8.947
-8.811
-8.666
-8.515
-9.063
-8.934
-8.797
-8.652
-8.499
-9.050
-8.920
-8.782
-8.637
-8.483
-9.038
-8.907
-8.768
-8.622
-8.468
-9.025
-8.893
-8.754
-8.607
-8.452
-9.012
-8.880
-8.739
-8.591
-8.436
-8.999
-8.866
-8.725
-8.576
-8.420
-8.986
-8.852
-8.710
-8.561
-8.404
-340
-330
-320
-310
-300
250
260
270
280
290
7.762
8.147
8.535
8.924
9.316
7.800
8.186
8.573
8.963
9.355
7.839
8.224
8.612
9.002
9.395
7.877
8.263
8.651
9.041
9.434
7.916
8.302
8.690
9.081
9.473
7.954
8.340
8.729
9.120
9.513
7.993
8.379
8.768
9.159
9.552
8.031
8.418
8.807
9.198
9.591
8.070
8.457
8.846
9.237
9.631
8.108
8.496
8.885
9.277
9.670
8.147
8.535
8.924
9.316
9.710
250
260
270
280
290
-290
-280
-270
-260
-250
-8.404
-8.240
-8.069
-7.891
-7.707
-8.388
-8.223
-8.052
-7.873
-7.688
-8.372
-8.206
-8.034
-7.855
-7.670
-8.356
-8.189
-8.017
-7.837
-7.651
-8.339
-8.173
-7.999
-7.819
-7.632
-8.323
-8.155
-7.981
-7.800
-7.613
-8.307
-8.138
-7.963
-7.782
-7.593
-8.290
-8.121
-7.945
-7.763
-7.574
-8.273
-8.104
-7.928
-7.745
-7.555
-8.257
-8.087
-7.910
-7.726
-7.536
-8.240
-8.069
-7.891
-7.707
-7.516
-290
-280
-270
-260
-250
300
310
320
330
340
9.710
10.106
10.503
10.903
11.305
9.749
10.145
10.543
10.943
11.345
9.789
10.185
10.583
10.983
11.385
9.828
10.225
10.623
11.024
11.426
9.868
10.265
10.663
11.064
11.466
9.907
10.304
10.703
11.104
11.506
9.947
10.344
10.743
11.144
11.547
9.987
10.384
10.783
11.184
11.587
10.026
10.424
10.823
11.224
11.627
10.066
10.464
10.863
11.265
11.668
10.106
10.503
10.903
11.305
11.708
300
310
320
330
340
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
-7.516
-7.319
-7.116
-6.907
-6.692
-7.497
-7.299
-7.096
-6.886
-6.671
-7.478
-7.279
-7.075
-6.865
-6.649
-7.458
-7.259
-7.054
-6.843
-6.627
-7.438
-7.239
-7.033
-6.822
-6.605
-7.419
-7.219
-7.013
-6.801
-6.583
-7.399
-7.198
-6.992
-6.779
-6.561
-7.379
-7.178
-6.971
-6.757
-6.539
-7.359
-7.157
-6.950
-6.736
-6.516
-7.339
-7.137
-6.928
-6.714
-6.494
-7.319
-7.116
-6.907
-6.692
-6.472
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
350
360
370
380
390
11.708
12.113
12.520
12.929
13.339
11.749
12.154
12.561
12.970
13.380
11.789
12.195
12.602
13.011
13.421
11.830
12.235
12.643
13.052
13.462
11.870
12.276
12.684
13.093
13.504
11.911
12.317
12.724
13.134
13.545
11.951
12.357
12.765
13.175
13.586
11.992
12.398
12.806
13.216
13.627
12.032
12.439
12.847
13.257
13.668
12.073
12.480
12.888
13.298
13.710
12.113
12.520
12.929
13.339
13.751
350
360
370
380
390
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
-6.472
-6.246
-6.014
-5.777
-5.535
-6.449
-6.223
-5.991
-5.753
-5.510
-6.427
-6.200
-5.967
-5.729
-5.486
-6.405
-6.177
-5.943
-5.705
-5.461
-6.382
-6.154
-5.920
-5.681
-5.436
-6.359
-6.130
-5.896
-5.656
-5.412
-6.337
-6.107
-5.872
-5.632
-5.387
-6.314
-6.084
-5.849
-5.608
-5.362
-6.291
-6.061
-5.825
-5.584
-5.337
-6.269
-6.037
-5.801
-5.559
-5.312
-6.246
-6.014
-5.777
-5.535
-5.287
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
400
410
420
430
440
13.751
14.164
14.579
14.995
15.413
13.792
14.205
14.620
15.037
15.454
13.833
14.247
14.662
15.078
15.496
13.875
14.288
14.704
15.120
15.538
13.916
14.330
14.745
15.162
15.580
13.957
14.371
14.787
15.204
15.622
13.999
14.413
14.828
15.245
15.664
14.040
14.454
14.870
15.287
15.706
14.081
14.496
14.912
15.329
15.748
14.123
14.537
14.953
15.371
15.790
14.164
14.579
14.995
15.413
15.831
400
410
420
430
440
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
-5.287
-5.035
-4.777
-4.515
-4.248
-5.262
-5.009
-4.751
-4.489
-4.221
-5.237
-4.984
-4.725
-4.462
-4.194
-5.212
-4.958
-4.699
-4.436
-4.167
-5.187
-4.932
-4.673
-4.409
-4.140
-5.162
-4.907
-4.647
-4.382
-4.113
-5.136
-4.881
-4.621
-4.355
-4.086
-5.111
-4.855
-4.594
-4.329
-4.058
-5.086
-4.829
-4.568
-4.302
-4.031
-5.060
-4.803
-4.542
-4.275
-4.004
-5.035
-4.777
-4.515
-4.248
-3.976
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
450
460
470
480
490
15.831
16.252
16.673
17.096
17.520
15.873
16.294
16.715
17.138
17.562
15.915
16.336
16.758
17.181
17.605
15.957
16.378
16.800
17.223
17.647
15.999
16.420
16.842
17.265
17.690
16.041
16.462
16.884
17.308
17.732
16.083
16.504
16.927
17.350
17.775
16.125
16.547
16.969
17.392
17.817
16.168
16.589
17.011
17.435
17.860
16.210
16.631
17.054
17.477
17.902
16.252
16.673
17.096
17.520
17.945
450
460
470
480
490
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
-3.976
-3.700
-3.420
-3.135
-2.846
-3.949
-3.672
-3.391
-3.106
-2.816
-3.922
-3.645
-3.363
-3.077
-2.787
-3.894
-3.617
-3.335
-3.048
-2.758
-3.867
-3.589
-3.306
-3.020
-2.729
-3.839
-3.561
-3.278
-2.991
-2.699
-3.811
-3.532
-3.249
-2.962
-2.670
-3.784
-3.504
-3.221
-2.933
-2.641
-3.756
-3.476
-3.192
-2.904
-2.611
-3.728
-3.448
-3.163
-2.875
-2.582
-3.700
-3.420
-3.135
-2.846
-2.552
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
500
510
520
530
540
17.945
18.371
18.798
19.227
19.656
17.987
18.414
18.841
19.269
19.699
18.030
18.456
18.884
19.312
19.742
18.073
18.499
18.927
19.355
19.785
18.115
18.542
18.969
19.398
19.828
18.158
18.585
19.012
19.441
19.871
18.200
18.627
19.055
19.484
19.914
18.243
18.670
19.098
19.527
19.957
18.286
18.713
19.141
19.570
20.000
18.328
18.756
19.184
19.613
20.043
18.371
18.798
19.227
19.656
20.086
500
510
520
530
540
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
-2.552
-2.255
-1.953
-1.648
-1.339
-2.523
-2.225
-1.923
-1.617
-1.308
-2.493
-2.195
-1.893
-1.587
-1.277
-2.463
-2.165
-1.862
-1.556
-1.245
-2.434
-2.135
-1.832
-1.525
-1.214
-2.404
-2.105
-1.801
-1.494
-1.183
-2.374
-2.074
-1.771
-1.463
-1.152
-2.344
-2.044
-1.740
-1.432
-1.120
-2.315
-2.014
-1.709
-1.401
-1.089
-2.285
-1.984
-1.679
-1.370
-1.057
-2.255
-1.953
-1.648
-1.339
-1.026
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
550
560
570
580
590
20.086
20.517
20.950
21.383
21.817
20.129
20.561
20.993
21.426
21.860
20.172
20.604
21.036
21.470
21.904
20.216
20.647
21.080
21.513
21.947
20.259
20.690
21.123
21.556
21.991
20.302
20.733
21.166
21.600
22.034
20.345
20.777
21.209
21.643
22.078
20.388
20.820
21.253
21.686
22.121
20.431
20.863
21.296
21.730
22.165
20.474
20.906
21.339
21.773
22.208
20.517
20.950
21.383
21.817
22.252
550
560
570
580
590
0
10
20
30
40
-1.026
-0.709
-0.389
-0.065
0.262
-0.994 -0.963 -0.931 -0.900 -0.868 -0.836 -0.805 -0.773 -0.741 -0.709
-0.677 -0.645 -0.614 -0.582 -0.550 -0.517 -0.485 -0.453 -0.421 -0.389
-0.357 -0.324 -0.292 -0.260 -0.227 -0.195 -0.163 -0.130 -0.098 -0.065
-0.033 0.000 0.033 0.065 0.098 0.131 0.163 0.196 0.229 0.262
0.294 0.327 0.360 0.393 0.426 0.459 0.492 0.525 0.558 0.591
0
10
20
30
40
600
610
620
630
640
22.252
22.687
23.124
23.561
23.999
22.295
22.731
23.167
23.604
24.042
22.339
22.774
23.211
23.648
24.086
22.382
22.818
23.255
23.692
24.130
22.426
22.862
23.298
23.736
24.174
22.469
22.905
23.342
23.780
24.218
22.513
22.949
23.386
23.823
24.262
22.556
22.993
23.429
23.867
24.305
22.600
23.036
23.473
23.911
24.349
22.644
23.080
23.517
23.955
24.393
22.687
23.124
23.561
23.999
24.437
600
610
620
630
640
50
60
70
80
90
0.591
0.924
1.259
1.597
1.938
0.924
1.259
1.597
1.938
2.281
50
60
70
80
90
650
660
670
680
690
24.437
24.876
25.316
25.757
26.198
24.481
24.920
25.360
25.801
26.242
24.525
24.964
25.404
25.845
26.286
24.569
25.008
25.448
25.889
26.331
24.613
25.052
25.493
25.933
26.375
24.657
25.096
25.537
25.977
26.419
24.701
25.140
25.581
26.022
26.463
24.745
25.184
25.625
26.066
26.507
24.789
25.228
25.669
26.110
26.552
24.832
25.272
25.713
26.154
26.596
24.876
25.316
25.757
26.198
26.640
650
660
670
680
690
10
10
0.624
0.957
1.292
1.631
1.972
0.657
0.990
1.326
1.665
2.006
0.691
1.024
1.360
1.699
2.041
0.724
1.057
1.394
1.733
2.075
0.757
1.091
1.427
1.767
2.109
0.790
1.124
1.461
1.801
2.144
0.824
1.158
1.495
1.835
2.178
0.857
1.192
1.529
1.869
2.212
0.890
1.225
1.563
1.904
2.247
Z-221

Thermocouple Grade
328 to 1652F
200 to 900C
Extension Grade
32 to 392F
0 to 200C
LIMITS OF ERROR
1.7C or 1.0C Below 0C
Thermocouple
Grade
Nickel-Chromium
vs.
Copper-Nickel
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Extension
Grade

F
10
10
700
710
720
730
740
26.640
27.082
27.525
27.969
28.413
26.684
27.127
27.570
28.013
28.457
26.728
27.171
27.614
28.057
28.501
26.773
27.215
27.658
28.102
28.546
26.817
27.259
27.703
28.146
28.590
26.861
27.304
27.747
28.191
28.635
26.905
27.348
27.791
28.235
28.679
26.950
27.392
27.836
28.279
28.724
26.994
27.437
27.880
28.324
28.768
27.038
27.481
27.924
28.368
28.813
27.082
27.525
27.969
28.413
28.857
700
710
720
730
740
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
53.466
53.908
54.350
54.791
55.232
53.510
53.952
54.394
54.835
55.276
53.555
53.997
54.438
54.879
55.320
53.599
54.041
54.482
54.924
55.364
53.643
54.085
54.527
54.968
55.408
53.687
54.129
54.571
55.012
55.453
53.732
54.173
54.615
55.056
55.497
53.776
54.218
54.659
55.100
55.541
53.820
54.262
54.703
55.144
55.585
53.864
54.306
54.747
55.188
55.629
53.908
54.350
54.791
55.232
55.673
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
750
760
770
780
790
28.857
29.302
29.747
30.193
30.639
28.901
29.346
29.792
30.238
30.684
28.946
29.391
29.836
30.282
30.728
28.990
29.435
29.881
30.327
30.773
29.035
29.480
29.925
30.371
30.818
29.079
29.525
29.970
30.416
30.862
29.124
29.569
30.015
30.461
30.907
29.168
29.614
30.059
30.505
30.952
29.213
29.658
30.104
30.550
30.996
29.257
29.703
30.148
30.595
31.041
29.302
29.747
30.193
30.639
31.086
750
760
770
780
790
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
55.673
56.113
56.553
56.992
57.431
55.717
56.157
56.597
57.036
57.475
55.761
56.201
56.641
57.080
57.519
55.805
56.245
56.685
57.124
57.563
55.849
56.289
56.729
57.168
57.607
55.893
56.333
56.773
57.212
57.651
55.937
56.377
56.816
57.256
57.695
55.981
56.421
56.860
57.300
57.738
56.025
56.465
56.904
57.344
57.782
56.069
56.509
56.948
57.387
57.826
56.113
56.553
56.992
57.431
57.870
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
800
810
820
830
840
31.086
31.533
31.980
32.427
32.875
31.130
31.577
32.025
32.472
32.920
31.175
31.622
32.069
32.517
32.965
31.220
31.667
32.114
32.562
33.010
31.264
31.711
32.159
32.606
33.054
31.309
31.756
32.204
32.651
33.099
31.354
31.801
32.248
32.696
33.144
31.398
31.846
32.293
32.741
33.189
31.443
31.890
32.338
32.786
33.234
31.488
31.935
32.383
32.830
33.278
31.533
31.980
32.427
32.875
33.323
800
810
820
830
840
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
57.870
58.308
58.746
59.184
59.621
57.914
58.352
58.790
59.228
59.665
57.958
58.396
58.834
59.271
59.708
58.002
58.440
58.878
59.315
59.752
58.045
58.484
58.921
59.359
59.796
58.089
58.527
58.965
59.402
59.839
58.133
58.571
59.009
59.446
59.883
58.177
58.615
59.053
59.490
59.927
58.221
58.659
59.096
59.534
59.970
58.265
58.702
59.140
59.577
60.014
58.308
58.746
59.184
59.621
60.058
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
850
860
870
880
890
33.323
33.772
34.220
34.669
35.118
33.368
33.816
34.265
34.714
35.163
33.413
33.861
34.310
34.759
35.208
33.458
33.906
34.355
34.804
35.253
33.503
33.951
34.400
34.849
35.298
33.547
33.996
34.445
34.893
35.343
33.592
34.041
34.489
34.938
35.387
33.637
34.086
34.534
34.983
35.432
33.682
34.130
34.579
35.028
35.477
33.727
34.175
34.624
35.073
35.522
33.772
34.220
34.669
35.118
35.567
850
860
870
880
890
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
60.058
60.494
60.930
61.366
61.801
60.101
60.538
60.974
61.409
61.845
60.145
60.581
61.017
61.453
61.888
60.189
60.625
61.061
61.496
61.932
60.232
60.669
61.105
61.540
61.975
60.276
60.712
61.148
61.583
62.018
60.320
60.756
61.192
61.627
62.062
60.363
60.799
61.235
61.671
62.105
60.407
60.843
61.279
61.714
62.149
60.451
60.887
61.322
61.758
62.192
60.494
60.930
61.366
61.801
62.236
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
900
910
920
930
940
35.567
36.016
36.466
36.915
37.365
35.612
36.061
36.511
36.960
37.410
35.657
36.106
36.556
37.005
37.455
35.702
36.151
36.601
37.050
37.500
35.747
36.196
36.646
37.095
37.545
35.792
36.241
36.691
37.140
37.590
35.837
36.286
36.736
37.185
37.635
35.882
36.331
36.781
37.230
37.680
35.927
36.376
36.826
37.275
37.725
35.972
36.421
36.870
37.320
37.770
36.016
36.466
36.915
37.365
37.815
900
910
920
930
940
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
62.236
62.670
63.104
63.538
63.971
62.279
62.714
63.148
63.581
64.014
62.323
62.757
63.191
63.624
64.057
62.366
62.800
63.234
63.668
64.101
62.410
62.844
63.278
63.711
64.144
62.453
62.887
63.321
63.754
64.187
62.496
62.931
63.364
63.798
64.230
62.540
62.974
63.408
63.841
64.274
62.583
63.017
63.451
63.884
64.317
62.627
63.061
63.494
63.927
64.360
62.670
63.104
63.538
63.971
64.403
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
950
960
970
980
990
37.815
38.265
38.714
39.164
39.614
37.860
38.309
38.759
39.209
39.659
37.905
38.354
38.804
39.254
39.704
37.950
38.399
38.849
39.299
39.749
37.995
38.444
38.894
39.344
39.794
38.040
38.489
38.939
39.389
39.839
38.085
38.534
38.984
39.434
39.884
38.130
38.579
39.029
39.479
39.929
38.175
38.624
39.074
39.524
39.974
38.220
38.669
39.119
39.569
40.019
38.265
38.714
39.164
39.614
40.064
950
960
970
980
990
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
64.403
64.835
65.267
65.698
66.129
64.447
64.879
65.310
65.741
66.172
64.490
64.922
65.353
65.784
66.215
64.533
64.965
65.396
65.827
66.258
64.576
65.008
65.440
65.871
66.301
64.619
65.051
65.483
65.914
66.344
64.663
65.094
65.526
65.957
66.387
64.706
65.138
65.569
66.000
66.430
64.749
65.181
65.612
66.043
66.473
64.792
65.224
65.655
66.086
66.516
64.835
65.267
65.698
66.129
66.559
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
40.064
40.513
40.963
41.412
41.862
40.109
40.558
41.008
41.457
41.907
40.154
40.603
41.053
41.502
41.952
40.199
40.648
41.098
41.547
41.997
40.243
40.693
41.143
41.592
42.042
40.288
40.738
41.188
41.637
42.087
40.333
40.783
41.233
41.682
42.132
40.378
40.828
41.278
41.727
42.176
40.423
40.873
41.323
41.772
42.221
40.468
40.918
41.368
41.817
42.266
40.513
40.963
41.412
41.862
42.311
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
66.559
66.989
67.418
67.846
68.274
66.602
67.031
67.460
67.889
68.317
66.645
67.074
67.503
67.932
68.359
66.688
67.117
67.546
67.974
68.402
66.731
67.160
67.589
68.017
68.445
66.774
67.203
67.632
68.060
68.488
66.817
67.246
67.675
68.103
68.530
66.860
67.289
67.718
68.146
68.573
66.903
67.332
67.760
68.188
68.616
66.946
67.375
67.803
68.231
68.659
66.989
67.418
67.846
68.274
68.701
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
42.311
42.760
43.209
43.658
44.107
42.356
42.805
43.254
43.703
44.152
42.401
42.850
43.299
43.748
44.197
42.446
42.895
43.344
43.793
44.242
42.491
42.940
43.389
43.838
44.286
42.536
42.985
43.434
43.883
44.331
42.581
43.030
43.479
43.928
44.376
42.626
43.075
43.524
43.972
44.421
42.671
43.120
43.569
44.017
44.466
42.715
43.165
43.613
44.062
44.511
42.760
43.209
43.658
44.107
44.555
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
68.701
69.128
69.554
69.979
70.404
68.744
69.171
69.597
70.022
70.447
68.787
69.213
69.639
70.064
70.489
68.829
69.256
69.682
70.107
70.531
68.872
69.298
69.724
70.149
70.574
68.915
69.341
69.767
70.192
70.616
68.957
69.384
69.809
70.234
70.659
69.000
69.426
69.852
70.277
70.701
69.043
69.469
69.894
70.319
70.744
69.085
69.511
69.937
70.362
70.786
69.128
69.554
69.979
70.404
70.828
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
44.555
45.004
45.452
45.900
46.347
44.600
45.049
45.497
45.944
46.392
44.645
45.093
45.541
45.989
46.437
44.690
45.138
45.586
46.034
46.481
44.735
45.183
45.631
46.079
46.526
44.780
45.228
45.676
46.123
46.571
44.824
45.273
45.720
46.168
46.616
44.869
45.317
45.765
46.213
46.660
44.914
45.362
45.810
46.258
46.705
44.959
45.407
45.855
46.302
46.750
45.004
45.452
45.900
46.347
46.794
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
70.828
71.252
71.675
72.097
72.518
70.871
71.294
71.717
72.139
72.561
70.913
71.336
71.759
72.181
72.603
70.955
71.379
71.801
72.223
72.645
70.998
71.421
71.844
72.266
72.687
71.040
71.463
71.886
72.308
72.729
71.082
71.506
71.928
72.350
72.771
71.125
71.548
71.970
72.392
72.813
71.167
71.590
72.012
72.434
72.855
71.209
71.632
72.055
72.476
72.897
71.252
71.675
72.097
72.518
72.939
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
46.794
47.241
47.688
48.135
48.581
46.839
47.286
47.733
48.179
48.625
46.884
47.331
47.777
48.224
48.670
46.929
47.375
47.822
48.268
48.715
46.973
47.420
47.867
48.313
48.759
47.018
47.465
47.911
48.358
48.804
47.063
47.509
47.956
48.402
48.848
47.107
47.554
48.001
48.447
48.893
47.152
47.599
48.045
48.492
48.937
47.197
47.643
48.090
48.536
48.982
47.241
47.688
48.135
48.581
49.027
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
72.939
73.360
73.780
74.199
74.618
72.981
73.402
73.821
74.241
74.659
73.023
73.444
73.863
74.283
74.701
73.066
73.486
73.905
74.324
74.743
73.108
73.528
73.947
74.366
74.785
73.150
73.570
73.989
74.408
74.827
73.192
73.612
74.031
74.450
74.869
73.234
73.654
74.073
74.492
74.910
73.276
73.696
74.115
74.534
74.952
73.318
73.738
74.157
74.576
74.994
73.360
73.780
74.199
74.618
75.036
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
49.027
49.472
49.917
50.362
50.807
49.071
49.517
49.962
50.407
50.851
49.116
49.561
50.006
50.451
50.895
49.160
49.606
50.051
50.495
50.940
49.205
49.650
50.095
50.540
50.984
49.249
49.695
50.140
50.584
51.029
49.294
49.739
50.184
50.629
51.073
49.338
49.784
50.229
50.673
51.118
49.383
49.828
50.273
50.718
51.162
49.428
49.873
50.318
50.762
51.206
49.472
49.917
50.362
50.807
51.251
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
1800
1810
1820
1830
75.036
75.454
75.872
76.289
75.078
75.496
75.913
76.331
75.120 75.161 75.203 75.245 75.287 75.329 75.370 75.412 75.454 1800
75.538 75.579 75.621 75.663 75.705 75.746 75.788 75.830 75.872 1810
75.955 75.997 76.039 76.081 76.122 76.164 76.206 76.248 76.289 1820
76.373
1830
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
51.251
51.695
52.138
52.581
53.024
51.295
51.739
52.182
52.625
53.068
51.340
51.783
52.227
52.670
53.112
51.384
51.828
52.271
52.714
53.157
51.428
51.872
52.315
52.758
53.201
51.473
51.916
52.360
52.803
53.245
51.517
51.961
52.404
52.847
53.289
51.561
52.005
52.448
52.891
53.334
51.606
52.049
52.493
52.935
53.378
51.650
52.094
52.537
52.980
53.422
51.695
52.138
52.581
53.024
53.466
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
10
Z-222
10
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
-10
-9
-8
T
-7
-6
-5
-4
Thermocouple
Grade
Copper
vs.
Copper-Nickel
+
Extension
Grade

Thermocouple Grade
328 to 662F
200 to 350C
Extension Grade
76 to 212F
60 to 100C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Mild Oxidizing, Reducing Vacuum
or Insert; Good Where Moisture Is Present;
Low Temperature and Cryogenic Applications
-3
-2
-1
10
2.712
2.958
3.207
3.459
3.712
2.737
2.983
3.232
3.484
3.738
2.761
3.008
3.257
3.509
3.763
2.786
3.033
3.282
3.534
3.789
2.810
3.058
3.307
3.560
3.814
2.835
3.082
3.333
3.585
3.840
2.860
3.107
3.358
3.610
3.866
2.884
3.132
3.383
3.636
3.891
2.909
3.157
3.408
3.661
3.917
2.934
3.182
3.433
3.687
3.943
2.958
3.207
3.459
3.712
3.968
150
160
170
180
190
-6.258 -6.257 -6.256 -6.255 -6.254 -450
150
160
170
180
190
-440
-430
-420
-410
-400
-6.254
-6.240
-6.217
-6.187
-6.150
-6.253
-6.238
-6.215
-6.184
-6.146
-6.252
-6.236
-6.212
-6.180
-6.141
-6.251
-6.234
-6.209
-6.177
-6.137
-6.250
-6.232
-6.206
-6.173
-6.133
-6.248
-6.230
-6.203
-6.170
-6.128
-6.247
-6.227
-6.200
-6.166
-6.124
-6.245
-6.225
-6.197
-6.162
-6.119
-6.243
-6.222
-6.194
-6.158
-6.115
-6.242
-6.220
-6.191
-6.154
-6.110
-6.240
-6.217
-6.187
-6.150
-6.105
-440
-430
-420
-410
-400
200
210
220
230
240
3.968
4.227
4.487
4.750
5.015
3.994
4.253
4.513
4.776
5.042
4.020
4.279
4.540
4.803
5.068
4.046
4.305
4.566
4.829
5.095
4.071
4.331
4.592
4.856
5.122
4.097
4.357
4.618
4.882
5.148
4.123
4.383
4.645
4.909
5.175
4.149
4.409
4.671
4.935
5.202
4.175
4.435
4.697
4.962
5.228
4.201
4.461
4.724
4.988
5.255
4.227
4.487
4.750
5.015
5.282
200
210
220
230
240
-390
-380
-370
-360
-350
-6.105
-6.053
-5.994
-5.930
-5.860
-6.100
-6.047
-5.988
-5.923
-5.853
-6.095
-6.042
-5.982
-5.916
-5.845
-6.090
-6.036
-5.976
-5.909
-5.838
-6.085
-6.030
-5.969
-5.902
-5.830
-6.080
-6.025
-5.963
-5.896
-5.823
-6.075
-6.019
-5.956
-5.888
-5.815
-6.069
-6.013
-5.950
-5.881
-5.808
-6.064
-6.007
-5.943
-5.874
-5.800
-6.059
-6.001
-5.937
-5.867
-5.792
-6.053
-5.994
-5.930
-5.860
-5.785
-390
-380
-370
-360
-350
250
260
270
280
290
5.282
5.551
5.823
6.096
6.371
5.309
5.578
5.850
6.123
6.399
5.336
5.605
5.877
6.151
6.426
5.363
5.632
5.904
6.178
6.454
5.389
5.660
5.932
6.206
6.482
5.416
5.687
5.959
6.233
6.510
5.443
5.714
5.986
6.261
6.537
5.470
5.741
6.014
6.288
6.565
5.497
5.768
6.041
6.316
6.593
5.524
5.795
6.068
6.343
6.621
5.551
5.823
6.096
6.371
6.648
250
260
270
280
290
-340
-330
-320
-310
-300
-5.785
-5.705
-5.620
-5.532
-5.439
-5.777
-5.697
-5.612
-5.523
-5.429
-5.769
-5.688
-5.603
-5.513
-5.420
-5.761
-5.680
-5.594
-5.504
-5.410
-5.753
-5.672
-5.585
-5.495
-5.400
-5.745
-5.663
-5.577
-5.486
-5.391
-5.737
-5.655
-5.568
-5.476
-5.381
-5.729
-5.646
-5.559
-5.467
-5.371
-5.721
-5.638
-5.550
-5.458
-5.361
-5.713
-5.629
-5.541
-5.448
-5.351
-5.705
-5.620
-5.532
-5.439
-5.341
-340
-330
-320
-310
-300
300
310
320
330
340
6.648
6.928
7.209
7.492
7.777
6.676
6.956
7.237
7.520
7.805
6.704
6.984
7.265
7.549
7.834
6.732
7.012
7.294
7.577
7.863
6.760
7.040
7.322
7.606
7.891
6.788
7.068
7.350
7.634
7.920
6.816
7.096
7.378
7.663
7.949
6.844
7.124
7.407
7.691
7.977
6.872
7.152
7.435
7.720
8.006
6.900
7.181
7.463
7.748
8.035
6.928
7.209
7.492
7.777
8.064
300
310
320
330
340
-290
-280
-270
-260
-250
-5.341
-5.240
-5.135
-5.025
-4.912
-5.332
-5.230
-5.124
-5.014
-4.900
-5.322
-5.219
-5.113
-5.003
-4.889
-5.312
-5.209
-5.102
-4.992
-4.877
-5.301
-5.198
-5.091
-4.980
-4.865
-5.291
-5.188
-5.081
-4.969
-4.854
-5.281
-5.177
-5.070
-4.958
-4.842
-5.271
-5.167
-5.059
-4.946
-4.830
-5.261
-5.156
-5.048
-4.935
-4.818
-5.250
-5.145
-5.036
-4.923
-4.806
-5.240
-5.135
-5.025
-4.912
-4.794
-290
-280
-270
-260
-250
350
360
370
380
390
8.064
8.352
8.643
8.935
9.229
8.092
8.381
8.672
8.964
9.259
8.121
8.410
8.701
8.994
9.288
8.150
8.439
8.730
9.023
9.318
8.179
8.468
8.759
9.052
9.347
8.208
8.497
8.789
9.082
9.377
8.237
8.526
8.818
9.111
9.406
8.266
8.555
8.847
9.141
9.436
8.294
8.585
8.876
9.170
9.466
8.323
8.614
8.906
9.200
9.495
8.352
8.643
8.935
9.229
9.525
350
360
370
380
390
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
-4.794
-4.673
-4.548
-4.419
-4.286
-4.783
-4.661
-4.535
-4.406
-4.273
-4.771
-4.648
-4.523
-4.393
-4.259
-4.759
-4.636
-4.510
-4.380
-4.246
-4.746
-4.624
-4.497
-4.366
-4.232
-4.734
-4.611
-4.484
-4.353
-4.218
-4.722
-4.599
-4.471
-4.340
-4.205
-4.710
-4.586
-4.458
-4.326
-4.191
-4.698
-4.573
-4.445
-4.313
-4.177
-4.685
-4.561
-4.432
-4.300
-4.163
-4.673
-4.548
-4.419
-4.286
-4.149
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
400 9.525 9.555 9.584 9.614 9.644 9.673

410 9.822 9.852 9.882 9.912 9.942 9.972
420 10.122 10.152 10.182 10.212 10.242 10.272
430 10.423 10.453 10.483 10.513 10.543 10.574
440 10.725 10.755 10.786 10.816 10.847 10.877
9.703
10.002
10.302
10.604
10.907
9.733
10.032
10.332
10.634
10.938
9.763
10.062
10.362
10.664
10.968
9.793
10.092
10.392
10.695
10.999
9.822
10.122
10.423
10.725
11.029
400
410
420
430
440
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
-4.149
-4.009
-3.865
-3.717
-3.565
-4.136
-3.995
-3.850
-3.702
-3.550
-4.122
-3.980
-3.836
-3.687
-3.535
-4.108
-3.966
-3.821
-3.672
-3.519
-4.094
-3.952
-3.806
-3.657
-3.504
-4.080
-3.937
-3.791
-3.642
-3.488
-4.066
-3.923
-3.777
-3.626
-3.473
-4.052
-3.908
-3.762
-3.611
-3.457
-4.037
-3.894
-3.747
-3.596
-3.441
-4.023
-3.879
-3.732
-3.581
-3.426
-4.009
-3.865
-3.717
-3.565
-3.410
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
450
460
470
480
490
11.029
11.335
11.643
11.951
12.262
11.060
11.366
11.673
11.982
12.293
11.090
11.396
11.704
12.013
12.324
11.121
11.427
11.735
12.044
12.355
11.151
11.458
11.766
12.075
12.386
11.182
11.489
11.797
12.106
12.418
11.213
11.519
11.828
12.138
12.449
11.243
11.550
11.859
12.169
12.480
11.274
11.581
11.890
12.200
12.511
11.304
11.612
11.920
12.231
12.543
11.335
11.643
11.951
12.262
12.574
450
460
470
480
490
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
-3.410
-3.251
-3.089
-2.923
-2.754
-3.394
-3.235
-3.072
-2.906
-2.737
-3.379
-3.219
-3.056
-2.889
-2.719
-3.363
-3.203
-3.040
-2.873
-2.702
-3.347
-3.187
-3.023
-2.856
-2.685
-3.331
-3.171
-3.006
-2.839
-2.668
-3.315
-3.154
-2.990
-2.822
-2.651
-3.299
-3.138
-2.973
-2.805
-2.633
-3.283
-3.122
-2.956
-2.788
-2.616
-3.267
-3.105
-2.940
-2.771
-2.598
-3.251
-3.089
-2.923
-2.754
-2.581
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
500
510
520
530
540
12.574
12.887
13.202
13.518
13.836
12.605
12.919
13.234
13.550
13.868
12.636
12.950
13.265
13.582
13.900
12.668
12.982
13.297
13.614
13.932
12.699
13.013
13.328
13.645
13.964
12.730
13.045
13.360
13.677
13.995
12.762
13.076
13.392
13.709
14.027
12.793
13.108
13.423
13.741
14.059
12.824
13.139
13.455
13.772
14.091
12.856
13.171
13.487
13.804
14.123
12.887
13.202
13.518
13.836
14.155
500
510
520
530
540
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
-2.581
-2.405
-2.225
-2.043
-1.857
-2.564
-2.387
-2.207
-2.024
-1.838
-2.546
-2.369
-2.189
-2.006
-1.819
-2.529
-2.351
-2.171
-1.987
-1.800
-2.511
-2.334
-2.153
-1.969
-1.781
-2.493
-2.316
-2.134
-1.950
-1.762
-2.476
-2.298
-2.116
-1.931
-1.743
-2.458
-2.280
-2.098
-1.913
-1.724
-2.440
-2.262
-2.079
-1.894
-1.705
-2.423
-2.244
-2.061
-1.875
-1.686
-2.405
-2.225
-2.043
-1.857
-1.667
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
550
560
570
580
590
14.155
14.476
14.797
15.121
15.445
14.187
14.508
14.830
15.153
15.477
14.219
14.540
14.862
15.185
15.510
14.251
14.572
14.894
15.218
15.543
14.283
14.604
14.926
15.250
15.575
14.315
14.636
14.959
15.283
15.608
14.347
14.669
14.991
15.315
15.640
14.379
14.701
15.023
15.347
15.673
14.411
14.733
15.056
15.380
15.705
14.444
14.765
15.088
15.412
15.738
14.476
14.797
15.121
15.445
15.771
550
560
570
580
590
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
-1.667
-1.475
-1.279
-1.081
-0.879
-1.648
-1.456
-1.260
-1.061
-0.859
-1.629
-1.436
-1.240
-1.041
-0.839
-1.610
-1.417
-1.220
-1.021
-0.818
-1.591
-1.397
-1.200
-1.001
-0.798
-1.572
-1.378
-1.181
-0.980
-0.777
-1.552
-1.358
-1.161
-0.960
-0.757
-1.533
-1.338
-1.141
-0.940
-0.736
-1.514
-1.319
-1.121
-0.920
-0.716
-1.494
-1.299
-1.101
-0.900
-0.695
-1.475
-1.279
-1.081
-0.879
-0.675
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
600
610
620
630
640
15.771
16.098
16.426
16.756
17.086
15.803
16.130
16.459
16.789
17.120
15.836
16.163
16.492
16.822
17.153
15.869
16.196
16.525
16.855
17.186
15.901
16.229
16.558
16.888
17.219
15.934
16.262
16.591
16.921
17.252
15.967
16.295
16.624
16.954
17.286
15.999
16.327
16.657
16.987
17.319
16.032
16.360
16.690
17.020
17.352
16.065
16.393
16.723
17.053
17.385
16.098
16.426
16.756
17.086
17.418
600
610
620
630
640
0
10
20
30
40
-0.675
-0.467
-0.256
-0.043
0.173
-0.654 -0.633 -0.613 -0.592 -0.571 -0.550 -0.530 -0.509 -0.488 -0.467
-0.446 -0.425 -0.404 -0.383 -0.362 -0.341 -0.320 -0.299 -0.278 -0.256
-0.235 -0.214 -0.193 -0.171 -0.150 -0.129 -0.107 -0.086 -0.064 -0.043
-0.022 0.000 0.022 0.043 0.065 0.086 0.108 0.130 0.151 0.173
0.195 0.216 0.238 0.260 0.282 0.303 0.325 0.347 0.369 0.391
0
10
20
30
40
650
660
670
680
690
17.418
17.752
18.086
18.422
18.759
17.452
17.785
18.120
18.456
18.793
17.485
17.819
18.153
18.490
18.827
17.518
17.852
18.187
18.523
18.861
17.552
17.886
18.221
18.557
18.894
17.585
17.919
18.254
18.591
18.928
17.618
17.952
18.288
18.624
18.962
17.652
17.986
18.321
18.658
18.996
17.685
18.019
18.355
18.692
19.030
17.718
18.053
18.389
18.725
19.064
17.752
18.086
18.422
18.759
19.097
650
660
670
680
690
50
60
70
80
90
0.391
0.611
0.834
1.060
1.288
0.413
0.634
0.857
1.083
1.311
0.435
0.656
0.879
1.105
1.334
0.457
0.678
0.902
1.128
1.357
0.479
0.700
0.924
1.151
1.380
0.501
0.723
0.947
1.174
1.403
0.523
0.745
0.969
1.196
1.426
0.545
0.767
0.992
1.219
1.449
0.567
0.790
1.015
1.242
1.472
0.589
0.812
1.037
1.265
1.496
0.611
0.834
1.060
1.288
1.519
50
60
70
80
90
700
710
720
730
740
19.097
19.437
19.777
20.118
20.460
19.131
19.471
19.811
20.152
20.495
19.165
19.505
19.845
20.187
20.529
19.199
19.539
19.879
20.221
20.563
19.233
19.573
19.913
20.255
20.597
19.267
19.607
19.947
20.289
20.632
19.301
19.641
19.982
20.323
20.666
19.335
19.675
20.016
20.358
20.700
19.369
19.709
20.050
20.392
20.735
19.403
19.743
20.084
20.426
20.769
19.437
19.777
20.118
20.460
20.803
700
710
720
730
740
100
110
120
130
140
1.519
1.752
1.988
2.227
2.468
1.542
1.776
2.012
2.251
2.492
1.565
1.799
2.036
2.275
2.517
1.588
1.823
2.060
2.299
2.541
1.612
1.846
2.083
2.323
2.565
1.635
1.870
2.107
2.347
2.590
1.658
1.893
2.131
2.371
2.614
1.682
1.917
2.155
2.395
2.639
1.705
1.941
2.179
2.420
2.663
1.729
1.964
2.203
2.444
2.687
1.752
1.988
2.227
2.468
2.712
100
110
120
130
140
10
-450
750 20.803 20.838 20.872
Z-223
750
10

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 2642F
0 to 1450C
Extension Grade
32 to 300F
0 to 150C
LIMITS OF ERROR
FREFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32F
Extension
Grade
Thermocouple
Grade
NONE
ESTABLISHED
vs.
Platinum
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90

F
-10
-9
-50
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
10
-0.236 -0.233 -0.231 -0.229 -0.227 -0.224 -0.222 -0.220 -0.218
-50
400
410
420
430
440
1.478
1.526
1.573
1.621
1.669
1.483
1.531
1.578
1.626
1.674
1.488
1.535
1.583
1.631
1.679
1.493
1.540
1.588
1.636
1.684
1.497
1.545
1.592
1.640
1.689
1.502
1.550
1.597
1.645
1.693
1.507
1.554
1.602
1.650
1.698
1.512
1.559
1.607
1.655
1.703
1.516
1.564
1.612
1.660
1.708
1.521
1.569
1.616
1.664
1.713
1.526
1.573
1.621
1.669
1.718
400
410
420
430
440
-0.213
-0.190
-0.165
-0.140
-0.114
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
-0.218
-0.194
-0.170
-0.145
-0.119
-0.215
-0.192
-0.168
-0.142
-0.116
-0.194
-0.170
-0.145
-0.119
-0.092
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
450
460
470
480
490
1.718
1.766
1.815
1.864
1.913
1.722
1.771
1.820
1.869
1.918
1.727
1.776
1.825
1.874
1.923
1.732
1.781
1.829
1.878
1.928
1.737
1.786
1.834
1.883
1.933
1.742
1.790
1.839
1.888
1.938
1.747
1.795
1.844
1.893
1.942
1.752
1.800
1.849
1.898
1.947
1.756
1.805
1.854
1.903
1.952
1.761
1.810
1.859
1.908
1.957
1.766
1.815
1.864
1.913
1.962
450
460
470
480
490
0
10
20
30
40
-0.092
-0.064
-0.035
-0.006
0.024
-0.089 -0.086 -0.084 -0.081 -0.078 -0.075 -0.073 -0.070 -0.067 -0.064
-0.061 -0.058 -0.056 -0.053 -0.050 -0.047 -0.044 -0.041 -0.038 -0.035
-0.033 -0.030 -0.027 -0.024 -0.021 -0.018 -0.015 -0.012 -0.009 -0.006
-0.003 0.000 0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012 0.015 0.018 0.021 0.024
0.027 0.030 0.033 0.037 0.040 0.043 0.046 0.049 0.052 0.055
0
10
20
30
40
500
510
520
530
540
1.962
2.012
2.062
2.111
2.162
1.967
2.017
2.067
2.116
2.167
1.972
2.022
2.072
2.121
2.172
1.977
2.027
2.076
2.126
2.177
1.982
2.032
2.081
2.131
2.182
1.987
2.037
2.086
2.136
2.187
1.992
2.042
2.091
2.141
2.192
1.997
2.047
2.096
2.147
2.197
2.002
2.052
2.101
2.152
2.202
2.007
2.057
2.106
2.157
2.207
2.012
2.062
2.111
2.162
2.212
500
510
520
530
540
50
60
70
80
90
0.055
0.087
0.119
0.153
0.186
0.058
0.090
0.123
0.156
0.190
0.062
0.093
0.126
0.159
0.193
0.065
0.097
0.129
0.163
0.197
0.068
0.100
0.133
0.166
0.200
0.071
0.103
0.136
0.169
0.204
0.074
0.106
0.139
0.173
0.207
0.077
0.110
0.143
0.176
0.210
0.081
0.113
0.146
0.180
0.214
0.084
0.116
0.149
0.183
0.217
0.087
0.119
0.153
0.186
0.221
50
60
70
80
90
550
560
570
580
590
2.212
2.262
2.313
2.364
2.415
2.217
2.267
2.318
2.369
2.420
2.222
2.272
2.323
2.374
2.425
2.227
2.277
2.328
2.379
2.430
2.232
2.283
2.333
2.384
2.435
2.237
2.288
2.338
2.389
2.440
2.242
2.293
2.343
2.394
2.445
2.247
2.298
2.348
2.399
2.450
2.252
2.303
2.354
2.404
2.455
2.257
2.308
2.359
2.410
2.461
2.262
2.313
2.364
2.415
2.466
550
560
570
580
590
100
110
120
130
140
0.221
0.256
0.292
0.328
0.365
0.224
0.260
0.295
0.332
0.369
0.228
0.263
0.299
0.335
0.372
0.231
0.267
0.303
0.339
0.376
0.235
0.270
0.306
0.343
0.380
0.238
0.274
0.310
0.346
0.384
0.242
0.277
0.313
0.350
0.387
0.245
0.281
0.317
0.354
0.391
0.249
0.285
0.321
0.357
0.395
0.252
0.288
0.324
0.361
0.399
0.256
0.292
0.328
0.365
0.402
100
110
120
130
140
600
610
620
630
640
2.466
2.517
2.568
2.620
2.672
2.471
2.522
2.574
2.625
2.677
2.476
2.527
2.579
2.630
2.682
2.481
2.532
2.584
2.635
2.687
2.486
2.537
2.589
2.641
2.692
2.491
2.543
2.594
2.646
2.697
2.496
2.548
2.599
2.651
2.703
2.502
2.553
2.604
2.656
2.708
2.507
2.558
2.610
2.661
2.713
2.512
2.563
2.615
2.666
2.718
2.517
2.568
2.620
2.672
2.723
600
610
620
630
640
150
160
170
180
190
0.402
0.440
0.479
0.518
0.557
0.406
0.444
0.483
0.522
0.561
0.410
0.448
0.487
0.526
0.565
0.414
0.452
0.490
0.530
0.569
0.417
0.456
0.494
0.534
0.573
0.421
0.459
0.498
0.538
0.577
0.425
0.463
0.502
0.541
0.581
0.429
0.467
0.506
0.545
0.585
0.433
0.471
0.510
0.549
0.589
0.436
0.475
0.514
0.553
0.593
0.440
0.479
0.518
0.557
0.597
150
160
170
180
190
650
660
670
680
690
2.723
2.775
2.827
2.880
2.932
2.729
2.781
2.833
2.885
2.937
2.734
2.786
2.838
2.890
2.943
2.739
2.791
2.843
2.895
2.948
2.744
2.796
2.848
2.901
2.953
2.749
2.801
2.854
2.906
2.958
2.755
2.807
2.859
2.911
2.964
2.760
2.812
2.864
2.916
2.969
2.765
2.817
2.869
2.922
2.974
2.770
2.822
2.874
2.927
2.979
2.775
2.827
2.880
2.932
2.985
650
660
670
680
690
200
210
220
230
240
0.597
0.638
0.679
0.720
0.762
0.601
0.642
0.683
0.724
0.766
0.605
0.646
0.687
0.728
0.770
0.609
0.650
0.691
0.732
0.774
0.613
0.654
0.695
0.737
0.779
0.617
0.658
0.699
0.741
0.783
0.622
0.662
0.703
0.745
0.787
0.626
0.666
0.708
0.749
0.791
0.630
0.670
0.712
0.753
0.795
0.634
0.675
0.716
0.758
0.800
0.638
0.679
0.720
0.762
0.804
200
210
220
230
240
700
710
720
730
740
2.985
3.037
3.090
3.143
3.196
2.990
3.042
3.095
3.148
3.201
2.995
3.048
3.100
3.153
3.206
3.000
3.053
3.106
3.159
3.212
3.006
3.058
3.111
3.164
3.217
3.011
3.063
3.116
3.169
3.222
3.016
3.069
3.122
3.174
3.227
3.021
3.074
3.127
3.180
3.233
3.027
3.079
3.132
3.185
3.238
3.032
3.085
3.137
3.190
3.243
3.037
3.090
3.143
3.196
3.249
700
710
720
730
740
250
260
270
280
290
0.804
0.847
0.889
0.933
0.977
0.808
0.851
0.894
0.937
0.981
0.812
0.855
0.898
0.942
0.985
0.817
0.859
0.902
0.946
0.990
0.821
0.864
0.907
0.950
0.994
0.825
0.868
0.911
0.955
0.998
0.829
0.872
0.915
0.959
1.003
0.834
0.877
0.920
0.963
1.007
0.838
0.881
0.924
0.968
1.012
0.842
0.885
0.928
0.972
1.016
0.847
0.889
0.933
0.977
1.021
250
260
270
280
290
750
760
770
780
790
3.249
3.302
3.355
3.409
3.462
3.254
3.307
3.361
3.414
3.468
3.259
3.313
3.366
3.419
3.473
3.265
3.318
3.371
3.425
3.478
3.270
3.323
3.377
3.430
3.484
3.275
3.329
3.382
3.435
3.489
3.281
3.334
3.387
3.441
3.494
3.286
3.339
3.393
3.446
3.500
3.291
3.345
3.398
3.451
3.505
3.297
3.350
3.403
3.457
3.510
3.302
3.355
3.409
3.462
3.516
750
760
770
780
790
300
310
320
330
340
1.021
1.065
1.110
1.155
1.200
1.025
1.069
1.114
1.159
1.205
1.029
1.074
1.119
1.164
1.209
1.034
1.078
1.123
1.168
1.214
1.038
1.083
1.128
1.173
1.218
1.043
1.087
1.132
1.177
1.223
1.047
1.092
1.137
1.182
1.227
1.052
1.096
1.141
1.186
1.232
1.056
1.101
1.146
1.191
1.237
1.061
1.105
1.150
1.196
1.241
1.065
1.110
1.155
1.200
1.246
300
310
320
330
340
800
810
820
830
840
3.516
3.570
3.623
3.677
3.731
3.521
3.575
3.629
3.683
3.737
3.527
3.580
3.634
3.688
3.742
3.532
3.586
3.640
3.694
3.748
3.537
3.591
3.645
3.699
3.753
3.543
3.596
3.650
3.704
3.758
3.548
3.602
3.656
3.710
3.764
3.553
3.607
3.661
3.715
3.769
3.559
3.613
3.667
3.721
3.775
3.564
3.618
3.672
3.726
3.780
3.570
3.623
3.677
3.731
3.786
800
810
820
830
840
350
360
370
380
390
1.246
1.292
1.338
1.385
1.431
1.250
1.296
1.343
1.389
1.436
1.255
1.301
1.347
1.394
1.441
1.260
1.306
1.352
1.399
1.445
1.264
1.310
1.357
1.403
1.450
1.269
1.315
1.361
1.408
1.455
1.273
1.319
1.366
1.413
1.460
1.278
1.324
1.371
1.417
1.464
1.283
1.329
1.375
1.422
1.469
1.287
1.333
1.380
1.427
1.474
1.292
1.338
1.385
1.431
1.478
350
360
370
380
390
850
860
870
880
890
3.786
3.840
3.894
3.949
4.003
3.791
3.845
3.900
3.954
4.009
3.796
3.851
3.905
3.959
4.014
3.802
3.856
3.910
3.965
4.020
3.807
3.862
3.916
3.970
4.025
3.813
3.867
3.921
3.976
4.030
3.818
3.872
3.927
3.981
4.036
3.823
3.878
3.932
3.987
4.041
3.829
3.883
3.938
3.992
4.047
3.834
3.889
3.943
3.998
4.052
3.840
3.894
3.949
4.003
4.058
850
860
870
880
890
10
10
-0.211
-0.187
-0.163
-0.137
-0.111
-0.208
-0.185
-0.160
-0.135
-0.108
-0.206
-0.182
-0.158
-0.132
-0.106
-0.204
-0.180
-0.155
-0.129
-0.103
-0.201
-0.178
-0.153
-0.127
-0.100
-0.199
-0.175
-0.150
-0.124
-0.097
-0.197
-0.173
-0.148
-0.122
-0.095
Z-224
Reference Tables
NONE
ESTABLISHED
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
-10
-9
900
910
920
930
940
4.058
4.113
4.167
4.222
4.277
4.063
4.118
4.173
4.228
4.283
4.069
4.123
4.178
4.233
4.288
4.074
4.129
4.184
4.239
4.294
4.080
4.134
4.189
4.244
4.299
950
960
970
980
990
4.332
4.388
4.443
4.498
4.554
4.338
4.393
4.449
4.504
4.559
4.343
4.399
4.454
4.510
4.565
4.349
4.404
4.460
4.515
4.571
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
4.610
4.665
4.721
4.777
4.833
4.615
4.671
4.727
4.782
4.838
4.621
4.676
4.732
4.788
4.844
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
4.889
4.945
5.001
5.058
5.114
4.895
4.951
5.007
5.063
5.120
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
5.171
5.227
5.284
5.341
5.398
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190

0
4.085
4.140
4.195
4.250
4.305
4.091
4.145
4.200
4.255
4.310
4.096
4.151
4.206
4.261
4.316
4.102
4.156
4.211
4.266
4.321
4.107
4.162
4.217
4.272
4.327
4.113
4.167
4.222
4.277
4.332
900
910
920
930
940
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
6.913
6.973
7.032
7.092
7.152
6.919
6.979
7.038
7.098
7.158
6.925
6.985
7.044
7.104
7.164
6.931
6.991
7.050
7.110
7.170
6.937
6.997
7.056
7.116
7.176
6.943
7.003
7.062
7.122
7.182
6.949
7.008
7.068
7.128
7.188
6.955
7.014
7.074
7.134
7.194
6.961
7.020
7.080
7.140
7.200
6.967
7.026
7.086
7.146
7.206
6.973
7.032
7.092
7.152
7.212
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
4.355
4.410
4.465
4.521
4.576
4.360
4.415
4.471
4.526
4.582
4.366
4.421
4.476
4.532
4.587
4.371
4.426
4.482
4.537
4.593
4.377
4.432
4.487
4.543
4.598
4.382
4.437
4.493
4.548
4.604
4.388
4.443
4.498
4.554
4.610
950
960
970
980
990
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
7.212
7.273
7.333
7.393
7.454
7.218
7.279
7.339
7.399
7.460
7.224
7.285
7.345
7.405
7.466
7.230
7.291
7.351
7.411
7.472
7.236
7.297
7.357
7.418
7.478
7.242
7.303
7.363
7.424
7.484
7.249
7.309
7.369
7.430
7.490
7.255
7.315
7.375
7.436
7.496
7.261
7.321
7.381
7.442
7.502
7.267
7.327
7.387
7.448
7.508
7.273
7.333
7.393
7.454
7.514
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
4.626
4.682
4.738
4.794
4.850
4.632
4.688
4.743
4.799
4.855
4.637
4.693
4.749
4.805
4.861
4.643
4.699
4.755
4.810
4.866
4.648
4.704
4.760
4.816
4.872
4.654
4.710
4.766
4.822
4.878
4.660
4.715
4.771
4.827
4.883
4.665
4.721
4.777
4.833
4.889
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
7.514
7.575
7.636
7.697
7.758
7.521
7.581
7.642
7.703
7.764
7.527
7.587
7.648
7.709
7.770
7.533
7.593
7.654
7.715
7.776
7.539
7.600
7.660
7.721
7.783
7.545
7.606
7.667
7.728
7.789
7.551
7.612
7.673
7.734
7.795
7.557
7.618
7.679
7.740
7.801
7.563
7.624
7.685
7.746
7.807
7.569
7.630
7.691
7.752
7.813
7.575
7.636
7.697
7.758
7.819
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
4.900
4.956
5.013
5.069
5.125
4.906
4.962
5.018
5.075
5.131
4.911
4.968
5.024
5.080
5.137
4.917
4.973
5.030
5.086
5.142
4.923
4.979
5.035
5.092
5.148
4.928
4.984
5.041
5.097
5.154
4.934
4.990
5.046
5.103
5.159
4.939
4.996
5.052
5.109
5.165
4.945
5.001
5.058
5.114
5.171
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
7.819
7.881
7.942
8.003
8.065
7.825
7.887
7.948
8.010
8.071
7.832
7.893
7.954
8.016
8.077
7.838
7.899
7.960
8.022
8.083
7.844
7.905
7.966
8.028
8.090
7.850
7.911
7.973
8.034
8.096
7.856
7.917
7.979
8.040
8.102
7.862
7.923
7.985
8.047
8.108
7.868
7.930
7.991
8.053
8.114
7.874
7.936
7.997
8.059
8.121
7.881
7.942
8.003
8.065
8.127
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
5.176
5.233
5.290
5.347
5.404
5.182
5.239
5.295
5.352
5.409
5.188
5.244
5.301
5.358
5.415
5.193
5.250
5.307
5.364
5.421
5.199
5.256
5.312
5.369
5.426
5.205
5.261
5.318
5.375
5.432
5.210
5.267
5.324
5.381
5.438
5.216
5.273
5.330
5.386
5.443
5.222
5.278
5.335
5.392
5.449
5.227
5.284
5.341
5.398
5.455
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
8.127
8.189
8.250
8.312
8.375
8.133
8.195
8.257
8.319
8.381
8.139
8.201
8.263
8.325
8.387
8.145
8.207
8.269
8.331
8.393
8.151
8.213
8.275
8.337
8.399
8.158
8.219
8.281
8.343
8.406
8.164
8.226
8.288
8.350
8.412
8.170
8.232
8.294
8.356
8.418
8.176
8.238
8.300
8.362
8.424
8.182
8.244
8.306
8.368
8.431
8.189
8.250
8.312
8.375
8.437
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
5.455
5.512
5.569
5.627
5.684
5.461
5.518
5.575
5.632
5.690
5.466
5.523
5.581
5.638
5.695
5.472
5.529
5.586
5.644
5.701
5.478
5.535
5.592
5.649
5.707
5.483
5.541
5.598
5.655
5.713
5.489
5.546
5.604
5.661
5.718
5.495
5.552
5.609
5.667
5.724
5.501
5.558
5.615
5.672
5.730
5.506
5.563
5.621
5.678
5.736
5.512
5.569
5.627
5.684
5.741
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
8.437
8.499
8.562
8.624
8.687
8.443
8.505
8.568
8.630
8.693
8.449
8.512
8.574
8.637
8.699
8.455
8.518
8.580
8.643
8.706
8.462
8.524
8.587
8.649
8.712
8.468
8.530
8.593
8.655
8.718
8.474
8.537
8.599
8.662
8.724
8.480
8.543
8.605
8.668
8.731
8.487
8.549
8.612
8.674
8.737
8.493
8.555
8.618
8.680
8.743
8.499
8.562
8.624
8.687
8.749
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
5.741
5.799
5.857
5.915
5.972
5.747
5.805
5.863
5.920
5.978
5.753
5.811
5.868
5.926
5.984
5.759
5.816
5.874
5.932
5.990
5.764
5.822
5.880
5.938
5.996
5.770
5.828
5.886
5.944
6.001
5.776
5.834
5.891
5.949
6.007
5.782
5.839
5.897
5.955
6.013
5.788
5.845
5.903
5.961
6.019
5.793
5.851
5.909
5.967
6.025
5.799
5.857
5.915
5.972
6.030
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
8.749
8.812
8.875
8.938
9.001
8.756
8.819
8.882
8.945
9.008
8.762
8.825
8.888
8.951
9.014
8.768
8.831
8.894
8.957
9.020
8.775
8.837
8.900
8.964
9.027
8.781
8.844
8.907
8.970
9.033
8.787
8.850
8.913
8.976
9.039
8.793
8.856
8.919
8.983
9.046
8.800
8.863
8.926
8.989
9.052
8.806
8.869
8.932
8.995
9.058
8.812
8.875
8.938
9.001
9.065
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
6.030
6.089
6.147
6.205
6.264
6.036
6.094
6.153
6.211
6.269
6.042
6.100
6.158
6.217
6.275
6.048
6.106
6.164
6.223
6.281
6.054
6.112
6.170
6.228
6.287
6.060
6.118
6.176
6.234
6.293
6.065
6.124
6.182
6.240
6.299
6.071
6.129
6.188
6.246
6.305
6.077
6.135
6.193
6.252
6.310
6.083
6.141
6.199
6.258
6.316
6.089
6.147
6.205
6.264
6.322
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
9.065
9.128
9.192
9.255
9.319
9.071
9.134
9.198
9.261
9.325
9.077
9.141
9.204
9.268
9.331
9.084
9.147
9.211
9.274
9.338
9.090
9.153
9.217
9.281
9.344
9.096
9.160
9.223
9.287
9.351
9.103
9.166
9.230
9.293
9.357
9.109
9.172
9.236
9.300
9.363
9.115
9.179
9.242
9.306
9.370
9.122
9.185
9.249
9.312
9.376
9.128
9.192
9.255
9.319
9.382
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
6.322
6.381
6.439
6.498
6.557
6.328
6.387
6.445
6.504
6.563
6.334
6.392
6.451
6.510
6.569
6.340
6.398
6.457
6.516
6.575
6.346
6.404
6.463
6.522
6.581
6.351
6.410
6.469
6.528
6.587
6.357
6.416
6.475
6.534
6.593
6.363
6.422
6.481
6.539
6.598
6.369
6.428
6.486
6.545
6.604
6.375
6.434
6.492
6.551
6.610
6.381
6.439
6.498
6.557
6.616
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
9.382
9.446
9.510
9.574
9.638
9.389
9.453
9.517
9.581
9.645
9.395
9.459
9.523
9.587
9.651
9.402
9.465
9.529
9.594
9.658
9.408
9.472
9.536
9.600
9.664
9.414
9.478
9.542
9.606
9.671
9.421
9.485
9.549
9.613
9.677
9.427
9.491
9.555
9.619
9.683
9.434
9.497
9.561
9.626
9.690
9.440
9.504
9.568
9.632
9.696
9.446
9.510
9.574
9.638
9.703
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
6.616
6.675
6.735
6.794
6.853
6.622
6.681
6.741
6.800
6.859
6.628
6.687
6.746
6.806
6.865
6.634
6.693
6.752
6.812
6.871
6.640
6.699
6.758
6.818
6.877
6.646
6.705
6.764
6.824
6.883
6.652
6.711
6.770
6.830
6.889
6.658
6.717
6.776
6.836
6.895
6.664
6.723
6.782
6.842
6.901
6.669
6.729
6.788
6.847
6.907
6.675
6.735
6.794
6.853
6.913
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
9.703
9.767
9.831
9.896
9.961
9.709
9.773
9.838
9.902
9.967
9.716
9.780
9.844
9.909
9.973
9.722
9.786
9.851
9.915
9.980
9.728
9.793
9.857
9.922
9.986
9.735
9.799
9.864
9.928
9.993
9.741 9.748 9.754 9.761 9.767

9.806 9.812 9.819 9.825 9.831
9.870 9.877 9.883 9.889 9.896
9.935 9.941 9.948 9.954 9.961
9.999 10.006 10.012 10.019 10.025
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
-5
Extension
Grade
-2
-6
-3
-7
vs.
Platinum

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 2642F
0 to 1450C
Extension Grade
32 to 300F
0 to 150C
LIMITS OF ERROR
-4
-8
Thermocouple
Grade
-1
10
Z-225
10
10

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 2642F
0 to 1450C
Extension Grade
32 to 300F
0 to 150C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Extension
Grade
Thermocouple
Grade
NONE
ESTABLISHED
vs.
Platinum
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
10
10
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
10.025
10.090
10.155
10.220
10.285
10.032
10.097
10.162
10.227
10.292
10.038
10.103
10.168
10.233
10.298
10.045
10.110
10.175
10.240
10.305
10.051
10.116
10.181
10.246
10.311
10.058
10.123
10.188
10.253
10.318
10.064
10.129
10.194
10.259
10.324
10.071
10.136
10.201
10.266
10.331
10.077
10.142
10.207
10.272
10.337
10.084
10.149
10.214
10.279
10.344
10.090
10.155
10.220
10.285
10.350
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
2400
2410
2420
2430
2440
13.348
13.415
13.483
13.550
13.617
13.354
13.422
13.489
13.557
13.624
13.361
13.429
13.496
13.563
13.631
13.368
13.435
13.503
13.570
13.638
13.375
13.442
13.510
13.577
13.644
13.381
13.449
13.516
13.584
13.651
13.388
13.456
13.523
13.590
13.658
13.395
13.462
13.530
13.597
13.665
13.402
13.469
13.537
13.604
13.671
13.408
13.476
13.543
13.611
13.678
13.415
13.483
13.550
13.617
13.685
2400
2410
2420
2430
2440
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
10.350
10.416
10.481
10.547
10.612
10.357
10.422
10.488
10.553
10.619
10.363
10.429
10.494
10.560
10.625
10.370
10.435
10.501
10.566
10.632
10.376
10.442
10.507
10.573
10.638
10.383
10.448
10.514
10.579
10.645
10.390
10.455
10.520
10.586
10.651
10.396
10.461
10.527
10.592
10.658
10.403
10.468
10.533
10.599
10.665
10.409
10.475
10.540
10.606
10.671
10.416
10.481
10.547
10.612
10.678
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2450
2460
2470
2480
2490
13.685
13.752
13.820
13.887
13.955
13.692
13.759
13.826
13.894
13.961
13.698
13.766
13.833
13.901
13.968
13.705
13.773
13.840
13.907
13.975
13.712
13.779
13.847
13.914
13.982
13.719
13.786
13.853
13.921
13.988
13.725
13.793
13.860
13.928
13.995
13.732
13.800
13.867
13.934
14.002
13.739
13.806
13.874
13.941
14.009
13.746
13.813
13.880
13.948
14.015
13.752
13.820
13.887
13.955
14.022
2450
2460
2470
2480
2490
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
10.678
10.743
10.809
10.875
10.941
10.684
10.750
10.816
10.882
10.948
10.691
10.757
10.822
10.888
10.954
10.697
10.763
10.829
10.895
10.961
10.704
10.770
10.836
10.901
10.967
10.711
10.776
10.842
10.908
10.974
10.717
10.783
10.849
10.915
10.981
10.724
10.789
10.855
10.921
10.987
10.730
10.796
10.862
10.928
10.994
10.737
10.803
10.868
10.934
11.000
10.743
10.809
10.875
10.941
11.007
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
2500
2510
2520
2530
2540
14.022
14.089
14.157
14.224
14.292
14.029
14.096
14.164
14.231
14.298
14.036
14.103
14.170
14.238
14.305
14.042
14.110
14.177
14.245
14.312
14.049
14.116
14.184
14.251
14.319
14.056
14.123
14.191
14.258
14.325
14.063
14.130
14.197
14.265
14.332
14.069
14.137
14.204
14.272
14.339
14.076
14.143
14.211
14.278
14.346
14.083
14.150
14.218
14.285
14.352
14.089
14.157
14.224
14.292
14.359
2500
2510
2520
2530
2540
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
11.007
11.073
11.139
11.205
11.272
11.014
11.080
11.146
11.212
11.278
11.020
11.086
11.152
11.219
11.285
11.027
11.093
11.159
11.225
11.291
11.033
11.099
11.166
11.232
11.298
11.040
11.106
11.172
11.238
11.305
11.047
11.113
11.179
11.245
11.311
11.053
11.119
11.185
11.252
11.318
11.060
11.126
11.192
11.258
11.325
11.066
11.132
11.199
11.265
11.331
11.073
11.139
11.205
11.272
11.338
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
2550
2560
2570
2580
2590
14.359
14.426
14.494
14.561
14.629
14.366
14.433
14.501
14.568
14.635
14.373
14.440
14.507
14.575
14.642
14.379
14.447
14.514
14.581
14.649
14.386
14.453
14.521
14.588
14.655
14.393
14.460
14.528
14.595
14.662
14.400
14.467
14.534
14.602
14.669
14.406
14.474
14.541
14.608
14.676
14.413
14.480
14.548
14.615
14.682
14.420
14.487
14.554
14.622
14.689
14.426
14.494
14.561
14.629
14.696
2550
2560
2570
2580
2590
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
11.338
11.404
11.471
11.537
11.604
11.345
11.411
11.477
11.544
11.610
11.351
11.418
11.484
11.550
11.617
11.358
11.424
11.491
11.557
11.624
11.364
11.431
11.497
11.564
11.630
11.371
11.437
11.504
11.570
11.637
11.378
11.444
11.511
11.577
11.644
11.384
11.451
11.517
11.584
11.650
11.391
11.457
11.524
11.590
11.657
11.398
11.464
11.531
11.597
11.664
11.404
11.471
11.537
11.604
11.670
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
2600
2610
2620
2630
2640
14.696
14.763
14.830
14.898
14.965
14.703
14.770
14.837
14.904
14.972
14.709
14.777
14.844
14.911
14.978
14.716
14.783
14.851
14.918
14.985
14.723
14.790
14.857
14.925
14.992
14.729
14.797
14.864
14.931
14.998
14.736
14.803
14.871
14.938
15.005
14.743
14.810
14.877
14.945
15.012
14.750
14.817
14.884
14.951
15.019
14.756
14.824
14.891
14.958
15.025
14.763
14.830
14.898
14.965
15.032
2600
2610
2620
2630
2640
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
11.670
11.737
11.804
11.870
11.937
11.677
11.744
11.810
11.877
11.944
11.684
11.750
11.817
11.884
11.951
11.690
11.757
11.824
11.890
11.957
11.697
11.764
11.830
11.897
11.964
11.704
11.770
11.837
11.904
11.971
11.710
11.777
11.844
11.910
11.977
11.717
11.784
11.850
11.917
11.984
11.724
11.790
11.857
11.924
11.991
11.730
11.797
11.864
11.931
11.997
11.737
11.804
11.870
11.937
12.004
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
2650
2660
2670
2680
2690
15.032
15.099
15.166
15.233
15.300
15.039
15.106
15.173
15.240
15.307
15.045
15.113
15.180
15.247
15.314
15.052
15.119
15.186
15.254
15.321
15.059
15.126
15.193
15.260
15.327
15.066
15.133
15.200
15.267
15.334
15.072
15.139
15.207
15.274
15.341
15.079
15.146
15.213
15.280
15.347
15.086
15.153
15.220
15.287
15.354
15.092
15.160
15.227
15.294
15.361
15.099
15.166
15.233
15.300
15.367
2650
2660
2670
2680
2690
2200
2210
2220
2230
2240
12.004
12.071
12.138
12.205
12.272
12.011
12.078
12.145
12.211
12.278
12.017
12.084
12.151
12.218
12.285
12.024
12.091
12.158
12.225
12.292
12.031
12.098
12.165
12.232
12.299
12.037
12.104
12.171
12.238
12.305
12.044
12.111
12.178
12.245
12.312
12.051
12.118
12.185
12.252
12.319
12.058
12.124
12.191
12.258
12.325
12.064
12.131
12.198
12.265
12.332
12.071
12.138
12.205
12.272
12.339
2200
2210
2220
2230
2240
2700
2710
2720
2730
2740
15.367
15.434
15.501
15.568
15.635
15.374
15.441
15.508
15.575
15.642
15.381
15.448
15.515
15.582
15.649
15.388
15.455
15.521
15.588
15.655
15.394
15.461
15.528
15.595
15.662
15.401
15.468
15.535
15.602
15.669
15.408
15.475
15.542
15.608
15.675
15.414
15.481
15.548
15.615
15.682
15.421
15.488
15.555
15.622
15.689
15.428
15.495
15.562
15.628
15.695
15.434
15.501
15.568
15.635
15.702
2700
2710
2720
2730
2740
2250
2260
2270
2280
2290
12.339
12.406
12.473
12.540
12.607
12.346
12.413
12.480
12.547
12.614
12.352
12.419
12.486
12.554
12.621
12.359
12.426
12.493
12.560
12.627
12.366
12.433
12.500
12.567
12.634
12.372
12.439
12.507
12.574
12.641
12.379
12.446
12.513
12.580
12.648
12.386
12.453
12.520
12.587
12.654
12.392
12.460
12.527
12.594
12.661
12.399
12.466
12.533
12.601
12.668
12.406
12.473
12.540
12.607
12.675
2250
2260
2270
2280
2290
2750
2760
2770
2780
2790
15.702
15.769
15.835
15.902
15.969
15.709
15.775
15.842
15.909
15.975
15.715
15.782
15.849
15.915
15.982
15.722
15.789
15.855
15.922
15.989
15.729
15.795
15.862
15.929
15.995
15.735
15.802
15.869
15.935
16.002
15.742
15.809
15.875
15.942
16.009
15.749
15.815
15.882
15.949
16.015
15.755
15.822
15.889
15.955
16.022
15.762
15.829
15.895
15.962
16.029
15.769
15.835
15.902
15.969
16.035
2750
2760
2770
2780
2790
2300
2310
2320
2330
2340
12.675
12.742
12.809
12.876
12.944
12.681
12.748
12.816
12.883
12.950
12.688
12.755
12.822
12.890
12.957
12.695
12.762
12.829
12.896
12.964
12.701
12.769
12.836
12.903
12.971
12.708
12.775
12.843
12.910
12.977
12.715
12.782
12.849
12.917
12.984
12.722
12.789
12.856
12.923
12.991
12.728
12.796
12.863
12.930
12.997
12.735
12.802
12.870
12.937
13.004
12.742
12.809
12.876
12.944
13.011
2300
2310
2320
2330
2340
2800
2810
2820
2830
2840
16.035
16.102
16.168
16.235
16.301
16.042
16.108
16.175
16.241
16.308
16.049
16.115
16.182
16.248
16.314
16.055
16.122
16.188
16.255
16.321
16.062
16.128
16.195
16.261
16.328
16.069
16.135
16.202
16.268
16.334
16.075
16.142
16.208
16.275
16.341
16.082
16.148
16.215
16.281
16.347
16.089
16.155
16.221
16.288
16.354
16.095
16.162
16.228
16.294
16.361
16.102
16.168
16.235
16.301
16.367
2800
2810
2820
2830
2840
2350
2360
2370
2380
2390
13.011
13.078
13.146
13.213
13.280
13.018
13.085
13.152
13.220
13.287
13.024
13.092
13.159
13.226
13.294
13.031
13.098
13.166
13.233
13.301
13.038
13.105
13.173
13.240
13.307
13.045
13.112
13.179
13.247
13.314
13.051
13.119
13.186
13.253
13.321
13.058
13.125
13.193
13.260
13.328
13.065
13.132
13.199
13.267
13.334
13.072
13.139
13.206
13.274
13.341
13.078
13.146
13.213
13.280
13.348
2350
2360
2370
2380
2390
2850
2860
2870
2880
2890
16.367
16.434
16.500
16.566
16.632
16.374
16.440
16.506
16.572
16.638
16.381
16.447
16.513
16.579
16.645
16.387
16.453
16.520
16.586
16.652
16.394
16.460
16.526
16.592
16.658
16.400
16.467
16.533
16.599
16.665
16.407
16.473
16.539
16.605
16.671
16.414
16.480
16.546
16.612
16.678
16.420
16.486
16.553
16.619
16.685
16.427
16.493
16.559
16.625
16.691
16.434
16.500
16.566
16.632
16.698
2850
2860
2870
2880
2890
10
10
Z-226
Reference Tables
NONE
ESTABLISHED
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Thermocouple
Grade
vs.
Platinum
Extension
Grade

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 2642F
0 to 1450C
Extension Grade
32 to 300F
0 to 150C
LIMITS OF ERROR
10
10
2900
2910
2920
2930
2940
16.698
16.764
16.829
16.895
16.961
16.704
16.770
16.836
16.902
16.967
16.711
16.777
16.843
16.908
16.974
16.718
16.783
16.849
16.915
16.981
16.724
16.790
16.856
16.922
16.987
16.731
16.797
16.862
16.928
16.994
16.737
16.803
16.869
16.935
17.000
16.744
16.810
16.876
16.941
17.007
16.751
16.816
16.882
16.948
17.013
16.757
16.823
16.889
16.954
17.020
16.764
16.829
16.895
16.961
17.026
2900
2910
2920
2930
2940
3100
3110
3120
3130
3140
17.998
18.061
18.124
18.187
18.248
18.004
18.068
18.130
18.193
18.255
18.011
18.074
18.137
18.199
18.261
18.017
18.080
18.143
18.205
18.267
18.023
18.086
18.149
18.211
18.273
18.030
18.093
18.155
18.218
18.279
18.036
18.099
18.162
18.224
18.285
18.042
18.105
18.168
18.230
18.292
18.049
18.112
18.174
18.236
18.298
18.055
18.118
18.180
18.242
18.304
18.061
18.124
18.187
18.248
18.310
3100
3110
3120
3130
3140
2950
2960
2970
2980
2990
17.026
17.092
17.157
17.223
17.288
17.033
17.099
17.164
17.229
17.295
17.040
17.105
17.171
17.236
17.301
17.046
17.112
17.177
17.242
17.308
17.053
17.118
17.184
17.249
17.314
17.059
17.125
17.190
17.255
17.321
17.066
17.131
17.197
17.262
17.327
17.072
17.138
17.203
17.268
17.334
17.079
17.144
17.210
17.275
17.340
17.085
17.151
17.216
17.282
17.347
17.092
17.157
17.223
17.288
17.353
2950
2960
2970
2980
2990
3150
3160
3170
3180
3190
18.310
18.371
18.431
18.491
18.551
18.316
18.377
18.437
18.497
18.557
18.322
18.383
18.443
18.503
18.562
18.328
18.389
18.449
18.509
18.568
18.334
18.395
18.455
18.515
18.574
18.341
18.401
18.461
18.521
18.580
18.347
18.407
18.467
18.527
18.586
18.353
18.413
18.473
18.533
18.592
18.359
18.419
18.479
18.539
18.598
18.365
18.425
18.485
18.545
18.603
18.371
18.431
18.491
18.551
18.609
3150
3160
3170
3180
3190
3000
3010
3020
3030
3040
17.353
17.418
17.483
17.548
17.613
17.360
17.425
17.490
17.555
17.620
17.366
17.431
17.496
17.561
17.626
17.373
17.438
17.503
17.568
17.633
17.379
17.444
17.509
17.574
17.639
17.386
17.451
17.516
17.581
17.645
17.392
17.457
17.522
17.587
17.652
17.399
17.464
17.529
17.594
17.658
17.405
17.470
17.535
17.600
17.665
17.412
17.477
17.542
17.607
17.671
17.418
17.483
17.548
17.613
17.678
3000
3010
3020
3030
3040
3200 18.609 18.615 18.621 18.627 18.633 18.638 18.644 18.650 18.656 18.661 18.667 3200
3210 18.667 18.673 18.679 18.684 18.690
3210
3050
3060
3070
3080
3090
17.678
17.742
17.807
17.871
17.935
17.684
17.749
17.813
17.877
17.941
17.691
17.755
17.819
17.884
17.947
17.697
17.762
17.826
17.890
17.954
17.704
17.768
17.832
17.896
17.960
17.710
17.775
17.839
17.903
17.966
17.717
17.781
17.845
17.909
17.973
17.723
17.787
17.852
17.915
17.979
17.729
17.794
17.858
17.922
17.985
17.736
17.800
17.864
17.928
17.992
17.742
17.807
17.871
17.935
17.998
3050
3060
3070
3080
3090
10
Z-227
10

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 2642F
0 to 1450C
Extension Grade
32 to 300F
0 to 150C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Extension
Grade
Thermocouple
Grade
NONE
ESTABLISHED
vs.
Platinum
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90

F
-10
-9
-50
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
10
-0.226 -0.224 -0.222 -0.220 -0.218 -0.216 -0.214 -0.212 -0.210
-50
400
410
420
430
440
1.508
1.558
1.607
1.658
1.708
1.513
1.563
1.612
1.663
1.713
1.518
1.568
1.617
1.668
1.718
1.523
1.572
1.622
1.673
1.723
1.528
1.577
1.627
1.678
1.728
1.533
1.582
1.632
1.683
1.733
1.538
1.587
1.638
1.688
1.739
1.543
1.592
1.643
1.693
1.744
1.548
1.597
1.648
1.698
1.749
1.553
1.602
1.653
1.703
1.754
1.558
1.607
1.658
1.708
1.759
400
410
420
430
440
-0.205
-0.183
-0.160
-0.136
-0.110
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
-0.210
-0.188
-0.165
-0.141
-0.116
-0.208
-0.185
-0.162
-0.138
-0.113
-0.188
-0.165
-0.141
-0.116
-0.090
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
450
460
470
480
490
1.759
1.810
1.861
1.913
1.965
1.764
1.815
1.867
1.918
1.970
1.769
1.820
1.872
1.923
1.975
1.774
1.825
1.877
1.929
1.981
1.779
1.831
1.882
1.934
1.986
1.784
1.836
1.887
1.939
1.991
1.790
1.841
1.892
1.944
1.996
1.795
1.846
1.898
1.949
2.002
1.800
1.851
1.903
1.955
2.007
1.805
1.856
1.908
1.960
2.012
1.810
1.861
1.913
1.965
2.017
450
460
470
480
490
0
10
20
30
40
-0.090
-0.063
-0.035
-0.006
0.024
-0.087 -0.084 -0.082 -0.079 -0.076 -0.073 -0.071 -0.068 -0.065 -0.063
-0.060 -0.057 -0.054 -0.051 -0.049 -0.046 -0.043 -0.040 -0.037 -0.035
-0.032 -0.029 -0.026 -0.023 -0.020 -0.017 -0.015 -0.012 -0.009 -0.006
-0.003 0.000 0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012 0.015 0.018 0.021 0.024
0.027 0.030 0.033 0.036 0.039 0.042 0.045 0.048 0.051 0.054
0
10
20
30
40
500
510
520
530
540
2.017
2.070
2.122
2.175
2.229
2.022
2.075
2.128
2.181
2.234
2.028
2.080
2.133
2.186
2.239
2.033
2.085
2.138
2.191
2.245
2.038
2.091
2.144
2.197
2.250
2.043
2.096
2.149
2.202
2.255
2.049
2.101
2.154
2.207
2.261
2.054
2.107
2.159
2.213
2.266
2.059
2.112
2.165
2.218
2.271
2.064
2.117
2.170
2.223
2.277
2.070
2.122
2.175
2.229
2.282
500
510
520
530
540
50
60
70
80
90
0.054
0.086
0.118
0.151
0.184
0.057
0.089
0.121
0.154
0.188
0.060
0.092
0.124
0.157
0.191
0.064
0.095
0.127
0.161
0.194
0.067
0.098
0.131
0.164
0.198
0.070
0.102
0.134
0.167
0.201
0.073
0.105
0.137
0.171
0.205
0.076
0.108
0.141
0.174
0.208
0.079
0.111
0.144
0.177
0.212
0.082
0.114
0.147
0.181
0.215
0.086
0.118
0.151
0.184
0.218
50
60
70
80
90
550
560
570
580
590
2.282
2.336
2.390
2.444
2.498
2.287
2.341
2.395
2.449
2.504
2.293
2.347
2.401
2.455
2.509
2.298
2.352
2.406
2.460
2.515
2.304
2.357
2.411
2.466
2.520
2.309
2.363
2.417
2.471
2.526
2.314
2.368
2.422
2.477
2.531
2.320
2.374
2.428
2.482
2.537
2.325
2.379
2.433
2.487
2.542
2.330
2.384
2.438
2.493
2.547
2.336
2.390
2.444
2.498
2.553
550
560
570
580
590
100
110
120
130
140
0.218
0.254
0.289
0.326
0.363
0.222
0.257
0.293
0.329
0.366
0.225
0.261
0.296
0.333
0.370
0.229
0.264
0.300
0.337
0.374
0.232
0.268
0.304
0.340
0.378
0.236
0.271
0.307
0.344
0.382
0.239
0.275
0.311
0.348
0.385
0.243
0.278
0.315
0.352
0.389
0.246
0.282
0.318
0.355
0.393
0.250
0.286
0.322
0.359
0.397
0.254
0.289
0.326
0.363
0.400
100
110
120
130
140
600
610
620
630
640
2.553
2.608
2.663
2.718
2.773
2.558
2.613
2.668
2.724
2.779
2.564
2.619
2.674
2.729
2.785
2.569
2.624
2.679
2.735
2.790
2.575
2.630
2.685
2.740
2.796
2.580
2.635
2.690
2.746
2.801
2.586
2.641
2.696
2.751
2.807
2.591
2.646
2.701
2.757
2.812
2.597
2.652
2.707
2.762
2.818
2.602
2.657
2.713
2.768
2.824
2.608
2.663
2.718
2.773
2.829
600
610
620
630
640
150
160
170
180
190
0.400
0.439
0.478
0.517
0.557
0.404
0.443
0.482
0.521
0.561
0.408
0.447
0.486
0.525
0.565
0.412
0.450
0.489
0.529
0.569
0.416
0.454
0.493
0.533
0.573
0.420
0.458
0.497
0.537
0.578
0.423
0.462
0.501
0.541
0.582
0.427
0.466
0.505
0.545
0.586
0.431
0.470
0.509
0.549
0.590
0.435
0.474
0.513
0.553
0.594
0.439
0.478
0.517
0.557
0.598
150
160
170
180
190
650
660
670
680
690
2.829
2.885
2.941
2.997
3.054
2.835
2.891
2.947
3.003
3.059
2.840
2.896
2.952
3.009
3.065
2.846
2.902
2.958
3.014
3.071
2.851
2.907
2.964
3.020
3.076
2.857
2.913
2.969
3.026
3.082
2.863
2.919
2.975
3.031
3.088
2.868
2.924
2.980
3.037
3.093
2.874
2.930
2.986
3.042
3.099
2.879
2.935
2.992
3.048
3.105
2.885
2.941
2.997
3.054
3.110
650
660
670
680
690
200
210
220
230
240
0.598
0.639
0.681
0.723
0.766
0.602
0.643
0.685
0.727
0.770
0.606
0.647
0.689
0.732
0.774
0.610
0.652
0.693
0.736
0.779
0.614
0.656
0.698
0.740
0.783
0.618
0.660
0.702
0.744
0.787
0.623
0.664
0.706
0.749
0.792
0.627
0.668
0.710
0.753
0.796
0.631
0.672
0.715
0.757
0.800
0.635
0.677
0.719
0.761
0.805
0.639
0.681
0.723
0.766
0.809
200
210
220
230
240
700
710
720
730
740
3.110
3.167
3.224
3.281
3.339
3.116
3.173
3.230
3.287
3.344
3.122
3.179
3.236
3.293
3.350
3.127
3.184
3.241
3.298
3.356
3.133
3.190
3.247
3.304
3.362
3.139
3.196
3.253
3.310
3.367
3.144
3.201
3.258
3.316
3.373
3.150
3.207
3.264
3.321
3.379
3.156
3.213
3.270
3.327
3.385
3.161
3.218
3.276
3.333
3.390
3.167
3.224
3.281
3.339
3.396
700
710
720
730
740
250
260
270
280
290
0.809
0.853
0.897
0.941
0.986
0.813
0.857
0.901
0.946
0.991
0.818
0.861
0.906
0.950
0.995
0.822
0.866
0.910
0.955
1.000
0.826
0.870
0.915
0.959
1.005
0.831
0.875
0.919
0.964
1.009
0.835
0.879
0.923
0.968
1.014
0.839
0.883
0.928
0.973
1.018
0.844
0.888
0.932
0.977
1.023
0.848
0.892
0.937
0.982
1.027
0.853
0.897
0.941
0.986
1.032
250
260
270
280
290
750
760
770
780
790
3.396
3.454
3.512
3.570
3.628
3.402
3.460
3.517
3.576
3.634
3.408
3.465
3.523
3.581
3.640
3.413
3.471
3.529
3.587
3.645
3.419
3.477
3.535
3.593
3.651
3.425
3.483
3.541
3.599
3.657
3.431
3.489
3.546
3.605
3.663
3.437
3.494
3.552
3.610
3.669
3.442
3.500
3.558
3.616
3.675
3.448
3.506
3.564
3.622
3.680
3.454
3.512
3.570
3.628
3.686
750
760
770
780
790
300
310
320
330
340
1.032
1.078
1.124
1.171
1.218
1.036
1.082
1.129
1.175
1.223
1.041
1.087
1.133
1.180
1.227
1.046
1.092
1.138
1.185
1.232
1.050
1.096
1.143
1.190
1.237
1.055
1.101
1.147
1.194
1.242
1.059
1.105
1.152
1.199
1.246
1.064
1.110
1.157
1.204
1.251
1.069
1.115
1.161
1.208
1.256
1.073
1.119
1.166
1.213
1.261
1.078
1.124
1.171
1.218
1.265
300
310
320
330
340
800
810
820
830
840
3.686
3.745
3.803
3.862
3.921
3.692
3.751
3.809
3.868
3.927
3.698
3.757
3.815
3.874
3.933
3.704
3.762
3.821
3.880
3.939
3.710
3.768
3.827
3.886
3.945
3.716
3.774
3.833
3.892
3.951
3.721
3.780
3.839
3.898
3.957
3.727
3.786
3.845
3.904
3.963
3.733
3.792
3.851
3.909
3.969
3.739
3.798
3.856
3.915
3.975
3.745
3.803
3.862
3.921
3.980
800
810
820
830
840
350
360
370
380
390
1.265
1.313
1.361
1.410
1.459
1.270
1.318
1.366
1.415
1.464
1.275
1.323
1.371
1.420
1.469
1.280
1.328
1.376
1.425
1.473
1.284
1.332
1.381
1.429
1.478
1.289
1.337
1.386
1.434
1.483
1.294
1.342
1.390
1.439
1.488
1.299
1.347
1.395
1.444
1.493
1.304
1.352
1.400
1.449
1.498
1.308
1.356
1.405
1.454
1.503
1.313
1.361
1.410
1.459
1.508
350
360
370
380
390
850
860
870
880
890
3.980
4.040
4.099
4.159
4.219
3.986
4.046
4.105
4.165
4.225
3.992
4.052
4.111
4.171
4.231
3.998
4.058
4.117
4.177
4.237
4.004
4.064
4.123
4.183
4.243
4.010
4.069
4.129
4.189
4.249
4.016
4.075
4.135
4.195
4.255
4.022
4.081
4.141
4.201
4.261
4.028
4.087
4.147
4.207
4.267
4.034
4.093
4.153
4.213
4.273
4.040
4.099
4.159
4.219
4.279
850
860
870
880
890
10
10
-0.203
-0.181
-0.158
-0.133
-0.108
-0.201
-0.179
-0.155
-0.131
-0.105
-0.199
-0.176
-0.153
-0.128
-0.103
-0.197
-0.174
-0.150
-0.126
-0.100
-0.194
-0.172
-0.148
-0.123
-0.097
-0.192
-0.169
-0.145
-0.121
-0.095
-0.190
-0.167
-0.143
-0.118
-0.092
Z-228
Reference Tables
NONE
ESTABLISHED
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
900
910
920
930
940
4.279
4.339
4.399
4.459
4.520
4.285
4.345
4.405
4.465
4.526
4.291
4.351
4.411
4.471
4.532
4.297
4.357
4.417
4.477
4.538
4.303
4.363
4.423
4.483
4.544
950
960
970
980
990
4.580
4.641
4.702
4.763
4.824
4.586
4.647
4.708
4.769
4.831
4.593
4.653
4.714
4.775
4.837
4.599
4.659
4.720
4.782
4.843
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
4.886
4.947
5.009
5.071
5.133
4.892
4.954
5.015
5.077
5.139
4.898
4.960
5.021
5.083
5.145
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
5.195
5.257
5.320
5.382
5.445
5.201
5.264
5.326
5.389
5.451
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
5.508
5.571
5.634
5.697
5.761
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190

10
4.309
4.369
4.429
4.489
4.550
4.315
4.375
4.435
4.495
4.556
4.321
4.381
4.441
4.502
4.562
4.327
4.387
4.447
4.508
4.568
4.333
4.393
4.453
4.514
4.574
4.339
4.399
4.459
4.520
4.580
900
910
920
930
940
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
7.461
7.529
7.596
7.664
7.732
7.468
7.535
7.603
7.671
7.739
7.475
7.542
7.610
7.677
7.745
7.481
7.549
7.616
7.684
7.752
7.488
7.556
7.623
7.691
7.759
7.495
7.562
7.630
7.698
7.766
7.502
7.569
7.637
7.705
7.772
7.508
7.576
7.644
7.711
7.779
7.515
7.583
7.650
7.718
7.786
7.522
7.589
7.657
7.725
7.793
7.529
7.596
7.664
7.732
7.800
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
4.605
4.666
4.727
4.788
4.849
4.611
4.672
4.733
4.794
4.855
4.617
4.678
4.739
4.800
4.861
4.623
4.684
4.745
4.806
4.867
4.629
4.690
4.751
4.812
4.874
4.635
4.696
4.757
4.818
4.880
4.641
4.702
4.763
4.824
4.886
950
960
970
980
990
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
7.800
7.868
7.936
8.005
8.073
7.807
7.875
7.943
8.011
8.080
7.813
7.882
7.950
8.018
8.087
7.820
7.888
7.957
8.025
8.094
7.827
7.895
7.964
8.032
8.101
7.834
7.902
7.970
8.039
8.108
7.841
7.909
7.977
8.046
8.114
7.847
7.916
7.984
8.053
8.121
7.854
7.922
7.991
8.059
8.128
7.861
7.929
7.998
8.066
8.135
7.868
7.936
8.005
8.073
8.142
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
4.904
4.966
5.028
5.090
5.152
4.910
4.972
5.034
5.096
5.158
4.917
4.978
5.040
5.102
5.164
4.923
4.984
5.046
5.108
5.170
4.929
4.991
5.052
5.114
5.176
4.935
4.997
5.059
5.121
5.183
4.941
5.003
5.065
5.127
5.189
4.947
5.009
5.071
5.133
5.195
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
8.142
8.211
8.280
8.349
8.418
8.149
8.218
8.287
8.356
8.425
8.156
8.225
8.294
8.363
8.432
8.163
8.232
8.301
8.370
8.439
8.169
8.238
8.308
8.377
8.446
8.176
8.245
8.314
8.384
8.453
8.183
8.252
8.321
8.391
8.460
8.190
8.259
8.328
8.398
8.467
8.197
8.266
8.335
8.405
8.474
8.204
8.273
8.342
8.411
8.481
8.211
8.280
8.349
8.418
8.488
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
5.207
5.270
5.332
5.395
5.458
5.214
5.276
5.338
5.401
5.464
5.220
5.282
5.345
5.407
5.470
5.226
5.289
5.351
5.414
5.476
5.232
5.295
5.357
5.420
5.483
5.239
5.301
5.364
5.426
5.489
5.245
5.307
5.370
5.432
5.495
5.251
5.313
5.376
5.439
5.502
5.257
5.320
5.382
5.445
5.508
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
8.488
8.557
8.627
8.697
8.767
8.495
8.564
8.634
8.704
8.774
8.502
8.571
8.641
8.711
8.781
8.509
8.578
8.648
8.718
8.788
8.516
8.585
8.655
8.725
8.795
8.523
8.592
8.662
8.732
8.802
8.530
8.599
8.669
8.739
8.809
8.537
8.606
8.676
8.746
8.816
8.544
8.613
8.683
8.753
8.823
8.551
8.620
8.690
8.760
8.830
8.557
8.627
8.697
8.767
8.837
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
5.514
5.577
5.640
5.704
5.767
5.520
5.583
5.647
5.710
5.773
5.527
5.590
5.653
5.716
5.780
5.533
5.596
5.659
5.723
5.786
5.539
5.602
5.666
5.729
5.792
5.546
5.609
5.672
5.735
5.799
5.552
5.615
5.678
5.742
5.805
5.558
5.621
5.685
5.748
5.812
5.565
5.628
5.691
5.754
5.818
5.571
5.634
5.697
5.761
5.824
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
8.837
8.908
8.978
9.049
9.120
8.844
8.915
8.985
9.056
9.127
8.852
8.922
8.992
9.063
9.134
8.859
8.929
8.999
9.070
9.141
8.866
8.936
9.007
9.077
9.148
8.873
8.943
9.014
9.084
9.155
8.880
8.950
9.021
9.091
9.162
8.887
8.957
9.028
9.098
9.169
8.894
8.964
9.035
9.106
9.176
8.901
8.971
9.042
9.113
9.184
8.908
8.978
9.049
9.120
9.191
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
5.824
5.888
5.952
6.016
6.080
5.831
5.894
5.958
6.022
6.086
5.837
5.901
5.965
6.029
6.093
5.843
5.907
5.971
6.035
6.099
5.850
5.913
5.977
6.041
6.106
5.856
5.920
5.984
6.048
6.112
5.862
5.926
5.990
6.054
6.119
5.869
5.933
5.997
6.061
6.125
5.875
5.939
6.003
6.067
6.131
5.882
5.945
6.009
6.074
6.138
5.888
5.952
6.016
6.080
6.144
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
9.191
9.262
9.333
9.404
9.476
9.198
9.269
9.340
9.411
9.483
9.205
9.276
9.347
9.419
9.490
9.212
9.283
9.354
9.426
9.497
9.219
9.290
9.361
9.433
9.504
9.226
9.297
9.369
9.440
9.512
9.233
9.304
9.376
9.447
9.519
9.240
9.312
9.383
9.454
9.526
9.248
9.319
9.390
9.461
9.533
9.255
9.326
9.397
9.469
9.540
9.262
9.333
9.404
9.476
9.547
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
6.144
6.209
6.273
6.338
6.403
6.151
6.215
6.280
6.345
6.409
6.157
6.222
6.286
6.351
6.416
6.164
6.228
6.293
6.358
6.422
6.170
6.235
6.299
6.364
6.429
6.176
6.241
6.306
6.370
6.435
6.183
6.247
6.312
6.377
6.442
6.189
6.254
6.319
6.383
6.448
6.196
6.260
6.325
6.390
6.455
6.202
6.267
6.332
6.396
6.461
6.209
6.273
6.338
6.403
6.468
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
9.547
9.619
9.691
9.763
9.835
9.555
9.626
9.698
9.770
9.843
9.562
9.634
9.706
9.778
9.850
9.569
9.641
9.713
9.785
9.857
9.576
9.648
9.720
9.792
9.864
9.583
9.655
9.727
9.799
9.872
9.590
9.662
9.734
9.806
9.879
9.598
9.670
9.742
9.814
9.886
9.605
9.677
9.749
9.821
9.893
9.612
9.684
9.756
9.828
9.900
9.619
9.691
9.763
9.835
9.908
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
6.468
6.533
6.598
6.664
6.730
6.474
6.540
6.605
6.671
6.736
6.481
6.546
6.612
6.677
6.743
6.488
6.553
6.618
6.684
6.749
6.494
6.559
6.625
6.690
6.756
6.501
6.566
6.631
6.697
6.762
6.507
6.572
6.638
6.703
6.769
6.514
6.579
6.644
6.710
6.776
6.520
6.585
6.651
6.716
6.782
6.527
6.592
6.657
6.723
6.789
6.533
6.598
6.664
6.730
6.795
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
1750 9.908 9.915 9.922

1760 9.980 9.987 9.995
1770 10.053 10.060 10.067
1780 10.126 10.133 10.140
1790 10.198 10.206 10.213
9.929
10.002
10.075
10.147
10.220
9.937
10.009
10.082
10.155
10.228
9.944
10.016
10.089
10.162
10.235
9.951
10.024
10.096
10.169
10.242
9.958
10.031
10.104
10.177
10.250
9.966
10.038
10.111
10.184
10.257
9.973
10.046
10.118
10.191
10.264
9.980
10.053
10.126
10.198
10.271
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
6.795
6.861
6.927
6.994
7.060
6.802
6.868
6.934
7.000
7.067
6.809
6.874
6.941
7.007
7.073
6.815
6.881
6.947
7.013
7.080
6.822
6.888
6.954
7.020
7.086
6.828
6.894
6.960
7.027
7.093
6.835
6.901
6.967
7.033
7.100
6.841
6.907
6.974
7.040
7.106
6.848
6.914
6.980
7.047
7.113
6.855
6.921
6.987
7.053
7.120
6.861
6.927
6.994
7.060
7.126
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
10.271
10.345
10.418
10.491
10.565
10.279
10.352
10.425
10.499
10.572
10.286
10.359
10.433
10.506
10.580
10.293
10.367
10.440
10.513
10.587
10.301
10.374
10.447
10.521
10.594
10.308
10.381
10.455
10.528
10.602
10.315
10.389
10.462
10.535
10.609
10.323
10.396
10.469
10.543
10.616
10.330
10.403
10.477
10.550
10.624
10.337
10.411
10.484
10.557
10.631
10.345
10.418
10.491
10.565
10.638
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
7.126
7.193
7.260
7.327
7.394
7.133
7.200
7.267
7.334
7.401
7.140
7.206
7.273
7.340
7.407
7.146
7.213
7.280
7.347
7.414
7.153
7.220
7.287
7.354
7.421
7.160
7.226
7.293
7.360
7.428
7.166
7.233
7.300
7.367
7.434
7.173
7.240
7.307
7.374
7.441
7.180
7.247
7.313
7.381
7.448
7.186
7.253
7.320
7.387
7.454
7.193
7.260
7.327
7.394
7.461
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
10.638
10.712
10.786
10.860
10.934
10.646
10.720
10.794
10.868
10.942
10.653
10.727
10.801
10.875
10.949
10.661
10.734
10.808
10.883
10.957
10.668
10.742
10.816
10.890
10.964
10.675
10.749
10.823
10.897
10.972
10.683
10.757
10.831
10.905
10.979
10.690
10.764
10.838
10.912
10.986
10.698
10.771
10.845
10.920
10.994
10.705
10.779
10.853
10.927
11.001
10.712
10.786
10.860
10.934
11.009
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
10
Extension
Grade
vs.
Platinum

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 2642F
0 to 1450C
Extension Grade
32 to 300F
0 to 150C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Thermocouple
Grade
10
Z-229
10

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 2642F
0 to 1450C
Extension Grade
32 to 300F
0 to 150C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Extension
Grade
Thermocouple
Grade
NONE
ESTABLISHED
vs.
Platinum
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90

F
10
10
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
11.009
11.083
11.158
11.233
11.307
11.016
11.091
11.165
11.240
11.315
11.024
11.098
11.173
11.247
11.322
11.031
11.106
11.180
11.255
11.330
11.039
11.113
11.188
11.262
11.337
11.046
11.121
11.195
11.270
11.345
11.053
11.128
11.203
11.277
11.352
11.061
11.135
11.210
11.285
11.360
11.068
11.143
11.218
11.292
11.367
11.076
11.150
11.225
11.300
11.375
11.083
11.158
11.233
11.307
11.382
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
2400
2410
2420
2430
2440
14.848
14.926
15.005
15.083
15.161
14.856
14.934
15.012
15.091
15.169
14.864
14.942
15.020
15.099
15.177
14.871
14.950
15.028
15.106
15.185
14.879
14.958
15.036
15.114
15.193
14.887
14.965
15.044
15.122
15.200
14.895
14.973
15.052
15.130
15.208
14.903
14.981
15.059
15.138
15.216
14.911
14.989
15.067
15.146
15.224
14.918
14.997
15.075
15.153
15.232
14.926
15.005
15.083
15.161
15.240
2400
2410
2420
2430
2440
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
11.382
11.457
11.533
11.608
11.683
11.390
11.465
11.540
11.615
11.691
11.397
11.472
11.548
11.623
11.698
11.405
11.480
11.555
11.631
11.706
11.412
11.487
11.563
11.638
11.714
11.420
11.495
11.570
11.646
11.721
11.427
11.502
11.578
11.653
11.729
11.435
11.510
11.585
11.661
11.736
11.442
11.518
11.593
11.668
11.744
11.450
11.525
11.600
11.676
11.751
11.457
11.533
11.608
11.683
11.759
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2450
2460
2470
2480
2490
15.240
15.318
15.397
15.475
15.553
15.248
15.326
15.404
15.483
15.561
15.255
15.334
15.412
15.491
15.569
15.263
15.342
15.420
15.499
15.577
15.271
15.349
15.428
15.506
15.585
15.279
15.357
15.436
15.514
15.593
15.287
15.365
15.444
15.522
15.601
15.295
15.373
15.451
15.530
15.608
15.302
15.381
15.459
15.538
15.616
15.310
15.389
15.467
15.546
15.624
15.318
15.397
15.475
15.553
15.632
2450
2460
2470
2480
2490
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
11.759
11.834
11.910
11.986
12.062
11.766
11.842
11.918
11.994
12.070
11.774
11.850
11.925
12.001
12.077
11.782
11.857
11.933
12.009
12.085
11.789
11.865
11.941
12.016
12.092
11.797
11.872
11.948
12.024
12.100
11.804
11.880
11.956
12.032
12.108
11.812
11.888
11.963
12.039
12.115
11.819
11.895
11.971
12.047
12.123
11.827
11.903
11.979
12.054
12.131
11.834
11.910
11.986
12.062
12.138
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
2500
2510
2520
2530
2540
15.632
15.710
15.789
15.867
15.946
15.640
15.718
15.797
15.875
15.954
15.648
15.726
15.805
15.883
15.962
15.655
15.734
15.812
15.891
15.969
15.663
15.742
15.820
15.899
15.977
15.671
15.750
15.828
15.907
15.985
15.679
15.758
15.836
15.915
15.993
15.687
15.765
15.844
15.922
16.001
15.695
15.773
15.852
15.930
16.009
15.703
15.781
15.860
15.938
16.017
15.710
15.789
15.867
15.946
16.024
2500
2510
2520
2530
2540
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
12.138
12.214
12.291
12.367
12.443
12.146
12.222
12.298
12.375
12.451
12.153
12.230
12.306
12.382
12.459
12.161
12.237
12.313
12.390
12.466
12.169
12.245
12.321
12.397
12.474
12.176
12.252
12.329
12.405
12.482
12.184
12.260
12.336
12.413
12.489
12.191
12.268
12.344
12.420
12.497
12.199
12.275
12.352
12.428
12.505
12.207
12.283
12.359
12.436
12.512
12.214
12.291
12.367
12.443
12.520
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
2550
2560
2570
2580
2590
16.024
16.103
16.181
16.260
16.338
16.032
16.111
16.189
16.268
16.346
16.040
16.119
16.197
16.276
16.354
16.048
16.126
16.205
16.283
16.362
16.056
16.134
16.213
16.291
16.370
16.064
16.142
16.221
16.299
16.378
16.071
16.150
16.228
16.307
16.385
16.079
16.158
16.236
16.315
16.393
16.087
16.166
16.244
16.323
16.401
16.095
16.174
16.252
16.330
16.409
16.103
16.181
16.260
16.338
16.417
2550
2560
2570
2580
2590
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
12.520
12.597
12.673
12.750
12.827
12.528
12.604
12.681
12.758
12.835
12.535
12.612
12.689
12.765
12.842
12.543
12.620
12.696
12.773
12.850
12.551
12.627
12.704
12.781
12.858
12.558
12.635
12.712
12.788
12.865
12.566
12.643
12.719
12.796
12.873
12.574
12.650
12.727
12.804
12.881
12.581
12.658
12.735
12.812
12.889
12.589
12.666
12.742
12.819
12.896
12.597
12.673
12.750
12.827
12.904
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
2600
2610
2620
2630
2640
16.417
16.495
16.574
16.652
16.731
16.425
16.503
16.582
16.660
16.738
16.432
16.511
16.589
16.668
16.746
16.440
16.519
16.597
16.676
16.754
16.448
16.527
16.605
16.683
16.762
16.456
16.534
16.613
16.691
16.770
16.464
16.542
16.621
16.699
16.778
16.472
16.550
16.629
16.707
16.785
16.480
16.558
16.636
16.715
16.793
16.487
16.566
16.644
16.723
16.801
16.495
16.574
16.652
16.731
16.809
2600
2610
2620
2630
2640
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
12.904
12.981
13.058
13.135
13.213
12.912
12.989
13.066
13.143
13.220
12.919
12.996
13.073
13.151
13.228
12.927
13.004
13.081
13.158
13.236
12.935
13.012
13.089
13.166
13.243
12.942
13.019
13.097
13.174
13.251
12.950
13.027
13.104
13.182
13.259
12.958
13.035
13.112
13.189
13.267
12.966
13.043
13.120
13.197
13.274
12.973
13.050
13.128
13.205
13.282
12.981
13.058
13.135
13.213
13.290
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
2650
2660
2670
2680
2690
16.809
16.887
16.966
17.044
17.122
16.817
16.895
16.973
17.052
17.130
16.825
16.903
16.981
17.060
17.138
16.832
16.911
16.989
17.067
17.146
16.840
16.919
16.997
17.075
17.154
16.848
16.926
17.005
17.083
17.161
16.856
16.934
17.013
17.091
17.169
16.864
16.942
17.020
17.099
17.177
16.872
16.950
17.028
17.107
17.185
16.879
16.958
17.036
17.114
17.193
16.887
16.966
17.044
17.122
17.200
2650
2660
2670
2680
2690
2200
2210
2220
2230
2240
13.290
13.367
13.445
13.522
13.600
13.298
13.375
13.452
13.530
13.608
13.305
13.383
13.460
13.538
13.615
13.313
13.390
13.468
13.545
13.623
13.321
13.398
13.476
13.553
13.631
13.329
13.406
13.483
13.561
13.639
13.336
13.414
13.491
13.569
13.646
13.344
13.421
13.499
13.577
13.654
13.352
13.429
13.507
13.584
13.662
13.359
13.437
13.514
13.592
13.670
13.367
13.445
13.522
13.600
13.677
2200
2210
2220
2230
2240
2700
2710
2720
2730
2740
17.200
17.279
17.357
17.435
17.513
17.208
17.286
17.365
17.443
17.521
17.216
17.294
17.373
17.451
17.529
17.224
17.302
17.380
17.458
17.537
17.232
17.310
17.388
17.466
17.544
17.240
17.318
17.396
17.474
17.552
17.247
17.326
17.404
17.482
17.560
17.255
17.333
17.412
17.490
17.568
17.263
17.341
17.419
17.498
17.576
17.271
17.349
17.427
17.505
17.583
17.279
17.357
17.435
17.513
17.591
2700
2710
2720
2730
2740
2250
2260
2270
2280
2290
13.677
13.755
13.833
13.911
13.989
13.685
13.763
13.841
13.919
13.996
13.693
13.771
13.848
13.926
14.004
13.701
13.778
13.856
13.934
14.012
13.709
13.786
13.864
13.942
14.020
13.716
13.794
13.872
13.950
14.028
13.724
13.802
13.880
13.957
14.035
13.732
13.810
13.887
13.965
14.043
13.740
13.817
13.895
13.973
14.051
13.747
13.825
13.903
13.981
14.059
13.755
13.833
13.911
13.989
14.066
2250
2260
2270
2280
2290
2750
2760
2770
2780
2790
17.591
17.669
17.747
17.825
17.903
17.599
17.677
17.755
17.833
17.911
17.607
17.685
17.763
17.841
17.919
17.615
17.693
17.771
17.849
17.926
17.622
17.700
17.778
17.856
17.934
17.630
17.708
17.786
17.864
17.942
17.638
17.716
17.794
17.872
17.950
17.646
17.724
17.802
17.880
17.958
17.654
17.732
17.810
17.888
17.965
17.661
17.739
17.817
17.895
17.973
17.669
17.747
17.825
17.903
17.981
2750
2760
2770
2780
2790
2300
2310
2320
2330
2340
14.066
14.144
14.222
14.300
14.379
14.074
14.152
14.230
14.308
14.386
14.082
14.160
14.238
14.316
14.394
14.090
14.168
14.246
14.324
14.402
14.098
14.176
14.254
14.332
14.410
14.105
14.183
14.261
14.340
14.418
14.113
14.191
14.269
14.347
14.425
14.121
14.199
14.277
14.355
14.433
14.129
14.207
14.285
14.363
14.441
14.137
14.215
14.293
14.371
14.449
14.144
14.222
14.300
14.379
14.457
2300
2310
2320
2330
2340
2800
2810
2820
2830
2840
17.981
18.059
18.137
18.214
18.292
17.989
18.067
18.144
18.222
18.300
17.997
18.074
18.152
18.230
18.307
18.004
18.082
18.160
18.238
18.315
18.012
18.090
18.168
18.245
18.323
18.020
18.098
18.175
18.253
18.331
18.028
18.105
18.183
18.261
18.338
18.035
18.113
18.191
18.269
18.346
18.043
18.121
18.199
18.276
18.354
18.051
18.129
18.206
18.284
18.362
18.059
18.137
18.214
18.292
18.369
2800
2810
2820
2830
2840
2350
2360
2370
2380
2390
14.457
14.535
14.613
14.691
14.770
14.465
14.543
14.621
14.699
14.777
14.472
14.551
14.629
14.707
14.785
14.480
14.558
14.637
14.715
14.793
14.488
14.566
14.644
14.723
14.801
14.496
14.574
14.652
14.730
14.809
14.504
14.582
14.660
14.738
14.817
14.511
14.590
14.668
14.746
14.824
14.519
14.597
14.676
14.754
14.832
14.527
14.605
14.683
14.762
14.840
14.535
14.613
14.691
14.770
14.848
2350
2360
2370
2380
2390
2850
2860
2870
2880
2890
18.369
18.447
18.524
18.602
18.679
18.377
18.455
18.532
18.610
18.687
18.385
18.462
18.540
18.617
18.695
18.393
18.470
18.548
18.625
18.702
18.400
18.478
18.555
18.633
18.710
18.408
18.486
18.563
18.640
18.718
18.416
18.493
18.571
18.648
18.725
18.424
18.501
18.579
18.656
18.733
18.431
18.509
18.586
18.664
18.741
18.439
18.517
18.594
18.671
18.749
18.447
18.524
18.602
18.679
18.756
2850
2860
2870
2880
2890
10
10
Z-230
Reference Tables
NONE
ESTABLISHED
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Thermocouple
Grade
vs.
Platinum
+
Extension
Grade

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 2642F
0 to 1450C
Extension Grade
32 to 300F
0 to 150C
LIMITS OF ERROR
10
10
2900
2910
2920
2930
2940
18.756
18.834
18.911
18.988
19.065
18.764
18.841
18.918
18.995
19.072
18.772
18.849
18.926
19.003
19.080
18.779
18.857
18.934
19.011
19.088
18.787
18.864
18.941
19.018
19.095
18.795
18.872
18.949
19.026
19.103
18.803
18.880
18.957
19.034
19.111
18.810
18.887
18.965
19.042
19.118
18.818
18.895
18.972
19.049
19.126
18.826
18.903
18.980
19.057
19.134
18.834
18.911
18.988
19.065
19.141
2900
2910
2920
2930
2940
3100
3110
3120
3130
3140
20.281
20.356
20.430
20.503
20.576
20.289
20.363
20.437
20.510
20.583
20.296
20.371
20.444
20.518
20.591
20.304
20.378
20.452
20.525
20.598
20.311
20.385
20.459
20.532
20.605
20.319
20.393
20.466
20.540
20.612
20.326
20.400
20.474
20.547
20.620
20.333
20.407
20.481
20.554
20.627
20.341
20.415
20.488
20.562
20.634
20.348
20.422
20.496
20.569
20.641
20.356
20.430
20.503
20.576
20.649
3100
3110
3120
3130
3140
2950
2960
2970
2980
2990
19.141
19.218
19.295
19.372
19.448
19.149
19.226
19.303
19.379
19.456
19.157
19.234
19.310
19.387
19.463
19.165
19.241
19.318
19.395
19.471
19.172
19.249
19.326
19.402
19.479
19.180
19.257
19.333
19.410
19.486
19.188
19.264
19.341
19.418
19.494
19.195
19.272
19.349
19.425
19.502
19.203
19.280
19.356
19.433
19.509
19.211
19.287
19.364
19.440
19.517
19.218
19.295
19.372
19.448
19.525
2950
2960
2970
2980
2990
3150
3160
3170
3180
3190
20.649
20.721
20.792
20.863
20.933
20.656
20.728
20.799
20.870
20.940
20.663
20.735
20.806
20.877
20.947
20.670
20.742
20.813
20.884
20.954
20.678
20.749
20.821
20.891
20.961
20.685
20.756
20.828
20.898
20.968
20.692
20.764
20.835
20.905
20.975
20.699
20.771
20.842
20.912
20.982
20.706
20.778
20.849
20.919
20.989
20.714
20.785
20.856
20.926
20.996
20.721
20.792
20.863
20.933
21.003
3150
3160
3170
3180
3190
3000
3010
3020
3030
3040
19.525
19.601
19.677
19.753
19.829
19.532
19.609
19.685
19.761
19.837
19.540
19.616
19.692
19.769
19.845
19.547
19.624
19.700
19.776
19.852
19.555
19.631
19.708
19.784
19.860
19.563
19.639
19.715
19.791
19.867
19.570
19.647
19.723
19.799
19.875
19.578
19.654
19.730
19.807
19.882
19.586
19.662
19.738
19.814
19.890
19.593
19.670
19.746
19.822
19.898
19.601
19.677
19.753
19.829
19.905
3000
3010
3020
3030
3040
3200 21.003 21.010 21.016 21.023 21.030 21.037 21.044 21.051 21.058 21.065 21.071 3200
3210 21.071 21.078 21.085 21.092 21.099
3210
3050
3060
3070
3080
3090
19.905
19.981
20.056
20.132
20.207
19.913
19.989
20.064
20.139
20.214
19.920
19.996
20.072
20.147
20.222
19.928
20.004
20.079
20.154
20.229
19.936
20.011
20.087
20.162
20.237
19.943
20.019
20.094
20.169
20.244
19.951
20.026
20.102
20.177
20.252
19.958
20.034
20.109
20.184
20.259
19.966
20.041
20.117
20.192
20.266
19.973
20.049
20.124
20.199
20.274
19.981
20.056
20.132
20.207
20.281
3050
3060
3070
3080
3090
10
Z-231
10

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 3092F
0 to 1700C
Extension Grade
32 to 212F
0 to 100C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Extension
Grade
Thermocouple
Grade
NONE
ESTABLISHED
vs.
Platinum-6% Rhodium
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90

F
10
10
0.479
0.497
0.516
0.534
0.553
0.481
0.499
0.517
0.536
0.555
0.483
0.501
0.519
0.538
0.557
0.485
0.503
0.521
0.540
0.559
0.486
0.505
0.523
0.542
0.561
0.488
0.506
0.525
0.544
0.563
0.490
0.508
0.527
0.546
0.565
0.492
0.510
0.529
0.547
0.567
0.494
0.512
0.530
0.549
0.569
0.495
0.514
0.532
0.551
0.570
0.497
0.516
0.534
0.553
0.572
600
610
620
630
640
30
40
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

-0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002
30
40
600
610
620
630
640
50
60
70
80
90
-0.002
-0.002
-0.003
-0.002
-0.002
100
110
120
130
140
-0.002
-0.003
-0.003
-0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.003
-0.003
-0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.003
-0.003
-0.002
-0.001
-0.002
-0.003
-0.003
-0.002
-0.001
-0.002
-0.003
-0.002
-0.002
-0.001
-0.002
-0.003
-0.002
-0.002
-0.001
-0.002
-0.003
-0.002
-0.002
-0.001
-0.002
-0.003
-0.002
-0.002
-0.001
50
60
70
80
90
650
660
670
680
690
0.572
0.592
0.612
0.632
0.653
0.574
0.594
0.614
0.634
0.655
0.576
0.596
0.616
0.636
0.657
0.578
0.598
0.618
0.638
0.659
0.580
0.600
0.620
0.640
0.661
0.582
0.602
0.622
0.642
0.663
0.584
0.604
0.624
0.644
0.665
0.586
0.606
0.626
0.646
0.667
0.588
0.608
0.628
0.648
0.669
0.590
0.610
0.630
0.650
0.671
0.592
0.612
0.632
0.653
0.673
650
660
670
680
690
-0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001
0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
0.004 0.004 0.004 0.005
0.006 0.006 0.007 0.007
0.000
0.001
0.003
0.005
0.007
0.000
0.001
0.003
0.005
0.007
0.000
0.001
0.003
0.005
0.008
0.000
0.001
0.003
0.005
0.008
0.000
0.002
0.003
0.006
0.008
0.000
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.009
0.000
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.009
100
110
120
130
140
700
710
720
730
740
0.673
0.694
0.716
0.738
0.760
0.675
0.697
0.718
0.740
0.762
0.678
0.699
0.720
0.742
0.764
0.680
0.701
0.722
0.744
0.766
0.682
0.703
0.725
0.746
0.769
0.684
0.705
0.727
0.749
0.771
0.686
0.707
0.729
0.751
0.773
0.688
0.709
0.731
0.753
0.775
0.690
0.712
0.733
0.755
0.778
0.692
0.714
0.735
0.757
0.780
0.694
0.716
0.738
0.760
0.782
700
710
720
730
740
-0.002
-0.002
-0.003
-0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.003
-0.002
-0.002
150
160
170
180
190
0.009
0.012
0.015
0.019
0.023
0.009
0.012
0.016
0.019
0.023
0.009
0.013
0.016
0.020
0.024
0.010
0.013
0.016
0.020
0.024
0.010
0.013
0.017
0.021
0.025
0.010
0.014
0.017
0.021
0.025
0.011
0.014
0.017
0.021
0.026
0.011
0.014
0.018
0.022
0.026
0.011
0.015
0.018
0.022
0.027
0.012
0.015
0.019
0.023
0.027
0.012
0.015
0.019
0.023
0.027
150
160
170
180
190
750
760
770
780
790
0.782
0.805
0.828
0.851
0.875
0.784
0.807
0.830
0.853
0.877
0.787
0.809
0.832
0.856
0.879
0.789
0.812
0.835
0.858
0.882
0.791
0.814
0.837
0.860
0.884
0.793
0.816
0.839
0.863
0.886
0.796
0.818
0.842
0.865
0.889
0.798
0.821
0.844
0.867
0.891
0.800
0.823
0.846
0.870
0.894
0.802
0.825
0.849
0.872
0.896
0.805
0.828
0.851
0.875
0.898
750
760
770
780
790
200
210
220
230
240
0.027
0.032
0.037
0.043
0.049
0.028
0.033
0.038
0.043
0.049
0.028
0.033
0.038
0.044
0.050
0.029
0.034
0.039
0.044
0.050
0.029
0.034
0.039
0.045
0.051
0.030
0.035
0.040
0.046
0.052
0.030
0.035
0.041
0.046
0.052
0.031
0.036
0.041
0.047
0.053
0.031
0.036
0.042
0.047
0.053
0.032
0.037
0.042
0.048
0.054
0.032
0.037
0.043
0.049
0.055
200
210
220
230
240
800
810
820
830
840
0.898
0.923
0.947
0.972
0.997
0.901
0.925
0.950
0.974
1.000
0.903
0.927
0.952
0.977
1.002
0.906
0.930
0.955
0.979
1.005
0.908
0.932
0.957
0.982
1.007
0.910
0.935
0.959
0.984
1.010
0.913
0.937
0.962
0.987
1.012
0.915
0.940
0.964
0.989
1.015
0.918
0.942
0.967
0.992
1.017
0.920
0.945
0.969
0.994
1.020
0.923
0.947
0.972
0.997
1.022
800
810
820
830
840
250
260
270
280
290
0.055
0.061
0.068
0.075
0.083
0.055
0.062
0.069
0.076
0.083
0.056
0.062
0.069
0.077
0.084
0.057
0.063
0.070
0.077
0.085
0.057
0.064
0.071
0.078
0.086
0.058
0.065
0.072
0.079
0.086
0.059
0.065
0.072
0.080
0.087
0.059
0.066
0.073
0.080
0.088
0.060
0.067
0.074
0.081
0.089
0.060
0.067
0.074
0.082
0.090
0.061
0.068
0.075
0.083
0.090
250
260
270
280
290
850
860
870
880
890
1.022
1.048
1.074
1.100
1.127
1.025
1.051
1.077
1.103
1.130
1.027
1.053
1.079
1.106
1.132
1.030
1.056
1.082
1.108
1.135
1.033
1.058
1.085
1.111
1.138
1.035
1.061
1.087
1.114
1.140
1.038
1.064
1.090
1.116
1.143
1.040
1.066
1.092
1.119
1.146
1.043
1.069
1.095
1.122
1.148
1.045
1.071
1.098
1.124
1.151
1.048
1.074
1.100
1.127
1.154
850
860
870
880
890
300
310
320
330
340
0.090
0.099
0.107
0.116
0.125
0.091
0.099
0.108
0.117
0.126
0.092
0.100
0.109
0.118
0.127
0.093
0.101
0.110
0.119
0.128
0.094
0.102
0.111
0.120
0.129
0.094
0.103
0.112
0.121
0.130
0.095
0.104
0.112
0.121
0.131
0.096
0.105
0.113
0.122
0.132
0.097
0.105
0.114
0.123
0.133
0.098
0.106
0.115
0.124
0.134
0.099
0.107
0.116
0.125
0.135
300
310
320
330
340
900
910
920
930
940
1.154
1.181
1.208
1.236
1.264
1.157
1.184
1.211
1.239
1.267
1.159
1.186
1.214
1.242
1.270
1.162
1.189
1.217
1.245
1.273
1.165
1.192
1.220
1.247
1.276
1.167
1.195
1.222
1.250
1.278
1.170
1.197
1.225
1.253
1.281
1.173
1.200
1.228
1.256
1.284
1.176
1.203
1.231
1.259
1.287
1.178
1.206
1.233
1.262
1.290
1.181
1.208
1.236
1.264
1.293
900
910
920
930
940
350
360
370
380
390
0.135
0.145
0.155
0.165
0.176
0.136
0.146
0.156
0.166
0.177
0.137
0.147
0.157
0.167
0.178
0.138
0.148
0.158
0.168
0.179
0.139
0.149
0.159
0.170
0.180
0.140
0.150
0.160
0.171
0.182
0.141
0.151
0.161
0.172
0.183
0.142
0.152
0.162
0.173
0.184
0.143
0.153
0.163
0.174
0.185
0.144
0.154
0.164
0.175
0.186
0.145
0.155
0.165
0.176
0.187
350
360
370
380
390
950
960
970
980
990
1.293
1.321
1.350
1.379
1.409
1.296
1.324
1.353
1.382
1.412
1.298
1.327
1.356
1.385
1.415
1.301
1.330
1.359
1.388
1.418
1.304
1.333
1.362
1.391
1.421
1.307
1.336
1.365
1.394
1.424
1.310
1.339
1.368
1.397
1.427
1.313
1.342
1.371
1.400
1.430
1.316
1.344
1.374
1.403
1.433
1.318
1.347
1.377
1.406
1.436
1.321
1.350
1.379
1.409
1.439
950
960
970
980
990
400
410
420
430
440
0.187
0.199
0.211
0.223
0.235
0.188
0.200
0.212
0.224
0.236
0.190
0.201
0.213
0.225
0.238
0.191
0.202
0.214
0.226
0.239
0.192
0.203
0.215
0.228
0.240
0.193
0.205
0.217
0.229
0.242
0.194
0.206
0.218
0.230
0.243
0.195
0.207
0.219
0.231
0.244
0.196
0.208
0.220
0.233
0.245
0.198
0.209
0.222
0.234
0.247
0.199
0.211
0.223
0.235
0.248
400
410
420
430
440
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1.439
1.469
1.499
1.530
1.561
1.442
1.472
1.502
1.533
1.564
1.445
1.475
1.505
1.536
1.567
1.448
1.478
1.508
1.539
1.570
1.451
1.481
1.511
1.542
1.573
1.454
1.484
1.515
1.545
1.576
1.457
1.487
1.518
1.548
1.580
1.460
1.490
1.521
1.552
1.583
1.463
1.493
1.524
1.555
1.586
1.466
1.496
1.527
1.558
1.589
1.469
1.499
1.530
1.561
1.592
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
450
460
470
480
490
0.248
0.261
0.275
0.288
0.303
0.249
0.263
0.276
0.290
0.304
0.251
0.264
0.277
0.291
0.305
0.252
0.265
0.279
0.293
0.307
0.253
0.267
0.280
0.294
0.308
0.255
0.268
0.282
0.296
0.310
0.256
0.269
0.283
0.297
0.311
0.257
0.271
0.284
0.298
0.313
0.259
0.272
0.286
0.300
0.314
0.260
0.273
0.287
0.301
0.316
0.261
0.275
0.288
0.303
0.317
450
460
470
480
490
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
1.592
1.624
1.655
1.687
1.720
1.595
1.627
1.659
1.691
1.723
1.598
1.630
1.662
1.694
1.726
1.601
1.633
1.665
1.697
1.729
1.605
1.636
1.668
1.700
1.733
1.608
1.639
1.671
1.704
1.736
1.611
1.643
1.675
1.707
1.739
1.614
1.646
1.678
1.710
1.743
1.617
1.649
1.681
1.713
1.746
1.620
1.652
1.684
1.716
1.749
1.624
1.655
1.687
1.720
1.752
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
500
510
520
530
540
0.317
0.332
0.347
0.362
0.378
0.319
0.333
0.348
0.364
0.380
0.320
0.335
0.350
0.365
0.381
0.321
0.336
0.352
0.367
0.383
0.323
0.338
0.353
0.369
0.384
0.324
0.339
0.355
0.370
0.386
0.326
0.341
0.356
0.372
0.388
0.327
0.342
0.358
0.373
0.389
0.329
0.344
0.359
0.375
0.391
0.330
0.345
0.361
0.377
0.393
0.332
0.347
0.362
0.378
0.394
500
510
520
530
540
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
1.752
1.785
1.818
1.852
1.886
1.756
1.789
1.822
1.855
1.889
1.759
1.792
1.825
1.859
1.892
1.762
1.795
1.828
1.862
1.896
1.765
1.798
1.832
1.865
1.899
1.769
1.802
1.835
1.869
1.903
1.772
1.805
1.838
1.872
1.906
1.775
1.808
1.842
1.875
1.909
1.779
1.812
1.845
1.879
1.913
1.782
1.815
1.849
1.882
1.916
1.785
1.818
1.852
1.886
1.920
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
550
560
570
580
590
0.394
0.411
0.427
0.444
0.462
0.396
0.412
0.429
0.446
0.463
0.397
0.414
0.431
0.448
0.465
0.399
0.416
0.432
0.449
0.467
0.401
0.417
0.434
0.451
0.469
0.402
0.419
0.436
0.453
0.470
0.404
0.421
0.437
0.455
0.472
0.406
0.422
0.439
0.456
0.474
0.407
0.424
0.441
0.458
0.476
0.409
0.426
0.443
0.460
0.478
0.411
0.427
0.444
0.462
0.479
550
560
570
580
590
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
1.920
1.954
1.988
2.023
2.058
1.923
1.957
1.992
2.027
2.062
1.926
1.961
1.995
2.030
2.065
1.930
1.964
1.999
2.034
2.069
1.933
1.968
2.002
2.037
2.072
1.937
1.971
2.006
2.041
2.076
1.940
1.975
2.009
2.044
2.079
1.944
1.978
2.013
2.048
2.083
1.947
1.981
2.016
2.051
2.086
1.950
1.985
2.020
2.055
2.090
1.954
1.988
2.023
2.058
2.094
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
10
Z-232
10
Reference Tables
NONE
ESTABLISHED
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
2.094
2.129
2.165
2.201
2.237
2.097
2.133
2.169
2.205
2.241
2.101
2.136
2.172
2.208
2.245
2.104
2.140
2.176
2.212
2.248
2.108
2.143
2.179
2.216
2.252
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
2.274
2.311
2.348
2.385
2.423
2.278
2.315
2.352
2.389
2.427
2.281
2.318
2.355
2.393
2.431
2.285
2.322
2.359
2.397
2.434
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
2.461
2.499
2.538
2.576
2.615
2.465
2.503
2.541
2.580
2.619
2.469
2.507
2.545
2.584
2.623
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
2.654
2.694
2.734
2.774
2.814
2.658
2.698
2.738
2.778
2.818
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
2.854
2.895
2.936
2.978
3.019
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490

F
2.111
2.147
2.183
2.219
2.256
2.115
2.151
2.187
2.223
2.259
2.118
2.154
2.190
2.226
2.263
2.122
2.158
2.194
2.230
2.267
2.126
2.161
2.197
2.234
2.270
2.129
2.165
2.201
2.237
2.274
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
4.673
4.723
4.774
4.824
4.875
4.678
4.728
4.779
4.829
4.880
4.683
4.733
4.784
4.834
4.885
4.688
4.738
4.789
4.839
4.890
4.693
4.743
4.794
4.844
4.895
4.698
4.748
4.799
4.850
4.900
4.703
4.754
4.804
4.855
4.905
4.708
4.759
4.809
4.860
4.911
4.713
4.764
4.814
4.865
4.916
4.718
4.769
4.819
4.870
4.921
4.723
4.774
4.824
4.875
4.926
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
2.289
2.326
2.363
2.400
2.438
2.292
2.329
2.367
2.404
2.442
2.296
2.333
2.370
2.408
2.446
2.300
2.337
2.374
2.412
2.450
2.303
2.341
2.378
2.416
2.453
2.307
2.344
2.382
2.419
2.457
2.311
2.348
2.385
2.423
2.461
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
4.926
4.977
5.028
5.080
5.132
4.931
4.982
5.034
5.085
5.137
4.936
4.987
5.039
5.090
5.142
4.941
4.992
5.044
5.096
5.147
4.946
4.998
5.049
5.101
5.153
4.951
5.003
5.054
5.106
5.158
4.957
5.008
5.059
5.111
5.163
4.962
5.013
5.065
5.116
5.168
4.967
5.018
5.070
5.121
5.173
4.972
5.023
5.075
5.127
5.179
4.977
5.028
5.080
5.132
5.184
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
2.472
2.511
2.549
2.588
2.627
2.476
2.515
2.553
2.592
2.631
2.480
2.518
2.557
2.596
2.635
2.484
2.522
2.561
2.600
2.639
2.488
2.526
2.565
2.604
2.643
2.492
2.530
2.569
2.607
2.647
2.495
2.534
2.572
2.611
2.651
2.499
2.538
2.576
2.615
2.654
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
5.184
5.236
5.288
5.341
5.394
5.189
5.241
5.294
5.346
5.399
5.194
5.246
5.299
5.351
5.404
5.199
5.252
5.304
5.357
5.410
5.205
5.257
5.309
5.362
5.415
5.210
5.262
5.315
5.367
5.420
5.215
5.267
5.320
5.373
5.425
5.220
5.273
5.325
5.378
5.431
5.225
5.278
5.330
5.383
5.436
5.231
5.283
5.336
5.388
5.441
5.236
5.288
5.341
5.394
5.447
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
2.662
2.702
2.742
2.782
2.822
2.666
2.706
2.746
2.786
2.826
2.670
2.710
2.750
2.790
2.830
2.674
2.714
2.754
2.794
2.834
2.678
2.718
2.758
2.798
2.838
2.682
2.722
2.762
2.802
2.842
2.686
2.726
2.766
2.806
2.846
2.690
2.730
2.770
2.810
2.850
2.694
2.734
2.774
2.814
2.854
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
5.447
5.500
5.553
5.607
5.661
5.452
5.505
5.559
5.612
5.666
5.457
5.511
5.564
5.618
5.671
5.463
5.516
5.569
5.623
5.677
5.468
5.521
5.575
5.628
5.682
5.473
5.527
5.580
5.634
5.688
5.479
5.532
5.585
5.639
5.693
5.484
5.537
5.591
5.644
5.698
5.489
5.543
5.596
5.650
5.704
5.495
5.548
5.601
5.655
5.709
5.500
5.553
5.607
5.661
5.715
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2.859
2.899
2.940
2.982
3.023
2.863
2.903
2.944
2.986
3.027
2.867
2.908
2.949
2.990
3.032
2.871
2.912
2.953
2.994
3.036
2.875
2.916
2.957
2.998
3.040
2.879
2.920
2.961
3.002
3.044
2.883
2.924
2.965
3.007
3.048
2.887
2.928
2.969
3.011
3.052
2.891
2.932
2.973
3.015
3.057
2.895
2.936
2.978
3.019
3.061
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
5.715
5.769
5.823
5.878
5.932
5.720
5.774
5.828
5.883
5.938
5.725
5.780
5.834
5.888
5.943
5.731
5.785
5.839
5.894
5.949
5.736
5.790
5.845
5.899
5.954
5.742
5.796
5.850
5.905
5.960
5.747
5.801
5.856
5.910
5.965
5.752
5.807
5.861
5.916
5.971
5.758
5.812
5.867
5.921
5.976
5.763
5.818
5.872
5.927
5.982
5.769
5.823
5.878
5.932
5.987
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
3.061
3.103
3.145
3.188
3.230
3.065
3.107
3.149
3.192
3.235
3.069
3.111
3.154
3.196
3.239
3.073
3.116
3.158
3.200
3.243
3.078
3.120
3.162
3.205
3.248
3.082
3.124
3.166
3.209
3.252
3.086
3.128
3.171
3.213
3.256
3.090
3.132
3.175
3.218
3.261
3.094
3.137
3.179
3.222
3.265
3.099
3.141
3.183
3.226
3.269
3.103
3.145
3.188
3.230
3.273
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
5.987
6.042
6.098
6.153
6.209
5.993
6.048
6.103
6.159
6.214
5.998
6.053
6.109
6.164
6.220
6.004
6.059
6.114
6.170
6.225
6.009
6.064
6.120
6.175
6.231
6.015
6.070
6.125
6.181
6.237
6.020
6.075
6.131
6.186
6.242
6.026
6.081
6.136
6.192
6.248
6.031
6.086
6.142
6.197
6.253
6.037
6.092
6.147
6.203
6.259
6.042
6.098
6.153
6.209
6.264
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
3.273
3.317
3.360
3.404
3.448
3.278
3.321
3.365
3.408
3.452
3.282
3.325
3.369
3.413
3.457
3.286
3.330
3.373
3.417
3.461
3.291
3.334
3.378
3.422
3.466
3.295
3.338
3.382
3.426
3.470
3.299
3.343
3.386
3.430
3.474
3.304
3.347
3.391
3.435
3.479
3.308
3.352
3.395
3.439
3.483
3.312
3.356
3.400
3.444
3.488
3.317
3.360
3.404
3.448
3.492
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
6.264
6.320
6.377
6.433
6.490
6.270
6.326
6.382
6.439
6.495
6.276
6.332
6.388
6.444
6.501
6.281
6.337
6.394
6.450
6.507
6.287
6.343
6.399
6.456
6.512
6.292
6.349
6.405
6.461
6.518
6.298
6.354
6.410
6.467
6.524
6.304
6.360
6.416
6.473
6.529
6.309
6.365
6.422
6.478
6.535
6.315
6.371
6.427
6.484
6.541
6.320
6.377
6.433
6.490
6.546
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
3.492
3.537
3.581
3.626
3.672
3.497
3.541
3.586
3.631
3.676
3.501
3.546
3.590
3.635
3.681
3.506
3.550
3.595
3.640
3.685
3.510
3.555
3.599
3.644
3.690
3.514
3.559
3.604
3.649
3.694
3.519
3.563
3.608
3.653
3.699
3.523
3.568
3.613
3.658
3.703
3.528
3.572
3.617
3.662
3.708
3.532
3.577
3.622
3.667
3.712
3.537
3.581
3.626
3.672
3.717
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
6.546
6.603
6.660
6.718
6.775
6.552
6.609
6.666
6.723
6.781
6.558
6.615
6.672
6.729
6.786
6.563
6.620
6.677
6.735
6.792
6.569
6.626
6.683
6.740
6.798
6.575
6.632
6.689
6.746
6.804
6.580
6.637
6.695
6.752
6.809
6.586
6.643
6.700
6.758
6.815
6.592
6.649
6.706
6.763
6.821
6.597
6.655
6.712
6.769
6.827
6.603
6.660
6.718
6.775
6.833
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
3.717
3.763
3.809
3.855
3.901
3.722
3.767
3.813
3.859
3.906
3.726
3.772
3.818
3.864
3.910
3.731
3.776
3.822
3.869
3.915
3.735
3.781
3.827
3.873
3.920
3.740
3.786
3.832
3.878
3.924
3.744
3.790
3.836
3.882
3.929
3.749
3.795
3.841
3.887
3.934
3.753
3.799
3.845
3.892
3.938
3.758
3.804
3.850
3.896
3.943
3.763
3.809
3.855
3.901
3.948
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
2200
2210
2220
2230
2240
6.833
6.890
6.948
7.006
7.065
6.838
6.896
6.954
7.012
7.070
6.844
6.902
6.960
7.018
7.076
6.850
6.908
6.966
7.024
7.082
6.856
6.913
6.971
7.030
7.088
6.861
6.919
6.977
7.035
7.094
6.867
6.925
6.983
7.041
7.100
6.873
6.931
6.989
7.047
7.105
6.879
6.937
6.995
7.053
7.111
6.884
6.942
7.000
7.059
7.117
6.890
6.948
7.006
7.065
7.123
2200
2210
2220
2230
2240
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
3.948
3.994
4.041
4.089
4.136
3.952
3.999
4.046
4.093
4.141
3.957
4.004
4.051
4.098
4.146
3.962
4.009
4.056
4.103
4.151
3.966
4.013
4.060
4.108
4.155
3.971
4.018
4.065
4.112
4.160
3.976
4.023
4.070
4.117
4.165
3.980
4.027
4.075
4.122
4.170
3.985
4.032
4.079
4.127
4.174
3.990
4.037
4.084
4.131
4.179
3.994
4.041
4.089
4.136
4.184
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
2250
2260
2270
2280
2290
7.123
7.182
7.240
7.299
7.358
7.129
7.187
7.246
7.305
7.364
7.135
7.193
7.252
7.311
7.370
7.141
7.199
7.258
7.317
7.376
7.146
7.205
7.264
7.323
7.382
7.152
7.211
7.270
7.329
7.388
7.158
7.217
7.276
7.335
7.394
7.164
7.223
7.281
7.340
7.400
7.170
7.229
7.287
7.346
7.406
7.176
7.234
7.293
7.352
7.412
7.182
7.240
7.299
7.358
7.417
2250
2260
2270
2280
2290
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
4.184
4.232
4.280
4.328
4.377
4.189
4.237
4.285
4.333
4.382
4.194
4.242
4.290
4.338
4.387
4.198
4.246
4.295
4.343
4.392
4.203
4.251
4.299
4.348
4.397
4.208
4.256
4.304
4.353
4.401
4.213
4.261
4.309
4.358
4.406
4.217
4.266
4.314
4.362
4.411
4.222
4.270
4.319
4.367
4.416
4.227
4.275
4.324
4.372
4.421
4.232
4.280
4.328
4.377
4.426
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
2300
2310
2320
2330
2340
7.417
7.477
7.536
7.596
7.656
7.423
7.483
7.542
7.602
7.662
7.429
7.489
7.548
7.608
7.668
7.435
7.495
7.554
7.614
7.674
7.441
7.501
7.560
7.620
7.680
7.447
7.507
7.566
7.626
7.686
7.453
7.512
7.572
7.632
7.692
7.459
7.518
7.578
7.638
7.698
7.465
7.524
7.584
7.644
7.704
7.471
7.530
7.590
7.650
7.710
7.477
7.536
7.596
7.656
7.716
2300
2310
2320
2330
2340
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
4.426
4.475
4.524
4.574
4.623
4.431
4.480
4.529
4.579
4.628
4.436
4.485
4.534
4.584
4.633
4.441
4.490
4.539
4.589
4.638
4.445
4.495
4.544
4.593
4.643
4.450
4.500
4.549
4.598
4.648
4.455
4.504
4.554
4.603
4.653
4.460
4.509
4.559
4.608
4.658
4.465
4.514
4.564
4.613
4.663
4.470
4.519
4.569
4.618
4.668
4.475
4.524
4.574
4.623
4.673
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
2350
2360
2370
2380
2390
7.716
7.776
7.836
7.897
7.957
7.722
7.782
7.842
7.903
7.963
7.728
7.788
7.848
7.909
7.969
7.734
7.794
7.854
7.915
7.975
7.740
7.800
7.860
7.921
7.981
7.746
7.806
7.866
7.927
7.987
7.752
7.812
7.872
7.933
7.994
7.758
7.818
7.878
7.939
8.000
7.764
7.824
7.884
7.945
8.006
7.770
7.830
7.891
7.951
8.012
7.776
7.836
7.897
7.957
8.018
2350
2360
2370
2380
2390
Extension
Grade
vs.
Platinum-6% Rhodium

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 3092F
0 to 1700C
Extension Grade
32 to 212F
0 to 100C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Thermocouple
Grade
10
10
Z-233
10
10

Thermocouple Grade
32 to 3092F
0 to 1700C
Extension Grade
32 to 212F
0 to 100C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Extension
Grade
Thermocouple
Grade
NONE
ESTABLISHED
vs.
Platinum-6% Rhodium
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90

F
2400
2410
2420
2430
2440
8.018
8.079
8.140
8.201
8.262
8.024
8.085
8.146
8.207
8.268
8.030
8.091
8.152
8.213
8.274
8.036
8.097
8.158
8.219
8.280
8.042
8.103
8.164
8.225
8.286
2450
2460
2470
2480
2490
8.323
8.385
8.446
8.508
8.570
8.329
8.391
8.453
8.514
8.576
8.336
8.397
8.459
8.521
8.582
8.342
8.403
8.465
8.527
8.589
2500
2510
2520
2530
2540
8.632
8.694
8.756
8.819
8.881
8.638
8.700
8.763
8.825
8.887
8.644
8.707
8.769
8.831
8.894
2550
2560
2570
2580
2590
8.944
9.006
9.069
9.132
9.195
8.950
9.013
9.075
9.138
9.201
2600
2610
2620
2630
2640
9.258
9.321
9.385
9.448
9.511
2650
2660
2670
2680
2690
9.575
9.639
9.702
9.766
9.830
8.048
8.109
8.170
8.231
8.293
8.054
8.115
8.176
8.237
8.299
8.060
8.121
8.182
8.244
8.305
8.066
8.127
8.188
8.250
8.311
8.073
8.134
8.195
8.256
8.317
8.079
8.140
8.201
8.262
8.323
10
2400
2410
2420
2430
2440
8.348
8.409
8.471
8.533
8.595
8.354
8.416
8.477
8.539
8.601
8.360
8.422
8.483
8.545
8.607
8.366
8.428
8.490
8.551
8.613
8.372
8.434
8.496
8.558
8.620
8.379
8.440
8.502
8.564
8.626
8.385
8.446
8.508
8.570
8.632
2450
2460
2470
2480
2490
8.651
8.713
8.775
8.837
8.900
8.657
8.719
8.781
8.844
8.906
8.663
8.725
8.787
8.850
8.912
8.669
8.731
8.794
8.856
8.919
8.675
8.738
8.800
8.862
8.925
8.682
8.744
8.806
8.869
8.931
8.688
8.750
8.812
8.875
8.937
8.694
8.756
8.819
8.881
8.944
2500
2510
2520
2530
2540
8.956
9.019
9.082
9.145
9.208
8.962
9.025
9.088
9.151
9.214
8.969
9.031
9.094
9.157
9.220
8.975
9.038
9.101
9.164
9.227
8.981
9.044
9.107
9.170
9.233
8.988
9.050
9.113
9.176
9.239
8.994
9.057
9.119
9.182
9.245
9.000
9.063
9.126
9.189
9.252
9.006
9.069
9.132
9.195
9.258
2550
2560
2570
2580
2590
9.264
9.328
9.391
9.454
9.518
9.271
9.334
9.397
9.461
9.524
9.277
9.340
9.404
9.467
9.530
9.283
9.347
9.410
9.473
9.537
9.290
9.353
9.416
9.480
9.543
9.296
9.359
9.423
9.486
9.550
9.302
9.366
9.429
9.492
9.556
9.309
9.372
9.435
9.499
9.562
9.315
9.378
9.442
9.505
9.569
9.321
9.385
9.448
9.511
9.575
2600
2610
2620
2630
2640
9.581
9.645
9.709
9.772
9.836
9.588
9.651
9.715
9.779
9.843
9.594
9.658
9.721
9.785
9.849
9.600
9.664
9.728
9.792
9.856
9.607
9.670
9.734
9.798
9.862
9.613
9.677
9.741
9.804
9.868
9.619
9.683
9.747
9.811
9.875
9.626
9.690
9.753
9.817
9.881
9.632
9.696
9.760
9.824
9.888
9.639
9.702
9.766
9.830
9.894
2650
2660
2670
2680
2690
2700 9.894 9.900 9.907 9.913 9.920 9.926 9.932 9.939 9.945
2710 9.958 9.964 9.971 9.977 9.984 9.990 9.996 10.003 10.009
2720 10.022 10.028 10.035 10.041 10.048 10.054 10.061 10.067 10.073
2730 10.086 10.093 10.099 10.105 10.112 10.118 10.125 10.131 10.138
2740 10.150 10.157 10.163 10.170 10.176 10.183 10.189 10.195 10.202
9.952
10.016
10.080
10.144
10.208
9.958
10.022
10.086
10.150
10.215
2700
2710
2720
2730
2740
2750
2760
2770
2780
2790
10.215
10.279
10.344
10.408
10.473
10.221
10.286
10.350
10.414
10.479
10.228
10.292
10.356
10.421
10.485
10.234
10.298
10.363
10.427
10.492
10.240
10.305
10.369
10.434
10.498
10.247
10.311
10.376
10.440
10.505
10.253
10.318
10.382
10.447
10.511
10.260
10.324
10.389
10.453
10.518
10.266
10.331
10.395
10.460
10.524
10.273
10.337
10.402
10.466
10.531
10.279
10.344
10.408
10.473
10.537
2750
2760
2770
2780
2790
2800
2810
2820
2830
2840
10.537
10.602
10.666
10.731
10.796
10.544
10.608
10.673
10.738
10.802
10.550
10.615
10.679
10.744
10.809
10.556
10.621
10.686
10.751
10.815
10.563
10.628
10.692
10.757
10.822
10.569
10.634
10.699
10.763
10.828
10.576
10.641
10.705
10.770
10.835
10.582
10.647
10.712
10.776
10.841
10.589
10.653
10.718
10.783
10.848
10.595
10.660
10.725
10.789
10.854
10.602
10.666
10.731
10.796
10.861
2800
2810
2820
2830
2840
2850
2860
2870
2880
2890
10.861
10.925
10.990
11.055
11.120
10.867
10.932
10.997
11.062
11.127
10.874
10.938
11.003
11.068
11.133
10.880
10.945
11.010
11.075
11.140
10.887
10.951
11.016
11.081
11.146
10.893
10.958
11.023
11.088
11.153
10.900
10.964
11.029
11.094
11.159
10.906
10.971
11.036
11.101
11.166
10.913
10.977
11.042
11.107
11.172
10.919
10.984
11.049
11.114
11.179
10.925
10.990
11.055
11.120
11.185
2850
2860
2870
2880
2890
10
10
2900
2910
2920
2930
2940
11.185
11.250
11.315
11.380
11.445
11.192
11.257
11.321
11.386
11.451
11.198
11.263
11.328
11.393
11.458
11.205
11.270
11.334
11.399
11.464
11.211
11.276
11.341
11.406
11.471
11.218
11.282
11.347
11.412
11.477
11.224
11.289
11.354
11.419
11.484
11.231
11.295
11.360
11.425
11.490
11.237
11.302
11.367
11.432
11.497
11.244
11.308
11.373
11.438
11.503
11.250
11.315
11.380
11.445
11.510
2900
2910
2920
2930
2940
2950
2960
2970
2980
2990
11.510
11.575
11.640
11.705
11.770
11.516
11.582
11.647
11.712
11.777
11.523
11.588
11.653
11.718
11.783
11.529
11.595
11.660
11.725
11.790
11.536
11.601
11.666
11.731
11.796
11.542
11.608
11.673
11.738
11.803
11.549
11.614
11.679
11.744
11.809
11.555
11.621
11.686
11.751
11.816
11.562
11.627
11.692
11.757
11.822
11.568
11.634
11.699
11.764
11.829
11.575
11.640
11.705
11.770
11.835
2950
2960
2970
2980
2990
3000
3010
3020
3030
3040
11.835
11.900
11.965
12.030
12.095
11.842
11.907
11.972
12.037
12.102
11.848
11.913
11.978
12.043
12.108
11.855
11.920
11.985
12.050
12.115
11.861
11.926
11.991
12.056
12.121
11.868
11.933
11.998
12.063
12.128
11.874
11.939
12.004
12.069
12.134
11.881
11.946
12.011
12.076
12.141
11.887
11.952
12.017
12.082
12.147
11.894
11.959
12.024
12.089
12.154
11.900
11.965
12.030
12.095
12.160
3000
3010
3020
3030
3040
3050
3060
3070
3080
3090
12.160
12.225
12.290
12.355
12.420
12.166
12.231
12.296
12.361
12.426
12.173
12.238
12.303
12.368
12.433
12.179
12.244
12.309
12.374
12.439
12.186
12.251
12.316
12.381
12.446
12.192
12.257
12.322
12.387
12.452
12.199
12.264
12.329
12.394
12.458
12.205
12.270
12.335
12.400
12.465
12.212
12.277
12.342
12.407
12.471
12.218
12.283
12.348
12.413
12.478
12.225
12.290
12.355
12.420
12.484
3050
3060
3070
3080
3090
3100
3110
3120
3130
3140
12.484
12.549
12.614
12.679
12.743
12.491
12.556
12.620
12.685
12.750
12.497
12.562
12.627
12.692
12.756
12.504
12.569
12.633
12.698
12.763
12.510
12.575
12.640
12.704
12.769
12.517
12.582
12.646
12.711
12.776
12.523
12.588
12.653
12.717
12.782
12.530
12.595
12.659
12.724
12.789
12.536
12.601
12.666
12.730
12.795
12.543
12.607
12.672
12.737
12.801
12.549
12.614
12.679
12.743
12.808
3100
3110
3120
3130
3140
3150
3160
3170
3180
3190
12.808
12.872
12.937
13.001
13.066
12.814
12.879
12.943
13.008
13.072
12.821
12.885
12.950
13.014
13.079
12.827
12.892
12.956
13.021
13.085
12.834
12.898
12.963
13.027
13.092
12.840
12.905
12.969
13.034
13.098
12.847
12.911
12.976
13.040
13.104
12.853
12.918
12.982
13.047
13.111
12.860
12.924
12.989
13.053
13.117
12.866
12.931
12.995
13.059
13.124
12.872
12.937
13.001
13.066
13.130
3150
3160
3170
3180
3190
3200
3210
3220
3230
3240
13.130
13.194
13.259
13.323
13.387
13.137
13.201
13.265
13.329
13.393
13.143
13.207
13.271
13.336
13.400
13.149
13.214
13.278
13.342
13.406
13.156
13.220
13.284
13.348
13.412
13.162
13.227
13.291
13.355
13.419
13.169
13.233
13.297
13.361
13.425
13.175
13.239
13.304
13.368
13.432
13.182
13.246
13.310
13.374
13.438
13.188
13.252
13.316
13.380
13.444
13.194
13.259
13.323
13.387
13.451
3200
3210
3220
3230
3240
3250
3260
3270
3280
3290
13.451
13.515
13.579
13.642
13.706
13.457
13.521
13.585
13.649
13.712
13.464
13.527
13.591
13.655
13.719
13.470
13.534
13.598
13.661
13.725
13.476
13.540
13.604
13.668
13.731
13.483
13.547
13.610
13.674
13.738
13.489
13.553
13.617
13.680
13.744
13.496
13.559
13.623
13.687
13.750
13.502
13.566
13.630
13.693
13.757
13.508
13.572
13.636
13.700
13.763
13.515
13.579
13.642
13.706
13.769
3250
3260
3270
3280
3290
3300 13.769 13.776 13.782 13.789 13.795 13.801 13.808 13.814 13.820
Z-234
3300
10
Reference Tables
Nickel-14.2%
vs.
+
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-450
-4
Thermocouple
Grade
Extension
Grade

Thermocouple Grade
450 to 2372F
270 to 1300C
Extension Grade
32 to 392F
0 to 200C
LIMITS OF ERROR
-3
-2
-1
10
-4.345 -4.345 -4.345 -4.344 -4.344 -450
100
110
120
130
140
1.004
1.156
1.309
1.463
1.619
1.019
1.171
1.324
1.479
1.635
1.034
1.186
1.340
1.494
1.650
1.049
1.202
1.355
1.510
1.666
1.065
1.217
1.371
1.525
1.682
1.080
1.232
1.386
1.541
1.697
1.095
1.248
1.402
1.557
1.713
1.110
1.263
1.417
1.572
1.729
1.125
1.278
1.432
1.588
1.744
1.141
1.294
1.448
1.603
1.760
1.156
1.309
1.463
1.619
1.776
100
110
120
130
140
-440
-430
-420
-410
-400
-4.344
-4.339
-4.330
-4.316
-4.299
-4.344
-4.338
-4.329
-4.315
-4.297
-4.343
-4.337
-4.327
-4.313
-4.295
-4.343
-4.337
-4.326
-4.312
-4.293
-4.342
-4.336
-4.325
-4.310
-4.291
-4.342
-4.335
-4.324
-4.308
-4.288
-4.341
-4.334
-4.322
-4.306
-4.286
-4.341
-4.333
-4.321
-4.305
-4.284
-4.340
-4.332
-4.319
-4.303
-4.282
-4.340
-4.331
-4.318
-4.301
-4.279
-4.339
-4.330
-4.316
-4.299
-4.277
-440
-430
-420
-410
-400
150
160
170
180
190
1.776
1.934
2.093
2.253
2.415
1.791
1.950
2.109
2.269
2.431
1.807
1.965
2.125
2.285
2.447
1.823
1.981
2.141
2.301
2.463
1.839
1.997
2.157
2.318
2.480
1.855
2.013
2.173
2.334
2.496
1.870
2.029
2.189
2.350
2.512
1.886
2.045
2.205
2.366
2.528
1.902
2.061
2.221
2.382
2.545
1.918
2.077
2.237
2.398
2.561
1.934
2.093
2.253
2.415
2.577
150
160
170
180
190
-390
-380
-370
-360
-350
-4.277
-4.251
-4.220
-4.185
-4.145
-4.275
-4.248
-4.217
-4.181
-4.141
-4.272
-4.245
-4.213
-4.177
-4.137
-4.270
-4.242
-4.210
-4.174
-4.133
-4.267
-4.239
-4.206
-4.170
-4.128
-4.264
-4.236
-4.203
-4.166
-4.124
-4.262
-4.233
-4.199
-4.162
-4.120
-4.259
-4.230
-4.196
-4.158
-4.115
-4.256
-4.226
-4.192
-4.154
-4.111
-4.254
-4.223
-4.189
-4.150
-4.106
-4.251
-4.220
-4.185
-4.145
-4.102
-390
-380
-370
-360
-350
200
210
220
230
240
2.577
2.741
2.906
3.072
3.240
2.594
2.758
2.923
3.089
3.257
2.610
2.774
2.939
3.106
3.273
2.626
2.791
2.956
3.123
3.290
2.643
2.807
2.973
3.139
3.307
2.659
2.824
2.989
3.156
3.324
2.676
2.840
3.006
3.173
3.341
2.692
2.857
3.022
3.189
3.358
2.708
2.873
3.039
3.206
3.374
2.725
2.890
3.056
3.223
3.391
2.741
2.906
3.072
3.240
3.408
200
210
220
230
240
-340
-330
-320
-310
-300
-4.102
-4.054
-4.001
-3.945
-3.884
-4.097
-4.049
-3.996
-3.939
-3.878
-4.092
-4.043
-3.990
-3.933
-3.872
-4.088
-4.038
-3.985
-3.927
-3.866
-4.083
-4.033
-3.979
-3.921
-3.859
-4.078
-4.028
-3.974
-3.915
-3.853
-4.073
-4.023
-3.968
-3.909
-3.846
-4.068
-4.017
-3.962
-3.903
-3.840
-4.064
-4.012
-3.957
-3.897
-3.833
-4.059
-4.007
-3.951
-3.891
-3.827
-4.054
-4.001
-3.945
-3.884
-3.820
-340
-330
-320
-310
-300
250
260
270
280
290
3.408
3.578
3.748
3.920
4.093
3.425
3.595
3.766
3.937
4.110
3.442
3.612
3.783
3.955
4.128
3.459
3.629
3.800
3.972
4.145
3.476
3.646
3.817
3.989
4.162
3.493
3.663
3.834
4.007
4.180
3.510
3.680
3.851
4.024
4.197
3.527
3.697
3.869
4.041
4.215
3.544
3.714
3.886
4.058
4.232
3.561
3.731
3.903
4.076
4.250
3.578
3.748
3.920
4.093
4.267
250
260
270
280
290
-290
-280
-270
-260
-250
-3.820
-3.752
-3.679
-3.604
-3.524
-3.813
-3.745
-3.672
-3.596
-3.516
-3.807
-3.738
-3.665
-3.588
-3.508
-3.800
-3.730
-3.657
-3.580
-3.499
-3.793
-3.723
-3.650
-3.572
-3.491
-3.786
-3.716
-3.642
-3.564
-3.483
-3.779
-3.709
-3.634
-3.556
-3.474
-3.773
-3.702
-3.627
-3.548
-3.466
-3.766
-3.694
-3.619
-3.540
-3.458
-3.759
-3.687
-3.611
-3.532
-3.449
-3.752
-3.679
-3.604
-3.524
-3.441
-290
-280
-270
-260
-250
300
310
320
330
340
4.267
4.442
4.618
4.795
4.973
4.284
4.459
4.635
4.813
4.991
4.302
4.477
4.653
4.830
5.008
4.319
4.495
4.671
4.848
5.026
4.337
4.512
4.688
4.866
5.044
4.354
4.530
4.706
4.884
5.062
4.372
4.547
4.724
4.901
5.080
4.389
4.565
4.742
4.919
5.098
4.407
4.583
4.759
4.937
5.116
4.424
4.600
4.777
4.955
5.134
4.442
4.618
4.795
4.973
5.152
300
310
320
330
340
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
-3.441
-3.354
-3.264
-3.171
-3.074
-3.432
-3.345
-3.255
-3.161
-3.064
-3.424
-3.336
-3.246
-3.151
-3.054
-3.415
-3.327
-3.236
-3.142
-3.044
-3.407
-3.318
-3.227
-3.132
-3.034
-3.398
-3.309
-3.218
-3.123
-3.024
-3.389
-3.300
-3.208
-3.113
-3.014
-3.380
-3.291
-3.199
-3.103
-3.004
-3.372
-3.282
-3.189
-3.093
-2.994
-3.363
-3.273
-3.180
-3.084
-2.984
-3.354
-3.264
-3.171
-3.074
-2.974
-240
-230
-220
-210
-200
350
360
370
380
390
5.152
5.332
5.512
5.694
5.877
5.170
5.350
5.531
5.712
5.895
5.188
5.368
5.549
5.731
5.913
5.206
5.386
5.567
5.749
5.932
5.224
5.404
5.585
5.767
5.950
5.241
5.422
5.603
5.785
5.968
5.259
5.440
5.621
5.804
5.987
5.277
5.458
5.639
5.822
6.005
5.295
5.476
5.658
5.840
6.024
5.314
5.494
5.676
5.858
6.042
5.332
5.512
5.694
5.877
6.060
350
360
370
380
390
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
-2.974
-2.871
-2.765
-2.656
-2.544
-2.964
-2.860
-2.754
-2.645
-2.533
-2.954
-2.850
-2.743
-2.634
-2.522
-2.943
-2.839
-2.733
-2.623
-2.510
-2.933
-2.829
-2.722
-2.612
-2.499
-2.923
-2.818
-2.711
-2.601
-2.488
-2.912
-2.808
-2.700
-2.589
-2.476
-2.902
-2.797
-2.689
-2.578
-2.465
-2.892
-2.786
-2.678
-2.567
-2.453
-2.881
-2.776
-2.667
-2.556
-2.442
-2.871
-2.765
-2.656
-2.544
-2.430
-190
-180
-170
-160
-150
400
410
420
430
440
6.060
6.245
6.430
6.616
6.803
6.079
6.263
6.449
6.635
6.822
6.097
6.282
6.467
6.653
6.841
6.116
6.300
6.486
6.672
6.859
6.134
6.319
6.504
6.691
6.878
6.152
6.337
6.523
6.710
6.897
6.171
6.356
6.542
6.728
6.916
6.189
6.374
6.560
6.747
6.934
6.208
6.393
6.579
6.766
6.953
6.226
6.411
6.597
6.784
6.972
6.245
6.430
6.616
6.803
6.991
400
410
420
430
440
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
-2.430
-2.313
-2.193
-2.072
-1.947
-2.418
-2.301
-2.181
-2.059
-1.935
-2.407
-2.289
-2.169
-2.047
-1.922
-2.395
-2.277
-2.157
-2.035
-1.910
-2.384
-2.265
-2.145
-2.022
-1.897
-2.372
-2.254
-2.133
-2.010
-1.884
-2.360
-2.242
-2.121
-1.997
-1.872
-2.348
-2.230
-2.108
-1.985
-1.859
-2.337
-2.218
-2.096
-1.972
-1.846
-2.325
-2.206
-2.084
-1.960
-1.834
-2.313
-2.193
-2.072
-1.947
-1.821
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
450
460
470
480
490
6.991
7.179
7.369
7.559
7.750
7.010
7.198
7.388
7.578
7.769
7.029
7.217
7.407
7.597
7.788
7.047
7.236
7.426
7.616
7.807
7.066
7.255
7.445
7.635
7.826
7.085
7.274
7.464
7.654
7.845
7.104
7.293
7.483
7.673
7.865
7.123
7.312
7.502
7.692
7.884
7.142
7.331
7.521
7.711
7.903
7.161
7.350
7.540
7.731
7.922
7.179
7.369
7.559
7.750
7.941
450
460
470
480
490
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
-1.821
-1.692
-1.562
-1.430
-1.296
-1.808
-1.679
-1.549
-1.416
-1.282
-1.795
-1.666
-1.536
-1.403
-1.269
-1.783
-1.653
-1.522
-1.390
-1.255
-1.770
-1.640
-1.509
-1.376
-1.242
-1.757
-1.627
-1.496
-1.363
-1.228
-1.744
-1.614
-1.483
-1.349
-1.214
-1.731
-1.601
-1.470
-1.336
-1.201
-1.718
-1.588
-1.456
-1.323
-1.187
-1.705
-1.575
-1.443
-1.309
-1.174
-1.692
-1.562
-1.430
-1.296
-1.160
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
500
510
520
530
540
7.941
8.134
8.327
8.520
8.715
7.960
8.153
8.346
8.540
8.734
7.980
8.172
8.365
8.559
8.754
7.999
8.191
8.385
8.579
8.773
8.018
8.211
8.404
8.598
8.793
8.037
8.230
8.423
8.617
8.812
8.057
8.249
8.443
8.637
8.832
8.076
8.269
8.462
8.656
8.851
8.095
8.288
8.482
8.676
8.871
8.114
8.307
8.501
8.695
8.890
8.134
8.327
8.520
8.715
8.910
500
510
520
530
540
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
-1.160
-1.023
-0.884
-0.744
-0.603
-1.146
-1.009
-0.870
-0.730
-0.589
-1.133
-0.995
-0.856
-0.716
-0.575
-1.119
-0.981
-0.842
-0.702
-0.561
-1.105
-0.967
-0.828
-0.688
-0.546
-1.092
-0.954
-0.814
-0.674
-0.532
-1.078
-0.940
-0.800
-0.660
-0.518
-1.064
-0.926
-0.786
-0.646
-0.504
-1.050
-0.912
-0.772
-0.632
-0.490
-1.037
-0.898
-0.758
-0.617
-0.475
-1.023
-0.884
-0.744
-0.603
-0.461
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
550
560
570
580
590
8.910
9.105
9.302
9.499
9.696
8.929
9.125
9.321
9.519
9.716
8.949
9.145
9.341
9.538
9.736
8.968
9.164
9.361
9.558
9.756
8.988
9.184
9.381
9.578
9.776
9.008
9.204
9.400
9.598
9.795
9.027
9.223
9.420
9.617
9.815
9.047
9.243
9.440
9.637
9.835
9.066
9.262
9.459
9.657
9.855
9.086
9.282
9.479
9.677
9.875
9.105
9.302
9.499
9.696
9.895
550
560
570
580
590
0
10
20
30
40
-0.461
-0.318
-0.174
-0.029
0.116
-0.447 -0.433 -0.418 -0.404 -0.390 -0.375 -0.361 -0.347 -0.332 -0.318
-0.304 -0.289 -0.275 -0.260 -0.246 -0.232 -0.217 -0.203 -0.188 -0.174
-0.159 -0.145 -0.131 -0.116 -0.102 -0.087 -0.073 -0.058 -0.044 -0.029
-0.015 0.000 0.014 0.029 0.043 0.058 0.072 0.087 0.101 0.116
0.130 0.145 0.159 0.174 0.188 0.203 0.217 0.232 0.246 0.261
0
10
20
30
40
600
610
620
630
640
9.895
10.093
10.293
10.493
10.693
9.914
10.113
10.313
10.513
10.713
9.934
10.133
10.333
10.533
10.733
9.954
10.153
10.353
10.553
10.753
9.974
10.173
10.373
10.573
10.774
9.994
10.193
10.393
10.593
10.794
10.014
10.213
10.413
10.613
10.814
10.034
10.233
10.433
10.633
10.834
10.054
10.253
10.453
10.653
10.854
10.073
10.273
10.473
10.673
10.874
10.093
10.293
10.493
10.693
10.894
600
610
620
630
640
50
60
70
80
90
0.261
0.407
0.555
0.703
0.853
0.407
0.555
0.703
0.853
1.004
50
60
70
80
90
650
660
670
680
690
10.894
11.096
11.298
11.501
11.704
10.914
11.116
11.318
11.521
11.724
10.934
11.136
11.338
11.541
11.744
10.955
11.156
11.359
11.561
11.765
10.975
11.177
11.379
11.582
11.785
10.995
11.197
11.399
11.602
11.805
11.015
11.217
11.419
11.622
11.826
11.035
11.237
11.440
11.643
11.846
11.055
11.257
11.460
11.663
11.867
11.076
11.278
11.480
11.683
11.887
11.096
11.298
11.501
11.704
11.907
650
660
670
680
690
10
10
0.275
0.422
0.570
0.718
0.868
0.290
0.437
0.584
0.733
0.883
0.305
0.451
0.599
0.748
0.898
0.319
0.466
0.614
0.763
0.913
0.334
0.481
0.629
0.778
0.928
0.349
0.496
0.644
0.793
0.943
0.363
0.510
0.659
0.808
0.958
0.378
0.525
0.674
0.823
0.974
0.393
0.540
0.688
0.838
0.989
Z-235

Thermocouple Grade
450 to 2372F
270 to 1300C
Extension Grade
32 to 392F
0 to 200C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Thermocouple
Grade
Reference Tables
Nickel-14.2%
vs.
+
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Extension
Grade

F
10
10
700
710
720
730
740
11.907
12.111
12.316
12.521
12.726
11.928
12.132
12.336
12.542
12.747
11.948
12.152
12.357
12.562
12.768
11.968
12.173
12.377
12.583
12.788
11.989
12.193
12.398
12.603
12.809
12.009
12.214
12.418
12.624
12.829
12.030
12.234
12.439
12.644
12.850
12.050
12.255
12.459
12.665
12.871
12.071
12.275
12.480
12.685
12.891
12.091
12.295
12.500
12.706
12.912
12.111
12.316
12.521
12.726
12.932
700
710
720
730
740
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
24.701
24.919
25.137
25.356
25.574
24.723
24.941
25.159
25.377
25.596
24.745
24.963
25.181
25.399
25.618
24.767
24.985
25.203
25.421
25.639
24.788
25.007
25.225
25.443
25.661
24.810
25.028
25.247
25.465
25.683
24.832
25.050
25.268
25.487
25.705
24.854
25.072
25.290
25.508
25.727
24.876
25.094
25.312
25.530
25.748
24.897
25.116
25.334
25.552
25.770
24.919
25.137
25.356
25.574
25.792
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
750
760
770
780
790
12.932
13.139
13.346
13.553
13.760
12.953
13.159
13.366
13.574
13.781
12.974
13.180
13.387
13.594
13.802
12.994
13.201
13.408
13.615
13.823
13.015
13.221
13.428
13.636
13.844
13.036
13.242
13.449
13.657
13.864
13.056
13.263
13.470
13.677
13.885
13.077
13.284
13.491
13.698
13.906
13.098
13.304
13.511
13.719
13.927
13.118
13.325
13.532
13.740
13.948
13.139
13.346
13.553
13.760
13.969
750
760
770
780
790
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
25.792
26.010
26.229
26.447
26.665
25.814
26.032
26.250
26.469
26.687
25.836
26.054
26.272
26.491
26.709
25.858
26.076
26.294
26.512
26.731
25.879
26.098
26.316
26.534
26.752
25.901
26.119
26.338
26.556
26.774
25.923
26.141
26.360
26.578
26.796
25.945
26.163
26.381
26.600
26.818
25.967
26.185
26.403
26.622
26.840
25.989
26.207
26.425
26.643
26.862
26.010
26.229
26.447
26.665
26.883
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
800
810
820
830
840
13.969
14.177
14.386
14.595
14.804
13.989
14.198
14.407
14.616
14.825
14.010
14.219
14.428
14.637
14.846
14.031
14.240
14.448
14.658
14.867
14.052
14.260
14.469
14.679
14.888
14.073
14.281
14.490
14.700
14.909
14.094
14.302
14.511
14.721
14.930
14.114
14.323
14.532
14.742
14.951
14.135
14.344
14.553
14.763
14.972
14.156
14.365
14.574
14.784
14.993
14.177
14.386
14.595
14.804
15.014
800
810
820
830
840
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
26.883
27.102
27.320
27.538
27.756
26.905
27.124
27.342
27.560
27.778
26.927
27.145
27.364
27.582
27.800
26.949
27.167
27.385
27.604
27.822
26.971
27.189
27.407
27.625
27.844
26.993
27.211
27.429
27.647
27.866
27.014
27.233
27.451
27.669
27.887
27.036
27.254
27.473
27.691
27.909
27.058
27.276
27.495
27.713
27.931
27.080
27.298
27.516
27.735
27.953
27.102
27.320
27.538
27.756
27.975
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
850
860
870
880
890
15.014
15.225
15.435
15.646
15.857
15.035
15.246
15.456
15.667
15.878
15.056
15.267
15.477
15.688
15.900
15.077
15.288
15.498
15.709
15.921
15.098
15.309
15.520
15.731
15.942
15.119
15.330
15.541
15.752
15.963
15.140
15.351
15.562
15.773
15.984
15.162
15.372
15.583
15.794
16.005
15.183
15.393
15.604
15.815
16.027
15.204
15.414
15.625
15.836
16.048
15.225
15.435
15.646
15.857
16.069
850
860
870
880
890
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
27.975
28.193
28.411
28.629
28.847
27.996
28.215
28.433
28.651
28.869
28.018
28.236
28.455
28.673
28.891
28.040
28.258
28.476
28.694
28.912
28.062
28.280
28.498
28.716
28.934
28.084
28.302
28.520
28.738
28.956
28.105
28.324
28.542
28.760
28.978
28.127
28.345
28.564
28.782
29.000
28.149
28.367
28.585
28.803
29.021
28.171
28.389
28.607
28.825
29.043
28.193
28.411
28.629
28.847
29.065
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
900
910
920
930
940
16.069
16.281
16.493
16.705
16.918
16.090
16.302
16.514
16.727
16.939
16.111
16.323
16.535
16.748
16.961
16.132
16.344
16.557
16.769
16.982
16.154
16.366
16.578
16.790
17.003
16.175
16.387
16.599
16.812
17.025
16.196
16.408
16.620
16.833
17.046
16.217
16.429
16.642
16.854
17.067
16.238
16.450
16.663
16.875
17.088
16.260
16.472
16.684
16.897
17.110
16.281
16.493
16.705
16.918
17.131
900
910
920
930
940
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
29.085
29.283
29.501
29.719
29.937
29.087
29.305
29.523
29.741
29.958
29.109
29.327
29.545
29.762
29.980
29.130
29.348
29.566
29.784
30.002
29.152
29.370
29.588
29.806
30.024
29.174
29.392
29.610
29.828
30.046
29.196
29.414
29.632
29.850
30.067
29.218
29.436
29.653
29.871
30.089
29.239
29.457
29.675
29.893
30.111
29.261
29.479
29.697
29.915
30.133
29.283
29.501
29.719
29.937
30.154
1500
1510
I520
I530
IS40
950
960
970
980
990
17.131
17.344
17.558
17.772
17.986
17.152
17.366
17.579
17.793
18.007
17.174
17.387
17.601
17.814
18.028
17.195
17.408
17.622
17.836
18.050
17.216
17.430
17.643
17.857
18.071
17.238
17.451
17.665
17.879
18.093
17.259
17.472
17.686
17.900
18.114
17.280
17.494
17.707
17.921
18.136
17.302
17.515
17.729
17.943
18.157
17.323
17.536
17.750
17.964
18.178
17.344
17.558
17.772
17.986
18.200
950
960
970
980
990
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
30.154
30.372
30.590
30.807
31.025
30.176
30.304
30.611
30.829
31.047
30.198
30.416
30.633
30.851
31.068
30.220
30.437
30.655
30.873
31.090
30.242
30.459
30.677
30.894
31.112
30.263
30.481
30.699
30.916
31.133
30.285
30.503
30.720
30.938
31.155
30.307
30.524
30.742
30.960
31.177
30.329
30.546
30.764
30.981
31.199
30.350
30.568
30.786
31.003
31.220
30.372
30.590
30.807
31.025
31.242
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
18.200
18.414
18.629
18.844
19.059
18.221
18.436
18.650
18.865
19.081
18.243
18.457
18.672
18.887
19.102
18.264
18.479
18.693
18.908
19.124
18.286
18.500
18.715
18.930
19.145
18.307
18.522
18.736
18.951
19.167
18.328
18.543
18.758
18.973
19.188
18.350
18.565
18.779
18.994
19.210
18.371
18.586
18.801
19.016
19.231
18.393
18.608
18.822
19.037
19.253
18.414
18.629
18.844
19.059
19.274
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
31.242
31.450
31.677
31.894
32.111
31.264
31.481
31.698
31.916
32.133
31.286
31.503
31.720
31.937
32.154
31.307
31.525
31.742
31.959
32.176
31.329
31.546
31.764
31.981
32.198
31.351
31.568
31.785
32.002
32.219
31.373
31.590
31.807
32.024
32.241
31.394
31.612
31.829
32.046
32.263
31.416
31.633
31.850
32.068
32.284
31.438
31.655
31.872
32.089
32.306
31.459
31.677
31.894
32.111
32.328
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
19.274
19.490
19.705
19.921
20.137
19.296
19.511
19.727
19.943
20.159
19.317
19.533
19.749
19.964
20.181
19.339
19.554
19.770
19.986
20.202
19.360
19.576
19.792
20.008
20.224
19.382
19.598
19.813
20.029
20.245
19.404
19.619
19.835
20.051
20.267
19.425
19.641
19.857
20.072
20.289
19.447
19.662
19.878
20.094
20.310
19.468
19.684
19.900
20.116
20.332
19.490
19.705
19.921
20.137
20.353
1060
1060
1070
1060
1090
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
32.328
32.545
32.716
32.978
33.195
32.350
32.566
32.783
32.000
33.216
32.371
32.588
32.805
32.021
33.238
32.393
32.610
32.826
32.043
33.260
32.415
32.631
32.848
33.065
33.281
32.436
32.653
32.870
35.086
33.303
32.458
32.675
32.891
33.108
33.325
32.480
32.696
32.913
33.130
33.346
32.501
32.718
32.935
33.151
33.368
32.523
32.740
32.956
33.173
33.389
32.545
32.761
32.978
33.195
33.411
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
20.353
20.570
20.786
21.003
21.220
20.375
20.591
20.808
21.025
21.241
20.397
20.613
20.830
21.046
21.263
20.418
20.635
20.851
21.068
21.285
20.440
20.656
20.873
21.090
21.306
20.462
20.678
20.895
21.111
21.328
20.483
20.700
20.916
21.133
21.350
20.505
20.721
20.938
21.155
21.371
20.527
20.743
20.960
21.176
21.393
20.548
20.765
20.981
21.198
21.415
20.570
20.786
21.003
21.220
21.437
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
33.411
33.627
33.844
34.060
34.276
33.433
33.649
33.865
34.081
34.297
33.454
33.671
33.887
34.103
34.319
33.476
33.692
33.908
34.124
34.340
33.498
33.714
33.930
34.146
34.362
33.519
33.736
33.952
34.168
34.384
33.541
33.757
33.973
34.189
34.405
33.563
33.779
33.995
34.211
34.427
33.584
33.800
34.016
34.232
34.448
33.606
33.822
34.038
34.254
34.470
33.627
33.844
34.060
34.276
34.491
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
21.437
21.654
21.871
22.088
22.305
21.458
21.675
21.892
22.110
22.327
21.480
21.697
21.914
22.131
22.349
21.502
21.719
21.936
22.153
22.370
21.523
21.740
21.958
22.175
22.392
21.545
21.762
21.979
22.197
22.414
21.567
21.784
22.001
22.218
22.436
21.588
21.806
22.023
22.240
22.457
21.610
21.827
22.044
22.262
22.479
21.632
21.849
22.066
22.284
22.501
21.654
21.871
22.088
22.305
22.523
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
1750
1760
1770
1790
1790
34.491
34.707
34.923
35.138
35.353
34.513
34.729
34.944
35.160
35.375
34.535
34.750
34.966
35.181
35.396
34.556
34.772
34.987
35.203
35.418
34.578
34.793
35.009
35.224
35.439
34.599
34.815
35.030
35.246
35.461
34.621
34.836
35.052
35.267
35.482
34.642
34.858
35.073
35.289
35.504
34.664
34.879
35.095
35.310
35.525
34.686
34.901
35.116
35.332
35.547
34.707
34.923
35.138
35.353
35.568
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
22.523
22.740
22.958
23.176
23.393
22.544
22.762
22.980
23.197
23.415
22.566
22.784
23.001
23.219
23.437
22.588
22.805
23.023
23.241
23.459
22.610
22.827
23.045
23.263
23.480
22.631
22.849
23.067
23.284
23.502
22.653
22.871
23.088
23.306
23.524
22.675
22.893
23.110
23.328
23.546
22.697
22.914
23.132
23.350
23.568
22.718
22.936
23.154
23.372
23.589
22.740
22.958
23.178
23.393
23.611
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
35.568
35.783
35.998
35.213
36.427
35.590
35.805
35.019
35.234
36.449
35.611
35.826
36.041
36.256
36.470
35.633
35.848
36.062
36.277
36.491
35.654
35.869
36.084
36.298
36.513
35.676
35.891
36.105
36.320
36.534
35.697
35.912
36.127
36.341
36.556
35.719
35.934
36.148
36.363
36.577
35.740
35.955
36.170
36.384
36.599
35.762
35.977
36.191
36.406
36.620
35.783
35.998
36.213
36.427
36.641
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
23.611
23.829
24.047
24.265
24.483
23.633
23.851
24.069
24.287
24.505
23.655
23.873
24.091
24.309
24.527
23.676
23.894
24.112
24.330
24.548
23.698
23.916
24.134
24.352
24.570
23.720
23.938
24.156
24.374
24.592
23.742
23.960
24.178
24.396
24.614
23.764
23.982
24.200
24.418
24.636
23.785
24.003
24.221
24.439
24.658
23.807
24.025
24.243
24.461
24.679
23.829
24.047
24.265
24.483
24.701
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
1850
1860
1870
1880
18901
36.841
36.855
37.069
37.283
37.497
36.663
36.877
37.091
37.305
37.518
36.684
36.898
37.112
37.326
37.539
36.706
36.920
37.134
37.347
37.561
36.727
36.941
37.155
37.369
37.582
36.748
36.962
37.176
37.390
37.603
36.770
36.984
37.198
37.411
37.625
36.791
37.005
37.219
37.433
37.646
38.813
37.027
37.240
37.454
37.667
36.834
37.048
37.262
37.475
37.689
36.855
37.069
37.283
37.497
37.710
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
10
10
Z-236
Reference Tables
Nickel-14.2%
vs.
+
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Thermocouple
Grade
Extension
Grade

Thermocouple Grade
450 to 2372F
270 to 1300C
Extension Grade
32 to 392F
0 to 200C
LIMITS OF ERROR
10
10
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
37.710
37.923
38.136
38.349
38.562
37.731
37.945
38.158
38.370
38.583
37.753
37.966
38.179
38.392
38.604
37.774
37.987
38.200
38.413
38.626
37.795
38.009
38.222
38.434
38.647
37.817
38.030
38.243
38.456
38.668
37.838
38.051
38.264
38.477
38.689
37.859
38.073
38.285
38.498
38.711
37.881
38.094
38.307
38.519
38.732
37.902
38.115
38.328
38.541
38.753
37.923
38.136
38.349
38.562
38.774
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
42.976
43.184
43.391
43.598
43.805
42.997
43.205
43.412
43.619
43.826
43.018
43.225
43.433
43.640
43.846
43.039
43.246
43.453
43.660
43.867
43.059
43.267
43.474
43.681
43.888
43.080
43.288
43.495
43.702
43.908
43.101
43.308
43.515
43.722
43.929
43.122
43.329
43.536
43.743
43.950
43.142
43.350
43.557
43.764
43.970
43.163
43.370
43.578
43.784
43.991
43.184
43.391
43.598
43.805
43.012
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
38.774
38.986
39.198
39.410
39.622
38.795
39.008
39.220
39.431
39.643
38.817
38.029
39.241
39.453
39.664
38.838
39.050
39.262
39.474
39.685
38.859
39.071
39.283
39.495
39.706
38.880
39.093
39.304
39.516
39.728
38.902
39.114
39.326
39.537
39.749
38.923
39.135
39.347
39.558
39.770
38.944
39.156
39.368
39.580
39.791
38.965
39.177
39.389
39.601
39.812
38.986
39.198
39.410
39.622
39.833
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2200
2210
2220
2230
2240
44.012
44.218
44.424
44.629
44.835
44.032
44.238
44.444
44.650
44.855
44.053
44.259
44.465
44.671
44.876
44.073
44.280
44.485
44.691
44.896
44.094
44.300
44.506
44.712
44.917
44.115
44.321
44.527
44.732
44.937
44.135
44.341
44.547
44.753
44.958
44.156
44.362
44.568
44.773
44.978
44.177
44.383
44.588
44.794
44.999
44.197
44.403
44.609
44.814
45.019
44.218
44.424
44.629
44.835
45.040
2200
2210
2220
2230
2240
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
39.833
40.044
40.255
40.466
40.677
39.854
40.066
40.276
40.487
40.698
39.875
40.087
40.297
40.508
40.719
39.897
40.108
40.319
40.529
40.740
39.918
40.129
40.340
40.550
40.761
39.939
40.150
40.361
40.571
40.782
39.960
40.171
40.382
40.592
40.803
39.981
40.192
40.403
40.613
40.824
40.002
40.213
40.424
40.634
40.845
40.023
40.234
40.445
40.655
40.866
40.044
40.255
40.466
40.677
40.887
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
2250
2260
2270
2280
2290
45.040
45.245
45.449
45.653
45.857
45.060
45.265
45.469
45.674
45.877
45.081
45.286
45.490
45.694
45.898
45.101
45.306
45.510
45.714
45.918
45.122
45.326
45.531
45.735
45.938
45.142
45.347
45.551
45.755
45.959
45.163
45.367
45.572
45.775
45.979
45.183
45.388
45.592
45.796
45.999
45.204
45.408
45.612
45.816
46.020
45.224
45.429
45.633
45.837
46.040
45.245
45.449
45.653
45.857
46.060
2250
2260
2270
2280
2290
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
40.887
41.097
41.307
41.516
41.725
40.908
41.118
41.328
41.537
41.746
40.929
41.139
41.349
41.558
41.767
40.95O
41.160
41.370
41.579
41.788
40.971
41.181
41.390
41.600
41.809
40.992
41.202
41.411
41.621
41.830
41.013
41.223
41.432
41.642
41.851
41.034
41.244
41.453
41.663
41.872
41.055
41.265
41.474
41.684
41.893
41.076
41.286
41.495
41.705
41.914
41.097
41.307
41.516
41.725
41.935
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
2300
2310
2320
2330
2340
46.060
46.263
46.466
46.668
48.870
46.081
46.284
46.486
46.688
46.890
46.101
46.304
46.506
46.709
46.910
46.121
46.324
46.527
46.729
48.931
46.142
46.344
46.547
46.749
46.951
46.162
46.365
46.567
46.769
46.971
46.182
46.385
48.587
48.789
48.991
46.202
46.405
46.608
46.810
47.011
46.223
46.425
46.628
48.830
47-031
46.243
46.446
46.648
46.850
47.051
46.263
46.466
46.668
46.870
47.071
2300
2310
2320
2330
2340
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
41.935
42.143
42.352
42.560
42.768
41.955
42.164
42.373
42.581
42.789
41.976
42.185
42.394
42.602
42.810
41.997
42.206
42.415
42.623
42.831
42.018
42.227
42.435
42.644
42.852
42.039
42.248
42.456
42.664
42.872
42.060
42.269
42.477
42.685
42.893
42.081
42.289
42.498
42.706
42.914
42.102
42.310
42.519
42.727
42.935
42.123
42.331
42.540
42.748
42.956
42.143
42.352
42.560
42.768
42.976
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
2350 47.071 47.092 47.112 47.132 47.152 47.172 47.192 47.212 47.232 47.252 47.272 2350
2360 47.272 47.292 47.312 47.333 47.353 47.373 47.393 47.413 47.433 47.453 47.473 2360
2370 47.473 47.493 47.513
2370
10
Z-237
10

Thermocouple Grade
-32 to 4208F
-0 to 2320C
Extension Grade
32 to 1600F
0 to 870C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Standard: 4.5C to 425C
1.0% to 2320C
Special: Not Established
Vacuum, Inert; Hydrogen; Beware of
Embrittlement; Not Practical Below 750F;
Not for Oxidizing Atmosphere
Thermocouple
Grade
NONE
ESTABLISHED
Tungsten5% Rhenium
vs.
Tungsten26% Rhenium
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Extension
Grade

C
0
10
20
30
40
0.000
0.135
0.272
0.412
0.554
0.013
0.148
0.286
0.426
0.568
0.026
0.162
0.300
0.440
0.583
0.040
0.176
0.314
0.454
0.597
0.053
0.189
0.328
0.469
0.612
10
0.067
0.203
0.342
0.483
0.626
0.080
0.217
0.356
0.497
0.640
0.094
0.231
0.370
0.511
0.655
0.107
0.244
0.384
0.525
0.669
0.121
0.258
0.398
0.540
0.684
0.135
0.272
0.412
0.554
0.698
0
10
20
0
40
500
510
520
530
540
8.655
8.849
9.044
9.239
9.434
50
60
70
80
90
0.698
0.845
0.993
1.144
1.296
0.713
0.860
1.008
1.159
1.312
0.727
0.874
1.023
1.174
1.327
0.742
0.889
1.038
1.189
1.342
0.757
0.904
1.053
1.205
1.358
0.771
0.919
1.068
1.220
1.373
0.786
0.934
1.083
1.235
1.389
0.801
0.948
1.098
1.250
1.404
0.815
0.963
1.114
1.266
1.420
0.830
0.978
1.129
1.281
1.435
0.845
0.993
1.144
1.296
1.451
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
1.451
1.607
1.765
1.925
2.087
1.466
1.623
1.781
1.941
2.103
1.482
1.639
1.797
1.957
2.119
1.497
1.654
1.813
1.973
2.135
1.513
1.670
1.829
1.989
2.152
1.529
1.686
1.845
2.006
2.168
1.544
1.702
1.861
2.022
2.184
1.560
1.718
1.877
2.038
2.201
1.576
1.733
1.893
2.054
2.217
1.591
1.749
1.909
2.070
2.233
1.607
1.765
1.925
2.087
2.250
150
160
170
180
190
2.250
2.415
2.581
2.749
2.918
2.266
2.431
2.598
2.766
2.935
2.283
2.448
2.614
2.783
2.952
2.299
2.464
2.631
2.800
2.969
2.316
2.481
2.648
2.816
2.986
2.332
2.498
2.665
2.833
3.003
2.349
2.514
2.682
2.850
3.020
2.365
2.531
2.698
2.867
3.038
2.382
2.548
2.715
2.884
3.055
2.398
2.564
2.732
2.901
3.072
200
210
220
230
240
3.089
3.261
3.434
3.609
3.785
3.106
3.278
3.452
3.627
3.803
3.123
3.296
3.469
3.644
3.820
3.140
3.313
3.487
3.662
3.838
3.158
3.330
3.504
3.679
3.856
3.175
3.348
3.522
3.697
3.873
3.192
3.365
3.539
3.714
3.891
3.209
3.382
3.557
3.732
3.909
3.227
3.400
3.574
3.750
3.927
250
260
270
280
290
3.962
4.140
4.319
4.500
4.681
3.980
4.158
4.337
4.518
4.699
3.998
4.176
4.355
4.536
4.717
4.015
4.194
4.373
4.554
4.736
4.033
4.212
4.391
4.572
4.754
4.051
4.230
4.410
4.590
4.772
4.069
4.248
4.428
4.608
4.790
4.087
4.266
4.446
4.627
4.809
300
310
320
330
340
4.863
5.047
5.231
5.416
5.601
4.882
5.065
5.249
5.434
5.620
4.900
5.083
5.268
5.453
5.639
4.918
5.102
5.286
5.471
5.657
4.937
5.120
5.305
5.490
5.676
4.955
5.139
5.323
5.508
5.695
4.973
5.157
5.342
5.527
5.713
350
360
370
380
390
5.788
5.975
6.163
6.352
6.541
5.807
5.994
6.182
6.371
6.560
5.825
6.013
6.201
6.390
6.579
5.844
6.032
6.220
6.409
6.598
5.863
6.050
6.239
6.427
6.617
5.882
6.069
6.257
6.446
6:636
400
410
420
430
440
6.731
6.921
7.112
7.304
7.496
6.750
6.940
7.131
7.323
7.515
6. 69
6.959
7.151
7.342
7.534
6.788
6.979
7.170
7.361
7.553
6.807
6.998
7.189
7.380
7.572
450
460
470
480
490
7.688
7.881
8.074
8.267
8.461
7.707
7.900
8.093
8.287
8.480
7.726
7.919
8.112
8.306
8.500
7.746
7.939
8.132
8.325
8.519
7.765
7.958
8.151
8.345
8.539
10
8.772
8.966
9.161
9.356
9.551
8.791
8.986
9.180
9.375
9.570
8.810
9.005
9.200
9.395
9.590
8.830
9.024
9.219
9.414
9.609
8.849
9.044
9.239
9.434
9.629
500
510
520
530
540
550 9.629 9.648 9.668 9.687 9.707 9.726 9.746 9.765 9.785
560 9.824 9.843 9.863 9.883 9.902 9.922 9.941 9.961 9.980
570 10.019 10.039 10.058 10.078 10.097 10.117 10.137 10.156 10.176
580 10.215 10.234 10.254 10.273 10.293 10.312 10.332 10.352 10.371
590 10.410 10.430 10.449 10.469 10.488 10.508 10.528 10.547 10.567
9.804
10.000
10.195
10.391
10.586
9.824
10.019
10.215
10.410
10.606
550
560
570
580
590
100
110
120
130
140
600
610
620
630
640
10.606
10.801
10.997
11.192
11.388
10-625
10.821
11.016
11.212
11.407
10.645
10.840
11.036
11.231
11.427
10.664
10.860
11.055
11.251
11.446
10.684
10.879
11.075
11.270
11.466
10.703
10.899
11.095
11.290
11.485
10.723
10.919
11.114
11.310
11.505
10.743
10.938
11.134
11.329
11.525
10.762
10.958
11.153
11.349
11.544
10.782
10.977
11.173
11.368
11.564
10.801
10.997
11.192
11.388
11.583
600
610
620
630
640
2.415
2.581
2.749
2.918
3.089
150
160
170
180
190
650
660
670
680
690
11.583
11.778
11.974
12.169
12.364
11.603
11.798
11.993
12.188
12.383
11.622
11.817
12.013
12.208
12.403
11.642
11.837
12.032
12.227
12.422
11.661
11.857
12.052
12.247
12.442
11.681
11.876
12.071
12.266
12.461
11.700
11.896
12.091
12.286
12.481
11.720
11.915
12.110
12.305
12.500
11.739
11.935
12.130
12.325
12-519
11.759
11.954
12.149
12.344
12.539
11.778
11.974
12.169
12.364
12.558
650
660
670
680
690
3.244
3.417
3.592
3.767
3.944
3.26
3.434
3.609
3.785
3.962
200
210
220
230
240
700
710
720
730
740
12.558
12.753
12.947
13.142
13.336
12.578
12.772
12.967
13.161
13.355
12.597
12.792
12.986
13.180
13.374
12.617
12.811
13.006
13.200
13.394
12.636
12.831
13.025
13.219
13.413
12.656
12.850
13.045
13.239
13.432
12.675
12.870
13.064
13.258
13.452
12.695
12.889
13.083
13.277
13.471
12.714
12.909
13.103
13.297
13.491
12.734
12.928
13.122
13.316
13.510
12.753
12.947
13.142
13.336
13.529
700
710
720
730
740
4.104
4.284
4.464
4.645
4.827
4.122
4.301
4.482
4.663
4.845
4.140
4.319
4.500
4.681
4.863
250
260
270
280
290
750
760
770
780
790
13.529
13.723
13.916
14.109
14.302
13.549
13.742
13.935
14.128
14.321
13.568
13.761
13.955
14.147
14.340
13.587
13.781
13.974
14.167
14.359
13.607
13.800
13.993
14.186
14.378
13.626
13.819
14.012
14.205
14.398
13.645
13.839
14.032
14.224
14.417
13.665
13.858
14.051
14.244
14.436
13.684
13.877
14 .070
14.263
14.455
13.703
13.897
14.090
14.282
14.475
13.723
13.916
14.109
14.302
14.494
750
760
770
780
790
4.992
5.175
5.360
5.546
5.732
5.010
5.194
5.379
5.564
5.751
5.028
5.212
5.397
5.583
5.769
5.047
5.231
5.416
5.601
5.788
300
310
320
330
340
800
810
820
830
840
14.494
14.686
14.877
15.069
15.260
14.513
14.705
14.897
15.088
15.279
14.532
14.724
14.916
15.107
15.298
14-551
14.743
14.935
15.126
15.317
14.571
14.762
14.954
15.145
15.336
14.590
14.782
14.973
15.164
15.355
14.609
14.801
14.992
15.183
15.374
14.628
14.820
15.011
15.202
15.393
14.647
14.839
15.030
15.221
15.412
14.667
14.858
15.050
15.241
15.431
14.686
14.877
15.069
15.260
15.450
800
810
820
830
840
5.900
6.088
6.276
6.465
6.655
5.919
6.107
6.295
6.484
6.674
5.938
6.126
6.314
6.503
6.693
5.956
6.144
6.333
6.522
6.712
5.975
6.163
6.352
6.541
6.731
350
360
370
380
390
850
860
870
880
890
15.450
15.640
15.830
16.020
16.208
15.469
15.659
15.849
16.038
16.227
15.488
15.678
15.868
16.057
16.246
15.507
15.697
15.887
16.076
16.265
15.526
15.716
15.906
16.095
16.284
15.545
15.735
15.925
16.114
16.303
15.564
15.754
15.944
16.133
16.322
15.583
15.773
15.963
16.152
16.340
15.602
15.792
15.982
16.171
16.359
15.621
15.811
16.001
19.190
16.378
15.640
15.830
16.020
16.208
16.397
850
860
870
880
890
6.826
7.017
7.208
7.400
7.592
6.845
7.036
7.227
7.419
7.611
6.864
7.055
7.246
7.438
7.630
6.883
7.074
7.265
7.457
7.649
6.902
7.093
7.285
7.476
7.669
6.921
7.112
7.304
7.496
7.688
400
410
420
430
440
900
910
920
930
940
16.397
16.585
16.773
16.960
17.147
16.416
16.604
16.791
16.979
17.165
16.435
16.623
16.810
16.997
17.184
16.453
16.641
16.829
17.016
17.203
16.472
16.660
16.848
17.035
17.221
16.491
16.679
16.866
17.053
17.240
16.510
16.698
16.885
17.072
17.258
16.529
16.716
16.904
17.091
17.277
16.547
16.735
16.923
17.109
17.296
16.566
16.754
16.941
17.128
17.314
16.585
16.773
16.960
17.147
17.333
900
910
920
930
940
7.784
7.977
8.170
8.364
8.558
7.804
7.996
8.190
8.383
8.577
7.823
8.016
8.209
8.403
8.597
7.842
8.035
8.229
8.422
8.616
7.861
8.054
8.248
8.422
8.636
7.881
8.074
8.267
8.461
8.655
450
460
470
480
490
950
960
970
980
990
17.333
17.519
17.704
17.889
18.073
17.352
17.537
17.723
17.907
18.092
17.370
17.556
17.741
17.926
18.110
17.389
17.574
17.760
17.944
18.128
17.407
17.593
17.778
17.963
18.147
17.426
17.611
17.796
17.981
18.165
17.444
17.630
17.815
17.999
18.184
17.463
17.648
17.833
18.018
18.202
17.482
17.667
17.852
18.036
18.220
17.500
17.686
17.870
18.055
18.239
17.519
17.704
17.889
18.073
18.257
950
960
970
980
990
10
10
Z-238
1
8.674
8.869
9.063
9.258
9.453
2
8.694
8.888
9.083
9.278
9.473
3
8.713
8.908
9.102
9.297
9.492
4
8.733
8.927
9.122
9.317
9.512
5
8.752
8.947
9.141
9.336
9.531
Reference Tables
NONE
ESTABLISHED
Tungsten5% Rhenium
vs.
Tungsten26% Rhenium
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Thermocouple
Grade
Extension
Grade

Thermocouple Grade
-32 to 4208F
-0 to 2320C
Extension Grade
32 to 1600F
0 to 870C
LIMITS OF ERROR
1.0% to 2320C
10
10
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
18.257
18.440
18.623
18.805
18.987
18.275
18.459
18.641
18.824
19.005
18.294
18.477
18.660
18.842
19.023
18.312
18.495
18.678
18.860
19.041
18.330
18.513
18.696
18.878
19.060
18.349
18.532
18.714
18.896
19.078
18.367
18.550
18.732
18.914
19.096
18.385
18.568
18.751
18.933
19.114
18.404
18.587
18.769
18.951
19.132
18.422
18.605
18.787
18.969
19.150
18.440
18.623
18.805
18.987
19.168
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
26.722
26.876
27.030
27.183
27.335
26.738
26.892
27.045
27.198
27.350
26.753
26.907
27.060
27.213
27.365
26.768
26.922
27.076
27.228
27.380
26.784
26.938
27.091
27.244
27.396
26.799
26.953
27.106
27.259
27.411
26.815
26.968
27.121
27.274
27.426
26.830
26.984
27.137
27.289
27.441
26.845
26.999
27.152
27.304
27.456
26.861
27.014
27.167
27.320
27.471
26.876
27.030
27.183
27.335
27.486
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
19.168
19.349
19.529
19.709
19.888
19.186
19.367
19.547
19.727
19.905
19.204
19.385
19.565
19.744
19.923
19.223
19.403
19.583
19.762
19.941
19.241
19.421
19.601
19.780
19.959
19.259
19.439
19.619
19.798
19.977
19.277
19.457
19.637
19.816
19.995
19.295
19.475
19.655
19.834
20.013
19.313
19.493
19.673
19.852
20.030
19.331
19.511
19.691
19.870
20.048
19.349
19.529
19.709
19.888
20.066
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
27.486
27.637
27.788
27.938
28.087
27.502
27.653
27.803
27.953
28.102
27.517
27.668
27.818
27.968
28.117
27.532
27.683
27.833
27.983
28.132
27.547
27.698
27.848
27.997
28.146
27.562
27.713
27.863
28.012
28.161
27.577
27.728
27.878
28.027
28.176
27.592
27.743
27.893
28.042
28.191
27.607
27.758
27.908
28.057
28.206
27.622
27.773
27.923
28.072
28.221
27.637
27.788
27.938
28.087
28.236
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
20.066
20.244
20.421
20.598
20.774
20.084
20.262
20.439
20.616
20.792
20.102
20.279
20.457
20.633
20.809
20.120
20.297
20.474
20.651
20.827
20.137
20.315
20.492
20.669
20.845
20.155
20.333
20.510
20.686
20.862
20.173
20.350
20.527
20.704
20.880
20.191
20.368
20.545
20.721
20.897
20.208
20.386
20.563
20.739
20.915
20.226
20.404
20.580
20.757
20.932
20.066
20.421
20.598
20.774
20.950
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
28.236
28.531
28.531
28.678
28.824
28.250
28.398
28.546
28.692
28.838
28.265
28.413
28.560
28.707
28.853
28.280
28.428
28.575
28.722
28.868
28.295
28.443
28.590
28.736
28.882
28.310
28.457
28.604
28.751
28.897
28.324
28.472
28.619
28.765
28.911
28.339
28.487
28.634
28.780
28.926
28.354
28.502
28.648
28.795
28.940
28.369
28.516
28.663
28.809
28.955
28.531
28.531
28.678
28.824
28.969
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
20.950
21.125
21.299
21.473
21.647
20.967
21.142
21.317
21.491
21.664
20.985
21.160
21.334
21.508
21.681
21.002
21.177
21.352
21.525
21.698
21.020
21.195
21.369
21.543
21.716
21.037
21.212
21.386
21.560
21.733
21.055
21.230
21.404
21.577
21.750
21.072
21.247
21.421
21.595
21.768
21.090
21.265
21.439
21.612
21.785
21.107
21.282
21.456
21.629
21.802
21.125
21.299
21.473
21.647
21.819
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
28.969
29.114
29.259
29.402
29.546
28.984
29.129
29.273
29.417
29.560
28.998
29.143
29.287
29.431
29.574
29.013
29.158
29.302
29.445
29.588
29.027
29.172
29.316
29.460
29.603
29.042
29.187
29.331
29.474
29.617
29.056
29.201
29.345
29.488
29.631
29.071
29.215
29.359
29.503
29.645
29.085
29.230
29.374
29.517
29.660
29.100
29.244
29.388
29.531
29.674
29.114
29.259
29.402
29.546
29.688
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
21.819
21.991
22.163
22.334
22.504
21.837
22.009
22.180
22.35
22.521
21.854
22.026
22.197
22.368
22.538
21.871
22.043
22.214
22.385
22.555
21.888
22.060
22.231
22.402
22.572
21.905
22.077
22.249
22.419
22.589
21.923
22.094
22.266
22.436
22.606
21.940
22.112
22.283
22.453
22.623
21.957
22.129
22.300
22.470
22.640
21.974
22.146
22.317
22.487
22.657
21.991
22.163
22.334
22.504
22.674
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
29.688
29.830
29.971
30.112
30.252
29.702
29.844
29.985
30.126
30.266
29.716
29.858
29.999
30.140
30.280
29.731
29.872
30.013
30.154
30.294
29.745
29.886
30.027
30.168
30.308
29.759
29.901
30.041
30.182
30.321
29.773
29.915
30.056
30.196
30.335
29.787
29.929
30.070
30.210
30.349
29.802
29.943
30.084
30.224
30.363
29.816
29.957
30.098
30.238
30.377
29.830
29.971
30.112
30.252
30.391
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
22.674
22.843
23.012
23.180
23.347
22.691
22.860
23.029
23.196
23.364
22.708
22.877
23.045
23.213
23.380
22.725
22.894
23.062
23.230
23.397
22.742
22.911
23.079
23.247
23.414
22.759
22.928
23.096
23.263
23.431
22.776
22.944
23.113
23.280
23.447
22.792
22.961
23.129
23.297
23.464
22.809
22.978
23.146
23.314
23.481
22.826
22.995
23.163
23.330
23.497
22.843
23.012
23.180
23.347
23.514
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
30.391
30.530
30.668
30.805
30.942
30.405
30.544
30.682
30.819
30.956
30.419
30.557
30.695
30.833
30.969
30.433
30.571
30.709
30.846
30.983
30.447
30.585
30.723
30.860
30.997
30.460
30.599
30.737
30.874
31.010
30.474
30.613
30.750
30.887
31.024
30.488
30.627
30.764
30.901
31.038
30.502
20.640
30.778
30.915
31.051
30.516
30.654
30.792
20.928
31.065
30.530
30.668
30.805
30.942
31.078
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
23.514
23.680
23.846
24.010
24.175
23.530
23.697
23.862
24.027
24.191
23.547
23.713
23.879
24.043
24.208
23.564
23.730
23.895
24.060
24.224
23.580
23.746
23.912
24.076
24.240
23.597
23.763
23.928
24.093
24.257
23.614
23.779
23.945
24.109
24.273
23.630
23.796
23.961
24.126
24.290
23.647
23.812
23.978
24.142
24.306
23.663
23.829
23.994
24.158
24.322
23.680
23.846
24.010
24.175
24.339
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
31.078
31.214
31.349
31.483
31.617
31.092
31.227
31.362
31.496
31.630
31.105
31.241
31.376
31.510
31.643
31.119
31.254
31.389
31.523
31.656
31.133
31.268
31.403
31.536
31.670
31.146
31.281
31.416
31.550
31.683
31.160
31.295
31.429
31.563
31.696
31.173
31.308
31.443
31.577
31.710
31.187
31.322
31.456
31.590
31.723
31.200
31.335
31.470
31.603
31.736
31.214
31.349
31.483
31.617
31.749
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
24.339
24.502
24.664
24.826
24.988
24.355
24.518
24.680
24.842
25.004
24.371
24.534
24.697
24.859
25.020
24.388
24.551
24.713
24.875
25.036
24.404
24.567
24.729
24.891
25.052
24.420
24.583
24.745
24.907
25.068
24.437
24.599
24.762
24.923
25.084
24.453
24.616
24.778
24.939
25.100
24.46
24.632
24.794
24.955
25.116
24.485
24.648
24.810
24.971
24.132
24.502
24.664
24.826
24.988
25.148
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
31.749
31.882
32.013
32.144
32.274
31.763
31.895
32.026
32.157
32.287
31.776
31.908
32.040
32.170
32.300
31.789
31.921
32.053
31.183
31.313
31.802
31.934
32.066
32.196
32.326
31.816
31.948
32.079
32.209
32.339
31.829
31.961
32.092
32.222
32.352
31.842
31.974
32.105
32.235
32.365
31.855
31.987
32.118
32.248
32.378
31.869
32.000
32.131
32.261
32.391
31.882
32.013
32.144
32.274
32.404
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
25.148
25.308
25.468
25.627
25.785
25.164
25.324
25.484
25.643
25.801
25.180
25.340
25.500
25.658
25.817
25.196
25.356
25.516
25.674
25.832
25.212
25.372
25.532
25.690
25.848
25.228
25.388
25.547
25.706
25.864
25.244
25.404
25.563
25.722
25.880
25.260
25.420
25.579
25.738
25.896
25.276
25.436
25.595
25.753
25.911
25.292
25.452
25.611
25.769
25.927
25.308
25.468
25.627
25.785
25.943
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
32.404
32.533
32.661
32.788
32.915
32.417
32.546
32.674
32.801
32.928
32.430
32.558
32.686
32.814
32.940
32.443
32.571
32.699
32.826
32.953
32.456
32.584
32.712
32.839
32.966
32.468
32.597
32.725
32.852
32.978
32.481
32.610
32.737
32.864
32.991
32.494
32.623
32.750
32.877
33.003
32.507
32.635
32.763
32.890
33.016
32.520
32.648
32.776
32.902
33.028
32.533
32.661
32.788
32.915
33.041
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
25.943
26.100
26.256
26.412
26.568
25.959
26.116
26.272
26.428
26.583
25.974
26.131
26.288
26.443
26.599
25.990
26.147
26.303
26.459
26.614
26.006
26.163
26.319
26.474
26.629
26.021
26.178
26.334
26.490
26.645
26.037
26.194
26.350
26.505
26.660
26.053
26.209
26.366
26.521
26.676
26.069
26.225
26.381
26.537
26.691
26.084
26.241
26.397
26.552
26.707
26.100
26.256
26.412
26.568
26.722
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
33.041
33.166
33.291
33.415
33.538
33.054
33.179
33.303
33.427
33.550
33.066
33.191
33.316
33.439
33.562
33.079
33.204
33.328
33.452
33.575
33.091
33.216
33.341
33.464
33.587
33.104
33.229
33.353
33.476
33.599
33.116
33.241
33.365
33.489
33.611
33.129
33.254
33.378
33.501
33.623
33.141
33.266
33.390
33.513
33.636
33.154
33.278
33.402
33.525
33.648
33.166
33.291
33.415
33.538
33.660
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
10
10
Z-239

Thermocouple Grade
-32 to 4208F
-0 to 2320C
Extension Grade
32 to 1600F
0 to 870C
LIMITS OF ERROR
1.0% to 2320C
Thermocouple
Grade
NONE
ESTABLISHED
Tungsten5% Rhenium
vs.
Tungsten26% Rhenium
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Extension
Grade

C
10
10
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
33.660
33.782
33.902
34.022
34.142
33.672
33.794
33.914
34.034
34.153
33.684
33.806
33.926
34.046
34.165
33.697
33.818
33.938
34.058
34.177
33.709
33.830
33.950
34.070
34.189
33.721
33.842
33.962
34.082
34.201
33.733
33.854
33.974
34.094
34.213
33.745
33.866
33.986
34.106
34.225
33.757
33.878
33.998
34.118
34.236
33.769
33.890
34.010
34.130
34.248
33.782
33.902
34.022
34.142
34.260
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
2200
2210
2220
2230
2240
35.932
36.036
36.138
36.240
36.341
35.942
36.046
36.149
36.250
36.351
35.953
36-056
36.159
36.260
36.361
35.963
36.067
36.169
36.271
36.371
35.973
36.077
36.179
36.281
36.381
35.984
36.087
36.189
36.291
36.391
35.994
36.097
36.200
36.301
36.401
36.004
36.108
36.210
36.311
36.411
36.015
36.118
36.220
36.321
36.421
36.025
36.128
36.230
36.331
36.431
36.036
36.138
36.240
36.341
36.441
2200
2210
2220
2230
2240
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
34.260
34.378
34.494
34.610
34.725
34.272
34.389
34.506
34.622
34.737
34.284
34.401
34.518
34.633
34.748
34.295
34.413
34.529
34.645
34.760
34.307
34.424
34.541
34.656
34.771
34.319
34.436
34.552
34.668
34.782
34.331
34.448
34.564
34.679
34.794
34.342
34.459
34.576
34.691
34.805
34.354
34.471
34.587
34.702
34.817
34.366
34.483
34.599
34.714
34.828
34.378
34.494
34.610
34.725
34.839
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
2250
2260
2270
2280
2290
36.441
36.539
36.637
36.733
36.828
36.451
36.549
36.646
36.743
36.838
36.460
36.559
36.656
36.752
36.847
36.470
36.569
36.666
36.762
36.857
36.480
36.578
36.675
36.771
36.866
36.490
36.588
36.685
36.781
36.875
36-500
36.598
36.695
36.790
36.885
36.510
36.608
36.704
36.800
36.894
36.520
36.617
36.714
36.809
36.903
36.529
36.627
36.723
36.819
36.913
36.539
36.637
36.733
36.828
36.922
2250
2260
2270
2280
2290
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
34.839
34.953
35.065
35.177
35.288
34.851
34.964
35.077
35.188
35.299
34.862
34.975
35.088
35.199
35.310
34.874
34.987
35.099
35.210
35.321
34.885
34.998
35.110
35.221
35.332
34.896
35.009
35.121
35.232
35.343
34.908
35.020
35.132
35.243
35.353
34.919
35.032
34.144
35.254
35.364
34.930
35.043
35.155
35.265
35.375
34.942
35.054
35.166
35.277
35.386
34.953
35.065
35.177
35.288
35.397
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
2300 36.922 36.932 36.941 36.950 36.959 36.969 36.978 36.987 36.997 37.006 37.015 2300
2310 37.015 37.024 37.033 37.043 37.052 37.061 37.070 37.079 37.088 37.097 37.107 2310
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
35.397
35.506
35.614
35.721
35.827
35.408
35.517
35.625
35.731
35.837
35.419
35.528
35.635
35.742
35.848
35.430
35.539
35.646
35.753
35.858
35.441
35.549
35.657
35.763
35.869
35.452
35.560
35.668
35.774
35.879
35.463
35.571
35.678
35.784
35.890
35.474
35.582
35.689
35.795
35.900
35.484
35.592
35.700
35.806
35.911
35.495
35.603
35.710
35.816
35.921
35.506
35.614
35.721
35.827
35.932
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
10
Z-240
10
Reference Tables
Tungsten5% Rhenium
vs.
Tungsten26% Rhenium
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90

Thermocouple Grade
-32 to 4208F
-0 to 2320C
Extension Grade
32 to 1600F
0 to 870C
LIMITS OF ERROR
1.0% to 2320C
0
10
20
30
40
-0.234
-0.162
-0.089
-0.015
0.059
50
60
70
80
90
0.135
0.211
0.288
0.365
0.443
0.142
0.218
0.295
0.373
0.451
0.150
0.226
0.303
0.381
0.459
0.157
0.234
0.311
0.389
0.467
0.165
0.241
0.319
0.396
0.475
0.173
0.249
0.326
0.404
0.483
0.180
0.257
0.334
0.412
0.491
0.188
0.264
0.342
0.420
0.499
0.196
0.272
0.350
0.428
0.506
0.203
0.280
0.357
0.436
0.514
100
110
120
130
140
0.522
0.602
0.682
0.763
0.845
0.530
0.610
0.690
0.771
0.853
0.538
0.618
0.698
0.779
0.861
0.546
0.626
0.706
0.788
0.869
0.554
0.634
0.714
0.796
0.878
0.562
0.642
0.723
0.804
0.886
0.570
0.650
0.731
0.812
0.894
0.578
0.658
0.739
0.820
0.902
0.586
0.666
0.747
0.828
0.911
150
160
170
180
190
0.927
1.010
1.093
1.178
1.262
0.935
1.018
1.102
1.186
1.271
0.944
1.027
1.110
1.194
1.279
0.952
1.035
1.119
1.203
1.288
0.960
1.043
1.127
1.211
1.296
0.968
1.052
1.135
1.220
1.305
0.977
1.060
1.144
1.228
1.313
0.985
1.068
1.152
1.237
1.322
200
210
220
230
240
1.348
1.434
1.520
1.607
1.695
1.356
1.442
1.529
1.616
1.703
1.365
1.451
1.537
1.625
1.712
1.373
1.459
1.546
1.633
1.721
1.382
1.468
1.555
1.642
1.730
1.390
1.477
1.563
1.651
1.739
1.399
1.485
1.572
1.660
1.748
250
260
270
280
290
1.783
1.872
1.961
2.051
2.141
1.792
1.880
1.970
2.060
2.150
1.801
1.889
1.979
2.069
2.159
1.809
1.898
1.988
2.078
2.168
1.818
1.907
1.997
2.087
2.177
1.827
1.916
2.006
2.096
2.186
300
310
320
330
340
2.232
2.323
2.415
2.507
2.600
2.241
2.332
2.424
2.516
2.609
2.250
2.341
2.433
2.525
2.618
2.259
2.350
2.442
2.535
2.628
2.268
2.360
2.451
2.544
2.637
350
360
370
380
390
2.693
2.786
2.880
2.975
3.070
2.702
2.796
2.890
2.984
3.079
2.711
2.805
2.899
2.994
3.089
2.721
2.815
2.909
3.003
3.098
400
410
420
430
440
3.165
3.261
3.357
3.454
3.551
3.175
3.271
3.367
3.463
3.560
3.184
3.280
3.376
3.473
3.570
450
460
470
480
490
3.648
3.746
3.844
3.942
4.041
3.658
3.756
3.854
3.952
4.051
3.668
3.765
3.864
3.962
4.061
10
10
0
10
20
30
40
500
510
520
530
540
4.140
4.240
4.339
4.440
4.540
4.150
4.250
4.349
4.450
4.550
4.160
4.260
4.359
4.460
4.560
4.170
4.270
4.369
4.470
4.570
4.180
4.280
4.379
4.480
4.580
4.190
4.290
4.389
4.490
4.590
4.200
4.299
4.399
4.500
4.600
4.210
4.309
4.410
4.510
4.610
4.220
4.319
4.420
4.520
4.621
4.230
4.329
4.430
4.530
4.631
4.240
4.339
4.440
4.540
4.641
500
510
520
530
540
0.211
0.288
0.365
0.443
0.522
50
60
70
80
90
550
560
570
580
590
4.641
4.742
4.843
4.945
5.047
4.651
4.752
4.853
4.955
5.057
4.661
4.762
4.863
4.965
5.067
4.671
4.772
4.874
4.975
5.077
4.681
4.782
4.884
4.985
5.087
4.691
4.792
4.894
4.996
5.098
4.701
4.803
4.904
5.006
5.108
4.711
4.813
4.914
5.016
5.118
4.722
4.823
4.924
5.026
5.128
4.732
4.833
4.935
5.036
5.139
4.742
4.843
4.945
5.047
5.149
550
560
570
580
590
0.594
0.674
0.755
0.837
0.919
0.522
0.682
0.763
0.845
0.927
100
10
120
130
140
600
610
620
630
640
5.149
5.251
5.354
5.457
5.560
5.159
5.261
5.364
5.467
5.570
5.169
5.272
5.375
5.478
5.581
5.180
5.282
5.385
5.488
5.591
5.190
5.292
5.395
5.498
5.601
5.200
5.303
5.405
5.508
5.612
5.210
5.313
5.416
5.519
5.622
5.220
5.323
5.426
5.529
5.632
5.231
5.333
5.436
5.539
5.643
5.241
5.344
5.447
5.550
5.653
5.251
5.354
5.457
5.560
5.664
600
610
620
630
640
0.993
1.077
1.161
1.245
1.330
1.002
1.085
1.169
1.254
1.339
1.010
1.093
1.178
1.262
1.348
150
160
170
180
190
650
660
670
680
690
5.664
5.767
5.871
5.975
6.080
5.674
5.778
5.882
5.986
6.090
5.684
5.788
5.892
5.996
6.100
5.695
5.798
5.902
6.007
6.111
5.705
5.809
5.913
6.017
6.121
5.715
5.819
5.923
6.027
6.132
5.726
5.830
5.934
6.038
6.142
5.736
5.840
5.944
6.048
6.153
5.746
5.850
5.954
6.059
6.163
5.757
5.861
5.965
6.069
6.174
5.767
5.871
5.975
6.080
6.184
650
660
670
680
690
1.408
1.494
1.581
1.668
1.756
1.416
1.503
1.590
1.677
1.765
1.425
1.511
1.598
1.686
1.774
1.434
1.520
1.607
1.695
1.783
200
210
220
230
240
700
710
720
730
740
6.184
6.289
6.394
6.499
6.604
6.195
6.299
6.404
6.509
6.615
6.205
6.310
6.415
6.520
6.625
6.216
6.320
6.425
6.531
6.636
6.226
6.331
6.436
6.541
6.646
6.236
6.341
6.446
6.552
6.657
6.247
6.352
6.457
6.562
6.668
6.257
6.362
6.467
6.573
6.678
6.268
6.373
6.478
6.583
6.689
6.278
6.383
6.488
6.594
6.699
6.289
6.394
6.499
6.604
6.710
700
710
720
730
740
1.836
1.925
2.015
2.105
2.195
1.845
1.934
2.024
2.114
2.204
1.854
1.943
2.033
2.123
2.213
1.863
1.952
2.042
2.132
2.223
1.872
1.961
2.051
2.141
2.232
250
260
270
280
290
750
760
770
780
790
6.710
6.815
6.921
7.027
7.134
6.720
6.826
6.932
7.038
7.144
6.731
6.837
6.943
7.049
7.155
6.741
6.847
6.953
7.059
7.165
6.752
6.858
6.964
7.070
7.176
6.763
6.868
6.974
7.080
7.187
6.773
6.879
6.985
7.091
7.197
6.784
6.890
6.996
7.102
7.208
6.794
6.900
7.006
7.112
7.219
6.805
6.911
7.017
7.123
7.229
6.815
6.921
7.027
7.134
7.240
750
760
770
780
790
2.277
2.369
2.461
2.553
2.646
2.286
2.378
2.470
2.562
2.655
2.295
2.387
2.479
2.572
2.665
2.305
2.396
2.488
2.581
2.674
2.314
2.405
2.498
2.590
2.683
2.323
2.415
2.507
2.600
2.693
300
310
320
330
340
800
810
820
830
840
7.240
7.346
7.453
7.560
7.667
7.250
7.357
7.464
7.570
7.677
7.261
7.368
7.474
7.581
7.688
7.272
7.378
7.485
7.592
7.699
7.282
7.389
7.496
7.602
7.709
7.293
7.400
7.506
7.613
7.720
7.304
7.410
7.517
7.624
7.731
7.314
7.421
7.528
7.634
7.741
7.325
7.432
7.538
7.645
7.752
7.336
7.442
7.549
7.656
7.763
7.346
7.453
7.560
7.667
7.774
800
810
820
830
840
2.730
2.824
2.918
3.013
3.108
2.740
2.833
2.928
3.022
3.118
2.749
2.843
2.937
3.032
3.127
2.758
2.852
2.947
3.041
3.137
2.768
2.862
2.956
3.051
3.146
2.777
2.871
2.965
3.060
3.156
2.786
2.880
2.975
3.070
3.165
350
360
370
380
390
850
860
870
880
890
7.774
7.881
7.988
8.095
8.203
7.784
7.891
7.999
8.106
8.213
7.795
7.902
8.009
8.117
8.224
7.806
7.913
8.020
8.127
8.235
7.816
7.924
8.031
8.138
8.246
7.827
7.934
8.042
8.149
8.256
7.838
7.945
8.052
8.160
8.267
7.849
7.956
8.063
8.170
8.278
7.859
7.966
8.074
8.181
8.289
7.870
7.977
8.085
8.192
8.300
7.881
7.988
8.095
8.203
8.310
850
860
870
880
890
3.194
3.290
3.386
3.483
3.580
3.204
3.299
3.396
3.492
3.590
3.213
3.309
3.405
3.502
3.599
3.223
3.319
3.415
3.512
3.609
3.232
3.328
3.425
3.522
3.619
3.242
3.338
3.434
3.531
3.629
3.251
3.348
3.444
3.541
3.638
3.261
3.357
3.454
3.551
3.648
400
410
420
430
440
900
910
920
930
940
8.310
8.418
8.526
8.633
8.741
8.321
8.429
8.536
8.644
8.752
8.332
8.439
8.547
8.655
8.763
8.343
8.450
8.558
8.666
8.774
8.353
8.461
8.569
8.677
8.785
8.364
8.472
8.580
8.687
8.795
8.375
8.483
8.590
8.698
8.806
8.386
8.493
8.601
8.709
8.817
8.396
8.504
8.612
8.720
8.828
8.407
8.515
8.623
8.731
8.839
8.418
8.526
8.633
8.741
8.849
900
910
920
930
940
3.677
3.775
3.873
3.972
4.071
3.687
3.785
3.883
3.982
4.081
3.697
3.795
3.893
3.992
4.091
3.707
3.805
3.903
4.002
4.101
3.716
3.814
3.913
4.011
4.110
3.726
3.824
3.923
4.021
4.120
3.736
3.834
3.932
4.031
4.130
3.746
3.844
3.942
4.041
4.140
450
460
470
480
490
950
960
970
980
990
8.849
8.957
9.066
9.174
9.282
8.860
8.968
9.076
9.185
9.293
8.871
8.979
9.087
9.195
9.304
8.882
8.990
9.098
9.206
9.314
8.893
9.001
9.109
9.217
9.325
8.903
9.011
9.120
9.228
9.336
8.914
9.022
9.130
9.239
9.347
8.925
9.033
9.141
9.250
9.358
8.936
9.044
9.152
9.260
9.369
8.947
9.055
9.163
9.271
9.379
8.957
9.066
9.174
9.282
9.390
950
960
970
980
990
10
10
-0.227 -0.220 -0.213 -0.206 -0.198 -0.191 -0.184 -0.177 -0.169 -0.162
-0.155 -0.148 -0.140 -0.133 -0.126 -0.118 -0.111 -0.104 -0.096 -0.089
-0.082 -0.074 -0.067 -0.060 -0.052 -0.045 -0.037 -0.030 -0.023 -0.015
-0.008 0.000 0.007 0.014 0.022 0.029 0.037 0.044 0.052 0.059
0.067 0.074 0.082 0.089 0.097 0.104 0.112 0.120 0.127 0.135
Extension
Grade
Thermocouple
Grade
Z-241

Thermocouple Grade
-32 to 4208F
-0 to 2320C
Extension Grade
32 to 1600F
0 to 870C
LIMITS OF ERROR
1.0% to 2320C
Thermocouple
Grade
NONE
ESTABLISHED
Tungsten5% Rhenium
vs.
Tungsten26% Rhenium
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Extension
Grade

F
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
9.390
9.499
9.607
9.715
9.824
9.401
9.509
9.618
9.726
9.835
9.412
9.520
9.629
9.737
9.846
9.423
9.531
9.640
9.748
9.857
9.434
9.542
9.650
9.759
9.867
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
9.932
10.041
10.150
10.258
10.367
9.943
10.052
10.160
10.269
10.378
9.954
10.063
10.171
10.280
10.388
9.965
10.074
10.182
10.291
10.399
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
10.475
10.584
10.693
10.801
10.910
10.486
10.595
10.703
10.812
10.921
10.497
10.606
10.714
10.823
10.932
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
11.019
11.127
11.236
11.344
11.453
11.029
11.138
11.247
11.355
11.464
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
11.561
11.670
11.778
11.887
11.995
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
10
9.444
9.553
9.661
9.770
9.878
9.455
9.564
9.672
9.781
9.889
9.466
9.575
9.683
9.791
9.900
9.477
9.585
9.694
9.802
9.911
9.488
9.596
9.705
9.813
9.922
9.499
9.607
9.715
9.824
9.932
10
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
14.792
14.899
15.005
15.111
15.217
14.803
14.909
15.016
15.122
15.228
14.814
14.920
15.026
15.132
15.238
14.824
14.931
15.037
15.143
15.249
14.835
14.941
15.047
15.154
15.260
14.846
14.952
15.058
15.164
15.270
14.856
14.962
15.069
15.175
15.281
14.867
14.973
15.079
15.185
15.291
14.877
14.984
15.090
15.196
15.302
14.888
14.994
15.101
15.207
15.313
14.899
15.005
15.111
15.217
15.323
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
9.976
10.084
10.193
10.302
10.410
9.987
10.095
10.204
10.312
10.421
9.998
10.106
10.215
10.323
10.432
10.008
10.117
10.226
10.334
10.443
10.019
10.128
10.236
10.345
10.454
10.030
10.139
10.247
10.356
10.464
9.932
10.150
10.258
10.367
10.475
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
15.323
15.429
15.535
15.640
15.746
15.334
15.440
15.545
15.651
15.756
15.344
15.450
15.556
15.661
15.767
15.355
15.461
15.566
15.672
15.777
15.366
15.471
15.577
15.683
15.788
15.376
15.482
15.588
15.693
15.799
15.387
15.492
15.598
15.704
15.809
15.397
15.503
15.609
15.714
15.820
15.408
15.514
15.619
15.725
15.830
15.418
15.524
15.630
15.735
15.841
15.429
15.535
15.640
15.746
15.851
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
10.508
10.617
10.725
10.834
10.942
10.519
10.627
10.736
10.845
10.953
10.530
10.638
10.747
10.856
10.964
10.541
10.649
10.758
10.866
10.975
10.551
10.660
10.769
10.877
10.986
10.562
10.671
10.780
10.888
10.997
10.573
10.682
10.790
10.899
11.008
10.584
10.693
10.801
10.910
11.019
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
15.851
15.956
16.062
16.167
16.271
15.862
15.967
16.072
16.177
16.282
15.872
15.977
16.083
16.187
16.292
15.883
15.988
16.093
16.198
16.303
15.893
15.998
16.104
16.208
16.313
15.904
16.009
16.114
16.219
16.324
15.914
16.020
16.125
16.229
16.334
15.925
16.030
16.135
16.240
16.345
15.935
16.041
16.146
16.250
16.355
15.946
16.051
16.156
16.261
16.366
15.956
16.062
16.167
16.271
16.376
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
11.040
11.149
11.257
11.366
11.475
11.051
11.160
11.268
11.377
11.485
11.062
11.171
11.279
11.388
11.496
11.073
11.181
11.290
11.399
11.507
11.084
11.192
11.301
11.409
11.518
11.095
11.203
11.312
11.420
11.529
11.105
11.214
11.323
11.431
11.540
11.116
11.225
11.333
11.442
11.551
11.127
11.236
11.344
11.453
11.561
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
16.376
16.481
16.585
16.689
16.794
16.387
16.491
16.596
16.700
16.804
16.397
16.502
16.606
16.710
16.814
16.407
16.512
16.616
16.721
16.825
16.418
16.522
16.627
16.731
16.835
16.428
16.533
16.637
16.741
16.846
16.439
16.543
16.648
16.752
16.856
16.449
16.554
16.658
16.762
16.866
16.460
16.564
16.669
16.773
16.877
16.470
16.575
16.679
16.783
16.887
16.481
16.585
16.689
16.794
16.898
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
11.572
11.681
11.789
11.898
12.006
11.583
11.692
11.800
11.909
12.017
11.594
11.702
11.811
11.919
12.028
11.605
11.713
11.822
11.930
12.039
11.616
11.724
11.833
11.941
12.050
11.627
11.735
11.844
11.952
12.060
11.637
11.746
11.854
11.963
12.071
11.648
11.757
11.865
11.974
12.082
11.659
11.768
11.876
11.984
12.093
11.670
11.778
11.887
11.995
12.104
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
16.898
17.001
17.105
17.209
17.312
16.908
17.012
17.116
17.219
17.323
16.918
17.022
17.126
17.230
17.333
16.929
17.033
17.136
17.240
17.343
16.939
17.043
17.147
17.250
17.35
16.950
17.053
17.157
17.261
17.364
16.960
17.064
17.167
17.271
17.374
16.970
17.074
17.178
17.281
17.385
16.981
17.084
17.188
17.292
17.395
16.991
17.095
17.198
17.302
17.405
17.001
17.105
17.209
17.312
17.416
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
12.104
12.212
12.320
12.429
12.537
12.115
12.223
12.331
12.439
12.548
12.125
12.234
12.342
12.450
12.558
12.136
12.245
12.353
12.461
12.569
12.147
12.255
12.364
12.472
12.580
12.158
12.266
12.374
12.483
12.591
12.169
12.277
12.385
12.494
12.602
12.180
12.288
12.396
12.504
12.612
12.190
12.299
12.407
12.515
12.623
12.201
12.310
12.418
12.526
12.634
12.212
12.320
12.429
12.537
12.645
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
17.416
17.519
17.622
17.725
17.827
17.426
17.529
17.632
17.735
17.838
17.436
17.539
17.642
17.745
17.848
17.447
17.550
17.653
17.755
17.858
17.457
17.560
17.663
17.766
17.868
17.467
17.570
17.673
17.776
17.879
17.477
17.581
17.683
17.786
17.889
17.488
17.591
17.694
17.796
17.899
17.498
17.601
17.704
17.807
17.909
17.508
17.611
17.714
17.817
17.920
17.519
17.622
17.725
17.827
17.930
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
12.645
12.753
12.861
12.969
13.077
12.656
12.764
12.872
12.980
13.088
12.667
12.775
12.883
12.991
13.098
12.677
12.785
12.893
13.001
13.109
12.688
12.796
12.904
13.012
13.120
12.699
12.807
12.915
13.023
13.131
12.710
12.818
12.926
13.034
13.142
12.721
12.829
12.937
13.045
13.152
12.731
12.839
12.947
13.055
13.163
12.742
12.850
12.958
13.066
13.174
12.753
12.861
12.969
13.077
13.185
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
17.930
18.032
18.134
18.237
18.339
17.940
18.042
18.145
18.247
18.349
17.950
18.053
18.155
18.257
18.359
17.961
18.063
18.165
18.267
18.369
17.971
18.073
18.175
18.277
18.379
17.981
18.083
18.186
18.288
18.389
17.991
18.094
18.196
18.298
18.400
18.002
18.104
18.206
18.308
18.410
18.012
18.114
18.216
18.318
18.420
18.022
18.124
18.226
18.328
18.430
18.032
18.134
18.237
18.339
18.440
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
13.185
13.292
13.400
13.508
13.615
13.196
13.303
13.411
13.519
13.626
13.206
13.314
13.422
13.529
13.637
13.217
13.325
13.432
13.540
13.648
13.228
13.336
13.443
13.551
13.658
13.239
13.346
13.454
13.562
13.669
13.249
13.357
13.465
13.572
13.680
13.260
13.368
13.476
13.583
13.691
13.271
13.379
13.486
13.594
13.701
13.282
13.389
13.497
13.605
13.712
13.292
13.400
13.508
13.615
13.723
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
18.440
18.542
18.643
18.745
18.846
18.450
18.552
18.653
18.755
18.856
18.461
18.562
18.664
18.765
18.866
18.471
18.572
18.674
18.775
18.876
18.481
18.582
18.684
18.785
18.886
18.491
18.593
18.694
18.795
18.896
18.501
18.603
18.704
18.805
18.906
18.511
18.613
18.714
18.815
18.916
18.522
18.623
18.724
18.826
18.927
18.532
18.633
18.735
18.836
18.937
18.542
18.643
18.745
18.846
18.947
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
13.723
13.830
13.937
14.045
14.152
13.734
13.841
13.948
14.055
14.162
13.744
13.852
13.959
14.066
14.173
13.755
13.862
13.970
14.077
14.184
13.766
13.873
13.980
14.087
14.195
13.776
13.884
13.991
14.098
14.205
13.787
13.895
14.002
14.109
14.216
13.798
13.905
14.012
14.120
14.227
13.809
13.916
14.023
14.130
14.237
13.819
13.927
14.034
14.141
14.248
13.830
13.937
14.045
14.152
14.259
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
18.947
19.048
19.148
19.249
19.349
18.957
19.058
19.158
19.259
19.359
18.967
19.068
19.168
19.269
19.369
18.977
19.078
19.178
19.279
19.379
18.987
19.088
19.188
19.289
19.389
18.997
19.098
19.198
19.299
19.399
19.007
19.108
19.208
19.309
19.409
19.017
19.118
19.218
19.319
19.419
19.027
19.128
19.229
19.329
19.429
19.037
19.138
19.239
19.339
19.439
19.048
19.148
19.249
19.349
19.449
1990
1910
1920
1930
1940
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
14.259
14.366
14.472
14.579
14.686
14.269
14.376
14.483
14.590
14.696
14.280
14.387
14.494
14.601
14.707
14.291
14.398
14.504
14.611
14.718
14.302
14.408
14.515
14.622
14.728
14.312
14.419
14.526
14.632
14.739
14.323
14.430
14.536
14.643
14.750
14.334
14.440
14.547
14.654
14.760
14.344
14.451
14.558
14.664
14.771
14.355
14.462
14.569
14.675
14.782
14.366
14.472
14.579
14.686
14.792
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
19.449
19.549
19.649
19.748
19.848
19.459
19.559
19.659
19.758
19.858
19.469
19.569
19.669
19.768
19.868
19.479
19.579
19.679
19.778
19.878
19.489
19.589
19.689
19.788
19.888
19.499
19.599
19.699
19.798
19.898
19.509
19.609
19.709
19.808
19.907
19.519
19.619
19.719
19.818
19.917
19.529
19.629
19.729
19.828
19.927
19.539
19.639
19.738
19.838
19.937
19.549
19.649
19.748
19.848
19.947
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
10
10
Z-242
Reference Tables
NONE
ESTABLISHED
Tungsten5% Rhenium
vs.
Tungsten26% Rhenium
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Thermocouple
Grade
Extension
Grade

Thermocouple Grade
-32 to 4208F
-0 to 2320C
Extension Grade
32 to 1600F
0 to 870C
LIMITS OF ERROR
1.0% to 2320C
10
10
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
19.947
20.046
20.145
20.244
20.343
19.957
20.056
20.155
20.254
20.352
19.967
20.066
20.165
20.264
20.362
19.977
20.076
20.175
20.274
20.372
19.987
20.086
20.185
20.283
20.382
19.997
20.096
20.195
20.293
20.392
20.007
20.106
20.204
20.303
20.402
20.017
20.116
20.214
20.313
20.411
20.026
20.125
20.224
20.323
20.421
20.036
20.135
20.234
20.333
20.431
20.046
20.145
20.244
20.343
20.441
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
2500
2510
2520
2530
2540
24.682
24.772
24.862
24.952
25.041
24.691
24.781
24.871
24.961
25.050
24.700
24.790
24.880
24.970
25.059
24.709
24.799
24.889
24.979
25.068
24.718
24.808
24.898
24.988
25.077
24.727
24.817
24.907
24.996
25.086
24.736
24.826
24.916
25.005
25.095
24.745
24.835
24.925
25.014
25.104
24.754
24.844
24.934
25.023
25.113
24.763
24.853
24.943
25.032
25.122
24.772
24.862
24.952
25.041
25.130
2500
2510
2520
2530
2540
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
20.441
20.539
20.637
20.735
20.833
20.451
20.549
20.647
20.745
20.843
20.461
20.559
20.657
20.755
20.852
20.470
20.569
20.667
20.765
20.862
20.480
20.578
20.676
20.774
20.872
20.490
20.588
20.686
20.784
20.882
20.500
20.598
20.696
20.794
20.891
20.510
20.608
20.706
20.804
20.901
20.520
20.618
20.716
20.813
20.911
20.529
20.627
20.725
20.823
20.921
20.539
20.637
20.735
20.833
20.930
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
2550
2560
2570
2580
2590
25.130
25.219
25.308
25.397
25.486
25.139
25.228
25.317
25.406
25.494
25.148
25.237
25.326
25.415
25.503
25.157
25.246
25.335
25.424
25.512
25.166
25.255
25.344
25.432
25.521
25.175
25.264
25.353
25.441
25.530
25.184
25.273
25.362
25.450
25.539
25.193
25.282
25.370
25.459
25.547
25.202
25.291
25.379
25.468
25.556
25.211
25.299
25.388
25.477
25.565
25.219
25.308
25.397
25.486
25.574
2550
2560
2570
2580
2590
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
20.930
21.028
21.125
21.222
21.319
20.940
21.037
21.135
21.232
21.328
20.950
21.047
21.144
21.241
21.338
20.960
21.057
21.154
21.251
21.348
20.969
21.067
21.164
21.261
21.357
20.979
21.076
21.173
21.270
21.367
20.989
21.086
21.183
21.280
21.377
20.999
21.096
21.193
21.290
21.386
21.008
21.106
21.203
21.299
21.396
21.018
21.115
21.212
21.309
21.406
21.028
21.125
21.222
21.319
21.415
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
2600
2610
2620
2630
2640
25.574
25.662
25.750
25.838
25.925
25.583
25.671
25.759
25.846
25.934
25.592
25.680
25.76
25.855
25.943
25.600
25.688
25.776
25.864
25.952
25.609
25.697
25.785
25.873
25.960
25.618
25.706
25.794
25.882
25.969
25.627
25.715
25.803
25.890
25.978
25.636
25.724
25.811
25.899
25.986
25.644
25.732
25.820
25.908
25.995
25.653
25.741
25.829
25.917
26.004
25.662
25.750
25.838
25.925
26.013
2600
2610
2620
2630
2640
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
21.415
21.512
21.608
21.704
21.800
21.425
21.521
21.618
21.714
21.810
21.435
21.531
21.627
21.723
21.819
21.444
21.541
21.637
21.733
21.829
21.454
21.550
21.647
21.743
21.838
21.464
21.560
21.656
21.752
21.848
21.473
21.570
21.666
21.762
21.858
21.483
21.579
21.675
21.771
21.867
21.493
21.589
21.685
21.781
21.877
21.502
21.599
21.695
21.791
21.886
21.512
21.608
21.704
21.800
21.896
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
2650
2660
2670
2680
2690
26.013
26.100
26.187
26.274
26.360
26.021
26.109
26.196
26.282
26.369
26.030
26.117
26.204
26.291
26.378
26.039
26.126
26.213
26.300
26.386
26.048
26.135
26.222
26.308
26.395
26.056
26.143
26.230
26.317
26.404
26.065
26.152
26.239
26.326
26.412
26.074
26.161
26.248
26.334
26.421
26.082
26.170
26.256
26.343
26.430
26.091
26.178
26.265
26.352
26.438
26.100
26.187
26.274
26.360
26.447
2650
2660
2670
2680
2690
2200
2210
2220
2230
2240
21.896
21.991
22.087
22.182
22.277
21.905
22.001
22.096
22.192
22.286
21.915
22.011
22.106
22.201
22.296
21.925
22.020
22.115
22.211
22.305
21.934
22.030
22.125
22.220
22.315
21.944
22.039
22.134
22.230
22.324
21.953
22.049
22.144
22.239
22.334
21.963
22.058
22.153
22.249
22.343
21.972
22.068
22.163
22.258
22.353
21.982
22.077
22.172
22.268
22.362
21.991
22.087
22.182
22.277
22.372
2200
2210
2220
2230
2240
2700
2710
2720
2730
2740
26.447
26.533
26.619
26.705
26.791
26.455
26.542
26.628
26.714
26.799
26.464
26.550
26.636
26.722
26.808
26.473
26.559
26.645
26.731
26.816
26.481
26.568
26.654
26.739
26.825
26.490
26.576
26.662
26.748
26.834
26.499
26.585
26.671
26.756
26.842
26.507
26.593
26.679
26.765
26.851
26.516
26.602
26.688
26.774
26.859
26.524
26.611
26.696
26.782
26.868
26.533
26.619
26.705
26.791
26.876
2700
2710
2720
2730
2740
2250
2260
2270
2280
2290
22.372
22.466
22.561
22.655
22.749
22.381
22.476
22.570
22.665
22.759
22.391
22.485
22.580
22.674
22.768
22.400
22.495
22.589
22.683
22.777
22.410
22.504
22.599
22.693
22.787
22.419
22.514
22.608
22.702
22.796
22.429
22.523
22.618
22.712
22.806
22.438
22.533
22.627
22.721
22.815
22.448
22.542
22.636
22.730
22.824
22.457
22.551
22.646
22.740
22.834
22.466
22.561
22.655
22.749
22.843
2250
2260
2270
2280
2290
2750
2760
2770
2780
2790
26.876
26.962
27.047
27.132
27.216
26.885
26.970
27.055
27.140
27.225
26.893
26.979
27.064
27.149
27.233
26.902
26.987
27.072
27.157
27.242
26.910
26.996
27.081
27.166
27.250
26.919
27.004
27.089
27.174
27.259
26.927
27.013
27.098
27.183
27.267
26.936
27.021
27.106
27.191
27.276
26.945
27.030
27.115
27.200
27.284
26.953
27.038
27.123
27.208
27.293
26.962
27.047
27.132
27.216
27.301
2750
2760
2770
2780
2790
2300
2310
2320
2330
2340
22.843
22.937
23.030
23.124
23.217
22.853
22.946
23.040
23.133
23.226
22.862
22.956
23.049
23.142
23.236
22.871
22.965
23.058
23.152
23.245
22.881
22.974
23.068
23.161
23.254
22.890
22.984
23.077
23.170
23.263
22.899
22.993
23.086
23.180
23.273
22.909
23.002
23.096
23.189
23.282
22.918
23.012
23.105
23.198
23.291
22.928
23.021
23.114
23.208
23.301
22.937
23.030
23.124
23.217
23.310
2300
2310
2320
2330
2340
2800
2810
2820
2830
2840
27.301
27.385
27.470
27.554
27.637
27.309
27.394
27.478
27.562
27.646
27.318
27.402
27.486
27.570
27.654
27.326
27.411
27.495
27.579
27.663
27.335
27.419
27.503
27.587
27-671
27.343
27.428
27.512
27.596
27.679
27.352
27.436
27.520
27.604
27.688
27.360
27.444
27.528
27.612
27.696
27.369
27.453
27.537
27.621
27.704
27.377
27.461
27.545
27.629
27.713
27.385
27.470
27.554
27.637
27.721
2800
2810
2820
2830
2840
2350
2360
2370
2380
2390
23.310
23.403
23.495
23.588
23.680
23.319
23.412
23.505
23.597
23.689
23.328
23.421
23.514
23.606
23.698
23.338
23.431
23.523
23.615
23.708
23.347
23.440
23.532
23.625
23.717
23.356
23.449
23.542
23.634
23.726
23.366
23.458
23.551
23.643
23.735
23.375
23.468
23.560
23.652
23.744
23.384
23.477
23.569
23.662
23.754
23.393
23.486
23.579
23.671
23.763
23.403
23.495
23.588
23.680
23.772
2350
2360
2370
2380
2390
2850
2860
2870
2880
2890
27.721
27.805
27.888
27.971
28.054
27.729
27.813
27.896
27.979
28.062
27.738
27.821
27.904
27.988
28.070
27.746
27.830
27.913
27.996
28.079
27.755
27.838
27.921
28.004
28.087
27.763
27.846
27.929
28.012
28.095
27.771
27.855
27.938
28.021
28.103
27.780
27.863
27.946
28.029
28.112
27.788
27.871
27.954
28.037
28.120
27.796
27.880
27.963
28.046
28.128
27.805
27.888
27.971
28.054
28.137
2850
2860
2870
2880
2890
2400
2410
2420
2430
2440
23.772
23.864
23.956
24.047
24.138
23.781
23.873
23.965
24.056
24.147
23.790
23.882
23.974
24.065
24.157
23.800
23.891
23.983
24.074
24.166
23.809
23.901
23.992
24.084
24.175
23.818
23.910
24.001
24.093
24.184
23.827
23.919
24.010
24.102
24.193
23.836
23.928
24.020
24.111
24.202
23.846
23.937
24.029
24.120
24.211
23.855
23.946
24.038
24.129
24.220
23.864
23.956
24.047
24.138
24.229
2400
2410
2420
2430
2440
2900
2910
2920
2930
2940
28.137
28.219
28.301
28.384
28.466
28.145
28.227
28.310
28.392
28.474
28.153
28.236
28.318
28.400
28.482
28.161
28.244
28.326
28.408
28.490
28.170
28.252
28.334
28.416
28.498
28.178
28.260
28.342
28.425
28.506
28.186
28.268
28.351
28.433
28.515
28.194
28.277
28.359
28.441
28.523
28.203
28.285
28.367
28.449
28.531
28.211
28.293
28.375
28.457
28.539
28.219
28.301
28.384
28.466
28.547
2900
2910
2920
2930
2940
2450
2460
2470
2480
2490
24.229
24.320
24.411
24.502
24.592
24.239
24.330
24.420
24.511
24.601
24.248
24.339
24.429
24.520
24.610
24.257
24.348
24.438
24.529
24.619
24.266
24.357
24.447
24.538
24.628
24.275
24.366
24.456
24.547
24.637
24.284
24.375
24.466
24.556
24.646
24.293
24.384
24.475
24.565
24.655
24.302
24.393
24.484
24.574
24.664
24.311
24.402
24.493
24.583
24.673
24.320
24.411
24.502
24.592
24.682
2450
2460
2470
2480
2490
2950
2960
2970
2980
2990
28.547
28.629
28.710
28.791
28.872
28.555
28.637
28.718
28.800
28.881
28.564
28.645
28.727
28.808
28.889
28.572
28.653
28.725
28.816
28.897
28.580
28.661
28.743
28.824
28.905
28.588
28.670
28.751
28.832
28.913
28.596
28.678
28.759
28.840
28.921
28.604
28.686
28.767
28.848
28.929
28.613
28.694
28.775
28.856
28.937
28.621
28.702
28.783
28.864
28.945
28.629
28.710
28.791
28.872
28.953
2950
2960
2970
2980
2990
10
10
Z-243

Thermocouple Grade
-32 to 4208F
-0 to 2320C
Extension Grade
32 to 1600F
0 to 870C
LIMITS OF ERROR
1.0% to 2320C
Thermocouple
Grade
NONE
ESTABLISHED
Tungsten5% Rhenium
vs.
Tungsten26% Rhenium
Reference Tables
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Extension
Grade

F
10
10
3000
3010
3020
3030
3040
28.953
29.034
29.114
29.195
29.275
28.961
29.042
29.122
29.203
29.283
28.969
29-050
29.130
29.211
29.291
28.978
29.058
29.138
29.219
29.299
28.986
29.066
29.147
29.227
29.307
28.994
29.074
29.155
29.235
29.315
29.002
29.082
29.163
29.243
29.323
29.010
29.090
29.171
29.251
29.331
29.018
29.098
29.179
29.259
29.339
29.026
29.106
29.187
29.267
29.347
29.034
29.114
29.195
29.275
29.355
3000
3010
3020
3030
3040
3500
3510
3520
3530
3540
32.746
32.817
32.887
32.957
33.027
32.753
32.824
32.894
32.964
33.034
32.760
32.831
32.901
32.971
33.041
32.767
32.838
32.908
32.978
33.048
32.774
32.845
32.915
32.985
33.055
32.781
32.852
32.922
32.992
33.062
32.788
32.859
32.929
32.999
33.069
32.795
32.866
32.936
33.006
33.076
32.802
32.873
32.943
33.013
33-083
32.809
32.880
32.950
33.020
33.090
32.817
32.887
32.957
33.027
33.097
3500
3510
3520
3530
3540
3050
3060
3070
3080
3090
29.355
29.434
29.514
29.593
29.672
29.363
29.442
29.522
29.601
29.680
29.371
29.450
29.530
29.609
29.688
29.379
29.458
29.538
29.617
29.696
29.386
29.466
29.546
29.625
29.704
29.394
29.474
29.553
29.633
29.712
29.402
29.482
29.561
29.641
29.720
29.410
29.490
29.569
29.648
29.727
29.418
29.498
29.577
29.656
29.735
29.426
29.506
29.585
29.664
29.743
29.434
29.514
29.593
29.672
29.751
3050
3060
3070
3080
3090
3550
3560
3570
3580
3590
33.097
33.166
33.236
33.305
33.374
33.104
33.173
33.243
33.312
33.380
33.111
33.180
33.249
33.318
33.387
33.118
33.187
33.256
33.325
33.394
33.125
33.194
33.263
33.332
33.401
33.132
33.201
33.270
33.339
33.408
33.139
33.208
33.277
33.346
33.415
33.146
33.215
33.284
33.353
33.422
33.152
33.222
33.291
33.360
33.428
33.159
33.229
33.298
33.367
33.435
33.166
33.236
33.305
33.374
33.442
3550
3560
3570
3580
3590
3100
3110
3120
3130
3140
29.751
29.830
29.908
29.987
30.065
29.759
29.838
29.916
29.995
30.073
29.767
29.846
29.924
30.002
30.081
29.775
29.853
29.932
30.010
30.088
29.783
29.861
29.940
30.018
30.096
29.791
29.869
29.948
30.026
30.104
29.798
29.877
29.955
30.034
30.112
29.806
29.885
29.963
30.041
30.119
29.814
29.893
29.971
30.049
30.127
29.822
29.901
29.979
30.057
30.135
29.830
29.908
29.987
30.065
30.143
3100
3110
3120
3130
3140
3600
3610
3620
3630
3640
33.442
33.510
33.579
33.647
33.714
33.449
33.517
33.585
33.653
33.721
33.456
33.524
33.592
33.660
33.728
33.463
33.531
33.599
33.667
33.734
33.469
33.538
33.606
33.674
33.741
33.476
33.545
33.613
33.680
33.748
33.483
33.551
33.619
33.687
33.755
33.490
33.558
33.626
33.694
33.761
33.497
33.565
33.633
33.701
33.768
33.504
33.572
33.640
33.707
33.775
33.510
33.579
33.647
33.714
33.782
3600
3610
3620
3630
3640
3150
3160
3170
3180
3190
30.143
30.221
30.298
30.376
30.453
30.151
30.228
30.306
30.383
30.460
30.158
30.236
30.314
30.391
30.468
30.166
30.244
30.321
30.399
30.476
30.174
30.252
30.329
30.406
30.484
30.182
30.259
30.337
30.414
30.491
30.190
30.267
30.345
30.422
30.499
30.197
30.275
30.352
30.430
30.507
30.205
30.283
30.360
30.437
30.514
30.213
30.290
30.368
30.445
40.522
30.221
30.298
30.376
30.453
30.530
3150
3160
3170
3180
3190
3650
3660
3670
3680
3690
33.782
33.849
33.916
33.982
34.049
33.788
33.856
33.922
33.989
34.056
33.795
33.862
33.929
33.996
34.062
33.802
33.869
33.936
34.002
34-069
33.809
33.876
33.942
34.009
34.075
33.815
33.882
33.949
34.016
34.082
33.822
33:889
33.956
34.022
34.089
33.829
33.896
33.962
34.029
34.095
33.835
33.902
33.969
34.036
34.102
33.842
33.909
33.976
34.042
34.109
33.849
33.916
33.982
34.049
34.115
3650
3660
3670
3680
3690
3200
3210
3220
3230
3240
30.530
30.607
30.683
30.760
30.836
30.537
30.614
30.691
30.767
30.843
30.545
30.622
30.698
30.775
30.851
30.553
30.630
30.706
30.782
30.859
30.561
30.637
30.714
30.790
30.866
30.568
30.645
30.721
30.798
30.874
30.576
30.653
30.729
30.805
30.881
30.584
30.660
30.737
30.813
30.889
30.591
30.668
30.744
30.821
30.897
30.599
30.676
30.752
30.828
30.904
30.607
30.683
30.760
30.836
30.912
3200
3210
3220
3230
3240
3700
3710
3720
3730
3740
34.115
34.181
34.247
34.312
34.378
34.122
34.188
34.253
34.319
34.384
34.128
34.194
34.260
34.325
34.391
34.135
34.201
34.267
34.332
34.397
34.142
34.207
34.273
34.338
34.404
34.148
34.214
34.280
34.345
34.410
34.155
34.221
34.286
34.351
34.417
34.161
34.227
34.293
34.358
34.423
34.168
34.234
34.299
34.365
34.430
34.175
34.240
34.306
34.371
34.436
34.181
34.247
34.312
34.378
34.442
3700
3710
3720
3730
3740
3250
3260
3270
3280
3290
30.912
30.988
31.063
31.139
31.214
30.919
30.995
31.071
31.146
31.221
30.927
31.003
31.078
31.154
31.229
30.935
31.010
31.086
31.161
31.236
30.942
31.018
31.093
31.169
31.244
30.950
31.025
31.101
31.176
31.251
30.957
31.033
31.109
31.184
31.259
30.965
31.041
31.116
31.191
31.266
30.972
31.048
31.124
31.199
31.274
30.980
31.056
31.131
31.206
31.281
30.988
31.063
31.139
31.214
31.289
3250
3260
3270
3280
3290
3750
3760
3770
3780
3790
34.442
34.507
34.572
34.636
34.700
34.449
34.514
34.578
34.642
34.706
34.455
34-520
34.585
34.649
34.713
34.462
34.527
34.591
34.655
34.719
34.468
34.533
34.597
34.661
34.725
34.475
34.539
34.604
34.668
34.732
34.481
34.546
34.610
34.674
34.738
34.488
34.552
34.617
34.681
34.744
34.494
34.559
34.623
34.687
34.751
34.501
34.565
34.629
34.693
34.757
34.507
34.572
34.636
34.700
34.763
3750
3760
3770
3780
3790
3300
3310
3320
3330
3340
31.289
31.364
31.438
31.513
31.587
31.296
31.371
31.446
31.520
31.594
31.304
31.379
31.453
31.528
31.602
31.311
31.386
31.461
31.535
31.609
31.319
31.394
31.468
31.542
31.617
31.326
31.401
31.476
31.550
31.624
31.334
31.408
31.483
31.557
31.631
31.341
31.416
31.490
31.565
31.639
31.349
31.423
31.498
31.572
31.646
31.356
31.431
31.505
31.580
31.654
31.364
31.438
31.513
31.587
31.661
3300
3310
3320
3330
3340
3800
3810
3820
3830
3840
34.763
34.827
34.890
34.953
35.015
34.770
34.833
34.896
34.959
35.022
34.776
34.839
34.903
34.965
35.028
34.782
34.846
34.909
34.972
35.034
34.789
34.852
34.915
34.978
35.040
34.795
34.858
34.921
34.984
35.047
34.802
34.865
34.928
34.990
35.053
34.808
34.871
34.934
34.997
35.059
34.814
34.877
34.940
35.003
35.065
34.821
34.884
34.947
35.009
35.072
34.827
34.890
34.953
35.015
35.078
3800
3810
3820
3830
3840
3350
3360
3370
3380
3390
31.661
31.735
31.808
31.882
31.955
31.668
31.742
31.816
31.889
31.962
31.676
31.749
31.823
31.896
31.969
31.683
31.757
31.830
31.904
31.977
31.690
31.764
31.838
31.911
31.984
31.698
31.772
31.845
31.918
31.991
31.705
31.779
31.852
31.926
31.999
31.713
31.786
31.860
31.933
32.006
31.720
31.794
31.867
31.940
32.013
31.727
31.801
31.874
31.948
32.021
31.735
31.808
31.882
31.955
32.028
3350
3360
3370
3380
3390
3850
3860
3870
3880
3890
35.078
35.140
35.202
35.263
35.324
35.084
35.146
35.208
35.269
35.330
35.090
35.152
35.214
35.275
35.336
35.096
35.158
35.220
35.281
35.343
35.103
35.165
35.226
35.288
35.349
35.109
35.171
35.132
35.294
35.355
35.115
35.177
35.238
35.300
35.361
35.121
35.183
35.245
35.306
35.367
35.127
35.189
35.251
35.312
35.373
35.134
35.195
35.257
35.318
35.379
35.140
35.202
35.263
35.324
35.385
3850
3860
3870
3880
3890
3400
3410
3420
3430
3440
32.028
32.101
32.173
32.246
32.318
32.035
32.108
32.180
32.253
32.325
32.042
32.115
32.188
32.260
32.332
32.050
32.122
32.195
32.267
32.339
32.057
32.130
32.202
32.274
32.346
32.064
32.137
32.209
32.282
32.354
32.072
32.144
32.217
32.289
32.361
32.079
32.151
32.224
32.296
32.368
32.086
32.159
32.231
32.303
32.375
32.093
32.166
32.238
32.310
32.382
32.101
32.173
32.246
32.318
32.390
3400
3410
3420
3430
3440
3900
3910
3920
3930
3940
35.385
35.446
35.506
35.566
35.626
35.391
35.452
35.512
35.572
35.632
35.397
35.458
35.518
35.578
35.638
35.403
35.464
35.524
35.584
35.644
35.409
35.470
35.530
35.590
35.650
35.415
35.476
35.536
35.596
35.656
35.422
35.482
35.542
35.602
35.662
35.428
35.488
35.548
35.608
35.668
35.434
35.494
35.554
35.614
35.673
35.440
35.500
35.560
35.620
35.679
35.446
35.506
35.566
35.626
35.685
3900
3910
3920
3930
3940
3450
3460
3470
3480
3490
32.390
32.461
32.533
32.604
32.675
32.397
32.468
32.540
32.611
32.682
32.404
32.476
32.547
32.618
32.689
32.411
32.483
32.554
32.625
32.696
32.418
32.490
32.561
32.632
32.703
32.425
32.497
32.568
32.640
32.711
32.433
32.504
32.576
32.647
32.718
32.440
32.511
32.583
32.654
32.725
32.447
32.518
32.590
32.661
31.732
32.454
32.526
32.597
32.668
32.739
32.461
32.533
32.604
32.675
32.746
3450
3460
3470
3480
3490
3950
3960
3970
3980
3990
35.685
35.744
35.803
35.862
35.920
35.691
35.750
35.809
35.868
35.926
35.697
35.756
35.815
35.873
35.932
35.703
35.762
35.821
35.879
35.937
35.709
35.768
35.827
35.885
35.943
35.715
35.774
35.833
35.891
35.949
35.721
35.780
35.838
35.897
35.955
35.727
35.786
35.844
35.903
35.961
35.733
35.792
35.850
35.908
35.966
35.739
35.797
35.856
35.914
35.972
35.744
35.803
35.862
35.920
35.978
3950
3960
3970
3980
3990
10
10
Z-244
Reference Tables
NONE
ESTABLISHED
Tungsten5% Rhenium
vs.
Tungsten26% Rhenium
TYPE
Reference
Tables
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175
Revised to
ITS-90
Thermocouple
Grade
Extension
Grade

Thermocouple Grade
-32 to 4208F
-0 to 2320C
Extension Grade
32 to 1600F
0 to 870C
LIMITS OF ERROR
1.0% to 2320C
10
10
4000
4010
4020
4030
4040
35.978
36.036
36.093
36.150
36.206
35.984
36.041
36.099
36.155
36.212
35.989
36.047
36.104
36.161
36.218
35.995
36:053
36.110
36.167
36.223
36.001
36.058
36.116
36.172
36.229
36.007
36.064
36.121
36.178
36.235
36.013
36.070
36-127
36.184
36.240
36.018
36.076
36.133
36.189
36.246
36.024
36.081
36.138
36.195
36.251
36.030
36.087
36.144
36.201
36.257
36.036
36.093
36.150
36.206
36.263
4000
4010
4020
4030
4040
4100
4110
4120
4130
4140
36.539
36.594
36.647
36.701
36.754
36.545
36.599
36.653
36.706
36.760
36.550
36.604
36.658
36.712
36.765
36.556
36.610
36.664
36.717
36.770
36-561
36.615
36.669
36.722
36.775
36.566
36.621
36.674
36.728
36.781
36.572
36.626
36.680
36.733
36.786
36.577
36.631
36.685
36.738
36.791
36.583
36.637
36.690
36.744
36.797
36.588
36.642
36.696
36.749
36.802
36.594
36.647
36.701
36.754
36.807
4100
4110
4120
4130
4140
4050
4060
4070
4080
4090
36.263
36.319
36.374
36.430
36.485
36.268
36.324
36.380
36.435
36.490
36.274
36.330
36.385
36.441
36.496
36.280
36.335
36.391
36.446
36.501
36.285
36.341
36.397
36.452
36.507
36.291
36.347
36.402
36.457
36.512
36.296
36.352
36.408
36.463
36.517
36.302
36.358
36.413
36.468
36:523
36.308
36.363
36.419
36.474
36.528
36.313
36.369
36.424
36.479
36.534
36.319
36.374
36.430
36.485
36.539
4050
4060
4070
4080
4090
4150
4160
4170
4180
4190
36.807
36.860
36.912
36.964
37.015
36.812
36.865
36.917
36.969
37.020
36.818
36.870
36.922
36.974
37.025
36.823
36.875
36.927
36.979
37.030
36.828
36.881
36.933
36.984
37.035
36.833
36.886
36.938
36.989
37.041
36.839
36.891
36.943
36.994
37.046
36.844
36.896
36.948
37.000
37.051
36.849
36.901
36.953
37.005
37.056
36.854
36.907
36.958
37.010
37.061
36.860
36.912
36.964
37.015
37.066
4150
4160
4170
4180
4190
10
10
Z-245
Tungsten vs. Tungsten-26% Rhenium - Type G*

Temperature in Degrees F
DEGREES F
0
0
-.016
100
0.079
200
0.299
300
0.634
400
1.075
500
1.613
600
2.238
700
2.943
800
3.720
900
4.562
1000
5.461
1100
6.412
1200
7.407
1300
8.441
1400
9.509
1500
10.606
1600
11.725
1700
12.864
1800
14.018
1900
15.182
2000
16.353
2100
17.527
Adopted March 4, 1974
20
-.007
0.113
0.357
0.714
1.175
1.731
2.373
3.093
3.884
4.737
5.647
6.607
7.611
8.652
9.726
10.828
11.952
13.094
14.250
15.415
16.587
17.762
Reference Junction at 32F

40
0.006
0.153
0.420
0.799
1.279
1.853
2.511
3.246
4.049
4.915
5.836
6.805
7.816
8.865
9.945
11.051
12.179
13.324
14.482
15.649
16.822
17.997
60
0.026
0.197
0.487
0.887
1.387
1.978
2.652
3.401
4.218
5.095
6.026
7.004
8.023
9.078
10.164
11.275
12.407
13.555
14.715
15.884
17.057
18.232
80
0.050
0.246
0.559
0.979
1.498
2.106
2.796
3.559
4.389
5.277
6.218
7.205
8.232
9.293
10.384
11.500
12.635
13.786
14.948
16.118
17.292
18.467
DEGREES F
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
3100
3200
3300
3400
3500
3600
3700
3800
3900
4000
4100
4200
0
18.701
19.873
21.038
22.195
23.341
24.474
25.591
26.690
27.769
28.827
29.862
30.871
31.854
32.809
33.733
34.626
35.486
36.312
37.101
37.853
38.564
20
18.936
20.106
21.270
22.425
23.569
24.699
25.812
26.907
27.983
29.036
30.066
31.070
32.047
32.996
33.914
34.801
35.654
36.473
37.254
37.998
40
19.170
20.340
21.502
22.655
23.796
24.923
26.033
27.124
28.195
29.244
30.269
31.268
32.240
33.182
34.094
34.974
35.821
36.632
37.406
38.142
60
19.405
20.573
21.734
22.884
24.023
25.146
26.253
27.340
28.407
29.451
30.471
31.464
32.430
33.367
34.273
35.146
35.986
36.790
37.557
38.285
80
19.639
20.806
21.965
23.113
24.249
25.369
26.472
27.555
28.618
29.657
30.672
31.660
32.620
33.551
34.450
35.317
36.150
36.946
37.705
38.425
Tungsten-5% Rhenium vs. Tungsten-26% Rhenium - Type C*

DEGREES F
0
0
-.234
100
0.522
200
1.348
300
2.232
400
3.165
500
4.140
600
5.149
700
6.184
800
7.240
900
8.310
1000
9.390
1100
10.475
1200
11.561
1300
12.645
1400
13.723
1500
14.792
1600
15.851
1700
16.898
1800
17.930
1900
18.947
2000
19.947
2100
20.930
20
-.089
0.682
1.520
2.415
3.357
4.339
5.354
6.394
7.453
8.526
9.607
10.693
11.778
12.861
13.937
15.005
16.062
17.105
18.134
19.148
20.145
21.125

40
0.059
0.845
1.695
2.600
3.551
4.540
5.560
6.604
7.667
8.741
9.824
10.910
11.995
13.077
14.152
15.217
16.271
17.312
18.339
19.349
20.343
21.319
60
0.211
1.010
1.872
2.786
3.746
4.742
5.767
6.815
7.881
8.957
10.041
11.127
12.212
13.292
14.366
15.429
16.481
17.519
18.542
19.549
20.539
21.512
80
0.365
1.178
2.051
2.975
3.942
4.945
5.975
7.027
8.095
9.174
10.258
11.344
12.429
13.508
14.579
15.640
16.689
17.725
18.745
19.748
20.735
21.704
DEGREES F
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
3100
3200
3300
3400
3500
3600
3700
3800
3900
4000
4100
4200
0
21.896
22.843
23.772
24.682
25.574
26.447
27.301
28.137
28.953
29.751
30.530
31.289
32.028
32.746
33.442
34.115
34.763
35.385
35.978
36.539
37.066
20
22.087
23.030
23.956
24.862
25.750
26.619
27.470
28.301
29.114
29.908
30.683
31.438
32.173
32.887
33.579
34.247
34.890
35.506
36.093
36.647
40
22.277
23.217
24.138
25.041
25.925
26.791
27.637
28.466
29.275
30.065
30.836
31.587
32.318
33.027
33.714
34.378
35.015
35.626
36.206
36.754
60
22.466
23.403
24.320
25.219
26.100
26.962
27.805
28.629
29.434
30.221
30.988
31.735
32.461
33.166
33.849
34.507
35.140
35.744
36.319
36.860
80
22.655
23.588
24.502
25.397
26.274
27.132
27.971
28.791
29.593
30.376
31.139
31.882
32.604
33.305
33.982
34.636
35.263
35.862
36.430
36.964
Tungsten-3% Rhenium vs. Tungsten-25% Rhenium - Type D*

DEGREES F
0
20
0
-.163
-.063
100
0.390
0.515
200
1.058
1.204
300
1.824
1.988
400
2.673
2.851
500
3.590
3.781
600
4.564
4.765
700
5.584
5.793
800
6.640
6.855
900
7.725
7.945
1000
8.830
9.053
1100
9.951
10.176
1200
11.080
11.307
1300
12.215
12.443
1400
13.352
13.579
1500
14.489
14.717
1600
15.624
15.850
1700
16.752
16.976
1800
17.870
18.093
1900
18.979
19.199
2000
20.075
20.293
2100
21.158
21.373
Hoskins Manufacturing Company

40
0.043
0.644
1.354
2.154
3.032
3.973
4.967
6.003
7.071
8.165
9.277
10.402
11.534
12.670
13.807
14.944
16.076
17.200
18.315
19.419
20.510
21.588
60
0.154
0.778
1.507
2.324
3.216
4.168
5.171
6.214
7.288
8.386
9.501
10.628
11.761
12.897
14.034
15.171
16.302
17.424
18.537
19.638
20.726
21.802
80
0.269
0.916
1.664
2.497
3.402
4.365
5.377
6.427
7.506
8.608
9.726
10.854
11.988
13.125
14.262
15.398
16.527
17.647
18.758
19.857
20.943
22.015
DEGREES F
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
3100
3200
3300
3400
3500
3600
3700
3800
3900
4000
4100
4200
0
22.228
23.283
24.323
25.348
26.358
27.352
28.329
29.290
30.233
31.158
32.063
32.948
33.809
34.646
35.455
36.233
36.976
37.681
38.341
38.951
39.506
20
22.440
23.492
24.529
25.551
26.558
27.548
28.523
29.480
30.419
31.340
32.242
33.122
33.979
34.810
35.613
36.384
37.120
37.816
38.467
39.067
40
22.651
23.701
24.735
25.754
26.757
27.745
28.715
29.669
30.605
31.522
32.420
33.295
34.147
34.973
35.770
36.535
37.263
37.950
38.591
39.180
60
22.863
23.909
24.940
25.956
26.956
27.940
28.908
29.858
30.790
31.703
32.596
33.467
34.314
35.135
35.926
36.683
37.404
38.082
38.714
39.291
80
23.073
24.116
25.145
26.157
27.154
28.135
29.099
30.046
30.974
31.884
32.772
33.639
34.481
35.295
36.080
36.831
37.543
38.213
38.834
39.400
*Not an ANSI designation
Z-246
CHROMEGA VS. GOLD-0.07

ATOMIC PERCENT IRON
THERMOCOUPLE
Table of Temperature vs.
Thermoelectric Voltage
Temperature
(KELVIN)
E, V
Temperature
(KELVIN)
E, V
Temperature
(KELVIN)
E, V
Temperature
(KELVIN)
E, V
545.40
561.86
578.31
594.76
611.22
70
71
72
73
74
1136.21
1153.80
1171.44
1189.12
1206.84
105
106
107
108
109
1776.71
1795.73
1814.78
1833.86
1852.99
3
4
28.02
39.94
35
36
37
38
39
5
6
7
8
9
52.84
66.58
81.01
96.02
111.51
40
41
42
43
44
627.68
644.16
660.65
677.16
693.69
75
76
77
78
79
1224.60
1242.40
1260.25
1278.14
1296.08
110
111
112
113
114
1872.14
1891.34
1910.57
1929.83
1949.13
10
11
12
13
14
127.39
143.58
160.02
176.65
193.42
45
46
47
48
49
710.24
726.82
743.43
760.07
776.74
80
81
82
83
84
1314.05
1332.07
1350.13
1368.23
1386.37
115
116
117
118
119
1968.46
1987.82
2007.22
2026.65
2046.11
15
16
17
18
19
210.29
227.23
244.21
261.21
278.20
50
51
52
53
54
793.45
810.20
826.98
843.80
860.66
85
86
87
88
89
1404.56
1422.79
1441.05
1459.36
1477.71
120
121
122
123
124
2065.61
2085.14
2104.70
2124.29
2143.91
20
21
22
23
24
295.18
312.14
329.06
345.94
362.77
55
56
57
58
59
877.56
894.50
911.49
928.51
945.58
90
91
92
93
94
1496.10
1514.53
1533.00
1551.52
1570.07
125
126
127
128
129
2163.56
2183.24
2202.96
2222.70
2242.47
25
26
27
28
29
379.56
396.31
413.01
429.67
446.29
60
61
62
63
64
962.70
979.85
997.05
1014.29
1013.58
95
96
97
98
99
1588.66
1607.29
1625.96
1644.67
1663.42
130
131
132
133
134
2262.27
2282.10
2301.96
2321.85
2341.76
30
31
32
33
34
462.87
479.43
495.95
512.45
528.93
65
66
67
68
69
1048.91
1066.28
1083.70
1101.16
1118.66
100
101
102
103
104
1682.21
1701.03
1719.90
1738.80
1757.74
135
136
137
138
139
2361.70
2381.68
2401.67
2421.70
2441.75
Z-247
Z
Temperature
(KELVIN)
E, V
Temperature
(KELVIN)
E, V
Temperature
(KELVIN)
E, V
Temperature
(KELVIN)
E, V
140
141
142
143
144
2461.83
2481.94
2502.07
2522.23
2542.42
175
176
177
178
179
3180.19
3201.12
3222.07
3243.04
3264.03
210
211
212
213
214
3923.82
3945.38
3966.95
3988.54
4010.15
245
246
247
248
249
4686.39
4708.38
4730.37
4752.38
4774.39
145
146
147
148
149
2562.63
2582.87
2603.13
2623.42
2643.73
180
181
182
183
184
3285.03
3306.06
3327.11
3348.18
3369.27
215
216
217
218
219
4031.77
4053.40
4075.06
4096.72
4118.40
250
251
252
253
254
4796.41
4818.45
4840.49
4862.54
4884.60
150
151
152
153
154
2664.07
2684.44
2704.82
2725.24
2745.67
185
186
187
188
189
3390.37
3411.50
3432.64
3453.80
3474.98
220
221
222
223
224
4140.09
4161.80
4183.52
4205.26
4227.01
255
256
257
258
259
4906.68
4928.76
4950.85
4972.96
4995.07
155
156
157
158
159
2766.14
2786.62
2807.13
2827.67
2848.22
190
191
192
193
194
3496.18
3517.40
3538.63
3559.88
3581.15
225
226
227
228
229
4248.77
4270.55
4292.33
4314.13
4335.95
260
261
262
263
264
5017.20
5039.34
5061.49
5083.65
5105.83
160
161
162
163
164
2868.80
2889.41
2910.03
2930.68
2951.35
195
196
197
198
199
3602.44
3623.75
3645.07
3666.41
3687.77
230
231
232
233
234
4357.77
4379.61
4401.45
4423.31
4445.18
265
266
267
268
269
5128.01
5150.21
5172.42
5194.64
5216.87
165
166
167
168
169
2972.05
2992.77
3013.50
3034.27
3055.05
200
201
202
203
204
3709.14
3730.54
3751.95
3773.37
3794.82
235
236
237
238
239
4467.06
4488.95
4510.85
4532.76
4554.68
270
271
272
273
274
5239.11
5261.36
5283.62
5305.88
5328.16
170
171
172
173
174
3075.85
3096.68
3117.52
3138.39
3159.28
205
206
207
208
209
3816.28
3837.75
3859.25
3880.76
3902.28
240
241
242
243
244
4576.61
4598.55
4620.49
4642.45
4664.42
275
276
277
278
279
5350.44
5372.73
5395.02
5417.31
5439.61
Z-248
Space for Transmitters in

Probe Assembly Heads
HEAD
TRANSMITTER SPACE
PROBES
Model Number
Diameter, mm
(in)
Height, mm
(in)
Typical
NB1
47.6
(1 78)
19.0
(34)
NB1-ICSS-14G-12
PR-12-2-100-1/8-6-E
NB2
31.7
(1 14)
19.0
(34)
NB2-ICSS-14G-24
PR-14-2-100-1/8-6-E
NB3
57.1
(2 14)
25.4
(1)
NB1-ICSS-14G-12
PR-18-2-100-1/8-6-E
NB4
22.2
(78)
9.5
(38)
NB4-ICSS-14G-12
PR-19-2-100-1/8-6-E
NEPA, NEPB
69.8
(2 34)
38.1
(1 12)
NEPB-ICSS-14G-12
NEPB-2-100-1/8-6-E
NBS
50.8
(2)
31.7
(1 14)
NBS-ICSS-14G-12
NBS-2-100-1/8-6-E
NSA, NSB, NSC
50.8
(2)
31.7
(1 14)
NSB-ICSS-14G-12
NSB-2-100-1/8-6-E
NBB
47.6
(1 78)
19.0
(34)
NBB-ICSS-14G-12
NBB-2-100-1/8-6-E
NBN
50.8
(2)
19.0
(34)
NBN-ICSS-14G-12
NBN-2-100-1/8-6-E
NBG
44.4
(1 34)
19.0
(34)
NBG-ICSS-14G-12
NBG-2-100-1/8-6-E
NXT
47.6
(1 78)
50.8
(2)
NXT-ICSS-14G-12
NXT-2-100-1/8-6-E
HEP-TX
76.2
(3)
50.8
(2)
HEP-TX-100-J1
HEP-TX-110-PT1
HEP-TX70
76.2
(3)
50.8
(2)
HEP-TX71-J-50-350C
HEP-TX75-50-350C
Z-249
Platinum Resistance
Temperature Detectors
Detector Interchangeability Tolerance Chart
Tolerance
0.9
2.25
Z
OHMS
deg C
0.8
2.0
0.7
1.75
Basic Detector
Resistance at
0C Is 100 ohms
CLASS B
DIN 43760-1980
BS 1904
0.6
1.5
0.5
1.25
JIS
C1604-1981
0.5
JIS
C1604-1981
0.2
-200
-100
0.4
1.0
0.3
0.75
0.2
0.5
0.1
0.25
0
TEMPERATURE C
CLASS A
DIN 43760-1980
BS 1904
JIS
C1604-1981
0.15
100
200
Z-250
300
400
500
RTD Tables
According to DIN EN 60751
for Class B and Class A
Resistance vs Temperature Tables

According to DIN EN 60751 for Class B and Class A
= .00385 per ITS-90
t 0C :
R(t) = R0 (1 + A t + B t 2)
with
A = 3,9083 10-3 C-1
B = -5,775 10-7 C-2
R0 = 100
t < 0C :
R(t) = R0 [1 + A t + B t 2 + C (t - 100C) t 3)
with
A = 3,9083 10-3 C-1
B = -5,775 10-7 C-2
C = -4,183 10-13 C
R0 = 100
Class B:
dt = (0.3 + 0.005 lt l)C
Class A
dt = (0.15 + 0.002 lt l)C
Z-251
RTD Temperature
vs. Resistance Table
For European Curve, Alpha = .00385, ITS-90
C
Ohms
-200
199
198
197
196
195
194
193
192
191
190
189
188
187
186
185
184
183
182
181
180
179
178
177
176
175
174
173
172
171
170
169
168
167
166
165
164
163
162
161
160
159
158
157
156
155
154
153
152
151
150
149
148
147
146
145
144
143
142
141
18.52
18.96
19.39
19.82
20.25
20.68
21.11
21.54
21.97
22.40
22.83
23.26
23.69
24.12
24.55
24.97
25.39
25.82
26.25
26.67
27.10
27.52
27.95
28.37
28.80
29.22
29.65
30.07
30.49
30.92
31.34
31.76
32.18
32.61
33.03
33.45
33.86
34.28
34.70
35.12
35.54
35.96
36.38
36.80
37.22
37.63
38.05
38.47
38.89
39.31
39.72
40.14
40.56
40.97
41.39
41.80
42.22
42.64
43.05
43.46
1 Celsius Increments
Diff.
Ohms
Diff.
Ohms
Diff.
Ohms
Diff.
Ohms
Diff.
Ohms
Diff.
0.44
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.42
0.42
0.43
0.43
0.42
0.43
0.42
0.43
0.42
0.43
0.42
0.43
0.42
0.42
0.43
0.42
0.42
0.42
0.43
0.42
0.42
0.41
0.42
0.42
0.42
0.42
0.42
0.42
0.42
0.42
0.41
0.42
0.42
0.42
0.42
0.41
0.42
0.42
0.41
0.42
0.41
0.42
0.42
0.41
0.41
-140
139
138
137
136
135
134
133
132
131
130
129
128
127
126
125
124
123
122
121
120
119
118
117
116
115
114
113
112
111
110
109
108
107
106
105
104
103
102
101
100
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
91
90
89
88
87
86
85
84
83
82
81
43.88
44.29
44.71
45.12
45.53
45.95
46.35
46.76
47.18
47.59
48.00
48.41
48.82
49.23
49.64
50.06
50.47
50.88
51.29
51.70
52.11
52.52
52.92
53.33
53.74
54.15
54.56
54.97
55.38
55.78
56.19
56.60
57.00
57.41
57.82
58.22
58.63
59.04
59.44
59.85
60.26
60.67
61.07
61.48
61.87
62.29
62.69
63.10
63.50
63.91
64.30
64.70
65.11
65.51
65.91
66.31
66.72
67.12
67.52
67.92
0.42
0.41
0.42
0.41
0.41
0.42
0.40
0.41
0.42
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.42
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.40
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.40
0.41
0.41
0.40
0.41
0.41
0.40
0.41
0.41
0.40
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.40
0.41
0.41
0.42
0.40
0.41
0.40
0.41
0.39
0.40
0.41
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.41
0.40
0.40
0.40
-80
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
71
70
69
68
67
66
65
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
68.33
68.73
69.13
69.53
69.93
70.33
70.73
71.13
71.53
71.93
72.33
72.73
73.13
73.53
73.93
74.33
74.73
75.13
75.53
75.93
76.33
76.73
77.13
77.52
77.92
78.32
78.72
79.11
79.51
79.91
80.31
80.70
81.10
81.50
81.89
82.29
82.69
83.08
83.48
83.88
84.27
84.67
85.06
85.46
85.85
86.25
86.64
87.04
87.43
87.83
88.22
88.62
89.01
89.40
89.80
90.19
90.59
90.98
91.37
91.77
0.41
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.39
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.39
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.39
0.40
0.40
0.39
0.40
0.40
0.39
0.40
0.40
0.39
0.40
0.39
0.40
0.39
0.40
0.39
0.40
0.39
0.40
0.39
0.40
0.39
0.39
0.40
0.39
0.40
0.39
0.39
0.40
-20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
92.16
92.55
92.95
93.34
93.73
94.12
94.52
94.91
95.30
95.69
96.09
96.48
96.87
97.26
97.65
98.04
98.44
98.83
99.22
99.61
0.39
0.39
0.40
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.40
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.40
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.40
0.39
0.39
0.39
0
+1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
100.00
100.39
100.78
101.17
101.56
101.95
102.34
102.73
103.12
103.51
103.90
104.29
104.68
105.07
105.46
105.85
106.24
106.63
107.02
107.40
107.79
108.18
108.57
108.96
109.35
109.73
110.12
110.51
110.90
111.28
111.67
112.06
112.45
112.83
113.22
113.61
113.99
114.38
114.77
115.15
115.54
115.93
116.31
116.70
117.08
117.47
117.85
118.24
118.62
119.01
119.40
119.78
120.16
120.55
120.93
121.32
121.70
122.09
122.47
122.86
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.38
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.38
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.38
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.38
0.39
0.39
0.38
0.39
0.39
0.38
0.39
0.39
0.38
0.39
0.38
0.39
0.38
0.39
0.38
0.39
0.39
0.38
0.38
0.39
0.38
0.39
0.38
0.39
0.38
0.39
+60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
123.24
123.62
124.01
124.39
124.77
125.17
125.55
125.93
126.32
126.70
127.08
127.46
127.85
128.23
128.61
128.99
129.38
129.76
130.14
130.52
130.90
131.28
131.67
132.05
132.43
132.81
133.19
133.57
133.95
134.33
134.71
135.09
135.47
135.85
136.23
136.61
136.99
137.37
137.75
138.13
138.51
138.89
139.27
139.65
140.03
140.39
140.77
141.15
141.53
141.91
142.29
142.66
143.04
143.42
143.80
144.18
144.56
144.94
145.32
145.69
0.38
0.38
0.39
0.38
0.38
0.40
0.38
0.38
0.39
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.39
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.39
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.39
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.36
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.37
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.37
Note: At 100C, resistance is 138.50 ohms.
(DIN 43 760)
Z-252
RTD Temperature
C
Ohms
Diff.
+120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
146.07
146.45
146.82
147.20
147.58
147.95
148.33
148.71
149.08
149.46
149.83
150.21
150.58
150.96
151.34
151.71
152.09
152.46
152.84
153.21
153.58
153.95
154.32
154.71
155.08
155.46
155.83
156.21
156.58
156.96
157.33
157.71
158.08
158.45
158.83
159.20
159.56
159.94
160.31
160.68
161.05
161.43
161.80
162.17
162.54
162.91
163.28
163.66
164.03
164.40
164.77
165.14
165.51
165.88
166.25
166.62
167.00
167.37
167.74
168.11
0.38 +180
0.38 181
0.37 182
0.38 183
0.38 184
0.37 185
0.38 186
0.38 187
0.37 188
0.38 189
0.37 190
0.38 191
0.37 192
0.38 193
0.38 194
0.37 195
0.38 196
0.37 197
0.38 198
0.37 199
0.37 200
0.37 201
0.37 202
0.39 203
0.37 204
0.38 205
0.37 206
0.38 207
0.37 208
0.38 209
0.37 210
0.38 211
0.37 212
0.37 213
0.38 214
0.37 215
0.36 216
0.38 217
0.37 218
0.37 219
0.37 220
0.38 221
0.37 222
0.37 223
0.37 224
0.37 225
0.37 226
0.38 227
0.37 228
0.37 229
0.37 230
0.37 231
0.37 232
0.37 233
0.37 234
0.37 235
0.38 236
0.37 237
0.37 238
0.37 239
Ohms
Diff.
Ohms
Diff.
Ohms
Diff.
168.48
168.85
169.22
169.59
169.96
170.33
170.69
171.06
171.43
171.80
172.17
172.54
172.91
173.27
173.64
174.01
174.39
174.75
175.12
175.49
175.86
176.23
176.59
176.96
177.33
177.70
178.06
178.43
178.80
179.16
179.53
179.90
180.26
180.63
180.99
181.36
181.73
182.09
182.46
182.82
183.19
183.55
183.92
184.28
184.65
185.01
185.38
185.74
186.11
186.47
186.84
187.20
187.56
187.93
188.29
188.65
189.02
189.38
189.74
190.11
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.36
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.36
0.37
0.37
0.38
0.36
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.36
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.36
0.37
0.37
0.36
0.37
0.37
0.36
0.37
0.36
0.37
0.37
0.36
0.37
0.36
0.37
0.36
0.37
0.36
0.37
0.36
0.37
0.36
0.37
0.36
0.37
0.36
0.36
0.37
0.36
0.36
0.37
0.36
0.36
0.37
+240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
190.47
190.83
191.20
191.56
191.92
192.28
192.66
193.02
193.38
193.74
194.10
194.47
194.83
195.19
195.55
195.90
196.26
196.62
196.98
197.35
197.71
198.07
198.43
198.79
199.15
199.51
199.87
200.23
200.59
200.95
201.31
201.67
202.03
202.38
202.74
203.10
203.46
203.82
204.18
204.54
204.90
205.25
205.61
205.97
206.33
206.70
207.05
207.41
207.77
208.13
208.48
208.84
209.20
209.55
209.91
210.27
210.62
210.98
211.34
211.69
0.36
0.36
0.37
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.38
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.37
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.35
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.37
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.35
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.35
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.37
0.35
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.35
0.36
0.36
0.35
0.36
0.36
0.35
0.36
0.36
0.35
+300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
212.05
212.40
212.76
213.12
213.47
213.83
214.19
214.55
214.90
215.26
215.61
215.97
216.32
216.68
217.03
217.39
217.73
218.08
218.44
218.79
219.15
219.50
219.85
220.21
220.56
220.91
221.27
221.62
221.97
222.32
222.68
223.03
223.38
223.73
224.09
224.45
224.80
225.15
225.50
225.85
226.21
226.56
226.91
227.26
227.61
227.96
228.31
228.66
229.01
229.36
229.72
230.07
230.42
230.77
231.12
231.47
231.81
232.16
232.51
232.86
0.36 +360
0.35
361
0.36
362
0.36
363
0.35
364
0.36
365
0.36
366
0.36
367
0.35
368
0.36
369
0.35
370
0.36
371
0.35
372
0.36
373
0.35
374
0.36
375
0.34
376
0.35
377
0.36
378
0.35
379
0.36
380
0.35
381
0.35
382
0.36
383
0.35
384
0.35
385
0.36
386
0.35
387
0.35
388
0.35
389
0.36
390
0.35
391
0.35
392
0.35
393
0.36
394
0.36
395
0.35
396
0.35
397
0.35
398
0.35
399
0.36
400
0.35
401
0.35
402
0.35
403
0.35
404
0.35
405
0.35
406
0.35
407
0.35
408
0.35
409
0.34
410
0.35
411
0.35
412
0.35
413
0.35
414
0.35
415
0.36
416
0.35
417
0.35
418
0.35
419
Ohms
Diff.
233.21
233.56
233.91
234.26
234.60
234.95
235.30
235.65
236.00
236.35
236.70
237.05
237.40
237.75
238.09
238.44
238.79
239.14
239.48
239.83
240.18
240.52
240.87
241.22
241.56
241.91
242.25
242.60
242.95
243.29
243.64
243.98
244.33
244.67
245.02
245.36
245.71
246.05
246.40
246.74
247.09
247.43
247.78
248.12
248.46
248.81
249.15
249.50
249.84
250.18
250.53
250.89
251.21
251.55
251.90
252.24
252.59
252.94
253.28
253.62
0.35 +420
0.35
421
0.35
422
0.35
423
0.36
424
0.35
425
0.35
426
0.35
427
0.35
428
0.35
429
0.35
430
0.35
431
0.35
432
0.35
433
0.34
434
0.35
435
0.35
436
0.35
437
0.34
438
0.35
439
0.35
440
0.34
441
0.35
442
0.35
443
0.34
444
0.35
445
0.34
446
0.35
447
0.35
448
0.34
449
0.35
450
0.34
451
0.35
452
0.34
453
0.35
454
0.34
455
0.35
456
0.34
457
0.35
458
0.34
459
0.35
460
0.34
461
0.35
462
0.34
463
0.34
464
0.35
465
0.34
466
0.35
467
0.34
468
0.34
469
0.35
470
0.34
471
0.34
472
0.34
473
0.35
474
0.34
475
0.35
476
0.35
477
0.34
478
0.34
479
Ohms
Diff.
253.96
254.30
254.65
254.99
255.33
255.67
256.01
256.35
256.70
257.04
257.38
257.72
258.06
258.40
258.74
259.08
259.42
259.76
260.10
260.44
260.78
261.12
261.46
261.80
262.14
262.48
262.83
263.17
263.50
263.84
264.18
264.52
264.86
265.20
265.54
265.87
266.21
266.55
266.89
267.22
267.56
267.90
268.24
268.57
268.91
269.25
269.58
269.92
270.26
270.59
270.93
271.27
271.60
271.94
272.27
272.61
272.95
273.28
273.62
273.95
0.34
0.34
0.35
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.35
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.35
0.34
0.33
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.33
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.33
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.33
0.34
0.34
0.33
0.34
0.34
0.33
0.34
0.34
0.33
0.34
0.33
0.34
0.34
0.33
0.34
0.33
(DIN 43 760)
Z-253
RTD Temperature
C
Ohms
Diff.
+480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
274.29
274.62
274.96
275.29
275.63
275.96
276.31
276.64
276.97
277.31
277.64
277.98
278.31
278.64
278.98
279.31
279.64
279.98
280.31
280.64
280.98
281.31
281.64
281.97
282.31
282.64
282.97
283.30
283.63
283.97
284.30
284.63
284.96
285.29
285.62
285.95
286.30
286.63
286.96
287.29
287.62
287.95
288.28
288.61
288.94
289.27
289.60
289.93
290.26
290.59
290.92
291.25
291.58
291.90
292.23
292.56
292.90
293.23
293.56
293.89
294.21
294.54
0.34 +542
0.33 543
0.34 544
0.33 545
0.34 546
0.33 547
0.34 548
0.33 549
0.33 550
0.34 551
0.33 552
0.34 553
0.33 554
0.33 555
0.34 556
0.33 557
0.33 558
0.34 559
0.33 560
0.33 561
0.34 562
0.33 563
0.33 564
0.33 565
0.34 566
0.33 567
0.33 568
0.33 569
0.33 570
0.34 571
0.33 572
0.33 573
0.33 574
0.33 575
0.33 576
0.33 577
0.35 578
0.33 579
0.33 580
0.33 581
0.33 582
0.33 583
0.33 584
0.33 585
0.33 586
0.33 587
0.33 588
0.33 589
0.33 590
0.33 591
0.33 592
0.33 593
0.33 594
0.32 595
0.33 596
0.33 597
0.34 598
0.33 599
0.33 600
0.33 601
0.32 602
0.33 603
Ohms
Diff.
Ohms
Diff.
Ohms
Diff.
294.87
295.20
295.53
295.85
296.18
296.51
296.84
297.16
297.49
297.82
298.14
298.47
298.80
299.12
299.45
299.78
300.10
300.43
300.75
301.08
301.41
301.73
302.06
302.38
302.71
303.03
303.36
303.68
304.01
304.33
304.66
304.98
305.30
305.63
305.95
306.28
306.60
306.92
307.25
307.57
307.89
308.22
308.54
308.86
309.19
309.51
309.83
310.15
310.48
310.80
311.12
311.45
311.78
312.10
312.43
312.75
313.07
313.39
313.71
314.04
314.36
314.68
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.32
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.32
0.33
0.33
0.32
0.33
0.33
0.32
0.33
0.33
0.32
0.33
0.32
0.33
0.33
0.32
0.33
0.32
0.33
0.32
0.33
0.32
0.33
0.32
0.33
0.32
0.32
0.33
0.32
0.33
0.32
0.32
0.33
0.32
0.32
0.33
0.32
0.32
0.33
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.33
0.32
0.32
0.33
0.33
0.32
0.33
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.33
0.32
0.32
+604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
315.00
315.32
315.64
315.96
316.28
316.60
316.92
317.24
317.56
317.88
318.20
318.52
318.85
319.17
319.49
319.81
320.12
320.44
320.76
321.08
321.40
321.72
322.03
322.34
322.66
322.98
323.30
323.61
323.93
324.25
324.57
324.88
325.21
325.53
325.85
326.16
326.48
326.79
327.11
327.43
327.74
328.06
328.38
328.69
329.01
329.32
329.64
329.95
330.27
330.58
330.90
331.21
331.53
331.84
332.16
332.47
332.79
333.10
333.41
333.73
334.04
334.36
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.33
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.31
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.31
0.31
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.31
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.31
0.33
0.32
0.32
0.31
0.32
0.31
0.32
0.32
0.31
0.32
0.32
0.31
0.32
0.31
0.32
0.31
0.32
0.31
0.32
0.31
0.32
0.31
0.32
0.31
0.32
0.31
0.31
0.32
0.31
0.32
+666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
334.68
334.99
335.31
335.62
335.93
336.25
336.56
336.87
337.18
337.50
337.81
338.12
338.43
338.75
339.06
339.37
339.68
339.99
340.30
340.62
340.94
341.25
341.55
341.87
342.18
342.49
342.80
343.11
343.42
343.73
344.04
344.35
344.66
344.97
345.28
345.59
345.90
346.21
346.52
346.83
346.15
347.46
347.76
348.07
348.38
348.69
349.00
349.31
349.61
349.92
350.23
350.54
350.85
351.15
351.46
351.77
352.07
352.38
352.69
352.99
353.30
353.61
0.32 +728
0.31
729
0.32
730
0.31
731
0.31
732
0.32
733
0.31
734
0.31
735
0.31
736
0.32
737
0.31
738
0.31
739
0.31
740
0.32
741
0.31
742
0.31
743
0.31
744
0.31
745
0.31
746
0.32
747
0.32
748
0.31
749
0.30
750
0.32
751
0.31
752
0.31
753
0.31
754
0.31
755
0.31
756
0.31
757
0.31
758
0.31
759
0.31
760
0.31
761
0.31
762
0.31
763
0.31
764
0.31
765
0.31
766
0.31
767
0.32
768
0.31
769
0.30
770
0.31
771
0.31
772
0.31
773
0.31
774
0.31
775
0.30
776
0.31
777
0.31
778
0.31
779
0.31
780
0.30
781
0.31
782
0.31
783
0.30
784
0.31
785
0.31
786
0.30
787
0.31
788
0.31
789
Z-254
Ohms
Diff.
353.91
354.22
354.53
354.83
355.14
355.44
355.75
356.06
356.37
356.68
356.98
357.29
357.59
357.90
358.20
358.51
358.81
359.12
359.42
359.72
360.03
360.33
360.64
360.94
361.24
361.55
361.85
362.15
362.46
362.76
363.06
363.36
363.67
363.97
364.27
364.57
364.88
365.18
365.49
365.79
366.09
366.40
366.70
367.00
367.30
367.60
367.90
368.20
368.50
368.81
369.11
369.41
369.71
370.01
370.31
370.61
370.91
371.21
371.52
371.82
372.12
372.41
0.30 +790
0.31
791
0.31
792
0.30
793
0.31
794
0.30
795
0.31
796
0.31
797
0.31
798
0.31
799
0.30
800
0.31
801
0.30
802
0.31
803
0.30
804
0.31
805
0.30
806
0.31
807
0.30
808
0.30
809
0.31
810
0.30
811
0.31
812
0.30
813
0.30
814
0.31
815
0.30
816
0.30
817
0.31
818
0.30
819
0.30
820
0.30
821
0.31
822
0.30
823
0.30
824
0.30
825
0.31
826
0.30
827
0.31
828
0.30
829
0.30
830
0.31
831
0.30
832
0.30
833
0.30
834
0.30
835
0.30
836
0.30
837
0.30
838
0.31
839
0.30
840
0.30
841
0.30
842
0.30
843
0.30
844
0.30
845
0.30
846
0.30
847
0.31
848
0.30
849
0.30
850
0.29
Ohms
Diff.
372.71
373.01
373.31
373.61
373.91
374.21
374.51
374.80
374.10
375.40
375.70
376.00
376.29
376.59
376.89
377.19
377.49
377.79
378.09
378.39
378.68
378.98
379.28
379.57
379.87
380.17
380.46
380.76
381.05
381.35
381.65
381.94
382.24
382.53
382.83
383.12
383.42
383.71
384.01
384.30
384.60
384.89
385.18
385.48
385.77
386.07
386.37
386.66
386.96
387.25
387.55
387.84
388.13
388.42
388.72
389.01
389.31
389.61
389.90
390.19
390.48
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.29
0.29
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.29
0.29
0.29
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.30
0.29
0.29
0.29
(DIN 43 760)
RTD Temperature
For American Curve, Alpha = .00392
Ohms
Ohms
Ohms
Ohms
Ohms
Ohms
Ohms
Ohms
Ohms
-100
-99
-98
-97
-96
-95
-94
-93
-92
-91
-90
-89
-88
-87
-86
-85
-84
-83
-82
-81
-80
-79
-78
-77
-76
-75
-74
-73
-72
-71
-70
-69
-68
-67
-66
-65
-64
-63
-62
-61
-60
-59
-58
-57
-56
-55
-54
-53
-52
-51
-50
-49
-48
-47
-46
-45
-44
-43
-42
-41
-40
-39
59.57
59.98
60.39
60.80
61.21
61.63
62.04
62.45
62.86
63.27
63.68
64.09
64.50
64.91
65.32
65.73
66.14
66.55
66.96
67.36
67.77
68.18
68.59
69.00
69.41
69.81
70.22
70.63
71.04
71.44
71.85
72.26
72.66
73.07
73.48
73.88
74.29
74.70
75.10
75.51
75.91
76.32
76.72
77.13
77.53
77.94
78.34
78.75
79.15
79.56
79.96
80.36
80.77
81.17
81.58
81.98
82.38
82.79
83.19
83.59
83.99
84.40
-38
-37
-36
-35
-34
-33
-32
-31
-30
-29
-28
-27
-26
-25
-24
-23
-22
-21
-20
-19
-18
-17
-16
-15
-14
-13
-12
-11
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
84.80
85.20
85.60
86.01
86.41
86.81
87.21
87.61
88.01
88.42
88.82
89.22
89.62
90.02
90.42
90.82
91.22
91.62
92.02
92.42
92.82
93.22
93.62
94.02
94.42
94.82
95.22
95.62
96.02
96.42
96.81
97.21
97.61
98.01
98.41
98.81
99.20
99.60
100.00
100.40
100.80
101.19
101.59
101.99
102.38
102.78
103.18
103.57
103.97
104.37
104.76
105.16
105.56
105.95
106.35
106.74
107.14
107.53
107.93
108.32
108.72
109.11
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
109.51
109.90
110.30
110.69
111.09
111.48
111.88
112.27
112.66
113.06
113.45
113.84
114.24
114.63
115.02
115.42
115.81
116.20
116.59
116.99
117.38
117.77
118.16
118.56
118.95
119.34
119.73
120.12
120.51
120.91
121.30
121.69
122.08
122.47
122.86
123.25
123.64
124.03
124.42
124.81
125.20
125.59
125.98
126.37
126.76
127.15
127.54
127.93
128.32
128.71
129.09
129.48
129.87
130.26
130.65
131.04
131.42
131.81
132.20
132.59
132.98
133.36
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
133.75
134.14
134.52
134.91
135.30
135.68
136.07
136.46
136.84
137.23
137.62
138.00
138.39
138.77
139.16
139.55
139.93
140.32
140.70
141.09
141.47
141.86
142.24
142.63
143.01
143.39
143.78
144.16
144.55
144.93
145.31
145.70
146.08
146.47
146.85
147.23
147.61
148.00
148.38
148.76
149.15
149.53
149.91
150.29
150.67
151.06
151.44
151.82
152.20
152.58
152.96
153.35
153.73
154.11
154.49
154.87
155.25
155.63
156.01
156.39
156.77
157.15
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
157.53
157.91
158.29
158.67
159.05
159.43
159.81
160.19
160.57
160.95
161.33
161.70
162.08
162.46
162.84
163.22
163.60
163.97
164.35
164.73
165.11
165.48
165.86
166.24
166.62
166.99
167.37
167.75
168.12
168.50
168.88
169.25
169.63
170.00
170.38
170.76
171.13
171.51
171.88
172.26
172.63
173.01
173.38
173.76
174.13
174.51
174.88
175.26
175.63
176.01
176.38
176.75
177.13
177.50
177.88
178.25
178.62
179.00
179.37
179.74
180.12
180.49
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
180.86
181.23
181.61
181.98
182.35
182.72
183.09
183.47
183.84
184.21
184.58
184.95
185.32
185.70
186.07
186.44
186.81
187.18
187.55
187.92
188.29
188.66
189.03
189.40
189.77
190.14
190.51
190.88
191.25
191.62
191.99
192.36
192.73
193.09
193.46
193.83
194.20
194.57
194.94
195.31
195.67
196.04
196.41
196.78
197.14
197.51
197.88
198.25
198.61
198.98
199.35
199.71
200.08
200.45
200.81
201.18
201.55
201.91
202.28
202.64
203.01
203.38
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
203.74
204.11
204.47
204.84
205.20
205.57
205.93
206.30
206.66
207.02
207.39
207.75
208.12
208.48
208.85
209.21
209.57
209.94
210.30
210.66
211.03
211.39
211.75
212.11
212.48
212.84
213.20
213.56
213.93
214.29
214.65
215.01
215.37
215.74
216.10
216.46
216.82
217.18
217.54
217.90
218.26
218.63
218.99
219.35
219.71
220.07
220.43
220.79
221.15
221.51
221.87
222.23
222.59
222.94
223.30
223.66
224.02
224.38
224.74
225.10
225.46
225.81
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
226.17
226.53
226.89
227.25
227.61
227.96
228.32
228.68
229.04
229.39
229.75
230.11
230.46
230.82
231.18
231.53
231.89
232.25
232.60
232.96
233.31
233.67
234.03
234.38
234.74
235.09
235.45
235.80
236.16
236.51
236.87
237.22
237.58
237.93
238.28
238.64
238.99
239.35
239.70
240.05
240.41
240.76
241.11
241.47
241.82
242.17
242.53
242.88
243.23
243.58
243.94
244.29
244.64
244.99
245.35
245.70
246.05
246.40
246.75
247.10
247.46
247.81
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
248.16
248.51
248.86
249.21
249.56
249.91
250.26
250.61
250.96
251.31
251.66
252.01
252.36
252.71
253.06
253.41
253.76
254.11
254.46
254.80
255.15
255.50
255.85
256.20
256.55
256.89
257.24
257.59
257.94
258.29
258.63
258.98
259.33
259.67
260.02
260.37
260.72
261.06
261.41
261.75
262.10
262.45
262.79
263.14
263.49
263.83
264.18
264.52
264.87
265.21
265.56
265.90
266.25
266.59
266.94
267.28
267.63
267.97
268.31
268.66
269.00
269.35
Z-255
Thermistor Resistance
vs. Temperature
Part NO.
@25C
BODY
END
TEMP. C
44004
44033
2252
BLACK
ORANGE
YELLOW
ORANGE
- 80
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
71
1660K
1518K
1390K
1273K
1167K
1071K
982.8K
902.7K
829.7K
763.1K
-70
69
68
67
66
65
64
63
62
61
702.3K
646.7K
595.9K
549.4K
506.9K
467.9K
432.2K
399.5K
369.4K
341.8K
-60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
44005
44030
3000
BLACK
ORANGE
44007
44034
5000
BLACK
ORANGE
44006
44031
10,000
BLACK
ORANGE
44008
44032
30,000
BLACK
ORANGE
GREEN
VIOLET
BLACK
YELLOW
RESISTANCE
BLUE
BROWN
GRAY
RED
2211K
2022K
1851K
1696K
1555K
1426K
1309K
1202K
1105K
1016K
PART NO.
@25C
BODY
END
TEMP. C
44004
44033
2252
BLACK
ORANGE
44005
44030
3000
BLACK
ORANGE
YELLOW
ORANGE
GREEN
BLACK
44007
44034
5000
BLACK
ORANGE
44006
44031
10,000
BLACK
ORANGE
VIOLET
BLUE
YELLOW
BROWN
RESISTANCE
44008
44032
30,000
BLACK
ORANGE
GRAY
RED
3685K
3371K
3086K
2827K
2592K
2378K
2182K
2005K
1843K
1695K
3558K
3296K
3055K
2833K
2629K
2440K
2266K
2106K
1957K
1821K
-20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
21.87K
20.64K
19.48K
18.40K
17.39K
16.43K
15.54K
14.70K
13.91K
13.16K
29.13K
27.49K
25.95K
24.51K
23.16K
21.89K
20.70K
19.58K
18.52K
17.53K
48.56K
45.83K
43.27K
40.86K
38.61K
36.49K
34.50K
32.63K
30.88K
29.23K
78.91K
74.91K
71.13K
67.57K
64.20K
61.02K
58.01K
55.17K
52.48K
49.94K
271.2K
256.5K
242.8K
229.8K
217.6K
206.2K
195.4K
185.2K
175.6K
166.6K
935.4K
861.4K
793.7K
731.8K
675.2K
623.3K
575.7K
532.1K
492.1K
455.3K
1560K
1436K
1323K
1220K
1126K
1039K
959.9K
887.2K
820.5K
759.2K
1694K
1577K
1469K
1369K
1276K
1190K
1111K
1037K
968.4K
904.9K
-10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
-1
12.46K
11.81K
11.19K
10.60K
10.05K
9534
9046
8586
8151
7741
16.60K
15.72K
14.90K
14.12K
13.39K
12.70K
12.05K
11.44K
10.86K
10.31K
27.67K
26.21K
24.83K
23.54K
22.32K
21.17K
20.08K
19.06K
18.10K
17.19K
47.54K
45.27K
43.11K
41.07K
39.14K
37.31K
35.57K
33.93K
32.37K
30.89K
158.0K
150.0K
142.4K
135.2K
128.5K
122.1K
116.0K
110.3K
104.9K
99.80K
316.5K
293.2K
271.7K
252.0K
233.8K
217.1K
201.7K
187.4K
174.3K
162.2K
421.5K
390.5K
361.9K
335.7K
311.5K
289.2K
268.6K
249.7K
232.2K
216.0K
702.9K
651.1K
603.5K
559.7K
519.4K
482.2K
447.9K
416.3K
387.1K
360.2K
845.9K
791.1K
740.2K
692.8K
648.8K
607.8K
569.6K
534.1K
501.0K
470.1K
0
+1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
7355
6989
6644
6319
6011
5719
5444
5183
4937
4703
9796
9310
8851
8417
8006
7618
7252
6905
6576
6265
16.33K
15.52K
14.75K
14.03K
13.34K
12.70K
12.09K
11.51K
10.96K
10.44K
29.49K
28.15K
26.89K
25.69K
24.55K
23.46K
22.43K
21.45K
20.52K
19.63K
94.98K
90.41K
86.09K
81.99K
78.11K
74.44K
70.96K
67.66K
64.53K
61.56K
-50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
151.0K
140.6K
131.0K
122.1K
113.9K
106.3K
99.26K
92.72K
86.65K
81.02K
201.1K
187.3K
174.5K
162.7K
151.7K
141.6K
132.2K
123.5K
115.4K
107.9K
335.3K
312.3K
291.0K
271.3K
253.0K
236.2K
220.5K
205.9K
192.5K
180.0K
441.3K
414.5K
389.4K
366.0K
344.1K
323.7K
304.6K
286.7K
270.0K
254.4K
+10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
4482
4273
4074
3886
3708
3539
3378
3226
3081
2944
5971
5692
5427
5177
4939
4714
4500
4297
4105
3922
9951
9486
9046
8628
8232
7857
7500
7162
6841
6536
18.79K
17.98K
17.22K
16.49K
15.79K
15.13K
14.50K
13.90K
13.33K
12.79K
58.75K
56.07K
53.54K
51.13K
48.84K
46.67K
44.60K
42.64K
40.77K
38.99K
-40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
75.79K
70.93K
66.41K
62.21K
58.30K
54.66K
51.27K
48.11K
45.17K
42.42K
101.0K
94.48K
88.46K
82.87K
77.66K
72.81K
68.30K
64.09K
60.17K
56.51K
168.3K
157.5K
147.5K
138.2K
129.5K
121.4K
113.9K
106.9K
100.3K
94.22K
239.8K
226.0K
213.2K
201.1K
189.8K
179.2K
169.3K
160.0K
151.2K
143.0K
884.6K
830.9K
780.8K
733.9K
690.2K
649.3K
611.0K
575.2K
541.7K
510.4K
+ 20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
2814
2690
2572
2460
2354
2252
2156
2064
1977
1894
3748
3583
3426
3277
3135
3000
2872
2750
2633
2523
6247
5972
5710
5462
5225
5000
4787
4583
4389
4204
12.26K
11.77K
11.29K
10.84K
10.41K
10.00K
9605
9227
8867
8523
37.30K
35.70K
34.17K
32.71K
31.32K
30.00K
28.74K
27.54K
26.40K
25.31K
-30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
39.86K
37.47K
35.24K
33.15K
31.20K
29.38K
27.67K
26.07K
24.58K
23.18K
53.10K
49.91K
46.94K
44.16K
41.56K
39.13K
36.86K
34.73K
32.74K
30.87K
88.53K
83.22K
78.26K
73.62K
69.29K
65.24K
61.45K
57.90K
54.58K
51.47K
135.2K
127.9K
121.1K
114.6K
108.6K
102.9K
97.49K
92.43K
87.66K
83.16K
481.0K
453.5K
427.7K
403.5K
380.9K
359.6K
339.6K
320.9K
303.3K
286.7K
+ 30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
+ 39
1815
1739
1667
1599
1533
1471
1412
1355
1301
1249
2417
2317
2221
2130
2042
1959
1880
1805
1733
1664
4029
3861
3702
3549
3404
3266
3134
3008
2888
2773
8194
7880
7579
7291
7016
6752
6500
6258
6026
5805
24.27K
23.28K
22.33K
21.43K
20.57K
19.74K
18.96K
18.21K
17.49K
16.80K
Note: Data in black refer to thermistors with 0.2C interchangeability. Data in brown refer to thermistors with 0.1C interchangeability. Temperature/resistance figures are the same for both types.
Note: Only thermistors with 0.2C interchangeability are available encased in Teflon as standard parts. For Part No. of Teflon encased thermistors add 100 to part No. of 0-2C
interchangeable thermistor. Example: 44005 is a standard thermistor. 44105 is a Teflon encased thermistor with the same resistance values.
Z-256
Thermistor Resistance
vs. Temperature
Part NO.
44004
44033
44005
44030
44007
44034
44006
44031
44008
44032
PART NO.
44004
44033
44005
44030
44007
44034
44006
44031
44008
44032
@25C
2252
3000
5000
10,000
30,000
@25C
2252
3000
5000
10,000
30,000
BODY
BLACK
ORANGE
BLACK
ORANGE
BLACK
ORANGE
BLACK
ORANGE
BLACK
ORANGE
BODY
BLACK
ORANGE
BLACK
ORANGE
BLACK
ORANGE
BLACK
ORANGE
BLACK
ORANGE
END
YELLOW
ORANGE
GREEN
BLACK
VIOLET
YELLOW
BLUE
BROWN
GRAY
RED
END
YELLOW
ORANGE
GREEN
BLACK
VIOLET
YELLOW
BLUE
BROWN
GRAY
RED
RESISTANCE
TEMP. C
+40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
1200
1152
1107
1064
1023
983.8
946.2
910.2
875.8
842.8
+50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
RESISTANCE
TEMP. C
1598
1535
1475
1418
1363
1310
1260
1212
1167
1123
2663
2559
2459
2363
2272
2184
2101
2021
1944
1871
5592
5389
5193
5006
4827
4655
4489
4331
4179
4033
16.15K
15.52K
14.92K
14.35K
13.80K
13.28K
12.77K
12.29K
11.83K
11.39K
+100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
152.8
148.4
144.2
140.1
136.1
132.3
128.6
125.0
121.6
118.2
203.8
197.9
192.2
186.8
181.5
176.4
171.4
166.7
162.0
157.6
339.6
329.8
320.4
311.3
302.5
294.0
285.7
277.8
270.1
262.6
816.8
794.6
773.1
752.3
732.1
712.6
693.6
675.3
657.5
640.3
2069
2009
1950
1894
1840
1788
1737
1688
1640
1594
811.3
781.1
752.2
724.5
697.9
672.5
648.1
624.8
602.4
580.9
1081
1040
1002
965.0
929.6
895.8
863.3
832.2
802.3
773.7
1801
1734
1670
1608
1549
1493
1439
1387
1337
1290
3893
3758
3629
3504
3385
3270
3160
3054
2952
2854
10.97K
10.57K
10.18K
9807
9450
9109
8781
8467
8166
7876
+110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
115.0
111.8
108.8
105.8
103.0
100.2
97.6
95.0
92.5
90.0
153.2
149.0
145.0
141.1
137.2
133.6
130.0
126.5
123.2
119.9
255.4
248.4
241.6
235.1
228.7
222.6
216.7
210.9
205.3
199.9
623.5
607.3
591.6
576.4
561.6
547.3
533.4
519.9
506.8
494.1
1550
1507
1465
1425
1386
1348
1311
1276
1241
1208
+60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
560.3
540.5
521.5
503.3
485.8
469.0
452.9
437.4
422.5
408.2
746.3
719.9
694.7
670.4
647.1
624.7
603.3
582.6
562.9
543.7
1244
1200
1158
1117
1079
1041
1006
971.1
938.0
906.3
2760
2669
2582
2497
2417
2339
2264
2191
2122
2055
7599
7332
7076
6830
6594
6367
6149
5940
5738
5545
+120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
87.7
85.4
83.2
71.1
79.0
77.0
75.0
73.1
71.3
69.5
116.8
113.8
110.8
107.9
105.2
102.5
99.9
97.3
94.9
92.5
194.7
189.6
184.7
179.9
175.3
170.8
166.4
162.2
158.1
154.1
481.8
469.8
458.2
446.9
435.9
425.3
414.9
404.9
395.1
385.6
1176
1145
1114
1085
1057
1029
1002
976.3
951.1
926.7
+70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
394.5
381.2
368.5
356.2
344.5
333.1
322.3
311.8
301.7
292.0
525.4
507.8
490.9
474.7
459.0
444.0
429.5
415.6
402.2
389.3
875.7
846.4
818.3
791.2
765.1
740.0
715.9
692.7
670.3
648.8
1990
1928
1868
1810
1754
1700
1648
1598
1549
1503
5359
5180
5007
4842
4682
4529
4381
4239
4102
3970
+130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
67.8
66.1
64.4
62.9
61.3
59.8
58.4
57.0
55.6
54.3
90.2
87.9
85.7
83.6
81.6
79.6
77.6
75.8
73.9
72.2
150.3
146.5
142.9
139.4
136.0
132.6
129.4
126.3
123.2
120.3
376.4
367.4
358.7
350.3
342.0
334.0
326.3
318.7
311.3
304.2
903.0
880.0
857.7
836.1
815.0
794.6
774.8
755.6
736.9
718.8
+80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
282.7
273.7
265.0
256.7
248.6
240.9
233.4
226.2
219.3
212.6
376.9
364.9
353.4
342.2
331.5
321.2
311.3
301.7
292.4
283.5
628.1
608.2
588.9
570.4
552.6
535.4
518.8
502.8
487.4
472.6
1458
1414
1372
1332
1293
1255
1218
1183
1149
1116
3843
3720
3602
3489
3379
3273
3172
3073
2979
2887
+140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
53.0
51.7
50.5
49.3
48.2
47.0
45.9
44.9
43.8
42.8
70.4
68.8
67.1
65.5
64.0
62.5
61.1
59.6
58.3
56.9
117.4
114.6
111.9
109.2
106.7
104.2
101.8
99.40
97.10
94.87
297.2
290.4
283.8
277.4
271.2
265.1
259.2
253.4
247.8
242.3
701.2
684.1
667.5
651.3
635.6
620.3
605.5
591.1
577.1
563.5
+90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
206.1
199.9
193.9
188.1
182.5
177.1
171.9
166.9
162.0
157.3
274.9
266.6
258.6
250.9
243.4
236.2
229.3
222.6
216.1
209.8
458.2
444.4
431.0
418.2
405.7
393.7
382.1
370.9
360.1
349.7
1084
1053
1023
994.2
966.3
939.3
913.2
887.9
863.4
839.7
2799
2714
2632
2552
2476
2402
2331
2262
2195
2131
+150
41.9
55.6
92.70
237.0
550.2
Note: Data in black refer to thermistors with 0.2C interchangeability.

Data in blue refer to thermistors with 0.1C interchangeability.
Temperature/resistance figures are the same for both types.
Note: Only thermistors with 0.2C interchangeability are available encased
in Teflon as standard parts. For Part No. of Teflon encased thermistors
add 100 to part No. of 0.2C interchangeable thermistors. Example:
44005 is a standard thermistor. 44105 is a Teflon encased thermistor
with the same resistance values.
Z-257
Resistance vs Temperature for

Series 700 Linear Thermistors
T1 RESISTANCE VERSUS TEMPERATURE -30 to +100C
TEMPC RES
These tables give the resistance

values for T1 and T2 as defined on
Page F-10 for the 44018 Linear
Response Thermistor which is used
in the Series 700 Linear Thermistor
Probes. Resistance in ohms.
Temperature in C.
TEMPC RES
TEMPC RES
TEMPC RES
TEMPC RES
-30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
106.2K
99.82K
93.88K
88.32K
83.12K
78.26K
73.72K
69.46K
65.48K
61.74K
0
+1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
19.59K
18.62K
17.70K
16.83K
16.01K
15.24K
14.50K
13.81K
13.15K
12.53K
+30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
4834
4634
4442
4260
4084
3918
3760
3610
3466
3328
+60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
1493
1440
1389
1341
1294
1249
1207
1165
1126
1087
+90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
549.8
533.2
517.2
501.8
486.8
472.4
458.6
445.2
432.2
419.6
-20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
58.26K
54.98K
51.90K
49.02K
46.32K
43.78K
41.40K
39.16K
37.04K
35.06K
+10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
11.94K
11.38K
10.85K
10.35K
9878
9428
9000
8594
8210
7844
+40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
3196
3070
2950
2836
2726
2620
2520
2424
2334
2246
+70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
1051
1016
981.8
949.4
918.0
888.0
859.0
831.2
804.4
773.6
+100
407.6
-10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
-1
33.20K
31.49K
29.80K
28.24K
26.78K
25.40K
24.10K
22.88K
21.72K
20.62K
+20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
7496
7166
6852
6554
6270
6000
5744
5500
5266
5046
+50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
2162
2080
2004
1930
1859
1792
1727
1664
1605
1547
+80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
753.8
729.8
706.8
684.4
663.0
642.4
622.6
603.4
584.8
567.0
T2 RESISTANCE VERSUS TEMPERATURE -30 to +100C

TEMPC RES
TEMPC RES
TEMPC RES
TEMPC RES
TEMPC RES
-30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
481.0K
453.5K
427.7K
403.5K
380.9K
359.6K
339.6K
320.9K
303.3K
286.7K
0
+1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
94.98K
90.41 K
86.09K
81.99K
78.11 K
74.44K
70.96K
67.66K
64.53K
61.56K
+30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
24.27K
23.28K
22.33K
21.43K
20.57K
19.74K
18.96K
18.21K
17.49K
16.80K
+60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
7599
7332
7076
6830
6594
6367
6149
5940
5738
5545
+90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
2799
2714
2632
2552
2476
2402
2331
2262
2195
2131
-20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
271.2K
256.5K
242.8K
229.8K
217.6K
206.2K
195.4K
185.2K
175.6K
166.6K
+10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
58.75K
56.07K
53.54K
51.13K
48.84K
46.67K
44.60K
42.64K
40.77K
38.99K
+40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
16.15K
15.52K
14.92K
14.35K
13.80K
13.28K
12.77K
12.29K
11.83K
11.39K
+70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
5359
5180
5007
4842
4682
4529
4381
4239
4102
3970
+100
2069
-10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
-1
158.0K
150.0K
142.4K
135.2K
128.5K
122.1 K
116.0K
110.3K
104.9K
99.80K
+20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
37.30K
35.70K
34.17K
32.71K
31.32K
30.00K
28.74K
27.54K
26.40K
25.31 K
+50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
10.97K
10.57K
10.18K
9807
9450
9109
8781
8467
8166
7876
+80
81
80
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
3843
3720
3602
3489
3379
3273
3172
3073
2979
2887
Z-258
Temperature Conversion Chart

C = 59 (F - 32)
Kelvin = C + 273.15
F = 95C + 32
Rankine = F + 459.67
TABLE EXAMPLE:
To Convert 1000C to F, look up 1000 and read left
To Convert 1000F to C, look up 1000 and read right
to F
From
to C
to F
From
to C
to F
From
to C
to F
From
to C
to F
From
-458
-456
-454
-452
-450
-272.22
-271.11
-270.00
-268.89
-267.78
-308
-306
-304
-302
-300
-188.89
-187.78
-186.67
-185.56
-184.44
-252.4
-248.2
-245.2
-241.6
-238.0
-158
-156
-154
-152
-150
-105.56
-104.44
-103.33
-102.22
-101.11
+17.6
+21.2
+24.8
+28.4
+32.0
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
-22.22
-21.11
-20.00
-18.89
-17.78
287.6
291.2
294.8
298.4
302.0
142
144
146
140
150
61.11
62.22
63.33
64.44
65.56
-448
-446
-444
-442
-440
-266.67
-265.56
-264.44
-263.33
-262.22
-298
-296
-294
-292
-290
-183.33
-182.22
-181.11
-180.00
-178.89
-234.4
-230.2
-227.2
-223.6
-220.0
-148
-146
-144
-142
-140
-100.00
-98.89
-97.78
-96.67
-95.56
+35.6
+39.2
+42.8
+46.4
+50.0
2
4
6
8
10
-16.67
-15.56
-14.44
-13.33
-12.22
305.6
309.2
312.8
316.4
320.0
152
154
156
158
160
66.67
67.78
68.89
70.00
71.11
-438
-436
-434
-432
-430
-261.11
-260.00
-258.89
-257.78
-256.67
-288
-286
-284
-282
-280
-177.78
-176.67
-175.56
-174.44
-173.33
-216.4
-212.8
-209.2
-205.6
-202.0
-138
-136
-134
-132
-130
-94.44
-93.33
-92.22
-91.11
-90.00
+53.6
+57.2
+60.8
+64.4
+68.0
12
14
16
18
20
-11.11
-10.00
-8.89
-7.78
-6.67
323.6
327.2
330.8
334.4
338.0
162
164
166
168
170
72.22
73.33
74.44
75.56
76.67
-428
-426
-424
-422
-420
-255.56
-264.44
-253.33
-252.22
-251.11
-457.6
-454.0
-278
-276
-274
-272
-270
-172.22
-171.11
-170.00
-168.89
-167.78
-198.4
-194.2
-191.2
-187.6
-184.0
-128
-126
-124
-122
-120
-88.89
-87.78
-86.67
-85.56
-84.44
+71.6
+75.2
+78.8
+82.4
+86.0
22
24
26
28
30
-5.56
-4.44
-3.33
-2.22
-1.11
341.6
345.2
348.8
352.4
356.0
172
174
176
178
180
77.78
78.89
80.00
81.11
82.22
-418
-416
-414
-412
-410
-250.00
-248.89
-247.78
-246.67
-245.56
-450.4
-446.8
-443.2
-439.6
-436.0
-268
-266
-264
-262
-260
-166.67
-165.56
-164.44
-163.33
-162.22
-180.4
-176.8
-173.2
-169.6
-166.0
-118
-116
-114
-112
-110
-83.33
-82.22
-81.11
-80.00
-78.89
+89.6
+93.2
+96.8
+100.4
+104.0
32
34
36
38
40
0.00
1.11
2.22
3.33
4.44
359.6
363.2
366.8
370.4
374.0
182
184
186
188
190
83.33
84.44
85.56
86.67
87.78
-408
-406
-404
-402
-400
-244.44
-243.33
-242.22
-241.11
-240.00
-432.4
-428.8
-425.2
-421.6
-418.0
-258
-256
-254
-252
-250
-161.11
-160.00
-158.89
-157.78
-156.67
-162.4
-158.8
-155.2
-151.6
-148.0
-108
-106
-104
-102
-100
-77.78
-76.67
-75.56
-74.44
-73.33
107.6
111.2
114.2
118.4
122.0
42
44
46
48
50
5.56
6.67
7.78
8.89
10.00
377.6
381.2
384.8
388.4
392.0
192
194
196
198
200
88.89
90.00
91.11
92.22
93.33
-398
-396
-394
-392
-390
-238.89
-237.78
-236.67
-235.56
-234.44
-414.4
-410.8
-407.2
-403.6
-400.0
-248
-246
-244
-242
-240
-155.56
-154.44
-153.33
-152.22
-151.11
-144.4
-140.8
-137.2
-133.6
-130.0
-98
-96
-94
-92
-90
-72.22
-71.11
-70.00
-68.89
-67.78
125.6
129.2
132.8
136.4
140.0
52
54
56
58
60
11.11
12.22
13.33
14.44
15.56
395.6
399.2
402.8
406.4
410.0
202
204
206
208
210
94.44
95.56
96.67
97.78
98.89
-388
-386
-384
-382
-380
-233.33
-232.22
-231.11
-230.00
-228.89
-396.4
-392.8
-389.2
-385.6
-382.0
-238
-236
-234
-232
-230
-150.00
-148.89
-147.78
-146.67
-145.56
-126.4
-122.2
-119.2
-115.6
-112.0
-88
-86
-84
-82
-80
-66.67
-65.56
-64.44
-63.33
-62.22
143.6
147.2
150.8
154.4
158.0
62
64
66
68
70
16.67
17.78
18.89
20.00
21.11
413.6
417.2
420.8
424.4
428.0
212
214
216
218
220
100.00
101.11
102.22
103.33
104.44
-378
-376
-374
-372
-370
-227.78
-226.67
-225.56
-224.44
-223.33
-378.4
-374.8
-371.2
-367.6
-364.0
-228
-226
-224
-222
-220
-144.44
-143.33
-142.22
-141.11
-140.00
-108.4
-104.8
-101.2
-97.6
-94.0
-78
-76
-74
-72
-70
-61.11
-60.00
-58.89
-57.78
-56.67
161.6
165.2
168.8
172.4
176.0
72
74
76
78
80
22.22
23.33
24.44
25.56
26.67
431.6
435.2
438.8
442.4
446.0
222
224
226
228
230
105.56
106.67
107.78
108.89
110.00
-368
-366
-364
-362
-360
-222.22
-221.11
-220.00
-218.89
-217.78
-360.4
-356.8
-353.2
-349.6
-346.0
-218
-216
-214
-212
-210
-138.89
-137.78
-136.67
-135.56
-134.44
-90.4
-86.8
-83.2
-79.6
-76.0
-68
-66
-64
-62
-60
-55.56
-54.44
-53.33
-52.22
-51.11
179.6
183.2
186.8
190.4
194.0
82
84
86
88
90
27.78
28.89
30.00
31.11
32.22
449.6
453.2
456.8
460.4
464.0
232
234
236
238
240
111.11
112.22
113.33
114.44
115.56
-358
-356
-354
-352
-350
-216.67
-215.56
-214.44
-213.33
-212.22
-342.4
-338.8
-335.2
-331.6
-328.0
-208
-206
-204
-202
-200
-133.33
-132.22
-131.11
-130.00
-128.89
-72.4
-68.8
-65.2
-61.6
-58.0
-58
-56
-54
-52
-50
-50.00
-48.89
-47.78
-46.67
-45.56
197.6
201.2
204.8
208.4
212.0
92
94
96
98
100
33.33
34.44
35.56
36.67
37.78
467.6
471.2
474.8
478.4
482.0
242
244
246
248
250
116.67
117.78
118.89
120.00
121.11
-348
-346
-344
-342
-340
-211.11
-210.00
-208.89
-207.78
-206.67
-324.4
-320.8
-317.2
-313.6
-310.0
-198
-196
-194
-192
-190
-127.78
-126.67
-125.56
-124.44
-123.33
-54.4
-50.8
-47.2
-43.6
-40.0
-48
-46
-44
-42
-40
-44.44
-43.33
-42.22
-41.11
-40.00
215.6
219.2
222.8
226.4
230.0
102
104
106
108
110
38.89
40.00
41.11
42.22
43.33
485.6
489.2
492.8
496.4
500.0
252
254
256
258
260
122.22
123.33
124.44
125.56
126.67
-338
-336
-334
-332
-330
-205.56
-204.44
-203.33
-202.22
-201.11
-306.4
-302.8
-299.2
-295.6
-292.0
-188
-186
-184
-182
-180
-122.22
-121.11
-120.00
-118.89
-117.78
-36.4
-32.8
-29.2
-25.6
-22.0
-38
-36
-34
-32
-30
-38.89
-37.78
-36.67
-35.56
-34.44
233.6
237.2
240.2
244.4
248.0
112
114
116
118
120
44.44
45.56
46.67
47.78
48.89
503.6
507.2
510.8
514.4
518.0
262
264
266
268
270
127.78
128.89
130.00
131.11
132.22
-328
-326
-324
-322
-320
-200.00
-198.89
-197.78
-196.67
-195.56
-288.4
-284.8
-281.2
-277.6
-274.0
-178
-176
-174
-172
-170
-116.67
-115.56
-114.44
-113.33
-112.22
-18.4
-14.8
-11.2
-7.6
-4.0
-28
-26
-24
-22
-20
-33.33
-32.22
-31.11
-30.00
-28.89
251.6
255.2
258.8
262.4
266.0
122
124
126
128
130
50.00
51.11
52.22
53.33
54.44
521.6
525.2
528.8
532.4
536.0
272
274
276
278
280
133.33
134.44
135.56
136.67
137.78
-318
-316
-314
-312
-310
-194.44
-193.33
-192.22
-191.11
190.00 1
-270.4
-266.8
-263.2
-259.6
-256.0
-168
-166
-164
-162
-160
-111.11
-110.00
-108.89
-107.78
106.67
-0.4
+3.2
+6.8
+10.4
+14.0
-18
-16
-14
-12
-10
-27.78
-26.67
-25.56
-24.44
- 23.33
269.6
273.2
276.8
280.4
284.0
132
134
136
138
140
55.56
56.67
57.78
58.89
60.00
539.6
543.2
546.8
550.4
594.0
282
284
286
288
290
138.89
140.00
141.11
142.22
143.33
Z-259
to C
to F
From
to C
to F
From
to C
to F
From
to C
to F
From
to C
to F
From
to C
557.6
561.2
564.8
568.4
572.0
292
294
296
298
300
144.44
145.56
146.67
147.78
148.89
870.8
874.4
878.0
881.6
885.2
466
468
470
472
474
241.11
242.22
243.33
244.44
245.56
1832.0
1850.0
1868.0
1886.0
1904.0
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
537.78
543.33
548.89
554.44
560.00
3398.0
3416.0
3434.0
3452.0
3470.0
1870
1880
1890
1900
1910
1021.1
1026.7
1032.2
1037.8
1043.3
4964.0
4982.0
5000.0
5018.0
5036.0
2740
2750
2760
2770
2780
1504.4
1510.0
1515.6
1521.1
1526.7
575.6
579.2
582.8
586.4
590.0
302
304
306
308
310
150.00
151.11
152.22
153.33
154.44
888.8
892.4
896.0
899.6
903.2
476
478
480
482
484
246.67
247.78
248.89
250.00
251.11
1922.0
1940.0
1958.0
1976.0
1994.0
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
565.56
571.11
576.67
582.22
587.78
3488.0
3506.0
3524.0
3542.0
3560.0
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1048.9
1054.4
1060.0
1065.6
1071.1
5054.0
5072.0
5090.0
5108.0
5126.0
2790
2800
2810
2820
2830
1532.2
1537.8
1543.3
1548.9
1554.4
593.6
597.2
600.8
604.4
608.0
312
314
316
318
320
155.56
156.67
157.78
158.89
160.00
906.8
910.4
914.0
917.6
921.2
486
488
490
492
494
252.22
253.33
254.44
255.56
256.67
2012.0
2030.0
2048.0
2066.0
2084.0
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
593.33
598.89
604.44
610.00
615.56
3578.0
3596.0
3614.0
3632.0
3650.0
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
1076.7
1082.2
1087.8
1093.3
1098.9
5144.0
5162.0
5180.0
5198.0
5216.0
2840
2850
2860
2870
2880
1560.0
1565.6
1571.1
1576.7
1582.2
611.6
615.2
618.8
622.4
626.0
322
324
326
328
330
161.11
162.22
163.33
164.44
165.56
924.8
928.4
932.0
935.6
939.2
496
498
500
502
504
257.78
258.89
260.00
261.11
262.22
2102.0
2120.0
2138.0
2156.0
2174.0
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
621.11
626.67
632.22
637.78
643.33
3668.0
3686.0
3704.0
3722.0
3740.0
2020
2030
2040
2050
2060
1104.4
1110.0
1156.6
1121.1
1126.7
5234.0
5252.0
5270.0
5288.0
5306.0
2890
2900
2910
2920
2930
1597.8
1593.3
1598.9
1604.4
1610.0
629.6
633.2
636.8
640.4
644.0
332
334
336
338
340
166.67
167.78
168.89
170.00
171.11
942.8
946.4
950.0
953.6
957.2
506
508
510
512
514
263.33
264.44
265.56
266.67
267.78
2192.0
2210.0
2228.0
2246.0
2264.0
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
648.89
654.44
660.00
665.56
671.11
3758.0
3776.0
3794.0
3812.0
3830.0
2070
2080
2090
2100
2110
1132.2
1137.8
1143.3
1148.9
1154.4
5324.0
5342.0
5360.0
5378.0
5396.0
2940
2950
2960
2970
2980
1615.6
1621.1
1626.7
1632.2
1637.2
647.6
651.2
654.8
658.4
662.0
342
344
346
348
350
172.22
173.33
174.44
175.56
176.67
960.8
964.4
968.0
971.6
975.2
516
518
520
522
524
268.89
270.00
271.11
272.22
273.33
2282.0
2300.0
2318.0
2336.0
2354.0
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
676.67
682.22
687.78
693.33
698.89
3848.0
3866.0
3884.0
3902.0
3920.0
2120
2130
2140
2150
2160
1160.0
1165.6
1171.1
1176.7
1182.2
5414.0
5432.0
5450.0
5468.0
5486.0
2990
3000
3010
3020
3030
1643.3
1648.9
1654.4
1660.0
1665.6
665.6
669.2
672.8
676.4
680.0
352
354
356
358
380
177.78
178.89
180.00
181.11
182.22
978.8
982.4
986.0
989.6
993.2
526
528
530
532
534
274.44
276.56
276.67
277.78
278.89
2372.0
2390.0
2408.0
2426.0
2444.0
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
704.44
710.00
715.56
721.11
726.67
3938.0
3956.0
3974.0
3992.0
4010.0
2170
2180
2190
2200
2210
1187.8
1193.3
1198.9
1204.4
1210.0
5504.0
5522.0
5540.0
5588.0
5576.0
3040
3050
3060
3070
3080
1671.1
1676.7
1682.2
1687.8
1693.3
683.6
687.2
690.8
694.4
698.0
362
364
366
368
370
183.33
184.44
186.56
186.67
187.78
996.8
1000.4
1004.0
1007.6
1011.2
536
538
540
542
544
280.00
281.11
282.22
283.33
284.44
2462.0
2480.0
2498.0
2516.0
2534.0
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
732.22
737.78
743.33
748.89
754.44
4028.0
4046.0
4064.0
4082.0
4100.0
2220
2230
2240
2250
2260
1215.6
1221.1
1226.7
1232.2
1237.8
5594.0
5612.0
5702.0
5792.0
5882.0
3090
3100
3150
3200
3250
1698.9
1704.4
1732.2
1760.0
1787.8
701.6
705.2
708.8
712.4
716.0
372
374
376
378
380
188.89
190.00
191.11
192.22
193.33
1014.8
1018.4
1022.0
1040.0
1058.0
546
548
550
560
570
285.56
286.67
287.78
293.33
298.89
2552.0
2570.0
2588.0
2606.0
2624.0
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
760.00
765.56
771.11
776.67
782.22
4118.0
4136.0
4154.0
4172.0
4190.0
2270
2280
2290
2300
2310
1243.3
1248.9
1254.4
1260.0
1265.6
5972.0
6062.0
6152.0
6242.0
6332.0
3300
3350
3400
3450
3500
1815.6
1843.3
1871.1
1898.9
1926.7
719.6
723.2
726.8
730.4
734.0
382
384
386
388
390
194.44
195.56
196.67
197.78
198.89
1076.0
1094.0
1112.0
1130.0
1148.0
580
590
600
610
620
304.44
310.00
315.56
321.11
326.67
2642.0
2660.0
2678.0
2696.0
2714.0
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
787.78
793.33
798.89
804.44
810.00
4208.0
4226.0
4244.0
4262.0
4280.0
2320
2330
2340
2350
2360
1271.1
1276.7
1282.2
1287.8
1293.3
6422.0
6512.0
6602.0
6692.0
6782.0
3550
3600
3650
3700
3750
1954.4
1982.2
2010.0
2037.8
2065.6
737.6
741.2
744.8
748.4
752.0
392
394
396
398
400
200.00
201.11
202.22
203.33
204.44
1166.0
1184.0
1202.0
1220.0
1238.0
630
640
650
660
670
332.22
337.78
343.33
348.89
354.44
2732.0
2750.0
2768.0
2786.0
2804.0
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
815.56
821.11
826.67
832.22
837.78
4298.0
4316.0
4334.0
4352.0
4370.0
2370
2380
2390
2400
2410
1298.9
1304.4
1310.0
1315.6
1321.1
6972.0
6962.0
7052.0
7142.0
7232.0
3800
3850
3900
3950
4000
2093.3
2121.1
2148.9
2176.7
2204.4
755.6
759.2
762.8
766.4
770.0
402
404
406
408
410
205.66
206.67
207.78
208.89
210.00
1256.0
1274.0
1292.0
1310.0
1328.0
680
690
700
710
720
360.00
365.56
371.11
376.67
382.22
2822.0
2840.0
2858.0
2876.0
2894.0
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
843.33
848.89
854.44
860.00
865.56
4388.0
4406.0
4424.0
4442.0
4460.0
2420
2430
2440
2450
2460
1326.7
1332.2
1337.8
1343.3
1348.9
7322.0
7412.0
7502.0
7592.0
7682.0
4050
4100
4150
4200
4250
2232.2
2260.0
2287.8
2315.6
2343.3
773.6
777.2
780.8
784.4
788.0
412
414
416
418
420
211.11
212.22
213.33
214.44
215.56
1346.0
1364.0
1382.0
1400.0
1418.0
730
740
750
760
770
387.78
393.33
398.89
404.44
410.00
2912.0
2930.0
2948.0
2966.0
2984.0
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
871.11
876.67
882.22
887.78
893.33
4478.0
4496.0
4514.0
4532.0
4550.0
2470
2480
2490
2500
2510
1354.4
1360.0
1365.6
1371.1
1376.7
7772.0
7862.0
7952.0
8042.0
8132.0
4300
4350
4400
4450
4450
2371.1
2398.9
2426.7
2454.4
2482.2
791.6
795.2
798.8
802.4
806.0
422
424
426
428
430
216.67
217.78
218.89
220.00
221.11
1436.0
1454.0
1472.0
1490.0
1508.0
780
790
800
810
820
415.56
421.11
426.67
432.22
437.78
3002.0
3020.0
3038.0
3056.0
3074.0
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
898.89
904.44
910.00
915.56
921.11
4568.0
4586.0
4604.0
4622.0
4640.0
2520
2530
2540
2550
2560
1382.2
1387.2
1393.3
1398.9
1404.4
8222.0
8312.0
8402.0
8492.0
8582.0
4550
4600
4650
4700
4750
2510.0
2537.8
2565.6
2593.3
2621.1
809.6
813.2
816.8
820.4
824.0
432
434
436
438
440
222.22
223.33
224.44
225.56
226.67
1526.0
1544.0
1562.0
1580.0
1598.0
830
840
850
860
870
443.33
448.89
454.44
460.00
465.56
3092.0
3110.0
3128.0
3146.0
3164.0
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
926.67
932.22
937.78
943.33
948.89
4658.0
4676.0
4694.0
4712.0
4730.0
2570
2680
2590
2600
2610
1410.0
1415.6
1421.1
1426.7
1432.2
8672.0
8762.0
8852.0
8942.0
9032.0
4800
4850
4900
4950
5000
2648.9
2676.7
2704.4
2732.2
2760.0
827.6
831.2
834.8
838.4
842.0
442
444
446
448
450
227.78
228.89
230.00
231.11
232.22
1616.0
1634.0
1652.0
1670.0
1688.0
880
890
900
910
920
471.11
476.67
482.22
487.78
493.33
3182.0
3200.0
3218.0
3236.0
3254.0
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
954.44
960.00
965.56
971.11
976.67
4748.0
4766.0
4784.0
4802.0
4820.0
2620
2630
2640
2650
2660
1437.8
1443.3
1448.9
1454.4
1460.0
9122.0
9212.0
9302.0
9392.0
9482.0
5050
5100
5150
5200
5250
2787.8
2815.6
2843.3
2871.1
2898.9
845.6
849.2
852.2
856.4
860.0
452
454
456
458
460
233.33
234.44
235.56
236.67
237.78
1706.0
1724.0
1742.0
1760.0
1778.0
930
940
950
960
970
498.89
504.44
510.00
515.66
521.11
3272.0
3290.0
3308.0
3326.0
3344.0
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
982.22
997.78
993.33
998.89
1004.40
4838.0
4856.0
4974.0
4892.0
4910.0
2670
2680
2690
2700
2710
1465.6
1471.1
1467.7
1482.2
1487.8
9572.0
9662.0
9752.0
9842.0
9932.0
5300
5350
5400
5450
5500
2926.7
2954.4
2982.2
3010.0
3037.8
863.6
867.2
462
464
238.89
240.00
1796.0
1814.0
980
990
526.67
532.22
3362.0
3380.0
1850
1860
1010.0
1015.6
4928.0
4946.0
2720
2730
1493.3
1498.9
10,002.0
10,112.0
5550
5600
3065.6
3093.3
Z-260
TECHNICAL DATA SECTION

Reference Section
TERMINOLOGY
ACF =
A/D =
ATM =
BTU =
cc/min =
Actual Cubic Feet

Analog to Digital
Atmospheres
British Thermal Units
Cubic Centimeters
per Minute
CFH =
Standard Cubic Feet
per Hour (SCFH)
Specific Heat
CP =
C.S. =
Carbon Steel
D=
Diameter
Dia. =
Diameter
Diam. =
Diameter
D/A =
Digital to Analog
EMI =
Electromagnetic Interference
EPR =
Ethylene Propylene Rubber
FDA =
Food and Drug
Administration
FNPT =
Female National Pipe
Thread
FPM =
Feet Per Minute
FPS =
Feet Per Second
F.S. =
Full Scale
FT =
Feet
gals =
Gallons
gpm =
Gallons Per Minute
gph =
Gallons Per Hour
HF =
Latent Heat of Fusion
H/L =
High-Low
HV =
Latent Heat of Vaporization
I.D. =
Inside Diameter
I/0 =
Input/Output
k=
Thermal Conductivity
Ibs =
Pounds
2
Ibs/in =
Pounds Per Square Inch
lpm =
Liters Per Minute
L/min =
Liters Per Minute
mL/min =
Milliliters Per Minute
MNPT =
Male National Pipe Thread
ms =
Milliseconds
m/s =
Meters Per Second
MSEC =
Milliseconds
NiCad =
Nickel Cadmium
NO/NC =
Normally Open/
Normally Closed
NPT =
National Pipe Thread
O.D. =
Outside Diameter
P-P =
Peak to Peak
PSIA =
Absolute
PSID =
Differential
PSIG =
Gage
PVC =
Polyvinyl Chloride
PVDF =
Polyvinylidene
Fluoride (Kynaol)
RF =
Raised Face
RFI =
Radio Frequency Interference
RMS =
Root Mean Square
SCCM =
Standard Cubic
Centimeters per Minute
SCHED. NO. = Schedule Number
SCFH =
Standard Cubic Feet per
Hour
SCFM =
Standard Cubic Feet per
Minute
SLM =
Standard Liters per Minute
SLPM =
Standard Liters per Minute
sq.ft. =
Square Feet
SSU =
Saybolt Seconds Universal
T =
Temperature Rise
TTL =
Transistor-Transistor Logic
W=
Watts
W-hr =
Watt-Hours
W/in2
2 Watt Density
WT=
Weight of Material
Conversion Factors
TO
OBTAIN
Atmospheres
BTU
BTU
Centimeters
Cm of Hg @ 0 deg C
Cm of Hg @ 0 deg C
Cm of Hg @ 0 deg C
Cm of Hg @ 0 deg C
Cm/(sec)(sec)
Centipoises
Centistokes
Cu cm
Cu cm
Cu cm
Cu cm
Cu cm
Cu cm/sec
Cu ft
Cu ft
Cu ft
Cu ft/min
Cu ft/min
Cu ft/sec
Cu ft/sec
Cu in.
Cu in.
Cu in.
Cu meters
Cu meters
Cu meters/hr
Cu meters/kg
Cu meters/min
Cu meters/sec
Feet
Ft/min
Ft/sec
Ft/(sec)(sec)
Ft/(sec)(sec)
Gal (Imperial, liq.)
Gal (USA, liq.)
Gal (USA, liq.)
Gal (USA, liq.)
Gal (USA, liq.)
Gal (USA, liq.)
Gal (USA, liq.)
Gal (USA, liq.)/min
Gal (USA, liq.)/min
Gal (USA, liq.)/sec
Grams
Z-261
MULTIPLY
In HG@32F
Watt-hours
KWh
Inches
Atmospheres
Grams/sq. cm
Lb/sq in.
Lb/sq ft
Gravity
Centistokes
Centipoises
Cu ft
Cu in.
Gal (USA, liq.)
Liters
Quarts (USA, liq.)
Cu ft/min
Cu meters
Gal (USA, liq.)
Liters
Cu meters/sec
Gal (USA, liq.)/sec
Gal (USA, liq.)/min
Liters/min
Cu centimeters
Gal (USA, liq.)
Liters
Gal (USA, liq.)
Liters
Gal/min
Cu ft/lb
Cu ft/min
Gal/min
Meters
Cm/sec
Meters/sec
Gravity (sea level)
Meters/(sec)(sec)
Gal (USA, liq.)
Barrels
(Petroleum, USA)
Cu ft
Cu meters
Cu yards
Liters
Cu ft/sec
Cu meters/hr
Liters/min
Pounds (avoir.)
BY
0.033421
3.412
3412
2.540
76.0
0.07356
5.1715
0.035913
980.665
Density
1/density
28,317
16-387
3785.43
1000.03
946.358
472.0
35.314
0.13368
0.03532
2118.9
8.0192
0.0022280
0.0005886
0.061023
231.0
61.03
0.0037854
0.001000028
0.22712
0.062428
0.02832
0.000063088
3.281
1.9685
3.2808
32.174
3.2808
0.83268
42
7.4805
264.173
202.2
1.2010
0.2642
448.83
4.4029
0.0044028
453.5924
Conversion Factors
TO
OBTAIN
Grams/(cm)(sec)
Grams/cu cm
Grams/cu cm
Grams/cu cm
Inches
Inches of Hg @ 32 F
Inches of Hg @ 32 F
Inches of Hg @ 32 F
Inches/deg F
Kg
Kg-cal/sq meter
Kg/cu meter
Kg/(hr)(meter)
Kg/liter
Kg/meter
Kg/sq cm
Kg/sq meter
KWh
KWh
Liters
Liters
Liters
Liters
Liters
Liters/kg
Liters/min
Liters/min
Liters/sec
Liters/sec
Meters
Meters/sec
Mete rs/sec)(sec)
Ounces
Pounds (avoir.)
Pounds/cu ft
Pounds/cu ft
Pounds/cu in.
Pounds/(hr)(ft)
Pounds/inch
Pounds/(sec)(ft)
Pounds/gal. (USA, liq.)
Sq centimeters
Sq centimeters
Sq ft
Sq in.
Sq meters
W-hr
W-hr
MULTIPLY
Centipoises
Lb/cu ft
Lb/cu in.
Lb/gal
Centimeters
Atmospheres
Lb/sq in.
In. of H2O @ 4C
Cm/deg C
Pounds (avoir.)
BTU/sq ft
Lb/cu ft
Centipoises
Lb/gal (USA, liq.)
Lb/ft
Lb/sq in.
Lb/sq ft
BTU
watt-hours
Cu ft
Cu in.
Cu meters
Gal (USA, liq.)
Cu ft/lb
Cu ft/sec
Gal (USA, liq.)/min
Cu ft/min
Gal/min
Feet
Ft/sec
Ft/(sec)(sec)
Grams
Kg
Grams/cu cm
Pounds/gal
Grams/cu cm
Centipoises
Grams/cm
Centipoises
Kg/liter
Pounds/cu ft
Pounds/cu in.
Sq ft
Sq in.
Sq meters
Sq centimeters
Sq ft
BTU
KWh
BY
0.01
0.016018
27.680
0.119826
0.3937
29.921
2.0360
0.07355
0.21872
0.45359
2.712
16.018
3.60
0.11983
1.488
0.0703
4.8824
.0002930
.001
28.316
0.01639
999.973
4.546
3.785306
62.42621
1698.963
3.785
0.47193
0.063088
0.3048
0.3048
0.3048
0.035274
2.2046
62.428
7.48
0.036127
2.42
0.0056
0.000672
8.3452
0.1337
231
929.0
6.4516
10.764
0.155
0.0929
.2390
1000
METRIC PREFIXES
MEGA =
KILO =
HECTO =
DECA=
DECI=
CENTI =
MILLI=
MICRO =
1,000,000
1,000
100
10
.1
.01
.001
.000,001
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
FORMULAS:
F = (9/5 C) + 32
C = (F - 32) x 5/9
National Pipe Taper

Thread Dimensions
NPT SIZE THREADS
PER INCH
1
16
27
1
8
27
1
4
18
3
8
18
1
2
14
3
4
14
1
1112
114
1112
DIM A
(IN)
.312
.405
.540
.675
.840
1.050
1.315
1.660
DIM B
(IN)
.261
.264
.402
.408
.534
.546
.683
.707
147'
A
B
EFECTIVE THREAD
Z-262
OHMS LAW
VARIATIONS OF OHMS LAW
S
TT
VOLTS
AM
P
ES
ER
WA
E E
W
I2R R R E
EI W I W/R
WR E R E I
W W E2
W
T S I IR I2
OH
2
110
115
120
208
220
230
240
277
380
415
440
460
480
550
Rated Voltage
110
115
100%
109%
119%
91%
100%
109%
OHMS =
VOLTS
AMPERES
OHMS =
VOLTS2
WATTS
OHMS =
WATTS2
AMPERES2
AMPERES
4.2
8.4
12.5
16.7
20.9
25
31.3
41.7
50
62.5
83.4
105
125
209
313
417
2.3
4.6
6.9
9.1
11.4
13.7
17.1
22.8
27.3
34.1
45.5
56.9
68.2
114
171
228
2.1
4.2
6.3
8.4
10.5
12.5
15.7
20.9
25
31.2
41.7
52.1
62.5
105
157
209
2.8
5.6
8.4
11.2
13.9
16.7
20.9
27.8
33.4
41.7
55.6
69.5
83.4
139
209
278
2.5
4.9
7.3
9.7
12.1
14.5
18.1
24.1
29
36.2
48.2
60.3
72.3
121
181
241
1.4
2.7
4
5.3
6.6
7.9
9.9
13.2
15.8
19.7
26.3
32.9
39.4
65.7
98.6
132
1.3
2.5
3.7
4.9
6.1
7.3
9.1
12.1
14.5
18.1
24.1
30.1
36.2
60.3
90.4
121
Percent of rated wattage for various applied voltages

Applied
Voltage
WATTS
AMPERES
OHMS
L
4.8
9.7
14.5
19.3
24.1
28.9
36.1
48.1
57.7
72.2
96.2
121
145
241
361
481
VOLTS =
VO
8.4
16.7
25
33.4
41.7
50
62.5
83.4
100
125
167
209
250
417
625
834
WATTS
xOHMS
VOLTS = AMPERES x OHMS
Table 11 Currents for resistance heating loads

Single phase
Three phase balanced load
kW
120V 208V
240V 440V 480V
208V 240V 440V
480V
1
2
3
4
5
6
7.5
10
12
15
20
25
30
50
75
100
VOLTS =
120
208
220
230
240
84%
92%
100%
300%
28%
31%
33%
100%
112%
122%
133%
25%
27%
30%
89%
100%
109%
119%
23%
25%
27%
82%
91%
100%
109%
21%
23%
25%
75%
84%
92%
100%
133%
Z-263
AMPERES =
VOLTS
OHMS
AMPERES =
WATTS
VOLTS
AMPERES =
WATTS
OHMS
WATTS
WATTS =
VOLTS2
OHMS
WATTS = AMPERES2 x OHMS

WATTS = VOLTS x AMPERES
Currents for resistance heating loads

Heating elements are frequently used at
voltages other than those shown in our
catalog. The percentages shown below
are used to determine the resulting
wattage. Should you wish to use a
heater on a voltage not shown above,
you may calculate the resultant wattage
with this formula:
2
Actual Wattage = Rated Wattage x Applied Voltage
Rated Voltage2
277
380
415
440
460
480
550
16%
17%
19%
56%
63%
69%
75%
100%
188%
8.4%
9.0%
10%
30%
34%
37%
40%
53%
100%
119%
7%
7.6%
8.4%
25%
28%
31%
33%
45%
84%
100%
112%
123%
6.2%
6.7%
7.4%
22%
25%
27%
30%
40%
74%
89%
100%
109%
119%
156%
5.7%
6.2%
6.8%
20%
23%
25%
27%
36%
68%
81%
91%
100%
109%
143%
5.2%
5.7%
6.3%
19%
21%
23%
25%
33%
63%
75%
84%
92%
100%
131%
4%
4.3%
4.8%
14%
16%
17%
19%
25%
47%
57%
64%
70%
76%
100%
Electrical Units
Quantity
Current
Quantity
Electromotive force
Resistance
Resistivity
Conductance
Conductivity
Capacitance
Permittivity
Relative permittivity
Self-inductance
Mutual inductance
Energy
Active power
Reactive power
Apparent power
Power factor
Reactance, inductive
Reactance, capacitive
Impedance
Conductance
Susceptance
Admittance
Frequency
Period
Time constant
Angular velocity
Symbol
I, i
Q, q
E, e
R, r
r
G, g
g
C
e
er
L
M
J
kwh
W
jQ
VA
pf
XL
XC
Z
G
B
Y
f
T
T
Equation
I=E/R; I = E/Z; I = Q/t
Q = it; Q = CE
E = IR; E = W/Q
R=E/I; R = rl /A
r = RA / I
G =g A / l G = A/rl
g = 1/r; g = I/ RA
C = Q/E
er = e/eo
L = - N(df/dt)
M = K(L1L2) 1/2
J = eit
kwh = kw/3600; 3.6 MJ
W = J/t; W = EI cos U
Q = El sin U
VA = El
pf = W/VA; pf = W/(W + jQ)
XL = 2pfL
XC = 1/(2pfC)
Z = E/I Z = R + j(XL - XC)
G = R/Z2
B = X/Z2
Y =I/E; Y = G + jB
f = 1/T
T = 1/f
L/R; RC
= 2f
SI unit
SI unit
symbol
Ampere
A
Coulomb
C
Volt
V
Ohm
Ohm-metre
m
Siemens
S
Siemens/meter
S/m
Farad
F
Farads/meter
F/m
Numerical
Henry
H
Henry
H
Joule
J
Kilowatthour
kWh
Watt
W
Var
var
Volt-ampere
VA
Ohm
Ohm
Ohm
Siemens
Siemens
Siemens
Hertz
Second
Second
Radians/second
S
S
S
Hz
s
s
rad/s
Ratio of
Magnitude of
CGS unit
SI to cgs unit
Abampere
10-1
Abcoulomb
10-1
Abvolt
108
Abohm
109
Abohm-cm
1011
Abmho
10-9
Abmho/cm
10-11
Abfarad*
10-9
Stat farad*/cm 8.85 X 10-12
Numerical
I
Abhenry
109
Abhenry
109
Erg
107
36 X 1012
Abwatt
107
Abvar
107
Abohm
Abohm
Abohm
Abmho
Abmho
Abmho
Cps Hz
Second
Second
Radians/second
1
109
109
109
10-9
10-9
10-9
1
1
1
1
*1 Abfarad (EMU Units) = 9 X 10-20 stat farads (ESU units).
Reproduced with Permission from McGraw-Hill, Marks Standard Handbook for

Mechanical Engineers, 8th ed. Authors: Baumeister, et al. Copyright 1987
Z-264

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Technical Reference Section

Probe Response Times

Resistance Temperature Measurement

Infrared Temperature Measurement

Cryogenic Temperature Measurement

Humidity & Dewpoint

Electrical Noise Reduction

Data Storage and Transmission

Non-Electric Temperature Measurement

Thermocouple Reference Data

RTD & Thermistor Reference Data

Z Section Table of Contents

Infrared Window Data...............Z-86

Thermocouple Reference Tables

Frequently Asked Questions

A. They are summarized in the tables

electric current to make

Presenting . . . OMEGAs Temperature

Absolute Zero: Temperature at which thermal energy is at a minimum.

ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange. A seven

Temperature Measurement and Control Glossary

CMV (Common-Mode Voltage): The AC or DC voltage which is

Calender-van Dusen Equation: An equation that defines the

Temperature Measurement and Control Glossary

Damping: The reduction of vibratory movement through dissipation of

Echo: To reflect received data to the sender. For example, keys

Temperature Measurement and Control Glossary

Fahrenheit: A temperature scale defined by 32 at the ice point and

Impedance: The total opposition to electrical flow (resistive plus

Gain: The amount of amplification used in an electrical circuit.

Joule: The basic unit of thermal energy.

Half-Duplex: One way at a time data communication; both devices can

Temperature Measurement and Control Glossary

NEMA-4: A standard from the National Electrical Manufacturers

M: Mega; one million. When referring to memory capacity, two to the

Octal: Pertaining to a base 8 number system.

N/C (No Connection): A connector point for which there is no internal

Temperature Measurement and Control Glossary

Phase Proportioning: A form of temperature control where the power

Radiation: See Infrared

Temperature Measurement and Control Glossary

Single Precision: The degree of numeric accuracy that requires the

SAMA: Scientific Apparatus Makers Association. An association that

Tape: A recording medium for data or computer programs. Tape can

Temperature Measurement and Control Glossary

TTL-Compatible: For digital input circuits, a logic 1 is obtained for inputs

Practical Guidelines for

classifications: the mercury type and

Often the thermocouple is located

This ability of the thermocouple to

Figure 1. Assuming that

protective coating. Usually, the

Practical Guidelines for

Figure 2. A given RTD embodies either of two standard resistance-vs.-temperature

Infrared sensors: These measure

force the emissivity to a known

4.3 x 10-4 4.1 x 10-4

13.3 x 10-4 12.1 x 10-4

16.6 x 10-6 13.1 x 10-6 12.0 x 10-6

15.6 x 10-4 16.6 x 10-4 39.2 x 10-4 13.3 x 10-4

Nominal Chemical Composition of Thermoelements