Episode 121: EMF and internal resistance

The starting point for the theory can be either Kirchhoffs second law or conservation of energy in the circuit (the same thing really) but a general discussion based on the circuit diagram below should use a variety of approaches.

Summary
Discussion: Deriving an equation (15 minutes) Discussion: Practical e ects o internal resistance! (1" minutes) Student questions: #nternal resistance o a po$er supply! (2" minutes) Student e%periment: Measuring internal resistance and em (&5 minutes) Student questions: Practice questions! ('" minutes) Discussion: More a(out t)e practical importance o internal resistance! (1" minutes)

Discussion: Deriving an equation

There are three ways to arrive at the equation relating emf, terminal pd, current and internal resistance. It is worth discussing all three, to show their equivalence. The order you ta e will depend on the approach used previously with the class!
(lost volts e.m.f

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Terminal 'oltage

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". Kirchhoffs #nd $aw! %s charge goes around the circuit the sum of e.m.f s must equal the sum of voltage drops leading to! E*#+,#r The terminal voltage is equal to I & so this can be rearranged to give! -*E.#r

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and interpreted as terminal voltage ) emf * (lost volts #. +nergy is conserved. Imagine a unit of charge, Q, moving around the circuit! 1E*1#+,1#r This leads to the same equations as in (") above. ,. -se .hms law with + (driving current through the combined resistance (& / r)! # * E 2 (+,r) 0ultiplying throughout by (&/r) leads to the same equations and conclusions as in (").

Discussion: Practical e ects o internal resistance

%t this point it might be worth pausing to illustrate the effects. Ta e a car as an e1ample. The headlamps are connected in parallel across a twelve2volt battery. The starter motor is also in parallel controlled by the ignition switch. 3ince the starter motor has a low resistance it demands a very high current (say 45 %). The battery itself has a low internal resistance (say 5.5" 6). The headlamps themselves draw a much lower current. %s them what happens when the engine is started (switch to starter motor closed for a short time). $oo for an answer in general terms! sudden demand for more current large lost volts (around 5.5" 6 45 % ) 4 ') terminal voltage drops to "# ' * 4 ' ) 4 ' headlamps dim

7hen the engine fires, the starter motor switch is opened and the current drops. The terminal voltage rises and the headlamps return to normal. Its better to turn the headlamps off when starting the car. %s an aside, a lot of students seem to thin the engine is powered by the battery8 9oint out that its main purpose while the engine is running is to provide the spar s for ignition and that while the car is driving the alternator continually recharges the battery, the energy for both headlamps and driving comes ultimately from the fuel that is burnt (since the car has to wor a little bit harder to turn the alternator).

Student questions: #nternal resistance o a po$er supply

3ome simple questions about the internal resistance of a power supply. T%9 "#"2"! Internal resistance of power supplies

Student e%periment: Measuring internal resistance and em

There are two e1periments here, in which students determine the emf + and internal resistance r of cells 2 one involving a potato cell (leading to a high internal resistance) and one involving a

normal : cell (much lower internal resistance). ;ou could get them to do both or as some students to do one and some the other. <eware that, if you use an al aline, high power : cell, it will run down quic ly when there is a low load resistance, so you are advised to use cheap, low power cells which polarise quic ly, they will depolarise over night. %n alternative is to construct an artificial cell with a larger internal resistance by adding a higher series resistance (e.g. "55 6) to a standard cell. T%9 "#"2#! Internal resistance of a source of emf T%9 "#"2,! Internal resistance of a : cell To determine + and r from the e1perimental results, there are various approaches. The simplest is to measure terminal voltage (') and current (I) and to plot ' against I. This gives an intercept at ' ) + on the y2a1is and has a gradient of *r.

Student questions: Practice questions

=uestions on emf and internal resistance. T%9 "#"2>! =uestions on emf and internal resistance

Discussion: More a(out t)e practical importance o internal resistance

3ometimes it is desirable to have a high internal resistance. %s the class what happens if a ".? ' cell is shorted 2 i.e. its terminals are connected together by a wire of @ero resistanceA 3ome might thin I ) ' B & with R ) 5 should mean that an infinite current would flow (limited by other physical factors8) &emind them of the internal resistance r. This limits the cell to a ma1imum (short2circuit) current of! I)+Br 7e can use this to prevent +CT supplies giving the user an unpleasant shoc . Ta e an +CT power supply off the shelf and show the connections for the series (internal resistance. It is usually ? 06. These supplies are designed to provide a high voltage to a high resistance load (e.g. cathode ray tube) but if the terminals or wires connected to them were accidentally touched this could provide a nasty shoc (lower resistance in the load and higher current). .ne way to deal with this is to connect a large resistance in series with the output (positive) terminal. If the terminals are shorted (e.g. by contact through a person) the current drawn is limited to I ) + B r. % typical +CT supply (up to ?555 ') is protected by a ? 06 resistor so the ma1imum current if shorted is Dust " m%. That shouldnt ill you8 <e aware however that CT supplies (52,55 ') have a much lower internal resistance, and could ill you, so special shrouded leads should be used. +CT supplies often have a further (safety resistor (e.g. "5 06) to reduce the ma1imum current still further. This resistor can be by2passed when necessary. Eo school +CT supply is allowed to provide more than ? m%.

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34P 12151: #nternal resistance o po$er supplies

%nswer the following questions for practice in ma ing calculations about the internal resistance of power supplies. Torch batteries, car batteries, +CT supplies and solar cells ". % typical hand2held torch runs off two ".? ' cells, yet has a lamp rated at #.? ', 5.? %. +1plain how the potential difference across the lamp can actually be #.? ' as rated. 7hat is the internal resistance of each cell, supposing them to be identicalA

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% typical car battery has an emf of "# ', and must provide a current of F5 % to the starter motor. 7hy must the car battery have a very low internal resistanceA If the internal resistance is 5.5? , find the potential difference across this internal resistance when the starter motor is running. 7hy is starting the car with the headlights on li ely to affect their brightnessA

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3ome school laboratories have +CT (+1tra Cigh Tension) power pac s giving up to ,555 '. Gor safety, they are provided with a ?5 0 resistor in series with the supply. 7hat is the ma1imum current able to be drawn from the supplyA %ppro1imately what potential difference would there be across a torch bulb connected across such a supplyA

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% student e1perimenting with a solar cell connects a "555 voltmeter across it and observes a potential difference of ".5 '. -sing a different, e1tremely high resistance digital voltmeter, the reading is larger, ".# '. 7hy the differenceA 7hat is the internal resistance of the solar cellA

Practical 4dvice
These are intended to be simple practice questions. It is helpful to remember that the internal resistance of a cell is not li ely to remain constant as the cell is used, and that other effects such as polari@ation of the cell also affect the pd obtained from it.

4lternative 4pproac)es
It is useful for the class to chec that torch bulbs are very commonly rated at less than the emf of the dry batteries they use. Ta ing various e1amples, the range of values the ma ers of torches e1pect for the internal resistance of dry cells can be estimated. It is also useful to review power supplies available in the laboratory, loo ing to see which must have low internal resistance and which normally need e1tra protective resistance added.

Social and 6uman /onte%t

Hry cells power all sorts of portable equipment besides torches. 3ome, such as television or video control handsets, can run for years on one set of batteries. .thers, such as palm2top computers and Iorgani@ersI, use up batteries very quic ly.

4ns$ers and 7or8ed Solutions

". The two ".? ' cells provide an emf of , ' in series. If the current flowing is 5.? % as stated, then for the potential difference across the internal resistance to be 5.? ' (that is, , '*#.? ') the internal resistance of the cells combined would need to be " . The cells are in series so the resistance of each is 5.? . The battery must have a low internal resistance so as to be able to deliver a current of F5 % from an emf of only "# '. If the internal resistance is 5.5? then the potential difference across this with a current of F5 % flowing is > '. Thus the potential difference across the "# ' battery drops to F '. This is a big enough change to dim headlights rated at "# '. The ma1imum current is 45 %. % torch bulb has a resistance of only a few ohms, so connected across such a supply the potential difference across it would be very near to @ero, with a current of only 45 % through it. The "555 voltmeter draws a current from the cell, of " m% when it reads ".5 '. If the cell has internal resistance some of its emf will be used in driving the current through the cell. % voltmeter with very high resistance draws very little current, and reads nearer to the emf of the cell. If the emf is ".# ' then 5.# ' is used in driving the current of " m% through the internal resistance, which is therefore #55 .

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E%ternal +e erences
This activity is ta en from %dvancing 9hysics :hapter #, ##53

34P 12152: #nternal resistance o a source o em

3ome of the energy given to charges by a cell (or other source of emf) is dissipated inside the cell itself, as the charges move through the cell (or other source of emf). 7hat is left is available as a potential difference (energy per unit charge) across a circuit connected to the cell. If the emf of the source is E, and its internal resistance is r, then when a current I flows the potential difference V is V = E I r. :ollect this apparatus # digital multimeters potato 5.? cm # cm copper sheet, 5.? cm # cm @inc sheet # pairs of crocodile clips resistance substitution bo1 ? > mm leads

9etting: and ma8ing sense o : t)e data

Girst ta e a quic loo . Then collect some detailed data that you can use to model the behaviour of the cell. ". %ssemble your cell. -se the copper and @inc sheets as electrodes, inserting one in each end of the potato. -se crocodile clips to ma e connections to the circuit.

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3et up a circuit to measure the pd across the cell and the current drawn from the cell, initially with >.J as a load for the cell.

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%lter the load resistance. Eotice the changes to the current drawn and the pd supplied. 3 etch a graph of pd B current to indicate the general trend. $oo bac to the introduction above. Hoes your pattern seem li ely to fit this descriptionA Eow draw up a table of current and pd for a range of load resistances. ;ou will need to be careful in selecting the values to use at both ends of the scale so that your measuring instruments can cope. 9lot a graph of ' B I. Hoes it fit the pattern aboveA

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". #. ;ou will recognise the drop of pd as a source supplies an increasing current. ;ou will be able to match this pattern to the description above.

Practical 4dvice
This is designed as a simple introduction to the phenomenon, followed by a more detailed loo . The advantage of using a potato is the path the current might ta e between the electrodes is transparent. The idea of resistance internal to the cell and energy dissipated there is easier to appreciate if it the cell is visible.

4lternative 4pproac)es
;ou could ma e IcellsI with artificially high internal resistance by soldering a resistor in series with a standard dry cell. 3olar cells, cheaply available from surplus suppliers, ma e good sources with appreciable internal resistance. The internal resistance alters with incident illumination and thus some e1perimentation is needed, with a >F 7 lamp, to get optimum conditions. Then you can use ?5 m% fsd and #5 ' fsd meters to get a good plot. % "4 7 rheostat functions as a variable load. ;ou are warned that solar cells are not uniform in performance and some fine2tuning may be necessary. 3olar cells can be purchased cheaply from recycling mail order suppliers and then mounted on plastic electrical ducting.

Social and 6uman /onte%t

The dip in the brightness of car headlamps when the starter motor is used appears to be the most common e1perience to draw on.

E%ternal +e erences
This activity is ta en from %dvancing 9hysics :hapter #, #>5+

34P 1215': #nternal resistance o a / cell

4pparatus required:
: cell (possibly modified by the addition of a series resistor) Two multimeters (or an ammeter and voltmeter) &heostat (appro1. "5 6) $eads

/ircuit:

Procedure
3tart with the rheostat on its ma1imum resistance. &ecord V and I. Lradually reduce the rheostat to its lowest resistance (@ero) measuring V and I a minimum of J times over the range. Hont leave the circuit connected for long when the resistance is low (current high) because this will run the cell down quic ly. 9lot a graph of V against I. E is the intercept on the V a1is. The gradient is *r. %nother alternative approach is to interface the e1periment to a computer using a suitable pac age. If you do this you can collect current and voltage readings immediately as you sweep the rheostat across its range of values. 0ost pac ages allow you to plot the graph as you collect data so the students will see this plotted in real time.

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Practical 4dvice
The e1periment is easier for students to perform with an e1tra resistance added in series with the cell. " or # is suitable, though "5 could be used. H. E.T use al aline cells as the internal resistance is too low unless an e1tra resistor is used. 0a e it clear that the (cell is the power source plus the resistor. % @inc carbon cell will give around ? % if shorted out (dependent on si@e). That from an al aline cell is much larger, it is best to protect the cells with an e1ternal resistance. If nothing else the cell will last longer as it could be left shorted out by the student.

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34P 1215 & 1uestions on EMF and #nternal +esistance

". (a) % K.5 ' battery has an internal resistance of "#.5 . 7hat is the potential difference across its terminals when it is supplying a current of ?5.5 m%A (b) (c) 7hat is the ma1imum current this battery could supplyA Hraw a s etch graph to show how the terminal potential difference varies with the current supplied if the internal resistance remains constant. Cow could the internal resistance be obtained from the graphA % cell in a deaf aid supplies a current of #?.5 m% through a resistance of >55 . 7hen the wearer turns up the volume, the resistance is changed to "55 and the current rises to 45 m%. 7hat is the emf and internal resistance of the cellA +1plain why the headlamps of a car go dim when the starter motor is used. % battery is connected in series with a variable resistor and an ammeter. 7hen the resistance of the resistor is "5 the current is #.5 %. 7hen the resistance is ? the current is ,.F %. Gind the emf and the internal resistance of the battery. 7hen a cell is connected directly across a high resistance voltmeter the reading is ".?5 '. 7hen the cell is shorted through a low resistance ammeter the current is #.? %. 7hat is the emf and internal resistance of the cellA 4. ;ou are supplied with 4 identical dry cells, each of emf ".? ' and internal resistance 5., . 7hat are the overall emf and internal resistance when! (a) (b) (c) the cells are connected in parallelA the cells are connected in seriesA they are connected in three groups, each of two cells in series, and these groups are connected in parallel with one anotherA

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%ssume the polarity of all the cells in each arrangement is the same. J. % (potato cell has emf ".5 ' and internal resistance ?555 . &oughly how many of these cells in what arrangement would adequately light a ? 7, 4.5 ' filament lampA

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4ns$ers and 7or8ed Solutions

". (a) (b) #. pd ) + * I r ) K * (?5 1 "52, 1 "#) ) F.> ' 0a1 current ) +Br ) K B "# ) 5.J? % + ) I(& /r) + ) #? 1 "52, (>55 / r) 3o #? 1 "52, (>55 / r) ) 45 1 "52, ("55 / r) so r ) "">., + ) "5 / (#? 1 "52, 1 "">.,) ) "#.F4 ' >. + ) I(& /r) + ) # ("5 / r) and + ) ,.F (? / r) so r) 5.?4 and + ) 45 1 "52, ("55 / r)

+ ) #5 / (# 1 5.?4) ) #"." ' ?. + ) ".? ' + ) I r so ".? ' ) #.? % r and r ) 5.4 4. (a) (b) (c) J. ".? ', 5.5? K ', ".F ,', 5.# &equired pd ) 4 ' and power ) ? 7 so current required ) 9B' ) ?B4 ) 5.F, % 4 cells in series have an internal resistance of 4 1 ?555 ) ,5555 . If the total internal resistance is low, say 5." then 4 2 5.5F, ) ?.K# ' roughly which would light the lamp well, so ,5,555Bn ) 5." and n ) number of combinations ) ,55,555 so total number of cells is 4 1 ,55,555 ) ",F55,555 The answer depends on what you mean by adequately light. 7ould e1ternal pd of ? ' and total internal resistance " be sufficient for e1ampleA

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