Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
The project is an advanced Robotic System which can be controlled via a GSM
Network & GSM Mobile equipment. The project is a special one considering the fact
that; the Robotic Vehicle can be used for various applications in the field of
Automation, Safety Monitoring, and Assistance to Disabled Persons and as a
Standalone Security System.
Here the project is based on the principle of Transmission & Decoding of DTMF
(Dual Tone Multi-Frequency) signals via a conventional GSM network.
1.1 Methodology

Figure1.1: Basic Block diagram

As shown in figure1.1, the project consists off a set of GSM equipment, GSM Mobile
Handset & GSM Mobile Infrastructure. Here the GSM network is internally connected
to the public telephone communication network like PSTN.
Through a mobile handset we can dial the assigned number for that particular
Robotic Vehicle & after the reception of acknowledgement signal; we can send the
Control Signals in the form of DTMF codes via handset. Here each DTMF tone
resembles a specific activity of the Robotic Vehicle and accordingly the Robotic
Vehicle generates the actions. These actions can be either movement of the Robotic
Vehicle or some actions like Pick & Place in the Robotic Structure.

1.2. About GSM

Global System for Mobile communications (GSM: originally from Groupe Spécial
Mobile) is the most popular standard for mobile phones in the world. Its promoter,
the GSM Association, estimates that 82% of the global mobile market uses the
standard. GSM is used by over 2 billion people across more than 212 countries and
territories. Its ubiquity makes international roaming very common between mobile
phone operators, enabling subscribers to use their phones in many parts of the
world. GSM differs from its predecessors in that both signaling and speech
channels are digital call quality, and thus is considered a second generation (2G)
mobile phone system. This has also meant that data communication was easy to build
into the system.
The ubiquity of the GSM standard has been advantageous to both consumers and
network operators. GSM also pioneered a low-cost alternative to voice calls, the
Short message service (SMS, also called "text messaging"), which is now supported
on other mobile standards as well.
Newer versions of the standard were backward-compatible with the original GSM
phones. For example, General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and Enhanced Data Rates
for GSM Evolution (EDGE).
History: In 1982, the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications
Administrations (CEPT) created the Groupe Spécial Mobile (GSM) to develop a
standard for a mobile telephone system that could be used across Europe. In 1987,
a memorandum of understanding was signed by 13 countries to develop a common
cellular telephone system across Europe.
In 1989, GSM responsibility was transferred to the European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI) and phase I of the GSM specifications were published in
1990. The first GSM network was launched in 1991 by Radiolinja in Finland with
joint technical infrastructure maintenance from Ericsson. By the end of 1993, over
a million subscribers were using GSM phone networks being operated by 70 carriers
across 48 countries.
Technical details: GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones
connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. GSM networks
operate in four different frequency ranges. Most GSM networks operate in the 900
MHz or 1800 MHz bands. The rarer 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in
some countries.
In the 900 MHz band the uplink frequency band is 890–915 MHz, and the downlink
frequency band is 935–960 MHz. This 25 MHz bandwidth is subdivided into 124
carrier frequency channels, each spaced 200 KHz apart. Time division multiplexing
is used to allow eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per radio
frequency channel. There are eight radio timeslots (giving eight burst periods)
grouped into what is called a TDMA frame. Half rate channels use alternate frames
in the same time slot. The channel data rate is 270.833kbits/s, and the frame
duration is 4.615ms.The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum
of 2 watts in GSM850/900 and 1 watt in GSM1800/1900.
GSM has used a variety of voice codecs to squeeze 3.1 kHz audio into between 5.6
and 13 kbit/s. Originally, two codecs, named after the types of data channel they
were allocated, were used, called Half Rate (5.6Kbit/s) and Full Rate (13Kbit/s).
These used a system based upon linear predictive coding (LPC). GSM was further
enhanced in 1997 with the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) codec, a 12.2kbit/s codec that
uses a full rate channel. Finally, with the development of UMTS, EFR was
refactored into a variable-rate codec called AMR-Narrowband, which is high quality
and robust against interference when used on full rate channels, and less robust
but still relatively high quality when used in good radio conditions on half-rate
channels.
There are five different cell sizes in a GSM network—macro, micro, pico, femto and
umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the
implementation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base
station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average roof top level.
Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level; they
are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are small cells whose coverage
diameter is a few dozen meters; they are mainly used indoors. Femtocells are cells
designed for use in residential or small business environments and connect to the
service provider’s network via a broadband internet connection. Umbrella cells are
used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage
between those cells.
Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be achieved by using an indoor
picocell base station, or an indoor repeater with distributed indoor antennas fed
through power splitters, to deliver the radio signals from an antenna outdoors to
the separate indoor distributed antenna system. These are typically deployed when
a lot of call capacity is needed indoors, for example in shopping centers or
airports. However, this is not a prerequisite, since indoor coverage is also
provided by in-building penetration of the radio signals from nearby cells.
The modulation used in GSM is Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), a kind of
continuous-phase frequency shift keying. In GMSK, the signal to be modulated onto
the carrier is first smoothed with a Gaussian low-pass filter prior to being fed
to a frequency modulator, which greatly reduces the interference to neighboring
channels (adjacent channel interference).
Network structure: The network behind the GSM system seen by the customer is large
and complicated in order to provide all of the services which are required. It is
divided into a number of sections as shown in figure 1.3, and these are each
covered in separate articles.
• The Base Station Subsystem (the base stations and their controllers).
• The Network and Switching Subsystem (the part of the network most similar to
a fixed network). This is sometimes also just called the core network.
• The GPRS Core Network (the optional part which allows packet based Internet
connections).
• All of the elements in the system combine to produce many GSM services such
as voice calls and SMS.
Figure1.3 GSM Network

Subscriber Identity Module: One of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber
Identity Module (SIM), commonly known as a SIM card. The SIM is a detachable smart
card containing the user's subscription information and phonebook. This allows the
user to retain his or her information after switching handsets. Alternatively, the
user can also change operators while retaining the handset simply by changing the
SIM.
GSM security: GSM was designed with a moderate level of security. The system was
designed to authenticate the subscriber using a pre-shared key and challenge-
response. Communications between the subscriber and the base station can be
encrypted. The development of UMTS introduces an optional USIM, that uses a longer
authentication key to give greater security, as well as mutually authenticating
the network and the user - whereas GSM only authenticated the user to the network
(and not vice versa). The security model therefore offers confidentiality and
authentication, but limited authorization capabilities, and no non-repudiation.
GSM uses several cryptographic algorithms for security. The A5/1 and A5/2 stream
ciphers are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy. A5/1 was developed first
and is a stronger algorithm used within Europe and the United States; A5/2 is
weaker and used in other countries. Serious weaknesses have been found in both
algorithms: it is possible to break A5/2 in real-time with a cipher text-only
attack, and in February 2008, Pico Consulting, Inc revealed its ability and plans
to commercialize FPGAs that allow A5/1 to be broken with a rainbow table attack.
The system supports multiple algorithms so operators may replace that cipher with
a stronger one.

1.3. Block Diagram

Figure 1.2 Block Diagram of Receiver

The figure 1.2 shows the block diagram of the project.

1. DTMF Decoder
This block receives the tone signals from the mobile head sets and decodes it to
BCD form. This BCD output is indicated by LEDs.

2. De-multiplexer
The BCD output from the DTMF decoder is input to this block. This 4:16 de-mux
converts the 4bit BCD number into binary form.
3. Buffer
The active low outputs from the de-mux are inverted. The output from the buffer is
fed to driver through signal diodes to avoid back emf .
4. Driver
This consists of Darlington pairs. The signal level from the buffer is not strong
enough to drive the low impedance relay, so the Darlington driver IC is used.
5. Relay
Relays are used as switching elements to run the motors
Chapter 2
Power Supply
A power supply is required for the working of any electronic circuit and plays a
very important role in smooth running of the connected circuit. The main objective
of this power supply is to deliver the required amount of stabilized and pure
power to the circuit.
Since our project is mobile equipment, we directly use dc-supply from alkaline
batteries. The ICs used require different supply voltages; hence we use regulators
for this purpose.

Figure 2.1: Block diagram of power supply

The power supply used here contains the following blocks as shown in figure 2.1

2.1 Step-down Transformer

The conventional supply, which is generally available to the user, is 230V, 50Hz
ac main. It is necessary to step down this main supply to the desired level. This
is achieved by using suitably rated step-down transformer. While designing the
power supply, it is necessary to go for a little higher rating transformer than
the required one. The reason for this is, for the proper working of the regulator
IC, it needs at least 2.5V more than the expected out put voltage. The transformer
rating is 230V ac at primary and 12-0-12 V, 1A across secondary winding. This
transformer has a capability to deliver a current of 1A, which is more than enough
to drive any electronic circuit. Due to electronic induction, voltage is induced
at the secondary transformer. The induced voltage is reduced in magnitude by a
ratio. This ratio is called transformation ratio or turns ratio.

2.2 Rectifier Stage

The step-down AC has to be converted into DC. This rectification is achieved by
using passive components such as diodes. If the power supply is designed for low
voltage/ current drawing loads/circuits (+5V), it is sufficient to employ full-
wave rectifier with center-tap transformer as a power source. While choosing the
diodes the PIV rating is taken into consideration. The rectifier efficiency is
81.2% and ripple factor is 1.21.
The two diodes D1 and D2 are connected across the secondary winding of the
transformer as a full wave rectifier as shown in the circuit diagram in fig 2.2.
during the positive half cycle of the secondary voltage, the end A of the
secondary winding becomes positive and end B negative. This makes the diode D1
forward biased and diode D2 reverse biased. Therefore diode D1 conducts while
diode D2 does not. During the negative half cycle, end A of the secondary winding
becomes negative and end B positive. Therefore diode D2 conducts while diode D2
does not. Note that current across the load is in the same direction for both
half-cycles of input ac voltage. Therefore, pulsating DC is obtained t the point C
with respect to ground as shown in figure 2.2.

2.3 Filter Stage

The output of a rectifier stage contains small percentage of super imposed ac
ripples. So, to remove these ac components, filtering has to be done. The cheap,
reliable, simple and effective filtering for low current drawing loads is done by
using shunt capacitors. This electrolytic capacitor has polarities; care has to be
taken while connecting to the circuit.
The capacitor C1 in figure 2.2, is used for filtering purpose and connected across
the rectifier output. It filters the ac components present in the rectifier dc and
gives steady dc voltage. As the rectifier voltage increases, it charges the
capacitor and also supplies current to the load. Capacitor gets charged till the
peak value of the rectifier voltage and when the rectifier voltage starts to
decrease, it discharges slowly so that output remains almost constant till the
next voltage peak immediately recharges it.

Due to this continuous charge-discharge-recharge cycle very little ripple is

observed in the filtered output.
This phenomenon is also explained in other form as: the shunt capacitor offers a
low reactance path to the ac components of the current and open circuit to dc
components.

2.4 Voltage Regulation

The variations in dc voltage may cause inaccurate or erratic operation or even
malfunctioning of many electronic circuits. Hence the stabilization of dc voltage
is achieved by using the three terminal voltage regulator IC. This regulator IC
comes in two flavors: 78xx for positive voltage output and 79xx for negative
voltage output. For example, 7805 gives +5V output and 7905 gives -5V stabilized
output. These regulator ICs have in-built short-circuit protection and auto-
thermal cutout provisions. If the load current is very high, the IC needs ‘heat
sink’ to dissipate the internally generated power.

In our project circuit KIA7812 voltage regulator IC is used to get +12 volt
regulated dc output, which is needed for the buffer and driver ICs. In the three
terminals, pin1 is input i.e, the dc supply(from batteries) is connected to this
pin. Pin2 is common pin and is grounded. The pin3 gives the stabilized dc output
to the load. Similarly we use KIA7805 for decoder and de-multiplexer ICs.

Figure 2.2: Block diagram of power supply

Fig 2.3: Regulated power supply (12V & 5V)

A dc power supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of ac

mains fluctuations or load variations is known as ‘regulated dc power supply’. It
is also referred as full-wave regulated power supply, as it uses two diodes with
center tap transformer.
Across the point D and ground (fig2.2) there is rectified and filtered dc. In the
present circuit KIA7812 voltage regulator IC is used to get +12 volt regulated dc
output, which is needed for the buffer and driver ICs. In the three terminals pin1
is input i.e, rectified and filtered dc is connected to this pin. Pin2 is common
pin and is grounded. The pin3 gives the stabilized dc output to the load.
Similarly we use KIA7805 for decoder and de-multiplexer ICs. The circuit shows two
more de-coupling capacitors C2 and C3, which provides ground path to the high
frequency noise signals.

Chapter 3
DTMF Decoder and De-Multiplexer Module
This Section decodes the DTMF form Command signal sent by caller and converts it
into eight bit binary output signals such that eight loads can be controlled
independently.
Before going in deep on actual circuit & its explanation, let us have details of
the terms & components used in this section.

DTMF: The telephone is the most extraordinary element of the telecommunication

systems. A telephone works on the principle of varying the line current in
proportional to sound. The transducer which converts sound waves to an electrical
signal is called a microphone, and the one which does the reverse function is
called a speaker/earphone. Signaling is the most critical function of any
telecommunication system. Normally alternating voltages of low value are used for
signaling or ringing, as commonly referred. In modern telephones, the rotary dial
has been replaced by pushbutton matrix dial. These telephones use ICs to generate
the DC pulses. The pulse dialing is slower and susceptible to noise. It takes over
10 seconds to dial a 6-digit number. This is very slow as compared to the
processing speed of modern electronic exchanges. Besides it has the following
limitations: The subscriber can signal only up to the exchange, and end to end or
subscriber to subscriber signaling is not possible. Only ten codes, i.e. from 0 to
9, are possible. Time required to dial each digit is different. To overcome these
limitations, modern telecommunication uses two distinct tones, which correspond to
a particular number. This is called the Dual Tone Multi Frequency [DTMF] dialing.
If one dials, say, number ‘5’, then two tones of 770 Hz and 1336 Hz is
transmitted. These tones are sensed and decoded by the exchange and converted to
the dialed digit, which is digit ‘5’ in this case. The column pertaining to tone
1633 Hz is used for special facilities like flash, pause etc.

Similarly for all other keys the column and row frequencies and decoded
hexadecimal outputs are as shown in table 3.1.

Table 3.1 DTMF signal output codes

3.1 DTMF Decoder CM-8870 IC
Each digit in DTMF (dual tone multi-frequency) code corresponds to a combination
of two discrete frequencies, one each from a low and high group of frequencies,
which are generated when any switch on a dialer key-pad is pressed. The key-pad is
used in conjunction with a dialer IC such as UM9214 or UM9215 to generate the pair
of frequencies as mentioned.

The DTMF signals transmitted over the telephone lines can be received and decoded
using a DTMF receiver/decoder IC such as UM92870 or KT3170 or Motorola’s MT8870.
The decoded outputs can be suitably used along with certain additional circuitry
to design a Call-Line-Identification-Product unit [popularly known as CLIP]. The
four hexadecimal output obtained from the DTMF receiver/decoder IC, corresponding
to each digit on the telephone key-pad together with the associated dual-tone
frequencies is as shown in table3.1.

The DTMF digits transmitted over the telephone lines would have a nominal width of
50 ms followed by a pause (no signal) of similar duration between consecutive
digits. Thus, ten consecutive digits would be transmitted in one second.

The CM-8870 is a full DTMF Receiver that integrates both band split filter and
decoder functions into a single 18-pin IC. Manufactured using CMOS process
technology, the CM-8870 offers low power consumption (35 mW max) and precise data
handling. Its filter section uses switched capacitor technology for both the high
and low group filters and for dial tone rejection. Its decoder uses digital
counting techniques to detect and decode all 16 DTMF tone pairs into a 4-bit code

The CM8870’s internal architecture consists of a band-split filter section which

separates the high and low tones of the received pair, followed by a digital
decode (counting) section which verifies both the frequency and duration of the
received tones before passing the resultant 4-bit code to the output bus.

At the filter section, separation of the low-group and high-group tones is

achieved by applying the dual-tone signal to the inputs of two 9th-order switched
capacitor band pass filters. The bandwidths of these filters correspond to the
bands enclosing the low-group and high-group tones. The filter section also
incorporates notches at 350Hz and 440Hz which provides excellent dial tone
rejection. Each filter output is followed by a single order switched capacitor
section which smoothes the signals prior to limiting. Signal limiting is performed
by high-gain comparators. These comparators are provided with a hysterisis to
prevent detection of unwanted low-level signals and noise.

The CM8870 decoder uses a digital counting technique to determine the frequencies
of the limited tones and to verify that these tones correspond to standard DTMF
frequencies. A complex averaging algorithm is used to protect against tone
simulation by extraneous signals (such as voice) while providing tolerance to
small frequency variations. When the detector recognizes the simultaneous presence
of two valid tones (known as “signal condition”), it raises the “Early Steering”
flag (ESt). Any subsequent loss of signal condition will cause ESt to fall.

Before the registration of a decoded tone pair, the receiver checks for a valid
signal duration. This check is performed by an external RC time constant driven by
ESt. Logic high on ESt causes VC to raise as the capacitor discharges. Providing
signal condition is maintained (ESt remains high) for the validation period, VC
reaches the threshold of the steering logic to register the tone pair, thus
latching its corresponding 4-bit code into the output latch. The contents of the
output latch are made available on the 4-bit output bus by raising the three-state
control input to logic high. The internal clock circuit is completed with the
addition of a standard crystal or ceramic resonator having a resonant frequency of
3.579545MHz.

3.2 Buffer IC 4050

The BCD value from decoder is indicated on LEDs, which in turn are driven by the
buffer IC4050. Buffers do not affect the logical state of a digital signal.
Buffers are normally used to provide extra current drive at the output, but can
also be used to regularize the logic present at an interface. This 16-pin DIL
packaged IC 4050 acts as Buffer as-well-as a Converter. The input signals may be
of 2.5 to 5V digital TTL compatible or DC analogue the IC gives 5V constant signal
output [TTL compatible]. The IC acts as buffer and provides isolation to the main
circuit from varying input signals. The working voltage of IC is 4 to 16 Volts and
propagation delay is 30 nanoseconds. It consumes 0.01 mill Watt power with noise
immunity of 3.7 V and toggle speed of 3 Megahertz.

3.3 De-multiplexer IC74154

A De-multiplexer is a logic circuit that de-multiplexes one input data line to
more than one data output lines. Among these, which output line is active, again
depends upon the logic status of the control lines. A generalized de-multiplexer
has one data input, (n) data output lines and (m) control lines with 2m = n. A de-
multiplexer without a data input line is the Decoder. In a decoder, one of the
output lines is active at a time depending upon the status of the control bits.
This 24- pin de-multiplexer IC can be configured to accept Binary Coded Decimal
Numbers at input pins and gives out the corresponding binary number at output
pins. The working voltage of IC is 5 Volts, propagation delay is 6 nano seconds
and maximum toggle speed is 40 Mega Hertz.

SEMICONDUCTORS
IC1 KT3170/MT8870, DTMF to BCD Converter IC 1
IC2 74154, 4-to-16-line De-multiplexer IC 1
RESISTORS
R1& R2 22 K Ohms ¼ Watt Carbon Resistor 2
R3 10 K Ohms ¼ Watt Carbon Resistor 1
R4 1 M Ohms ¼ Watt Carbon Resistor 1
R5 330 Ohms ¼ Watt Carbon Resistor 1
R6 470 Ohms ¼ Watt Carbon Resistor 1
CAPACITORS
C1 & C2 0.1 µF CERAMIC DISC TYPE 2
MISCELLANEOUS
X1 3.5795 M Hertz Crystal 1
D1 – D4 Red Indicator LEDs 4

Table 3.2 Component values for figure 3.1

Circuit Description:
The circuit in figure 3.1 is used to switch up to nine appliances (corresponding
to the digits 1 through 9 of the telephone key-pad). The DTMF signals on telephone
instrument are used as control signals. Thus the telephone can be used to switch
ON or switch OFF the appliances. The circuit uses IC CM8870 (DTMF-to-BCD
converter), 74154 (4-to-16-line de-multiplexer), and six buffers [CD4050 IC].The
values for the components used in figure 3.1 are tabulated in table 3.2. The
working of the circuit is as follows:
Once a call is established (after hearing ring-back tone), dial any key in DTMF
keypad. IC1 decodes this as hexadecimal number [LEDs D1 to D4 gives visual
representation of this number], which is further de-multiplexed by IC2 as active
low binary output.

Chapter 4
Buffer and Driver Circuit

The binary output from the de-multiplexer block is fed into the buffer and
driver circuit. Out of the 16 output lines only 8 are buffered. Figure 4.1 shows
circuit for Buffer and driver circuit.

4.1 Buffer IC CD4049

Buffers does not affect the logical state of a digital signal (i.e. logic 1 input
results into logic 1 output where as logic 0 input results into logic 0 output).
Buffers are normally used to provide extra current drive at the output, but can
also be used to regularize the logic present at an interface. And Inverters are
used to complement the logical state (i.e. logic 1 input results into logic 0
output and vice versa). Also Inverters are used to provide extra current drive
and, like buffers, are used in interfacing applications. This 16-pin DIL packaged
IC 4049 acts as Buffer as-well-as a Converter. The input signals may be of 2.5 to
5V digital TTL compatible or DC analogue. The IC gives 5V constant signal output
[TTL compatible]. The IC acts as buffer and provides isolation to the main circuit
from varying input signals. The working voltage of IC is 4 to 16 Volts and
propagation delay is 30 nanoseconds. It consumes 0.01 mill Watt power with noise
immunity of 3.7V and toggle speed of 3 Megahertz.

4.2 Signal Diodes

Signal diodes are used to pass information (electrical signals) in circuits. They
pass only small currents upto 100mA. General purpose signal diodes such as IN4148
are used. These are made from silicon and have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V.
Here it is used to avoid the flow of backward current in the circuit.

4.3 Driver IC ULN-2003

Since the digital outputs of some circuits cannot sink much current, they are not
capable of driving relays directly. So, high voltage- high current Darlington
arrays are designed for interfacing low level logical circuitry and multiple
peripheral -power loads.
The input of ULN2003 is TTL compatible open-collector outputs. It is interfaced
with the buffer IC, via, signal diodes as shown in figure 4.1. As each of these
outputs can sink a maximum collector current of 500mA, miniature PCB relays can be
easily given. No additional free-wheeling clamp diode is required to be connected
across the relay since each of the outputs has input free-wheeling diodes.

4.3.1 Darlington emitter follower

In some applications the need arises for an amplifier with high input impedance.
For input resistances smaller than about 500K, a single emitter follower is
satisfactory. To achieve larger input impedances, Darlington emitter follower is
used. Here two transistors form a composite pair (figure 4.3.1), the input
resistance of the second transistor constituting the emitter load for the first.
In short, the Darlington connection consists of two cascaded emitter followers
with infinite emitter resistance in the first stage. For the computation of the
circuit elements we assume that the h parameters of Q1 andQ2 are identical. In
reality, this is usually not the case, because the h parameters depend on the
quiescent conditions of Q1 and Q2. Since the emitter current of Q1 is the base
current of Q2, the quiescent current of the first stage is much smaller than that
of the second.
The voltage gain of the Darlington emitter follower is, Av=1-hie2/Ri2(2+hoehfeRe)
And the output impedance is, Ro= (Rs/ (1+hfe) 2) + (2hie2/ (1+hfe))
We conclude from above equations that the Darlington emitter follower has a higher
input resistance and a voltage gain less close to unity than does a single-stage
emitter follower. A major drawback of the Darlington transistor pair is that the
leakage current of the first transistor is amplified by the second. Hence the
overall leakage current may be high and a Darlington connection of three or more
transistors is usually impractical. This composite transistor pair can also be
used as a common-emitter amplifier.

Circuit description:
The figure 4.2 shows the circuit for Buffer and Driver. Among the 16 active low
outputs from 4:16 de-multiplexer, only 8 are used to move the robot. Here first 4
are used for basic movements like forward, backward, left and right. The next 4
are used directional movements like forward-left, forward-right, backward-left,
and backward-right. Since the signals are active low, 4049 ICs are used to convert
these 8 signals to active high. As the load is inductive, there is a chance of
producing back emf. So to cope up with this back emf, signal diodes are used. But,
this signal level is not strong enough to drive the low impedance relay. So,
Driver IC ULN2003 is used. The output signal from Darlington arrays is strong
enough to actuate relays. These relays are used as switching means for motors.

4.4 Relays
Relays perform the switching operation through which motor switch on\off can be
controlled. Output from the Darlington driver IC is strong enough to actuate
relays. In circuit shown in figure 4.3 there are two dipole relays of 12V, which
controls the direction of motor.
Circuit description:
Initially both the relays 1 and 2 (as in figure 4.3) are de-energized and their
common are connected to normal close of relay. As the forward direction signal is
fed to dipole relay 1, it gets energized. In this way closed path is established
for the motor and it is turned ON. It remains ON as long as the signal being
received form driver. Similarly when the user wants the motor to run in reverse
direction, input is fed through dipole relay 2 i.e. reverse direction signal. In
this project we are using four dipole relays; two for left and right turns and
other two for forward and backward direction.
Details of Relay:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of
the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch
contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions
and they are double throw (changeover) switches.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely
separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay
to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the
relay between the two circuits, the link is magnetic and mechanical.
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V
relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower
voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually
used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the relay
coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these
devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.
The relay's switch connections are usually labelled COM, NC and NO:
• COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
• NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
• NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
• Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the
relay coil is on.
• Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the
relay coil is off.

Relays and transistors compared

Like relays, transistors can be used as an electrically operated switch. For
switching small DC currents (< 1A) at low voltage they are usually a better choice
than a relay. However transistors cannot switch AC or high voltages (such as mains
electricity) and they are not usually a good choice for switching large currents
(> 5A). In these cases a relay will be needed, but note that a low power
transistor may still be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil! The
main advantages and disadvantages of relays are listed below:
Advantages of relays:
• Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
• Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
• Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
• Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays:
• Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
• Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch
many times per second.
• Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor
may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

Chapter 5
APPLICATIONS

5.1 FIRE DETECTION

The Application which we have used in our project is fire detection circuit. This
is basically used to detect fire accidents and indicate them through an alarm and
also the necessary actions are taken care of. Here we mainly use the 555 timer IC
and a thermistor for temperature sensing.

Figure 5.1 Fire detection circuit

Circuit description:
The above figure 5.1 shows the circuit diagram for fire detection. In this circuit
we use IC 555-timer. The IC uses two comparators. The voltage divider consists of
three equal resistances. Due to this, the voltage of non-inverting terminal of
comparator 2 is fixed at Vcc/3. The inverting input of comparator 2 which is
compared with Vcc/3, is nothing but trigger input brought out as pin2. When the
trigger input is slightly less than Vcc/3, the comparator 2 output goes high. This
output is given to reset input of RS flip-flop. So, high output of comparator 2
resets the flip-flop. The complementary signal output of the flip-flop goes to
pin3 which is the output.

The output of the IC is used to drive the load. Normally output is low. Thus, load
current flows through the load connected between Vcc and output terminal. The load
connected in this way is called normally ON LOAD. However, the current through the
grounded load is zero when the output is low. Thus, the load connected between
output terminal and ground is called normally OFF LOAD. On the other hand, when
the output is high, the current through the load connected between Vcc and output
terminal is zero. However, the output terminal supplies current to the normally
off load.

Whenever the ambient temperature increases, the Thermistor resistance decreases,

hence the voltage drops to less than Vcc/3. Thus, the output pin goes high, inturn
drives the load.
5.1.1 Timer IC 555

The timer IC 555 is basically a monolithic timer circuit which can be used in
many applications such as monostable and astable multivibrators, linear ramp
generator, missing pulse detector, pulse width modulator etc.
The figure 5.1 shows the internal block diagram of 555 timer. The pin functions
are as follows:

Pin 1: Ground-All the voltages are measured with respect to this terminal.

Pin 2: Trigger-The IC 555 uses two comparators. The voltage divider consists of
three equal resistances. Due to voltage divider, the voltage of non inverting
terminal of comparator 2 is fixed at Vcc/3.The inverting input of comparator 2
which is compared with Vcc/3, is nothing but trigger input brought out as pin
number 2.When trigger input is slightly less than Vcc/3 the comparator 2 output
goes high. This output is given to reset input of R-S flip-flop. So high output of
comparator 2 resets the flip-flop.

Pin 3: Output-The complementary signal output of the flip-flop goes to pin 3 which
is the output. The load can be connected in two ways. One between pin 3 and ground
while other between pin 3 and 8.

Pin 4: Reset-This is an interrupt to the timing device. When pin 4 is grounded, it

stops the working of device and makes it off.

Pin 5: Control voltage input-In most of the applications, external control voltage
input is not used. This pin is nothing but the inverting input to comparator 1.The
voltage divider holds the input of this input at 2/3Vcc.This is the reference
level for comparator 1 with which threshold is compared. If the reference level
required is other than 2/3Vcc then external input is to be given to pin 5.

Pin 6: Threshold-This is the non inverting input terminal of comparator 1.The

external voltage is applied to pin 6.when this voltage is more than 2/3Vcc,the
comparator 1 output goes high. This is given to the set input of R-S flip-flop.
Thus high output of comparator 1 sets the flip-flop. This makes output of flip-
flop high and complementary output low. Thus the output of IC 555 at pin 3 goes
low.

Pin 7: Discharge-This pin is connected to the collector of the discharge

transistor. When the output is high then output of flip-flop is low and the
transistor is off. It acts as an open circuit to the external capacitor to be
connected across it, so capacitor can charge. When the output is low, the flip-
flop output is high, which drives the base of transistor in saturation. It acts as
short circuit. Shorting the external capacitor to be connected across it.

Pin 8: Supply-The IC 555 timer can work with any supply voltage between 4.5V and
16V.

Operation :
The flip-flop is initially set i.e. its output is high. This drives the transistor
in saturation. The capacitor discharges completely and voltage across it is nearly
zero. The output at pin 3 is low.
When the trigger input, a low going pulse is applied, then the circuit state
remains unchanged till trigger voltage is greater than 1/3Vcc.When it becomes less
than 1/3Vcc, then the comparator 2 output goes high. This resets the flip-flop so
its output goes low and complementary output goes high. Low output makes the
transistor off.
The output across the capacitor increases exponentially. This voltage is nothing
but the threshold voltage at pin 6.When this voltage becomes more than 2/3Vcc,
then comparator 1 output goes high. This sets the flip-flop i.e. its output
becomes high and complementary output low. This high output drives the transistor
in saturation.
So output at pin 3 is low at start, when trigger is less than 1/3Vcc it becomes
high and when threshold is greater than 2/3 Vcc, again it becomes low, till next
trigger pulse occurs.

5.2 CAMERA MODULE

We have provided a camera module in our project it has two parts, receiving module
and transmitting module. The transmitting module is attached with the robot and
the receiving module is connected to a system in the base station. The camera
transmitter is activated by the microcontroller and it starts transmitting the
picture in RF frequency of the surroundings. So that in the base station we can
process the picture and take the action accordingly. The detail of the camera and
the focusing mechanism are given in the next sections.
Image formation
The robotic eye, a CCD camera, has some features in common with the human eye.
Both use a converging (convex) lens to form an image on a screen.

Fig 5.2(a) CCD camera compared with the human eye

In both the camera and the eye, adjustments have to be made to focus the image.
This is where the two systems differ.
In the case of the camera, the shape of the lens is fixed – it is made of glass so
its shape cannot be changed. To focus the image, the lens is moved backwards and
forwards to change the distance between the screen (CCD array) and the lens.

Fig5.2 (b) Image focusing in a CCD camera

Fig 5.2(c) Image focusing in the eye

In the case of the eye the lens is pliable and the ciliary muscles can change its
shape. Making the lens fatter enables the eye to focus on nearer objects. The
image is focused onto the retina (screen) which is an array of light sensitive
cells. The distance between the retina and the lens remains fixed. The screen at
the back of the digital camera is an array of CCD sensors (CCD stands for charge
coupled device). When a packet of light, a photon falls on the CCD sensor it
displaces electrons. The more photons falling on the sensor, the more electrons
are displaced.

The displaced electrons, the charge, are stored in the device until the sensor is
read by a microprocessor connected to the array. CCD sensors are sensitive to
the whole visible spectrum and beyond (including infra-red and ultra-violet
portions of the electromagnetic spectrum). To extract color information from the
image the array is covered
With a Bayer filter, each sensor has either a red, green or blue filter in front
of it. These colors are arranged alternately across the array.
Once we have the ability to send frames from the camera, we should be able to
rotate the front panel of the CMU camera lens and see the image change. Try to get
the picture to be as sharp as possible by dumping frames and changing the position
of the lens a small amount each time. Usually the camera is in focus when the lens
is a few rotations away from the base.

Fig5.2(d):Focusing Method
Chapter 6
Benefits and Developments

6.1 Benefits
1. This is a novel approach to the Robotic Automation.
2. This project is not limited by any geographical limit for operation except
the availability of GSM network
3. Economical in nature compared to conventional systems & highly reliable.

6.2 Future enhancement

1. Solar cells can be used as battery back up for long term running of
vehicle.
2. GPRS facility can be used to exchange the information between the
vehicle and Base Station.
3. Robot can also be controlled by SMS.

Chapter 7

Conclusion

The latest development in robotics in Industrial environment has been discussed

here. A lot of research and development is being done in this field. Further the
Project can be Enhanced to create the actions via SMS also, but the limitation is
that the SMS based controls are not suitable for online Real time applications.
References

Book references:

1. Digital Principles and Design-Donald D.Givone, TataMcgraw-Hill, 2002.

2. Integrated Electronics, Analog and digital systems, Jacob Millman and Chsistos
C Halkias, Tata McGraw-Hill, Edition 91, 2004.

3. Principles of wireless networks: Kaveh Pahlvan and Prashanth Krishnamurthy,

Pearson education, 2003

4. Telecommunication Switching, Traffic and Networks-J E Flood, Pearson Education,

2003

Website references:

1. http://doc.chipfind.ru/fairchild/cd4050.htm

2. http://doc.chipfind.ru/fairchild/cd4049.htm

3. http://doc.chipfind.ru/philips/74hc154n.htm

4. http://doc.chipfind.ru/calmirco/cm8870pi.htm

5. http://doc.chipfind.ru/stmicroelectronics/uln2003a%5B1%5D.htm

6. http://doc.chipfind.ru/ti/ne555p%5B1%5D.htm

7. http://doc.chipfind.ru/stmicroelectronics/l7805cv%5B1%5D.htm

8. http://doc.chipfind.ru/stmicroelectronics/l7812cv%5B1%5D.htm