In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, supporting leaves or branches.

In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants, only plants that are usable as lumber, only plants above a specified height or only perennial species. At its broadest, trees include the taller palms, the tree ferns, bananas and bamboo. A tree typically has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground by the trunk. This trunk typically contains woody tissue for strength, and vascular tissue to carry materials from one part of the tree to another. For most trees it is surrounded by a layer of bark which serves as a protective barrier. Below the ground, the roots branch and spread out widely; they serve to anchor the tree and e tract moisture and nutrients from the soil. Above ground, the branches divide into smaller branches and shoots. The shoots typically bear leaves, which capture light energy and convert it into chemical energy by photosynthesis, providing the food needed by the tree for its growth and development. Flowers and fruit may also be present, but some trees such as conifers instead have pollen cones and seed cones, and others such as tree ferns produce spores instead. Trees tend to be long!lived,"#$ some reaching several thousand years old. The tallest known specimen on %arth is ##&.' m ()*+ ft, and they have a theoretical ma imum height of #)- m (./' ft,."/$ Trees have been in e istence on the %arth for )*- million years. Trees are not a ta onomic group but are a number of plant species that have independently evolved a woody trunk and branches as a way to tower above other plants and make full use of the sunlight. Trees play a significant role in reducing erosion and moderating the climate. They remove carbon dio ide from the atmosphere and store large 0uantities of carbon in their tissues. Trees and forests provide a habitat for many species of animals and plants. Tropical rainforests are one of the most biodiverse habitats in the world. Trees provide shade and shelter, timber for construction, fuel for cooking and heating, and fruit for food as well as having many other uses. In parts of the world, forests are shrinking as trees are cleared to increase the amount of land available for agriculture. Because of their longevity and usefulness, trees have always been revered and they play a role in many of the world1s mythologies.

Contents

1 Definition 2 Overview 3 Distribution 4 Parts and function

o o o o

4.1 Roots 4.2 Trunk 4.3 Buds and growth 4.4 Leaves

o o

4. Re!roduction 4." #eeds

$vo%utionar& histor& " Tree eco%og& ' (ses

o o o o o

'.1 )ood '.2 )ue% '.3 Ti*ber '.4 Bark '. Other uses

+ ,are - .&tho%og& 1/ #u!er%ative trees 11 #ee a%so 12 References

Definition
Although 2tree2 is a term of common parlance, there is no universally recognised precise definition what a tree is, neither botanically nor in common language.")$".$"&$ In its broadest sense, a tree is any plant with the general form of an elongated stem, or trunk, which supports the photosynthetic leaves or branches at some distance above the ground."'$"*$ Trees are also typically defined by height,"3$"+$"#-$ with smaller plants being classified as shrubs,"##$ however the minimum height which defines a tree varies widely, from #- m to -.& m."#-$ By these broadest definitions, large herbaceous plants such as papaya and bananas are trees, despite not being considered as trees under more rigorous definitions.")$"&$"#/$"#)$"#.$"#&$ Another criterion often added to the definition of a tree is that it has a woody trunk."#-$"#'$"#*$ 4uch a definition e cludes herbaceous trees such as bananas and papayas. 5onocots such as bamboo and palms may be considered trees under such a definition."#3$ 6espite being herbaceous"#+$"/-$ and not undergoing secondary growth and never producing wood,"/#$"//$"//$"/)$ palms and bamboo may produce 2pseudo!wood2 by lignifying cells produced through primary growth. Aside from structural definitions, trees are commonly defined by use. Trees may be defined as plants from which lumber can be produced."&$

Overview
Trees are an evolutionary adaptation to competition for space. By growing taller trees are able to compete better for sunlight."/.$ They have modified structures that allow them to grow much taller and spread out their foliage, such as thicker stems that are composed of speciali7ed cells that add structural strength and durability. They are long!lived perennial plants that can increase their si7e each year by producing woody stems. They differ from shrubs, which are also woody plants, by usually growing larger and having a single main stem;"##$ but the distinction between a small tree and a large shrub is not always clear,"/&$ made more confusing by the fact that trees may be reduced in si7e under harsher environmental conditions such as on mountains and subarctic areas. The tree form has evolved separately in unrelated classes of plants in response to similar environmental challenges, making it a classic e ample of parallel evolution. 8ith an estimated #--,--- species, the number of trees worldwide might total twenty!five percent of all living plant species."/'$ Their greatest number grow in tropical regions and many of these areas have not yet been fully surveyed by botanists, making tree diversity and ranges poorly known."/*$ Trees e ist in two different groups of vascular or higher plants, the gymnosperms and the angiosperms"clarification needed$. Both groups are seed plants. The gymnosperm trees include conifers, cycads, ginkgophytes and gnetales. Angiosperm trees are also known as broad-leaved trees. 5ost angiosperm trees are eudicots, the 2true dicotyledons2, so named because the seeds contain two cotyledons or seed leaves. A relatively smaller number of other angiosperm trees are paleodicots; these include Amborella, Magnolia, nutmeg, avocado, and others. 8ood gives structural strength to a tree stem which is used to support the plant as it grows larger. The vascular system of trees allows water, nutrients and other chemicals to be distributed around the plant, and without it trees would not be able to grow as large as they do. The three main parts of trees include the root, stem, and leaves; they are integral parts of the vascular system which interconnects all the living cells. In trees and other plants that develop wood, the vascular cambium allows the e pansion of vascular tissue that produces woody growth. Because this growth ruptures the epidermis of the stem, woody plants also have a cork cambium that develops among the phloem. The cork cambium gives rise to thickened cork cells to protect the surface of the plant and reduce water loss. Both the production of wood and the production of cork are forms of secondary growth. Trees are either evergreen, having foliage that persists and remains green throughout the year,"/3$ or deciduous, shedding their leaves at the end of the growing season and then having a dormant period without foliage."/+$ 5ost conifers are evergreens but larches (Larix and Pseudolarix, are deciduous, dropping their needles each autumn, and some species of cypress (Glyptostrobus, Metasequoia and Taxodium, shed small leafy shoots annually in a process known as cladoptosis. "##$ The crown is a name for the upper part"clarification needed$ of a tree including the branches and leaves ")-$ and the uppermost layer in a forest, formed by the crowns of the trees, is known as the canopy.")#$ A sapling is a young tree.")/$ Tree!like plants include some palms which are not trees but herbaceous"#+$"/-$ monocots that do not undergo secondary growth and never produce wood,"/#$"//$"//$"/)$ and hence do not meet the definition of tree used in this article. In many tree!like palms, the terminal bud on the main stem

is the only one to develop so they have tall, unbranched trunks with spirally arranged large leaves. 4ome of the tree ferns, order 9yatheales, have tree!like growth forms, growing up to /metres ('' ft, but they are structurally very different from other trees: their trunks are composed of rhi7omes which grow vertically and which are covered by numerous adventitious roots."))$

Distribution
This artic%e contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. #uch state*ents shou%d be c%arified or re*oved. (September
2012)

In places where the climate is suitable, trees are the clima vegetation"citation needed$. In some of the cool temperate regions, conifers tend to predominate, but in much of the southern hemisphere, the tropics, or in warm!temperate climates, broad!leaved trees are more common. 4hade tolerance in young trees varies between species, and may determine the pattern of forest succession. 5ore than half the species of terrestrial plants and animals on the %arth are thought to live in tropical rainforests even though these occupy ;ust five percent of the land area.").$ In tropical regions with a monsoon climate, where a drier part of the year alternates with a wet period, different species of broad!leaved trees dominate the forest, some of them being deciduous.")&$ Tropical regions with a drier savanna climate have insufficient rainfall to support dense forests"citation needed$; the canopy is not closed and plenty of sunshine reaches the ground which is covered with grass and scrub. Acacia and baobab are well adapted to living in such areas.")'$ In cool temperate parts of the world, particularly in the northern hemisphere, deciduous broad! leaved trees tend to be replaced by conifers. The long cold winter is unsuitable for plant growth and trees must grow rapidly in the short summer season when the temperature rises and the days are long. <ight is very limited under their dense cover and there may be little plant life on the forest floor although fungi may abound.")*$ 4imilar woodland is found on mountains where the altitude causes the average temperature to be lower thus reducing the length of the growing season.")3$

Parts and function

0 &oung red !ine 1Pinus resinosa2 with s!read of roots visib%e3 as a resu%t of soi% erosion.

Roots
The roots of a tree serve to anchor it to the ground and gather water and nutrients to transfer to all parts of the tree, and for reproduction defense, survival, energy storage and many, many other purposes. The first root produced by a newly germinated seedling is a taproot which goes straight downwards. 8ithin a few weeks lateral roots branch out of the side of this and grow hori7ontally through the upper layers of the soil. In most trees, the tap root eventually withers away and the wide!spreading laterals remain. =ear the tip of the finer roots are single cell root hairs. These are in immediate contact with the soil particles and can absorb water and nutrients such as potassium in solution. The roots re0uire o ygen to respire and only a few species such as the mangrove and the pond cypress (Taxodium ascendens, can live in permanently waterlogged soil.")+$ In the soil, the roots encounter the hyphae of fungi. 5any of these are known as mycorrhi7a and form a mutualistic relationship with the tree roots. 4ome are specific to a single tree species, which will not flourish in the absence of its mycorrhi7al associate. >thers are generalists and associate with many species. The tree ac0uires minerals such as phosphorus from the fungus while it obtains the carbohydrate products of photosynthesis from the tree.".-$ The hyphae of the fungus can link different trees and a network is formed, transferring nutrients from one place to another. The fungus promotes growth of the roots and helps protect the trees against predators and pathogens. It can also limit damage done to a tree by pollution as the fungus accumulate heavy metals within its tissues.".#$ Fossil evidence shows that roots have been associated with mycorrhi7al fungi since the early ?aleo7oic, four hundred million years ago, when the first vascular plants colonised dry land."./$ 4ome trees such as the alders (Alnus spp., have a symbiotic relationship with Frankia sp,, a filamentous bacterium that can fi nitrogen from the air, converting it into ammonia. They have actinorhi7al root nodules on their roots in which the bacteria live. This process enables the tree to live in low nitrogen habitats where they would otherwise be unable to thrive.".)$ @esearchers have discovered that certain plant hormones called cytokinins initiate root nodule formation and that this process is closely related to the mechanisms involved in mycorrhi7al association. "..$ It has been demonstrated that some trees are interconnected through their root system, forming a colony. The interconnections are made by the inosculation process, a kind of natural grafting or welding of vegetal tissues. The tests to demonstrate this networking are performed in;ecting chemicals, sometimes radioactive, in a tree, and then checking for its presence in neighbor trees.
".&$

Buttress roots of the ka!ok tree 1Ceiba pentandra2

The roots are, generally, a subterranean part of the tree, but some tree species have evolved roots that are aerial. The common purposes for aerial roots may be of two kinds, to contribute to the mechanical stability of the tree, and to obtain o ygen from air. An instances of mechanical stability enhancement is the red mangrove that develops prop roots that loop out of the trunk and branches and descend vertically into the mud.".'$ A similar structure is developed by the Indian banyan.".*$ 5any large trees have buttress roots which flare out from the lower part of the trunk. These brace the tree rather like angle brackets and provide stability, reducing sway in high winds. They are particularly prevalent in tropical rainforests where the soil is poor and the roots are close to the surface.".3$ 4ome tree species have developed root e tensions that pop out of soil, in order to get o ygen, when it is not available in the soil because of e cess water. These root e tensions are called pneumatophores, and are present, among other, in black mangrove and pond cypress.".'$

Trunk

Beech 1Fagus sylvatica2 trunk in autu*n

The main purpose of the trunk is to raise the leaves above the ground in order to overtop other plants and shading them out. It also performs the task of transporting water and nutrients from the roots to the aerial parts of the tree and to distribute the food produced by the leaves to all other parts including the roots.".+$ In the case of Angiosperms and Aymnosperms, the outermost layer of the trunk is the bark and is mostly composed of dead cells. It provides a thick, waterproof covering to the living inner tissue. It protects the trunk against the elements, disease, animal attack and fire. It is perforated by a large number of fine breathing pores called lenticels through which o ygen diffuses. Bark is continually replaced by a living layer of cells called the cork cambium. The <ondon plane (Platanus acerifolia, periodically sheds its bark in large flakes. 4imilarly, the bark of the silver birch (!etula pendula, peels off in strips. As the tree1s girth e pands, newer layers of bark are larger in circumference, and the older layers develop fissures in many species. In some trees such as the pine (Pinus spp.,, the bark e udes sticky resin which deters attackers whereas in rubber trees ("e#ea brasiliensis, it is a milky late that oo7es out. The 0uinine bark tree ($inc%ona officinalis, contains bitter substances to make the bark unpalatable.".+$ Tree!like plants"clarification needed$ in the ?teridophyta, Arecales, 9ycadophyta and ?oales such as the tree ferns, palms, cycads and bamboos have no true bark but all have an outer protective covering of some form."&-$ Although the bark functions as a protective barrier, it is itself attacked by boring insects such as beetles. These lay their eggs in crevices and the larvae chew their way through the cellulose tissues leaving a gallery of tunnels. This may allow fungal spores to gain admittance and attack the tree. 6utch elm disease is caused by a fungus (&p%iostoma sp., carried from one elm tree to another by various beetles. The tree reacts to the growth of the fungus by blocking off the ylem tissue carrying sap upwards and the branch above, and eventually the whole tree, is deprived of nourishment and dies. In Britain in the #++-s, /& million elm trees were killed by this disease."&#$

0 section of &ew 1Taxus baccata2 showing 2' annua% growth rings3 !a%e sa!wood and dark heartwood

The innermost layer of bark is known as the phloem and this is involved in the transport of the sap containing the sugars made by photosynthesis to other parts of the tree. It is a soft spongy

layer of living cells, some of which are arranged end to end to form tubes. These are supported by parenchyma cells which provide padding and include fibres for strengthening the tissue."&/$ Inside the phloem is a layer of undifferentiated cells one cell thick called the vascular cambium layer. The cells are continually dividing, creating phloem cells on the outside and wood cells known as ylem on the inside."&)$ The newly created ylem is the sapwood. It is composed of water!conducting cells and associated cells which are often living, and is usually pale in colour. It transports water and minerals from the roots to the upper parts of the tree. The oldest, inner part of the sapwood is progressively converted into heartwood as new sapwood is formed at the cambium. The conductive cells of the heartwood are blocked in some species, and the surrounding cells are more often dead. Beartwood is usually darker in colour than the sapwood. It is the dense central core of the trunk giving it rigidity. Three 0uarters of the dry mass of the ylem is cellulose, a polysaccharide, and most of the remainder is lignin, a comple polymer. A transverse section through a tree trunk or a hori7ontal core will show concentric circles or lighter or darker wood ! tree rings. These rings are the annual growth rings"&.$ There may also be rays running at right angles to growth rings. These are vascular rays which are thin sheets of living tissue permeating the wood."&&$ 5any older trees may become hollow but may still stand upright for many years."&'$

Buds and growth

Dor*ant *agno%ia 1Magnolia sp 2 bud

Bursting horse4chestnut 1!esculus "ippocastanum2 bud

Trees do not usually grow continuously throughout the year but mostly have spurts of active e pansion followed by periods of rest. This pattern of growth is related to the climatic conditions, growth normally ceasing when conditions are either too cold or too dry. In readiness for the inactive period, trees form buds to protect the meristem, the 7one of active growth. Before the period of dormancy, the last few leaves produced at the tip of a twig form scales. These are thick, small and closely wrapped and enclose the growing point in a waterproof sheath. Inside this bud there is a rudimentary stalk and neatly folded miniature leaves, ready to e pand when the ne t growing season arrives. Buds also form in the a ils of the leaves ready to produce new side shoots. A few trees, such as the eucalyptus, have 2naked buds2 with no protective scales and some conifers, such as the <awson1s cypress, have no buds but instead have little pockets of meristem concealed among the scale!like leaves."&*$ 8hen growing conditions improve, such as the arrival of warmer weather and the longer days associated with spring in temperate regions, growth starts again. The e panding shoot pushes its way out, shedding the scales in the process. These leave behind scars on the surface of the twig. The whole year1s growth may take place in ;ust a few weeks. The new stem is unlignified at first and may be green and downy. ?alm trees"clarification needed$ have their leaves spirally arranged on an unbranched trunk."&*$ In some tree species in temperate climates, a second spurt of growth, a <ammas growth may occur which is believed to be a strategy to compensate for loss of early foliage to insect predators."&3$ ?rimary growth is the elongation of the stems and roots. 4econdary growth consists of a progressive thickening and strengthening of the tissues as the outer layer of the epidermis is converted into bark and the cambium layer creates new phloem and ylem cells. The bark is inelastic."&+$ 4ooner or later"'%ic%($ the growth of a tree slows down and stops and it gets no taller. As long as the crown remains in balance with the roots"clarification needed$ the tree should remain healthy but its ability to defend itself against fungal attack is diminished. If damage occurs the tree may in time become hollow."'-$

Leaves
.ain artic%e5 Leaf

Buds3 %eaves3 f%owers and fruit of oak 1#uercus robur2

Buds3 %eaves and re!roductive structures of white fir 1!bies alba2

Trees are much taller than herbaceous or shrubby plants"citation needed$and ensuring the upper!most leaves are supplied with water originating in the root system re0uires that water is drawn up

through the ylem from the roots by the suction produced as it evaporates from the leaves. "clarification needed$ If insufficient water is available the leaves will die."'#$ The leaves of trees come in a wide range of shapes and si7es which have evolved in response to environmental pressures including climate and predation. They can be broad or needle!like, simple or compound, lobed or entire, smooth or hairy, delicate or tough, deciduous or evergreen. The needles of coniferous trees are compact but are structurally similar to those of broad!leaved trees. They are adapted for life in environments where resources are low or water is scarce. Fro7en ground may limit water availability and conifers are often found in colder places at higher altitudes and higher latitudes than broad leaved trees. In many cases, their branches hang down at an angle to the trunk which decreases the likelihood of them breaking when weighed down by snow."clarification needed$ Broad leaved trees in temperate regions have a different"clarification needed$ strategy for dealing with winter weather. 8hen the days get shorter and the temperature begins to decrease, the leaves no longer makes new chlorophyll and the red and yellow pigments already present in the blades become apparent."'/$ 4ynthesis in the leaf of a plant hormone called au in also ceases. This causes the cells at the ;unction of the petiole and the twig to weaken and sooner or later the ;oint breaks and the leaf floats to the ground. In tropical and subtropical regions, many trees keep their leaves all year round. Individual leaves may fall intermittently and be replaced by new growth but most leaves remain intact for some time. >ther tropical species and those in arid regions may shed all their leaves annually at a particular time of year."citation needed$ >ften this will coincide with the onset of the dry season or some other climatic event."clarification needed$ 5any deciduous trees flower before the new leaves emerge."')$

Reproduction
.ain artic%e5 P%ant re!roduction

)or*3 %eaves and re!roductive structures of 6ueen sago Cycas circinalis

Tree forms are found in a wide range of plants and their reproductive strategies are substantially the same as shrub or herbaceous plant forms. 5any trees are wind pollinated which may be an evolutionary adaptation to take advantage of increased wind speeds high above the ground, particularly in the case of those that produce pollen before the leaves emerge."'.$ A vast 0uantity of pollen is produced because of the low likelihood of any particular grain landing on an appropriate female flower. 8ind!pollinated flowers of broad!leaved trees are characterised by a lack of showy parts, no scent and a copious production of pollen, often with separate male and female flowers, or separate male and female trees. The male flowers may be high up in the tree, often in the form of dangling catkins. The female flowers may be lower down the tree. The pollen of pine trees contains air sacs which give it buoyancy and it has been known to travel as far as 3-- kilometres (&-- mi,."'&$ Tree pollen can cause allergies. A prime e ample would be hay fever, which can be caused by pollen."''$
.ain artic%e5 Po%%ination s&ndro*e

Seeds
4eeds are the primary way that trees reproduce and their seeds vary greatly in si7e and shape. 4ome of the largest seeds come from trees, but the largest tree, )equoiadendron giganteum, produces one of the smallest tree seeds."'*$ The great diversity in tree fruits and seeds reflects the many different ways that tree species have evolved to disperse their offspring. The single e tant species of Ainkgophyta (Ginkgo biloba, has fleshy seeds produced at the ends of short branches on female trees,"'3$ and Gnetum, a tropical and subtropical group of gymnosperms produce seeds at the tip of a shoot a is."'+$ The seeds of conifers, the largest group of Aymnosperms, are enclosed in a cone and most species have seeds that are light and papery that can be blown considerable distances once free from the cone."*-$ 4ometimes the seed remains in the cone for years waiting for a trigger event to liberate it. Fire stimulates release and germination of seeds of the ;ack pine, and also enriches the forest floor with wood ash and removes competing vegetation."*#$ 4imilarly, a number of Angiosperms including Acacia cyclops and Acacia mangium have seeds that germinate better after e posure to high temperatures."*/$

7ind dis!ersed seed of e%* 1$lmus23 ash 1Fraxinus2 and s&ca*ore 1!cer pseudoplatanus2

Angiosperm tree produce seeds in a wide variety of fruits, some of them include acorn, nut, berrie, pome, drupe, samaras, hesperdium, capsule and legume."*)$ For a tree seeding to grow into an adult tree it needs light and space, if seeds only fell straight to the ground, competition among the concentrated saplings and the shade of the parent would likely prevent it from flourishing. 5any seeds such as birch are small and have papery wings to aid dispersal by the wind. Ash trees and maples have larger seeds with blade shaped wings which spiral down to the ground when released. The kapok tree has cottony threads to catch the bree7e. "*.$ The flame tree does not rely on fire but shoots its seeds through the air when the two sides of its long pods crack apart e plosively on drying."*.$ The miniature cone!like catkins of Alder trees produce seeds that contain small droplets of oil that help disperse the seeds on the surface of water. 5angroves often grow in water and some species have propagules, which are buoyant fruits with seeds that start germinating before becoming detached from the parent tree."*&$"*'$ These float on the water and may become lodged on emerging mudbanks and successfully take root."*.$ >ther seeds, such as apple pips and plum stones, have fleshy receptacles and smaller fruits like hawthorns have seeds enclosed in edible tissue; birds and animals"clarification needed$ eat the fruits and the seeds are either discarded or are consumed and pass through the gut to be deposited in the animal1s droppings well away from the parent tree. In some cases, germination is improved by being processed in this way."**$ =uts and other large seeds are gathered by animals that hide in caches"citation needed$ any not immediately consumed."*3$ 5any of these caches are never revisited, the nut!casing softens with rain and frost and the seed germinates in the spring."*+$ ?ine cones may be hoarded in a similar way by red s0uirrels, and gri77ly bears raiding the caches may also help to disperse the seed."3-$

Evolutionary history

Pa%*s and c&cads as the& *ight have a!!eared in the *idd%e Tertiar&

The earliest tree!like organisms were tree ferns, horsetails and lycophytes, which grew in forests in the 9arboniferous period. The first tree may have been *attie+a, fossils of which have been found in =ew Cork 4tate in /--* dating back to the 5iddle 6evonian (about )3& million years ago,. ?rior to this discovery, Arc%aeopteris was the earliest known tree."3#$ Both of these reproduced by spores rather than seeds and are considered to be links between ferns and the gymnosperms which evolved in the Triassic period. The gymnosperms include conifers, cycads, gnetales and ginkgos and these may have appeared as a result of a whole genome duplication event which took place about )#+ million years ago."3/$ Ainkgophyta was once a widespread diverse group "3)$ of which the only survivor is the maidenhair tree Ginkgo biloba. This is considered to be a living fossil because it is virtually unchanged from the fossilised specimens found in Triassic deposits."3.$ 6uring the 5eso7oic (/.& to '& million years ago, the conifers flourished and became adapted to live in all the ma;or terrestrial habitats. 4ubse0uently the tree forms of flowering plants evolved during the 9retaceous period. These began to dominate the conifers during the Tertiary era ('& to / million years ago, when forests covered the globe. 8hen the climate cooled #.& million years ago and the first of four ice ages occurred, the forests retreated as the ice advanced. In the interglacials, trees recolonised the land"clarification needed$ only to be driven back again at the start of the ne t ice age."3&$

Tree ecology
Trees are an important part of the terrestrial ecosystem,"3'$ providing essential habitat for a community of organisms. %piphytic plants such as ferns, some mosses, liverworts, orchids and some species of parasitic plants (e.g., mistletoe, hang from branches; these along with arboreal lichens, algae, and fungi provide micro!habitats for themselves and for other organisms, including animals. <eaves, flowers and fruits are seasonally available. >n the ground underneath trees there is shade, and often there is undergrowth, leaf litter, fallen branches andDor decaying wood that provide other habitat. Trees stabilise the soil, prevent rapid run!off of rain water, help prevent desertification, have a role in climate control and help in the maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem balance."3*$ 5any species of tree support their own specialised invertebrates. In their natural habitats, /3. different species of insect have been found on the %nglish oak (,uercus robur, "33$ and )-' species of invertebrate on the Tasmanian oak (-ucalyptus obliqua,."3+$ =on!native tree species provide a less biodiverse community, for e ample in the Enited Fingdom the sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus,, which originates from southern %urope, has few associated invertebrate species, though its base rich bark"clarification needed$ does support a wide range of lichens, bryophytes and epiphytes."+-$ Trees can play a role in the development of an ecosystem,"clarification needed$ for e ample in mangrove swamps the roots of the mangrove trees reduce the speed of flow of tidal currents and hence trap water!borne sediment, leading over time to a reduction in water depth and the creation of suitable conditions for further mangrove colonisation. Thus mangrove swamps tend to e tend seawards

in suitable locations."+#$ 5angrove swamps also provide an effective buffer against the more damaging effects of cyclones and tsunamis."+/$

Uses
4ilviculture is the practice of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and 0uality of forests, which are areas that have a high density of trees. 9ultivated trees are planted and tended by humans, usually because they provide food (fruits or nuts,, ornamental beauty, or some type of wood product that benefits people. A small wooded area, usually with no undergrowth, is called a grove "+)$ and a small wood or thicket of trees and bushes is called a coppice or copse."+.$ A large area of land covered with trees and undergrowth is called woodland or forest."+&$ An area of woodland composed primarily of trees established by planting or artificial seeding is known as a plantation "+'$ and an area of land planted with fruit or nut trees is an orchard."+*$ 4everal biotopes are defined largely by the trees that inhabit them, e amples being rainforest and taiga. A landscape of trees scattered or spaced across grassland is called a savanna. "+3$ A forest of great age is called ancient woodland"citation needed$"++$ and a forest in its natural state, before being e plored or e ploited by man is a virgin forest."citation needed$"#--$ Trees have conservation value and add interest to the landscape. They can be planted as isolated specimens in hedgerows or as shelter belts. They provide shade for people and animals. They can be planted in grand avenues in parkland or alongside roads in town and country.

Food

)orest hone&

#ugar *a!%e 1!cer sacc"arum2 being ta!!ed

Trees are the source of many of the world1s best known fleshy fruits. Apples, pears, plums, cherries and citrus are all grown commercially in temperate climates and a wide range of edible fruits are found in the tropics. >ther commercially important fruit include dates, coconuts and other nuts, figs and olives. ?alm oil is obtained from the fruits of the oil palm (-laeis guineensis,. The fruits of the cocoa tree (T%eobroma cacao, are used to make cocoa and chocolate and the berries of coffee trees, ($offea arabica, and ($offea canep%ora,, are processed to e tract the coffee beans. In many rural areas of the world, fruit is gathered from forest trees for consumption."#-#$ 5any trees have flowers rich in nectar which are attractive to bees. The production of forest honey is an important industry in rural areas of the developing world where it is undertaken by small!scale beekeepers using traditional methods."#-/$ The flowers of the elder ()ambucus, are used to make elderflower cordial and petals of the plum (Prunus spp., can be candied."#-)$ The leaves of trees are widely gathered as fodder for livestock and some can be eaten by humans but they tend to be high in tannins which makes them bitter. <eaves of the curry tree (Murraya koenigii, are eaten, those of kaffir lime $itrus %ystrix (e.g., Thai food"#-.$, Ailant%us (e.g., in Forean dishes such as bugak, and those of the %uropean bay tree (Laurus nobilis, and the 9alifornia bay tree (.mbellularia californica, are used for flavouring food."#-&$ $amellia sinensis, the source of tea, is a small tree but seldom reaches its full height, being heavily pruned to make picking the leaves easier."#-'$ In temperate climates there is a sudden movement of sap at the end of the winter as trees prepare to burst into growth. In =orth America, the sap of the sugar maple (Acer sacc%arum, is most often used in the production of a sweet li0uid, maple syrup. About +-G of the sap is water, the remaining #-G being a mi ture of various sugars and certain minerals."#-*$ The sap is harvested by drilling holes in the trunks of the trees and collecting the li0uid that flows out of the inserted spigots. It is piped to a sugarhouse where it is heated to concentrate it and improve its flavour. >ne litre of maple syrup is obtained from every forty litres of sap and has a sugar content of e actly ''G."#-*$ A similar process happens in northern %urope when the spring rise in the sap of the silver birch (!etula pendula, is tapped and collected. This is either drunk fresh or is fermented into an alcoholic drink. In Alaska, the sap of the sweet birch (!etula lenta, is similarly collected and converted into birch syrup with a sugar content of '*G. 4weet birch sap is more dilute than maple sap and one hundred litres are re0uired to make one litre of birch syrup."#-3$

Harious parts of trees are used as spices. These include cinnamon, made from the bark of the cinnamon tree ($innamomum +eylanicum, and allspice, the dried small fruits of the pimento tree (Pimenta dioica,. =utmeg is a seed found in the fleshy fruit of the nutmeg tree (Myristica fragrans, and cloves are the unopened flower buds of the clove tree ()y+ygium aromaticum,. 4assafras oil is an important flavouring obtained from distilling bark from the roots of ()assafras albidum,."#-&$

Fuel
.ain artic%e5 7ood fue%

#e%%ing firewood at a *arket

8ood has traditionally been used for fuel, especially in rural areas. In less developed nations it may be the only fuel available and collecting firewood is often a time consuming task as it becomes necessary to travel further and further afield in the search for fuel."#-+$ It is often burned inefficiently on an open fire. In more developed countries other fuels are available and burning wood is a choice rather than a necessity. 5odern wood!burning stoves are very fuel efficient and new products such as wood pellets are available to burn."##-$ 9harcoal can be made by slow pyrolysis of wood by heating it in the absence of air in a kiln. The carefully stacked branches, often oak, are burned with a very limited amount of air. The process of converting them into charcoal takes about fifteen hours. 9harcoal is used as a fuel in barbecues and by blacksmiths and has many industrial and other uses."###$ 8ood smoke can be used to preserve food. In the hot smoking process the food is e posed to smoke and heat in a controlled environment. The food is ready to eat when the process is complete, having been tenderised and flavoured by the smoke it has absorbed. In the cold process, the temperature is not allowed to rise above #-- IF ()3 I9,. The flavour of the food is enhanced but raw food re0uires further cooking. If it is to be preserved, meat should be cured before cold smoking."##/$

Timber
.ain artic%e5 7ood

8oiner& and roof trusses *ade fro* softwood

8ood has been an important, easily available material for construction since humans started building shelters. %ngineered wood products are available which bind the particles, fibres or veneers of wood together with adhesives to form composite materials. ?lastics have taken over from wood for some traditional uses."##)$ 8ood is used in the construction of buildings, bridges, trackways, piles, poles for power lines, masts for boats, pit props, railway sleepers, fencing, hurdles, shuttering for concrete, pipes, scaffolding and pallets. In housebuilding it is used in ;oinery, for making ;oists, roof trusses, roofing shingles, thatching, staircases, doors, window frames, floor boards, par0uet flooring, panelling and cladding."##.$ 8ood is used to construct carts, farm implements, boats, dugout canoes and in shipbuilding. It is used for making furniture, tool handles, bo es, ladders, musical instruments, bows, weapons, matches, clothes pegs, brooms, shoes, baskets, turnery, carving, toys, pencils, rollers, cogs, wooden screws, barrels, coffins, skittles, veneers, artificial limbs, oars, skis, wooden spoons, sports e0uipment and wooden balls."##.$ 8ood is pulped for paper and used in the manufacture of cardboard and made into engineered wood products for use in construction such as fibreboard, hardboard, chipboard and plywood."##.$ The wood of conifers is known as softwood while that of broad!leaved trees is hardwood."##&$

Bark

Recent%& stri!!ed cork oak 1#uercus suber2

9ork is produced from the thick bark of the cork oak (,uercus suber,. It is harvested from the living trees about once every ten years in an environmentally sustainable industry. "##'$ 5ore than half the world1s cork comes from ?ortugal and is largely used to make stoppers for wine bottles. "##*$ >ther uses include floor tiles, bulletin boards, balls, footwear, cigarette tips, packaging, insulation and ;oints in woodwind instruments."##*$ The bark of other varieties of oak has traditionally been used in %urope for the tanning of hides though bark from other species of tree has been used elsewhere. The active ingredient, tannin, is e tracted and after various preliminary treatments, the skins are immersed in a series of vats containing solutions in increasing concentrations. The tannin causes the hide to become supple, less affected by water and more resistant to bacterial attack."##3$ The commonly used spice 9innamon is obtained from the bark from a number of species of the genus $innamomum"##+$ At least one hundred and twenty drugs come from plant sources, many of them from the bark of trees."#/-$ Juinine originates from the cinchona tree ($inc%ona, and was for a long time the remedy of choice for the treatment of malaria."#/#$ Aspirin was synthesi7ed to replace the sodium salicylate derived from the bark of willow trees ()alix, which had unpleasant side effects."#//$ The anti!cancer drug ?aclita el is derived from ta ol, a substance found in the bark of the ?acific yew (Taxus bre#ifolia,."#/)$ >ther tree based drugs come from the paw!paw ($arica papaya,, the cassia ($assia spp.,, the cocoa tree (T%eobroma cacao,, the tree of life ($amptot%eca acuminata, and the downy birch (!etula pubescens,."#/-$

The papery bark of the white birch tree (!etula papyrifera, was used e tensively by =ative Americans. 8igwams were covered by it and canoes were constructed from it. >ther uses included food containers, hunting and fishing e0uipment, musical instruments, toys and sledges. "#/.$ =owadays, bark chips, a by!product of the timber industry, are used as a mulch and as a growing medium for epiphytic plants that need a soil!free compost."#/&$

Other uses

Late9 being co%%ected fro* the rubber tree 1%evea brasiliensis2

<ate is a sticky defensive secretion that protects plants against herbivores. 5any trees produce it when in;ured but the main source of the late used to make natural rubber is the ?arK rubber tree ("e#ea brasiliensis,. >riginally used to create bouncy balls and for the waterproofing of cloth, natural rubber is now mainly used in tyres for which synthetic materials have proved less durable."#/'$ The late e uded by the balatK tree (Manilkara bidentata, is used to make golf balls and is similar to gutta!percha, made from the late of the 2getah perca2 tree Palaquium. This is also used as an insulator, particularly of undersea cables, and in dentistry, walking sticks and gun butts. It has now largely been replaced by synthetic materials."#/*$ @esin is another plant e udate that may have a defensive purpose. It is a viscous li0uid composed mainly of volatile terpenes and is produced mostly by coniferous trees. It is used in varnishes, for making small castings and in ten!pin bowling balls. 8hen heated, the terpenes are driven off and the remaining product is called 2rosin2 and is used by stringed instrumentalists on their bows. 4ome resins contain essential oils and are used in incense and aromatherapy. Fossili7ed resin is known as amber and was mostly formed in the 9retaceous (#.& to '& million years ago, or more recently. The resin that oo7ed out of trees sometimes trapped insects or spiders and these are still visible in the interior of the amber."#/3$

The camphor tree ($innamomum camp%ora, produces an essential oil "#-&$ and the eucalyptus tree (-ucalyptus globulus, is the main source of eucalyptus oil which is used in medicine, as a fragrance and in industry."#/+$

Care
6ead trees pose a safety risk, especially during high winds and severe storms, and removing dead trees involves a financial burden, whereas the presence of healthy trees can clean the air, increase property values, and reduce the temperature of the built environment and thereby reduce building cooling costs. 6uring times of drought, trees can fall into water stress, which may cause a tree to become more susceptible to disease and insect problems, and ultimately may lead to a tree1s death. Irrigating trees during dry periods can reduce the risk of water stress and death. Irrigation can be accomplished by use of a garden hose, soaker hose, sprinkler, or modified five! gallon bucket."#)-$

Mythology
.ain artic%e5 Tree worshi!

:ggdrasi%3 the 7or%d 0sh 1;orse2

Looking u!wards fro* the base of the <enera% #her*an Tree

Trees have been venerated since time immemorial. To the ancient 9elts, certain trees held special significance"#)#$ as providing fuel, building materials, ornamental ob;ects and weaponry. >ther cultures have similarly revered trees, often linking the lives and fortunes of individuals to them or using them as oracles. In Areek mythology, dryads were believed to be shy nymphs who inhabited trees. The >ubangui people of west Africa plant a tree when a child is born. As the tree flourishes, so does the child but if the tree fails to thrive, the health of the child is considered at risk. 8hen it flowers it is time for marriage. Aifts are left at the tree periodically and when the individual dies, their spirit lives on in the tree."#)/$ Trees have their roots in the ground and their trunk and branches e tended towards the sky. This concept is found in many of the world1s religions as a tree which links the underworld and the earth and holds up the heavens. In =orse mythology, Cggdrasil is a central cosmic tree whose roots and branches e tend to various worlds. Harious creatures live on it."#))$ In India, Falpavriksha is a wish!fulfilling tree that was one of nine ;ewels that emerged from the primitive ocean. Icons are placed beneath it to be worshipped, tree nymphs inhabit the branches and it grants favours to the devout who tie threads round the trunk."#).$ 6emocracy started in =orth America when the Areat ?eacemaker formed the Iro0uois 9onfederacy, inspiring the warriors of the original five American nations to bury their weapons under the Tree of ?eace, an eastern white pine (Pinus strobus,."#)&$ In the creation story in the Bible, the tree of life and the knowledge of good and evil was planted by Aod in the Aarden of %den."#)'$ 4acred groves e ist in 9hina, India, Africa and elsewhere. They are places where the deities live and where all the living things are either sacred or are companions of the gods. Folklore lays down the supernatural penalties that will result if desecration takes place for e ample by the felling of trees. Because of their protected status, sacred groves may be the only relicts of ancient

forest and have a biodiversity much greater than the surrounding area."#)*$ 4ome Ancient Indian tree deities, such as ?uliyidaivalaiyamman, the Tamil deity of the tamarind tree, or Fadambariyamman, associated with the kadamba tree were seen as manifestations of a goddess who offers her blessings by giving fruits in abundance."#)3$

Superlative trees
.ain artic%e5 List of su!er%ative trees

The tallest living tree is believed to be a coast redwood ()equoia semper#irens, at @edwood =ational ?ark, 9alifornia. It has been named Byperion and is ##&.'' metres ()*+.& ft, tall."#)+$ The tallest known broad!leaved tree is a mountain ash (-ucalyptus regnans, growing in Tasmania with a height of +* metres ()#3 ft,."#.-$"#.#$ The largest tree by volume is believed to be a giant se0uoia ()equoiadendron giganteum, known as the Aeneral 4herman Tree in the 4e0uoia =ational ?ark in Tulare 9ounty, 9alifornia. >nly the trunk is used in the calculation and the volume is estimated to be #,.3* mL (&/,&-3 cu ft,. Also in 9alifornia is the oldest living tree with a verified age. It is a Areat Basin bristlecone pine (Pinus longae#a, called 5ethuselah growing in the 8hite 5ountains. It has been dated by drilling a core sample and counting the annual rings and was considered to be .,3.. years old in /-#/."#./$ It is thought likely that other bristlecone pines e ceed &,--- years of age."#./$ A little further south, at 4anta 5aria del Tule, >a aca, 5e ico, is the tree with the broadest trunk. It is a 5onte7uma cypress (Taxodium mucronatum, known as Mrbol del Tule and its diameter at breast height is ##.'/ m ()3.# ft, giving it a girth of )'./ m (##+ ft,. The tree1s trunk is far from round and the e act dimensions may be misleading as the circumference includes much empty space between the large buttress roots."#.)$

Tree Pruning

Tree ?running Tree pruning is the most common tree maintenance procedure ne t to watering. 5aintenance pruning is often desirable or necessary to remove dead, diseased, or insect!infested branches and to improve tree structure, enhance vigor, or maintain safety. Because each cut has the potential to change the growth of (or cause damage to, a tree, no branch should be removed without a reason. @emoving foliage from a tree has two distinct effects on its growth. @emoving leaves reduces photosynthesis and may reduce overall growth. That is why tree pruning should always be performed sparingly. >ver!pruning is e tremely harmful because without enough leaves, a tree

cannot gather and process enough sunlight to survive. Bowever, after pruning, the growth that does occur takes place on fewer shoots, so they tend to grow longer than they would without pruning. Enderstanding how the tree responds to pruning should assist you when selecting branches for removal. ?runing mature trees may re0uire special e0uipment, training, and e perience. If the pruning work re0uires climbing, the use of a chain or hand saw, or the removal of large limbs, then using personal safety e0uipment, such as protective eye!wear and hearing protection, is a must. Arborists can provide a variety of services to assist in performing the ;ob safely and reducing risk of personal in;ury and damage to your property. They also are able to determine which type of pruning is necessary to maintain or improve the health, appearance, and safety of your trees.

Soil Amendments

Fertili7ation 4oil amendments are materials added to soil to improve 8ater @etention ?ermeability

8ater Infiltration 6rainage Aeration and 4tructure

The goal of soil amendments is to provide a better environment for plant roots. 4oil amendments are throughly mi ed into the soil to increase water and air movement and in increase root growth.

Types of Soil Amendments

Organic
4phagnum ?eat 8ood 9hips Arass 9lippings 4traw 9ompost 5anure Biosolids 4awdust wood ash

Inorganic
Hermiculite ?erlite Tire 9hunks ?ea Aravel 4and

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While planting each of these different types of trees differs in the details, all trees
eventually end up in a hole. But not any old hole will do. The most common mistake when planting a tree is a digging hole, which is both too deep and too narrow. Too deep and the roots dont have access to sufficient oxygen to ensure proper growth. Too narrow and the root structure cant expand sufficiently to nourish and properly anchor the tree. As a general rule, trees should be transplanted no deeper than the soil in which they were originally grown. The width of the hole should be at least 3 times the diameter of the root ball or container or the spread of the roots in the case of bare root trees. This will provide the tree with enough worked earth for its root structure to establish itself. When digging in poorly drained clay soil, it is important to avoid gla!ing. Glazing occurs when the sides and bottom of a hole become smoothed forming a barrier, through which water has difficulty passing. To break up the gla!e, use a fork to work the bottom and drag the points along the sides of the completed hole. "lso, raising the centre

bottom of the hole slightly higher than the surrounding area. This allows water to disperse, reducing the possibility of water pooling in the planting !one. Planting Balled and Burlapped Trees. Balled and burlapped #B $ B% trees, although best planted as soon as possible, can be stored for some time after purchase as long as the ball is kept moist and the tree stored in a shady area. B & B trees should always be lifted by the ball, ne er by the trunk. The burlap surrounding the ball of earth and roots should either be cut away completely #mandatory, in the case of synthetic or plastic burlap% or at least pulled back from the top third of the ball #in the case of natural burlap%. "ny string or twine should also be removed. Backfill soil #combinations of peat moss, composted manure, topsoil, etc.% is then placed in the hole surrounding the tree &ust to the height of the ball or slightly lower to allow for some settling. Be careful not to compress the back fill soil as this may prevent water from reaching the roots and the roots from expanding beyond the ball. top Planting !ontainer Trees. 'ontainer trees #though sub&ect to greater heat and drying conditions than B and B% can also be stored for a brief period of time after purchase as long as the soil in the container is kept moist and the tree stored in a shady spot. The procedure for planting container trees is similar to that for B $ B trees. (n the case of metal or plastic containers, remove the container completely. (n the case of fibre containers, tear the sides away. )nce carefully removed from the container, check the roots. (f they are tightly compressed or potbound, use your fingers or a blunt instrument #to minimi!e root tearing% to carefully tease the fine roots away from the tight mass and then spread the roots prior to planting. (n the case of extremely woody compacted roots, it may be necessary to use a spade to open up the bottom half of the root system. The root system is then pulled apart or butterflied prior to planting. *oosening the root structure in this way is extremely important in the case of container plants. +ailure to do so may result in the roots girdling and killing the tree. "t the very least, the roots will have difficulty expanding beyond the dimensions of the original container. To further assist this, lightly break up even the soil outside the planting !one. This allows roots that ,uickly move out of the planting !one to be more resilient as they anchor into existing surrounding soil conditions. )nce the tree is seated in the hole, the original soil is then back-filled into the hole to the soil level of the container. "gain, remember not to overly compress the back-filled soil especially by tramping it with your feet. 'ompress gently using your hands instead. top Planting Bare"#ooted Trees.

.lanting bare-rooted trees is a little different as there is no soil surrounding the roots. /ost importantly, the time between purchase and planting is a more critical issue. .lant as soon as possible. When purchasing bare-rooted trees, inspect the roots to ensure that they are moist and have numerous lengths of fine root hairs #healthy%. 'are should be taken to ensure that the roots are kept moist in the period between purchase and planting. .rune broken or damaged roots but save as much of the root structure as you can. To plant, first build a cone of earth in the centre of the hole around which to splay the roots. /ake sure that when properly seated on this cone the tree is planted so that the trunk flare is clearly visible and the crown, where the roots and top meet, is about two inches above the soil level. This is to allow for natural settling. $atering 0ewly planted trees should be watered at the time of planting. (n addition, during the first growing season, they should be watered at least once a week in the absence of rain, more often during the height of the summer. 1owever, care should be taken not to overwater as this may result in oxygen deprivation. (f you are uncertain as to whether a tree needs watering, dig down 2-3 inches at the edge of the planting hole. (f the soil at that depth feels powdery or crumbly, the tree needs water. "de,uately moistened soil should form a ball when s,uee!ed. 4egular deep soakings are better than fre,uent light wettings. /oisture should reach a depth of 56 to 53 inches below the soil surface to encourage ideal root growth. )ne new way to ensure a constant supply of moisture is through the use of superabsorbent polymer crystals that absorb moisture when the surrounding soil is moist, and release it again when the soil dries out. %ulching To conserve moisture and promote water and air penetration, the back filled soil surrounding newly-planted trees can be covered with mulch consisting of material such as bark, wood chips or pine needles #although the acidity associated with pine needles is not suited for many plants%. /ulch depth should be between 3 to 7 inches. 8o not, under any circumstances, cover the area surrounding the tree with plastic sheeting since air and water movement are prevented. .orous landscape fabric can be used since it freely allows water and air penetration. &ertilizer 9ince all soils have a history, it can be beneficial to get soil analy!ed properly for macronutrients such as 0itrogen #0%, .hosphorus #.% and .otassium #:%, micronutrients, p1, soil type, and drainage. "lthough many trees survive without fertili!er at time of planting, the ma&ority of plants suffer root loss and stress associated with movement between ideal nursery grown conditions and the final planting.

To compensate for root loss during planting and to alleviate transplant shock, treat your trees with mycorrhizal fungi and fertili!ers with the right formulation for the type of tree you are planting. " biostimulant can also aid in root development and general tree health.

Staking and Guy-Wiring

;oung trees should be able to support their own weight, but when

they are transplanted, they often need time to reestablish themselves. "lso, many nurseries plant their trees very close together to maximi!e use of space and stake them to promote height growth at the expense of trunk strength. When shopping for trees, look for trees with branches all along the trunk - not &ust at the top. )nce a tree is planted, it will concentrate its energy on standing upright. (f it is unable to do so, try thinning out the upper branches to reduce wind resistance. (f that is not enough and you find you have to stake a tree, remember the following< 5. )nly stake the tree long enough for it to be able stand on its own. 6. 9takes should not be too tight - there should be room for the tree to sway in the wind. 3. 9takes should not be too loose - the tree should not rub against the stakes. 7. 9takes should be buried at least 5.= feet underground to provide ample support.

Wrapping and Pruning

$rapping Wrapping refers to the techni,ue of winding a crepe-type paper around the barks of trees. >enerally speaking, you only need to consider doing this in the northern ?nited 9tates and 'anada to prevent the 'sun"scalding( of thin-barked trees like soft maples and crabapples during the first one or two winters after planting. 'ommercial tree-wrap is sold at nurseries and in garden-supply stores. To wrap a tree, start at the bottom and wind the paper around the tree to the level of the second branch. +asten the paper at the top with a tack. 8ont forget to remove the wrapping each spring to prevent moisture buildup, disease and insect infestation. Pruning ?se restraint when pruning your newly-planted trees. .rune only to remove damaged or broken branches. 8o not prune the top of the tree as this may alter the structure of the tree excessively #check species re,uirements% and may hamper carbohydrate production. 8o not paint the cuts with compounds #e.g. *atex% that prevent air from accessing the wound, thereby slowing the healing process.

Transplanting Trees

There is always danger in moving plant material from one location to

another. 4oot material is sacrificed, and depending on the previous state of the plant, this can be a severe stress. (f necessary, it is possible to transplant trees from one area of your property to another. The key lies in ensuring that the tree to be transplanted has a good healthy root ball and that the tree and ball together are not unmanageably hea y. @ 9tart by tying the branches together loosely. @ Then dig a two-foot deep trench around the tree at least one foot larger than the si!e of the root ball #or as much intact viable root material as practical%. )nce the trench is dug, undercut around the shrub. 'arefully prune the roots extending from the ball as you dig down. @ When the ball is partially exposed, begin to wrap the ball in burlap starting from the base of the tree down using twine to secure the wrapping. :eep digging until the ball is undercut and sitting on a soil pedestal. @ Then carefully tilt the tree and ball and finish wrapping and securing the burlap underneath. @ Then carefully tilt the tree and ball and finish wrapping and securing the burlap underneath. To help your tree establish itself when transplanted, treat the planting area with mycorrhizal fungi, a specially formulated fertilizer and biostimulant. The do"it"yourself approach is useful only for small trees. &or large trees, hire a professional who has the specialized e)uipment and knowledge to do the *ob safely.

Conclusion Well that wasnt so difficult, was itA

0ow all you have to do is remember that it can take a year or more for newly planted trees to ad&ust to their new surroundings. 8uring that time, you should make sure that they are receiving sufficient water. (n some cases, you may want to fertili!e as necessary.

When to Plant Trees 'limate plays a deciding role when determining the appropriate planting time.
0ewly planted trees do best when exposed to moderate temperature and rainfall and they need time to root and acclimati!e before the onset of intense heat and dryness of summer or the free!ing temperatures of winter. +pring and early fall, therefore, are generally the best planting seasons ,depending on your location- with spring preferred o er fall in the more northerly latitudes. (n the southern ?nited 9tates, however, which do not experience an intense winter, planting can take place during the winter months.

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Latest News from Haribon

List of ative Trees Species
Vernacular or .a&a!is 7hite Lauan ommon !ames Scientific !ames S"orea palosapis S"orea contorta S &idal

Vernacular or

ommon !ames

Scientific !ames

<isok4<isok .anggacha!ui Da%ingdingan Tangi%e :aka% 0%*aciga .angkono Aat*on Pa%osa!is >air&4%eafed 0!itong :aka%4Aa%iot Dagang Panau Aa*agong Leaf4tai%ed Panau Red Lauan >agakhak Bagtikan :aka%4#a!%ungan Bitangho% .agabu&o .a%aba&abas ;arekC;arig .agabu&o Bo%on Duguan Pa%is Taka%au Ao%a%abang

%opea p"ilippinensis 'yer %opea acuminata Merr %opea Fox(ort"y )lmer S"orea polysperma S"orea astylosa !gat"is p"ilippinensis *ant"ostemon verdugonianus +ves 'illenia p"ilippinensis ,ol-e !nisoptera t"uri-era 'iptercarpus p"ilippinensis %opea malibato Fox( !nisoptera aurea Fox( 'ipterocarpus gracilis .lume 'iospyrus p"ilippinensis ! ' C 'iptercarpus caudatus Fox( S"orea negrosensis Fox( 'ipterocarpus validus .lume Paras"orea malaanonan (.lanco Merrill) %opea plagata (.lanco) &idal Calop"yllum blancoi Pl and Tr Celtis lu/onica Tristaniopsis decorticata Merr (0ilson 1 0ater"ouse) %opea cagayanensis Celtis lu/onica 0arburg" Platymitra arborea (.lanco) Merrill Myristica p"ilippinensis 2amarc3 Callicarpa erioclona Sc"auer Miliusa vidalii 4 Sinclair Saurauia latibractea C"oisy

Vernacular or

ommon !ames

Scientific !ames

Au%is!akatan Tinaang Pantai 0k%eng Parang Binuang Dita Basi%an :aka% Dao .o%ave Tiaong >aui%i 0%*on Aa%u*!it Ta%isa& ;arra Aa!u%asan Phi%i!!ine ,hestnut Ba%inghasa& Aa%ubkob Pagsahingin Baga%unga =!i% Dagang .arang Banguhan Ta%isa& <ubat Tangisang Ba&awak Banato 0nabiong Benguet Pine >agi*it

'imorp"ocalyx lu/oniensis Merrill 'rypetes ma5uilingensis (Merrill) Pa/ et %o--man !lbi/ia procera (,oxb ) .ent" 6ctomeles sumatrana Mi5 !lstonia sc"olaris %opea basilanica Fox(ort"y 'racontomelon dao (.lanco ) Merr 1 ,ol-e &itex parvi-lora ! 2 4uss S"orea ovata 'yer ex .randis Ficus septica .urm - var septica S"orea almon Fox( Terminalia microcarpa 'ecne Terminalia catappa 2 Pterocarpus indicus +ep"elium rambotan7a3e (2abill ) 2enn" Castanopsis p"ilippensis (.lanco) &idal .uc"ania arborescens (.lume) .lume Sy/ygium calubcob (C . ,obinson) Canarium asperum Melia dubia 8ntsia bi9uga (Colebr ) 6 :unt/e

!rtocarpus odoritissima .lanco Terminalia -oetidissima ;ri--it" Ficus variegata Mallotus p"ilipensis Trema orientalis (2 ) .l Pinus 3esiya ,oyle ex ;ordon Ficus mina"assae (Teysm 1 de &riese) Mi5

Vernacular or Ba&ok4Ba&okan Ba&ag (sa #ab%ot Tibig Toog =s4=s Lingo4Lingo <ubas .a%aruhat 0goho Aasu!angi% Banaba 0nang Bignai Pugo Lisak Da!da! Pi%ing Liitan .atang4hi!on Pangi Paki%ing 7isak :e%%ow Lanutan #aging4#aging Bonga%on Tabigi

ommon !ames

Scientific !ames Pterospermum celebicum Mi5 &oacanga globosa (.lanco) Merr 2itsea glutinosa (2our ) C . ,ob Ficus nata (.lanco) Merr Petersiant"us 5uadrialatus Ficus ulmi-olia 2am3 &iticipremna p"ilippinensis (Turc/ ) % 4 2am )ndospermum peltalum Merr Sy/gium subcaudatum Cauarina e5uiseti-olia (4 , et ; Forst ) Seemann Clerodendrum intermedium C"am 2agerstroemi speciosa (2 ) Pers 'iospyros pyrr"ocarpa Mi5 !ntisesma pentandrum (.lanco) Merr +eonauclea bartlingii ('C ) Merr )ryt"rina orientalis Fabaceae Canarium lu/onicum .reyna ,"amnoides (,et/ ) Muell 7!rg Pangium edule Ficus odorata +eonuclea media (%aviland) Merrill Polyalt"ia -lava Merrill !egiceras corniculatum (linnaeus) .lanco !vicennia rump"iana %all *ylocarpus granatum :oen

NATIONAL

!""NIN

P!O !A#

The National reening Program (=A?, is a massive forest rehabilitation program of the government established by virtue of % ecutive >rder =o. /' issued on Feb. /., /-## by ?resident Benigno 4. A0uino III. It seeks to grow #.& billion trees in #.& million hectares nationwide w ithin a period of si years, from /-## to /-#'.

Aside from being a reforestation initiative, the =A? is also seen as a climate change mitigation strategy as it seeks to enhance the countryNs forest stock to absorb carbon dio ide, which is largely blamed for global warming. It is also designed to reduce poverty, providing alternative livelihood activities for marginali7ed upland and lowland households relating to seedling production and care and maintenance of newly!planted trees.

As a convergence initiative among the 6epartments of Agriculture, Agrarian @eform and 6%=@, half of the targeted trees to be planted under the program would constitute forest tree species intended for timber production and protection as well. The other &-G would comprised of agroforestry species.

Areas eligible for rehabilitation under the program include all lands of the public domain. 4pefically, these include forestlands, mangrove and protected areas, ancestral domains, civil and military reservation, urban greening areas, inactive and abandoned mine sites and other suitable lands.

$pdates%

#. The =A? was officially launched by ?resident A0uino in 5ay /-##.

/. For /-##, a total of 3+.' million seedlings have been planted in #/3,&&3 hectares nationwide, generating )'.,-33 ;obs from producing seedlings for the program and from plantation establishment.

The Co!!odity "oad!ap #nd The Ten Most Planted Species

A geographical areas peculiar soil and climate render it ideal for hosting certain types of forest trees and fruit-bearing trees as well as agroforestry crops. In the National reening Program! these factors including mar"et aspects weigh in hea#ily in pursuing economic de#elopment! en#ironmental rehabilitation and food security that pa#es the way to po#erty alle#iation.

The program shall plant &'( billion trees covering about &'( million )ectares by *+&,. Bere are the targets for the si years duration.

Cear #: #--,--- ha Cear /: /--,--- ha Cear ): )--,--- ha Cear .: )--,--- ha Cear &: )--,--- ha Cear ': )--,--- ha

#-- 5 seedlings /-- 5 seedlings )-- 5 seedlings )-- 5 seedlings )-- 5 seedlings )-- 5 seedlings