Introduction to Electrical Engineering Lab Equipment

EE3 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
LABORATORY
MANUAL

Professor O. M. Stafsudd
Department of Electrical Engineering
October 2013 (version 1.a!
UCLA EE3
ii
Acknowledgements
" #ould li$e to ac$no#ledge and t%an$ t%e man& people #%o %ave contributed to t%e re'
design and development of EE3. "n particular( t%e )%air of t%e Department of
Engineering( Professor *ran$ )%ang #as instrumental in providing t%e resources of staff
and funding necessar& to develop t%e ne# course.
Professor +reg Pottie developed t%e ne# lecture format and content of t%e course and
greatl& assisted in t%e development of t%e laborator& part.
Professor ,illiam -aiser provided valuable suggestions on t%e use of t%e ." m&D/0
device t%at %as been included in support of t%e laborator& portion of t%is course.
Dr. Mic%ael 1riggs is t%an$ed for %is generous insig%t into t%e c%anges t%at needed to be
made to improve t%e program based on %is e2perience #it% t%e previous EE3.
Previous students of EE3 gave us man& suggestions t%at #e %ave attempted to include in
t%e re'design of t%is important 3"ntroduction to Electrical Engineering.4
*inall&( " t%an$ t%e Elenco )orporation for t%e generous use of t%eir cop&rig%ted
materials.
'Prof Oscar Stafsudd( 2012

i

Table of Contents
E05"PME.6 /.D DE7")ES ............................................................................................ 1
"ntroduction ........................................................................................................................... 1
Safet& ................................................................................................................................ 1
EE3 8aborator& Safet& )ourse )ertificate ....................................................................... 2
Multi'Meters ......................................................................................................................... 3
/nalog Multi'Meters (/MMs! ......................................................................................... 3
Digital Multi'Meters (DMMs! .......................................................................................... 9
*unction +enerators .............................................................................................................. :
Po#er Supplies.................................................................................................................... 11
Oscilloscopes ...................................................................................................................... 12
Spectrum /nal&;ers ............................................................................................................ 1<
6ransducers ......................................................................................................................... 1=
Opto'Electronic Devices ................................................................................................. 1=
/cousto'Electronic Devices............................................................................................ 1
Electro'Mec%anical Devices ........................................................................................... 1
8/1O>/6O>? SESS"O.S .............................................................................................. 21
,ee$ 1@ Multi'Meters and Po#er Supplies ........................................................................ 21
>esistors .......................................................................................................................... 21
7oltage Sources .............................................................................................................. 2<
)urrent Sources ............................................................................................................... 2A
Multi'Meter Measurements ............................................................................................ 2=
Source Measurements ..................................................................................................... 2:
,ee$ 2@ Oscilloscopes and *unction +enerators ............................................................... 3<
6ime Dependent Measurements ..................................................................................... 3<
,ee$ 3@ 6ransducers........................................................................................................... 3<
/cousto'Electric 6ransducers ......................................................................................... <3
Electro'Optic 6ransducers .............................................................................................. <
Electro'Mec%anical 6ransducers .................................................................................... A<
ii
,ee$ <@ ." m&D/0 ........................................................................................................... A=
Spectrum /nal&;er Mode ............................................................................................... A:
P>OBE)6 DE7E8OPME.6( )O.S6>5)6"O.( /.D 6ES6".+ ................................ =<
,ee$A@ "ntroduction to ProCects ......................................................................................... ==
Opto'Electronic ProCects ................................................................................................. ==
/coustic Devices ProCects............................................................................................... 99
,ee$ =@ "ntroduction to ProCects ()ontinued! .................................................................... 2
Opto'Electronic ProCects ................................................................................................. 2
/coustic Devices ProCects............................................................................................... :0
,ee$ 9@ Simple Motor'Drive )ircuits ................................................................................ :=
,ee$ 10@ ProCect Demonstration@ Oral and ,ritten >eports ............................................. :
/PPE.D")ES ........................................................................................................................
/PPE.D"D /@ )urve 6racer "nstructions ........................................................................ /'1
/PPE.D"D 1@ /nalog Multi'Meters ............................................................................... 1'1
/PPE.D"D )@ Digital Multi'Meters................................................................................ )'1
/PPE.D"D D@ Darlington 6ransistor .............................................................................. D'1

1

EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES
Introduction
6%e purpose of t%is laborator& is to provide t%e student #it% e2perience in using t%e basic
measurement tools and an opportunit& to appl& t%ese tools to a term proCect. 6%e subCect
areas include@
1. Multi'meters
2. *unction generators
3. Po#er supplies
<. Oscilloscopes
A. Spectrum anal&;ers
=. 6ransducers
.O6E@ "f &ou are alread& $no#ledgeable in t%e details of some of t%ese t&pes of test
eEuipment( &ou can 3test out4 of t%at portion of t%e laborator& #or$.
Safety
All students taking this laboratory course are advised to take and pass the
Laboratory Safety Course provided by UCLA. Details of %o# to enroll in t%is course
#ill be provided to &ou at t%e first lecture.
6%e instructor of &our laborator& #ill demonstrate safet& features in t%e laborator& itself
suc% as emergenc& e2its( etc. at t%e first meeting.
If the student chooses a project which involves soldering, and/or use of the
Student/aculty !achine Shop, additional safety and e"uip#ent training will be
given before the student uses the e"uip#ent.
8oose clot%ing and unprotected foot#ear (suc% as open'toed sandals! are not permitted in
t%e laborator& or mac%ine s%op.
Sign and turn in t%e follo#ing certificate #%en &ou %ave successfull& ta$en and passed t%e
reEuired safet& course.

2

EE3 Laboratory Safety Course Certificate

F6E/> O56 6G"S P/+EH
S"+. /.D D/6E 6G"S )E>6"*")/6E /.D 65>. ". 6O ?O5> 8/1O>/6O>?
6E/)G".+ /SS"S6/.6 ,GE. ?O5 G/7E S5))ESS*588? )OMP8E6ED 6GE
.E)ESS/>? S/*E? )O5>SE(S!

" certif& t%at " %ave ta$en and passed t%e 5)8/ 8aborator& Safet& )ourse and all
necessar& additional safet& courses. " #ill abide b& t%e safet& reEuirements for EE3
3"ntroduction to Electrical Engineering4.

Date@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
Student "D@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
.ame (Print .ame )learl&!@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Signature@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

3

MultiMeters
6%e multiple function meter( more commonl& referred to as t%e multi'meter( is t%e most
basic of electrical measurement devices. 6%ese meters occur in t#o basic t&pes@ t%e analog
multi'meter (/MM! and digital multi'meter (DMM!. /lt%oug% t%e t#o t&pes perform
similar measurements( t%eir met%ods differ and t%eir limitations are Euite different.
Analo! MultiMeters "AMMs#
FSee /ppendi2 1 for additional information.H
/t t%e %eart of all analog meters is a current measuring device (see *igures 1a and 1b!.
6%e meter #or$s as follo#s@ t%e current passing t%roug% a coil produces a torEue due to
t%e magnetic field across t%e coil. 6%is torEue t%en acts against a spring and moves an
indicator %and. 6&pical meters reEuire 10
'1
to 10
'A
amperes to deflect t%e indicator %and to
full scale. 6%e mec%anism is generall& mec%anicall& delicate and does not li$e p%&sical
s%oc$s( i.e. dropping. 6%e accurac& is in t%e order of A'10J. 6%e electrical eEuivalent
circuit is s%o#n in *igure 2 #%ere t%e resistance of t%e coil and its connections are lumped
into >
i
(t%e internal resistance of t%e meter!.

*"+5>E 1a@ /./8O+ M586"'ME6E>
<

*"+5>E 1b@ /./8O+ M586"'ME6E> )8OSE'5P
(PO".6".+ O56 MO7".+ )O"8 /SSEM18?!

*"+5>E 2@ /./8O+ M586"'ME6E> 7O86/+E >E/D".+ )">)5"6
6o c%ange t%e full scale voltage range of t%e instrument( a multiple position s#itc% places
successivel& %ig%er resistor values in series #it% t%e meter movement.
7
full scale
K "
0
(>
e2
L >
int
!
Moving Coil
Assembly
A

#%ere >
int
is t%e resistance of t%e coil and >
e2
is t%e e2ternall& added scale factor
resistance. "
0
is t%e full scale current.
.O6E@ most analog meters #ill indicate t%e total resistance( i.e. (>
e2
L >
int
! to ac%ieve a
given full scale voltage and is usuall& given in o%msMvolt K 1M"
0
. 6%e larger t%is value
(o%msMvolt!( t%e less t%e meter #ill influence t%e measurement process. "t follo#s also t%at
t%is leads to a %ig%er priced device t%at is more delicate and more easil& damaged.
*igure 3 s%o#s t%e t&pical circuit used to measure resistance #it% an analog meter. 6o
measure a resistor( one must first s%ort circuit t%e t#o measurement terminals or probes.
6%e o%ms adCust resistor >
o%m
is t%en adCusted to get a full scale reading of t%e meter. 6%e
resistor to be tested is t%en placed in t%e circuit. 6%e meter reading is t%en given b&@
Meter *raction of *ull Scale K >
int
M (>
int
L >!

*"+5>E 3@ >ES"S6/.)E ME/S5>".+ )">)5"6
"n principle( resistance can be measured from 0 N O. Of course( t%e readings at large
values are not ver& accurate. 6%e scale is also Euite non'linear (see *igure < for a t&pical
e2ample!. 6%e ma2imum utilit& of t%e measurement is #%en > P >
int
. 6%erefore( a meter
#ill %ave multiple values of >
int
to be selected.
=

*"+5>E <@ /./8O+ ME6E> S)/8E
/n analog meter can also be used to measure current. 6o do t%is( t%e meterQs terminals are
placed in series #it% t%e current to be measured (*igure A!. .ote t%at if one does not #is%
to perturb t%e circuit b& t%e measurement process( t%en t%e resistance( >
int
( s%ould ideall&
be 0 o%ms. Since t%is is not possible( one must consider t%e effect of t%e >
int
resistance on
t%e circuit. 6&picall&( if >
int
RR t%e resistors in t%e circuit( t%ere #ill be a negligible effect
on t%e accurac& of t%e measurement.

*"+5>E A@ )5>>E.6 ME/S5>".+ )">)5"6
9

Di!ital MultiMeters "DMMs#
FSee /ppendi2 ) for additional informationH
Digital multi'meters currentl& dominate t%e mar$et. 6%eir advantages over analog meters
include@
1. "ncreased accurac&. /nalog meters are t&picall& no better t%an a fe# percent
accurate. Even ver& lo# cost digital meters are 0.1J or better in accurac&.
2. Mec%anical ruggedness. /nalog meters %ave delicate mec%anical meter
movements #%ic% tend to be easil& damaged b& dropping( etc.
3. Gig%er input resistance t%an possible #it% analog meters. 6&pical values e2ceed
10
9
o%ms.
<. 8o#er cost for better performance.
Digital multi'meters al#a&s measure potential differences( i.e. 7oltage. ,%et%er t%e& are
functioning as D) voltmeters( /) voltmeters( resistance measuring meters( current
meters( etc.( t%e actual measurement is 3potential4. 6%is is in s%arp contrast to analog
meters #%ic% al#a&s measure currents.
"n 3current mode4( t%e measurement terminals (input! of t%e DMM are s%unted #it% a
resistor and t%e voltage drop across t%e resistor is t%en measured b& t%e meter. 6%e range
of t%e current measurement is c%anged b& c%anging t%e value of t%e resistor. "f( for
e2ample( t%e voltage measuring device %as a range of 0'2 volts( t%en a s%unt resistor of
1 o%m #ould cause t%e range to be 0'2 amperes. "ncreasing t%e resistance value to
10 o%ms #ould result in a 0'0.2 ampere range and so on.
>esistance is measured b& a DMM b& putting a precision constant current source at t%e
measuring terminals. 6%en( a resistor connected at t%e terminals #ill produce a voltage
drop proportional to bot% t%e resistor value in o%ms and t%e current source in amperes. /
significant advantage of t%is met%od of resistance measurement over t%e /MM is t%at t%e
readout is linear as long as t%e current source remains ideal. 6%e 0'2 7 measurement meter
#it% a 1 micro'ampere current source becomes a 0'2 mega'o%m device. 1& c%anging t%e
value of t%e constant current source( t%e range can be adCusted.
6%e measurement met%od emplo&ed b& DMMs is to compare t%e voltage to be measured
to internall& generated voltages. 6%e internal voltage is c%anged until a matc% of sufficient
accurac& is ac%ieved. 1ecause t%e e2ternal voltage to be measured is compared( it is
possible to ma$e t%e effective input resistance reac% e2tremel& large values and t%erefore
not interfere #it% t%e accurac& of t%e measurement. 6&pical DMMs in t%e voltage
measurement mode %ave effective input resistances in t%e 10 to <00 million o%m range.
6%is ma$es t%em 3almost ideal4 voltage measurement devices.

6#o basic digital measurement met%ods are used in most DMMs. 6%e& are (1! t%e
integrator met%od and (2! t%e successive appro2imation met%od. 6%e integrator met%od
compares t%e e2ternal voltage to be measured (7
m
! #it% t%e voltage on a capacitor. /
constant current source is connected to t%e capacitor and a digital timer is simultaneousl&
started. 6%e voltage on t%e capacitor 7
c
K EMc #%ere E is t%e c%arge on t%e capacitor in
coulombs and c is t%e capacitance in farads. 6%e c%arge at 6K0 is set to ;ero and t%e
c%arge at time 6 is ] I Jt.
1
0
*or a constant current "( t%e c%arge at time 6 is E K "S6 and
t%erefore t%e voltage on t%e capacitor is given as 7
c
K "S6M). 6%e voltage 7
c
is a linear
function of time. ,%en t%e comparator circuit detects t%at 7
c
K 7
m
( t%e timer is stopped.
6%e digital value of t%e time represents t%e voltage t%at #as measured. "n realit&( t%e
measurement is a bit more complicated if capacitors are not perfect and suffer from
various problems. 6o minimi;e t%e non'ideal nature of capacitors( t%e circuit actuall&
measures t%e time to c%arge t%e capacitor and t%en to disc%arge it in order to ma$e t%e
measurement more accurate. Suc% circuits easil& ac%ieve 1M1000 accurac&.
Successive appro2imation t&pes of DMMs can ac%ieve %ig%er accuracies and %ig% speeds.
"n t%is t&pe of digital meter( voltages produced b& a digital to analog converter (D/)! are
compared seEuentiall& #it% increasing accurac&. 6%e internal voltage is produced b&
c%anging t%e value of resistors s#itc%ed across a constant current source. 6%e internal
voltage starts at 7
Ma2.
"f t%e e2ternal voltage to be measured( 7
m
is greater t%an 7
Ma2
t%en
t%e instrument displa&s 3over range4. "f t%e e2ternal voltage is smaller t%an 7
Ma2
t%en t%e
internal voltage is c%anged to 7
Ma2
M2.
6%e voltages( e2ternal and internal( are compared again. "f t%e e2ternal voltage is smaller
t%an 7
Ma2
M2 t%en t%e internal voltage is reduced to 7
Ma2
M<. "f t%e e2ternal voltage is
greater t%an 7
Ma2
M2 t%en t%e internal voltage is increased to T 7
Ma2
. 6%is process is
repeated. Eac% successive comparison doubles t%e accurac& to #%ic% t%e e2ternal voltage
is being appro2imated b& t%e internal voltage (#%ic% is digitall& controlled!. Eig%t
successive comparisons &ield an accurac& of 1M2A= or 0.<J. "t s%ould be noted t%at 12 bit
and 1= bit s&stems (digital to analog converters! are ver& common. Suc% devices can be
used to produce DMMs #it% 1M<0:= (0.02AJ! and 1M=AA3= (0.001AJ! accurac&.

:

$unction %enerators
*unction generators are time dependent voltage sources. 6%e& fall into t#o distinct t&pes@
analog and digital. ?ou #ill %ave an opportunit& to use and familiari;e &ourself #it% bot%
t&pes.
/nalog function generators of t%e simplest t&pe produce sinusoidal and sEuare #aves( i.e.
#aves #%ose voltage as a function of time are given b& 7(t! K 7
0
sin(Ut! in t%e case of
sine #aves or #aves t%at alternate bet#een _ 7
0
#it% a minimum of rise and fall time (see
*igure =!. *reEuentl&( triangular #ave forms are also available in analog function
generators. / triangular #ave rises linearl& for N7
0
to L7
0
and t%e falls linearl& from L7
0

to N7
0
successivel&.

*"+5>E =@ /./8O+ *5.)6"O. +E.E>/6O>
6%ese #ave forms can easil& be produced b& relativel& simple analog circuits. More
comple2 #ave forms suc% as modulated or gated repetitive sine( sEuare( or triangular #ave
forms can also be easil& produced. Go#ever( for arbitrar& functions of time( one s%ould
use a digital function generator.
Digital function generators are based on Digital to /nalog )onverters (D/)s! as are some
digital multi'meters. / series of numbers stored in a memor& is sent seEuentiall& into a
D/). 6%e D/)Qs output as a function of time is t%en determined b& t%e arra& of numbers
stored in t%e memor&. 6%e series of voltage outputs produced b& t%e D/) can be used to
appro2imate an& arbitrar& function limited onl& b& t%e speed of t%e D/) and t%e si;e of
t%e memor&. 6%is series can be repeated to give a repetitive function or occur as a single
occurrence.
10

6%e ." m&D/0 %as suc% an arbitrar& #aveform generator included as one of its
functions. Eac% t&pe of function generator (analog and digital! %as its advantages and
disadvantages so bot% s&stems continue to be popular and in production.

11

Po&er Su''lies
6%e laborator& is eEuipped #it% 6e$troni2 dual po#er supplies #%ic% %ave variable output
voltages and current limits (*igure 9!. 6%ese supplies act as almost perfect voltage
sources. 6%at is( t%e& suppl& a constant output voltage regardless of current demand up to
t%e pre'set current limit at #%ic% point t%e& be%ave as current sources suppl&ing a fi2ed
current even into a s%ort circuit N ;ero o%msV

*"+5>E 9@ D) PO,E> S5PP8?

12

(scillosco'es
Oscilloscopes allo# us to displa& time dependent #ave forms. 6%e original 3scopes4 #ere
analog devices. 6%e signal to be displa&ed #as amplified and t%e amplified signal #as
t%en used to displace an electron beam verticall&. 6%e displacement #as usuall&
accomplis%ed electrostaticall&. 6%e %ori;ontal pat% of t%e beam #as determined b& a
second amplifier circuit. 6%e %ori;ontal position #as commonl& a linear function of time.
6%us( t%e beam of electrons #as positioned %ori;ontall& as a linear function of time and
verticall& b& t%e signal. 6%e electron beam struc$ a front surface of t%e cat%ode ra& tube
#%ere a p%osp%or surface #as present. 6%e electron impact caused t%e p%osp%or to
fluoresce (lig%t up brig%tl&!. 6%e #ave form as a function of time #as displa&ed.
6%is met%od #as a maCor step for#ard at t%e time( allo#ing t%e engineer to visuali;e t%e
time dependent voltage. /nalog oscilloscopes #ere emplo&ed from t%e 1:30Qs t%roug% t%e
end of t%e 20
t%
centur&. Digital tec%nolog& in t%e form of fast analog to digital converters
along #it% advances in displa& tec%nologies led to t%e digital oscilloscope #%ic% %as
become t%e dominant tec%nolog& toda&.
6%e t&pical digital oscilloscope still amplifies and per%aps conditions t%e signal. 6%e time
dependent signal is t%en converted to digital information b& an analog to digital converter
(/D)!. 6%e sampling rate is continuousl& deposited in a *"*OType equation heie. (first
in N first out! memor&. 6%e memor& is a certain number of addresses long (t&picall& <0:=
or larger!. ,%en ne# data comes from t%e /D)( it is placed into address 1 #%ile data in
t%at address is displaced to address 2( address 2 to address 3W #it% t%e last address 4096
discarded. 6%erefore( at an& instant of time( t%e data in t%e memor& represents <0:=
measurements seEuential in time.
6%e digital scope can displa& t%is data Cust as a computer displa&s images on a screen.
1ecause t%e data is stored in a memor&( a single event can be captured and t%e process
stopped and t%en displa&ed as long as t%e operator #is%esV 6%is is an enormous advantage
over analog scopes particularl& in anal&;ing transient or single events.
6%e oscilloscopeQs time base controls c%ange t%e rate of digiti;ation b& t%e /D) and
t%erefore t%e %ori;ontal displa& (time a2is!. "f t%e signal (#aveform! is repetitive( t%en it is
desirable to al#a&s start t%e /D) at an eEuivalent point in t%e #aveform. 6%is is
accomplis%ed b& t%e trigger function of t%e scope. 6%e trigger section can select a given
voltage value and sense (increasing or decreasing! of an input to position time K 0 i.e. t%e
start of t%e /D) memor&.
6%e #aveform used to trigger t%e s&stem is usuall& t%e #aveform being displa&ed.
Go#ever( it can also be from ot%er sources suc% as po#er lines or ot%er related #aveforms
sent to anot%er input c%annel for t%e scope.
13

1ecause t%e data is in digital form( man& mat%ematical operations can be performed suc%
as averaging( addition( subtraction( division( etc. of t#o or more different #aveforms. 6%e
data can also be transferred to a removable memor& allo#ing t%e operator to furt%er
anal&;e or arc%ive t%e data.

1<

S'ectru) Analy*ers
/ll spectrum anal&;ers are based on t%e mat%ematical #or$ of Bosep% *ourier (19= N
130!. Gis #or$ on %eat transfer in metal plates (109! and %is later #or$ 36%eorie
anal&liEue de la c%aleur4 (122! laid t%e foundation for #%at #e call *ourier anal&sis. Ge
s%o#ed t%at an& arbitrar& repetitive function can be decomposed into a series of simple
oscillating functions. 6%e simplest functions are@ sin (Ut!( cos (Ut!( e
iUt
.
6%ere are bot% analog and digital versions of spectrum anal&;ers. 6%e most common $ind
of spectrum anal&;er remains t%e analog t&pe. /nalog spectrum anal&;ers #or$ almost
identicall& as ordinar& radio receivers. 6%e signal( a comple2 time dependent repetitive
#aveform( is amplified and fed into a nonlinear mi2er. / local pure sinusoidal oscillator is
also fed in to t%e nonlinear mi2er. 6%e resulting output from t%e mi2er contains man& ne#
time dependent terms. One of t%ese terms is of particular interest( i.e. t%e difference
freEuenc& term@
/
dif
(t!K /
sig
(U! S /
local osc
S sin F(U
l
N U
s
! tH
K $ /
sig
(U! sin (XUt!
/ narro# band amplifier #%ose pass band is centered at XU t%en amplifies onl& t%at term.
6%e output amplitude is t%en measured. 1& c%anging t%e local oscillator freEuenc&( one
can effectivel& map out t%e various freEuenc& components /
sig
(U!. F6%is is called a
3%eterod&ne4 s&stem. Geterod&ne detection #as first suggested b& >eginald *essenden
(1:01!. 6%e modern %eterod&ne tec%niEue #as not invented until 1:1 #%en Ed#in
/rmstrong demonstrated %is super%eterod&ne receiver.H
One of t%e great advantages of t%e analog %eterod&ne s&stem is t%at one can measure to
ver& %ig% freEuencies. 6%e t&pical laborator& analog spectrum anal&;ers measure up to
2.: +G;( i.e. 2.: 2 10
:
. Spectrum anal&;ers are available to over 10
11
G;. 6%e& do(
%o#ever( %ave some limitations. *or e2ample( t%e measurements are performed at
different freEuencies seEuentiall&. 6%at is( first one freEuenc& and ne2t a small increment
a#a&( etc. 6%erefore( if t%e signal c%anges during t%e measurement( data can be incorrect.
"f( for e2ample( a s&stem #ere freEuenc& %opping first at f
1
and t%en at f
2
( etc.( it is
possible t%at neit%er or bot% #ould be recordedV
/not%er more severe problem occurs at lo# freEuencies. 6%is is because all mi2ers
produce e2cess noise at lo# freEuencies( i.e. 1Mf noise. 6%e noise floor( t%e minimum
signal necessar& for detection( increases b& 100(000 #%en t%e freEuenc& c%anges from
1 MG; to 100 G; in a t&pical s&stemV
1A

Digital spectrum anal&;ers operate in a similar #a& to digital oscilloscopes. 6%e comple2
#ave form is digiti;ed b& an /D) and placed in a memor&. 6%e data is t%en anal&;ed b& a
digital adaptation of *ourier anal&sis called an **6. 6%e data is t%en plotted.
6%e principal problem #it% t%is met%od is t%at ver& accurate /D)s are necessar& and t%e
speed of /D)s limits t%e freEuenc& response. Go#ever( at lo# freEuencies( #%ere analog
anal&;ers fail( digital anal&;ers are superb. So t%e t#o $inds of spectrum anal&;ers
complement eac% ot%er.

1=

Transducers
6%e student #ill be provided #it% e2amples of opto'electronic transducers (lig%t Y
electricit&!( acousto'electronic transducers (acoustic po#er Y electricit&! and electro'
mec%anical transducers (motors andMor generators!.
('toElectronic De+ices
8ig%t emitting diodes convert carriers( %oles( and electrons in a direct band gap
semiconductor into lig%t. / diode structure( a p'n Cunction( is for#ard biased. Electrons
from t%e ZnQ side are sent for#ard to meet %oles from t%e p side. "n a direct band gap
semiconductor suc% as gallium arsenide or ot%er 3'A semiconductors t%ere is a %ig%
probabilit& t%at t%e energ& released b& t%e anni%ilation of t%e %oles b& t%e electrons #ill be
released in t%e form of lig%t.
7arious allo&s of 3'A semiconductors can be used to ma$e diodes #it% different energ&
band gaps. "t is currentl& possible to ma$e 8EDs t%at produce #avelengt%s from ultra
violet t%roug% t%e visible and into t%e infrared( i.e. 2A0 nm to 10 microns. 6%ose operating
from 2A0'1000 nm are Euite efficient in t%at t%e& can convert about 10J of t%e electrical
energ& to lig%t. "n comparison( a standard lig%t bulb converts less t%an 1J of t%e electrical
energ& input to visible lig%t. 6&pical 8EDs are seen in *igure .

*"+5>E @ 8EDs (8E*6@ G"+G 1>"+G6.ESS( >"+G6@ G"+G PO,E>!
P%otodiodes perform t%e reverse function. "n t%is case( t%e lig%t is absorbed in a
semiconductor and t%ereb& generates electron'%ole pairs. 6%is( in turn( generates a p%oto'
voltage in a p'n Cunction or a c%ange in conductivit& if t%e diode is reverse biased. 6%e
most common p%otodiodes are made of silicon (an indirect bandgap semiconductor #%ic%
19

can efficientl& generate carriers but cannot create lig%t!. Go#ever( t%e ease of device
fabrication and lo# cost of silicon devices mean t%at most p%otodiodes are made of t%at
material (*igure :!. 8arge area p'n Cunction devices can be used to generate useful
amounts of electrical po#er from sunlig%t( i.e. solar cells (*igure 10!.

*"+5>E :@ S"8")O. PGO6OD"ODES

*"+5>E 10@ SO8/> )E88 (<00 M"88"/MPE>E( 0.A 7O86S!
1

AcoustoElectronic De+ices
Electrical po#er can be converted into sound (acoustic po#er! b& a number of met%ods.
Magnetic forces generated b& time dependent currents running in a coil #%ic% is in turn
subCect to a large magnetic field move t%e diap%ragm of most loud spea$ers. Pie;oelectric
actuators can also be used to move diap%ragms and t%erefore launc% acoustic #aves.
Pie;oelectric t&pes of transducers are particularl& useful at %ig% freEuencies. 6%e reverse
procedures allo# devices to be acoustic sensors( microp%ones( etc. "n t%ese cases( t%e
acoustic field (sound! moves t%e diap%ragm and a voltage is produced b& t%e moving coil
or t%e pie;oelectric element.
ElectroMec,anical De+ices
One of t%e most useful electro'mec%anical devices is t%e motor and its corollar&( t%e
generator. 6%e inventor of t%e motor( Mic%ael *arada& (19:1'1=9! pioneered t%e
conversion of electrical energ& to mec%anical (t%e motor! (131! and mec%anical energ& to
electrical energ& (t%e generator!. ,%ile t%ese devices currentl& occur in man& different
formats( #e #ill stud& one of t%e simplest forms of t%ese devices N a D.). (direct current!
motorMd&namo. "n t%is device( permanent magnets are fi2ed in a circle around t%e inside of
a c&lindrical steel can. 6%e& alternate in polarit&( i.e. .'S'.'S. 6%e simple t&pe of motor
($no#n as a 3can motor4! po#ers man& common devices suc% as electric ra;ors( electric
#indo#s in cars( etc. 6%e rotor or armature is free to rotate on bearings in t%e outer case.
6%e rotor %as a series of proCections (see *igure 11! called poles t%at are in turn #rapped
#it% #ire. /s current passes t%roug% t%e #ire( a magnetic field is produced. 8i$e magnetic
poles( i.e. .'. or S'S( repel eac% ot%er and unli$e poles .'S or S'. attract eac% ot%er.
6%erefore( t%e motor rotor #ill rotate to minimi;e t%ese magnetic forces.
1:

*"+5>E 11@ MO6O> >O6O>
/s soon as t%e minimum force angular position is reac%ed( t%e current in t%e rotor is
reversed. 6%is reverses t%e polarit& of t%e rotorQs magnetic field and it continues to be
forced into rotation. 6%e process is repeated again and again as t%e s%aft rotates. 6%e
timing of t%e reversal of t%e current is accomplis%ed in t%e 3can motor4 via a mec%anical
s&stem called a commutator. 6%e commutator consists of sliding electrical contacts
(brus%es! and c&lindrical (split! contacts on t%e rotor s%aft usuall& made of copper or a
copper allo&.
6%e conversion of electrical energ& into mec%anical energ& in t%e simple motor can
e2ceed 0J for t%is lo# cost device. More sop%isticated motor designs actuall& e2ceed
:0J.
"n t%e reverse process( t%at of converting mec%anical energ& to electrical energ&( t%e rotor
is not energi;ed and is mec%anicall& rotated b& e2ternal forces. /s t%e rotor poles pass t%e
fi2ed magnets( a magnetic field is induced in t%e rotor poles. /s t%e rotor turns past t%e
fi2ed magnets( t%e magnetic flu2 in t%e rotor poles rises and falls( reverses direction and
rises and falls again and reverses once more. 6%e process is repeated continuousl& as t%e
rotor turns. 6%e c%anging magnetic flu2 in t%e rotor poles induces a potential in t%e coils
#rapped around t%e poles. 6%at induced potential is carried to t%e commutator and from
t%ere to t%e e2ternal electrical connections.
Field Assembly
Complete Motor
Rotor (Armature) Assembly
Commutator
Brush Assembly
Quarter (for size)
20

"f a resistor is connected to t%ese output connectors( current #ill flo# and energ& #ill be
deposited in t%e resistor. 6%erefore( b& appl&ing mec%anical forces to t%e armature( t%e
device no# operates as a d&namo converting t%e mec%anical energ& to electrical energ&.
Similar mec%anical to electrical energ& conversion efficiencies are ac%ieved in t%ese
devices.
6%ese t&pes of devices are found in ever&da& eEuipment suc% as emergenc& radios #it%
%and cran$s( flas% lig%ts #it% %and cran$s( etc. 6%e simple lo# cost and useful motor does
%ave a significant problem #it% respect to lifetime due to mec%anical #ear in t%e
commutator structures. 6%e problem is eliminated b& /.). motor s&stems #%ose lifetimes
are t&picall& limited onl& b& t%e life of t%e bearings in t%e device. Even %ig%er
efficiencies( i.e. :AJ L are practicall& ac%ieved in t%ese /.). s&stems.

21

LA-(.AT(./ SESSI(NS
0ee1 23 MultiMeters and Po&er Su''lies
"n t%is laborator&( #e #ill e2plore t%e use of DMM and /MM multi'meters in t%e
measurement of resistance( voltage sources and current sources.
.esistors
6&pical lo# po#er resistors are in t%e form of c&lindrical obCects #it% a2ial leads or
connectors. 6%e resistor value is usuall& indicated b& a series of 3 color bands #it%
sometimes a <
t%
band representing t%e resistorQs tolerance. Sometimes( as man& as = bands
ma& be used as s%o#n belo#@

6%e most common carbon composite resistors %ave 3 bands@ t%e first t#o bands represent
t%e resistor value and t%e 3
rd
band is t%e po#er of 10 multiplier for t%at value. 6%e
assumption is t%at t%e tolerance is 20J.
22

*our stripe resistors use t%e <
t%
stripe to indicate tolerance. *or lo#er tolerances( i.e.
greater accurac&( a A band color code is used (as s%o#n above!. Gig% accurac& resistors
are freEuentl& mar$ed numericall& rat%er t%an using color bands.

6%e p%&sical si;e of t%e composite resistor indicates its po#er dissipation abilit&.
)ommon composite carbon resistors are available #it% po#er ratings ranging from 1M1=
t%

to 2 ,atts.

*"+5>E 12. 7/>"O5S PO,E> >/6ED >ES"S6O>S
Series and Parallel Co)binations of .esistors
"f resistors are placed in parallel or series( t%eir be%avior #it% respect to current and
voltage can be e2actl& replaced b& a single resistor. )onsider t%e follo#ing situations@
23

Series

7
0
K i>
1
L i>
2
L W Li>
n
7
0
K i>
eE series

K i R
n
=1
i
6%erefore( >
eE series
K

R
i
Parallel

i
6
K i
1
L i
2
L W L i
n

K
v
0
R
1
L
v
0
R
2
L W L
v
0
R
n
K 7
0
1
R
i

K

7
0
M>
eE parallel

6%erefore >
eE parallel
K 1 M
1
R
i

6#o interesting and freEuentl& used t#o resistor circuits are s%o#n belo#@
V
i
!
R
"
R
#
R
n
V
i
R
e$ series
V
!!
R
"
R
n
V
i
%
R
e$ parallel
R
#
i
n
i
#
i
"
2<

Voltage Divider

?O5> SO856"O. GE>E@

Current Divider

?O5> SO856"O. GE>E@

Volta!e Sources
7oltage sources are eit%er ideal or non'ideal. /n ideal voltage source is usuall&
represented as s%o#n belo#( i.e. eit%er a circle #it% L and N signs and a voltage value or a
series of long and s%ort lines Ft%is representation comes from t%e original diagrams for a
batter&[ remember t%e inventor 7olta.H
V
R
#
R
"
V
&
V
R
"
R
#
i
%
' i
#
( i
"
i
"
i
#
Problem@ s%o# t%at
7
2
K 7
0
>
1
M(>
1
L>
2
!
Problem@ s%o# t%at
"
1
K i
6
>
2
M(>
1
L>
2
!
2A

/n ideal voltage source #ould produce a constant potential difference regardless of t%e
current it needs to suppl&. >eal or non'ideal po#er supplies are represented as an ideal
source and a series resistance >
int
t%e eEuivalent internal resistor. 6%e non'ideal voltage
source approac%es ZidealQ as >
int
\ 0.

F6%e .on'"deal 7oltage Source is also called a 6%evenin SourceH
Current Sources
)urrent sources also occur in ideal and non'ideal t&pes. /n ideal current source delivers a
constant current no matter #%at voltage is reEuired. 6%e& are usuall& s%o#n b& double
circles #it% an arro# s%o#ing t%e direction of t%e current. Occasionall&( &ou ma& also see
a diamond s%ape for a current source( particularl& on +erman and *renc% circuit diagrams.

.on'ideal sources are usuall& represented b& an ideal source #it% an internal parallel
resistor.

V
)
(
V
(
*deal Voltage +our,e
V
)
(
V
(
R
int
-on)*deal Voltage +our,e
R
int
*
*deal Current +our,e

*
-on)*deal Current +our,e

R
int
2=

F6%e .on'"deal )urrent Source is also called a .orton SourceH
6%e non'ideal source approac%es ZidealQ as >
int
\ O.
One can use a constant voltage source to simulate a nearl& ideal constant current source b&
placing a ver& large resistance in series( i.e.

6%e current t%roug% t%e load resistor >
8
can be found as@
7
0
K i ( >
8
L >
S
!.
6%erefore(
" K 7
0
M (>
S
L >
8
!
"f >
S
]] >
8 (
t%en i ^

7
0
M>
S
(a constant value providing >
S
]] >
8
!.
,e #ill not %ave &ou perform current source e2periments at t%is time because current
#easure#ents are the easiest way to destroy a #eter.
MultiMeter Measure)ents
1. Pic$ = resistors #it% different color codes. Measure t%eir values #it% &our DMM
and /MM. )ompare t%eir stated values and tolerances (color code! #it% &our
measured multi'meter results.
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
>esistor _ Mar$ed DMM J Deviation /MM JDeviation
Measured Measured
>
1
IIIIIIII IIIIIIII IIIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIIII
>
2
>
3
>
<
V
)
(
R
+
R
.
29

>
A
>
=
"s t%e 3error4 or 3deviation4 greater or less t%an t%e indicated tolerance`
/.S,E> GE>E@

2. "f &ou loo$ at a standard list of 20J resistors available( &ou #ill see 1000 o%ms
and 1A00 o%ms but not 1200 o%ms. ,%&` "f &ou loo$ at AJ resistors( #ould t%e
results be different` ,%&` F/ listing of resistor values can be found on t%e #all of
t%e laborator&.H
/.S,E> GE>E@

3. Pic$ t#o resistors t%at are appro2imatel& t#o orders of magnitude different( i.e.
1(000 a and 100(000 a( or 22 a and 2(200 (See *igures 13( 1<( and 1A.!
a. Measure t%em carefull&. .ote t%eir actual values rat%er t%an t%e color code
indicated value.
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
>
1
)olor )ode 7alue@ IIIIIIIIIIIIII >
1
Measured 7alue@ IIIIIIIIIIIIII
>
2
)olor )ode 7alue@ IIIIIIIIIIIIII >
2
Measured 7alue@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIII
b. Measure t%em in series and parallel connections.
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
>
Series
7alue@ IIIIIIIIIIIIII >
Parallel
7alue@ IIIIIIIIIIIIII
c. )ompare &our measurements #it% t%e calculated values. .ote@ in series( t%e
larger value dominates t%e measurement.
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
> Series >esistance )alculated@ IIIIII Measured@ IIIIIII J difference IIIIIII
> Parallel >esistance )alculated@ IIIII Measured@ IIIIIII J difference IIIIIII
2

d. "n t%e parallel connection( #%ic% resistor dominates and #%&`
/.S,E> GE>E@

*"+5>E 13. M586"ME6E>S )O..E)6ED
6O >ES"S6O> O. P>O6O'1O/>D
F8eft side@ /nalog Multimeter >ig%t side@ Digital MultimeterH

2:

*"+5>E 1<. >ES"S6O>S )O..E)6ED ". SE>"ES O. P>O6O'1O/>D

*"+5>E 1A. >ES"S6O>S )O..E)6ED ". P/>/88E8 O. P>O6O1O/>D
Source Measure)ents
6%e 6e$troni2 dual po#er suppl& &ou #ill be using can operate as a near ideal voltage
source and a near ideal current source (.O6 simultaneousl&!.
30

6o test a voltage source@
turn t%e current limit to full rig%t (cloc$#ise direction![
set t%e output to P10 volts[
set t%e DMM to read D) volts
set t%e range to greater t%an 10 volts if available or 3auto'scale4 if t%e meter is so
eEuipped
Observe carefull& t%e small c%ange in t%e output voltage t%at #ill occur #%en t%e resistor
is connected. *rom t%e c%ange in t%is voltage( calculate t%e internal resistance of t%e
voltage source. 6%e eEuivalent circuit is@

(6%e DMM input resistance is e2tremel& large compared to >
2
V!
Measure t%e output voltage carefull& #it% t%e meter connected to t%e suppl&. 6%en
connect a 10 a 3A ,att resistor across t%e t#o output terminals #it% t%e po#er suppl& set
at appro2imatel& 10 volts. .ote@ t%e resistor #ill dissipate energ& and get Euite GO6VV
6a$e care not to burn &ourself. See *igure 1=. F6%e resistor ma& loo$ slig%tl& different.H

+
u
p
p
l
y
/
o
0
e
r
V
)
(
R
int
R
&
1
M
M
31

*"+5>E 1=. 10 OGM >ES"S6O> )O..E)6ED
6O M586"ME6E> /.D PO,E> S5PP8?
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
5nloaded voltage (i.e. .O 10 O%m resistor!@ IIIIIIIIIIIIII
8oaded voltage (10 O%m resistor!@ IIIIIIIIIIIIII
7oltage s%ift@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
)alculate internal resistance@

.o# e2plore t%e problems represented b& a non'ideal voltage source. Set t%e output
voltage to about 10 volts. Put a 10 - a resistor in line #it% t%e positive terminal. 6%is
combination simulates a non'ideal po#er suppl& (or source!. 6%e eEuivalent circuit %as
>
int
^ 10- a.
32

DMM Measure)ent
Set t%e po#er suppl& voltage to about 10 7. Measure t%e DMM D) voltage reading at t%e
po#er suppl& terminals and also after t%e <9 - resistor.
,O>- SP/)E GE>E@
D) 7oltage at po#er suppl&@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
D) 7oltage after <9 - resistor@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
)%ange in measurement due to resistor@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
AMM Measure)ent
,it% t%e po#er suppl& still set at 10 7( set t%e /MM scale to 10 7 D). Measure t%e
voltage reading at t%e po#er suppl& terminals and also after t%e <9 - resistor. >epeat t%e
measurements #it% t%e /MM scale set to A0 7 D).
,O>- SP/)E GE>E@
FMeter set to 10 7H
FMeter set to A0 7H
Measure /o0er
+upply Voltage
Measure Voltage
after 234 resistor
%e5troni&
/o0er
+upply
( )
23 4 ohm
33

.ote t%at t%e loading effect of t%e /MM is different on different scales. )an &ou e2plain
t%is`
,O>- SP/)E GE>E@

6%is simple e2periment demonstrates t%e 3loading4 effect of t%e analog meter and #%& itQs
necessar& to be Euite careful in simple voltage measurements.

3<

0ee1 43 (scillosco'es and $unction %enerators
>MS of a periodic signal is calculated b& first sEuaring t%e #aveform( t%en ta$ing its
mean over its period( 6( t%en ta$ing t%e sEuare root. "ts definition using t%e calculus is

1. SEuare ,ave@ (7pp is t%e pea$'pea$
voltage!

2. Sine ,ave@ >MS M 7pp K `

3. 6riangular ,ave@ >MS M 7pp K `

3A

Ti)e De'endent Measure)ents
6%is #ee$Qs e2periments #ill give &ou t%e opportunit& to learn t%e basic operations of an
oscilloscope and a function generator.
6urn on bot% t%e function generator (*igure 19! and oscilloscope (*igure 1!. )onnect
c%annel 1 input of t%e oscilloscope to t%e function generator 3signal out4. )onnect t%e
3s&nc out4 of t%e function generator to t%e scopeQs c%annel 2 (,it% t%e digital generator
use t%e generatorQs )%annel 1( since t%e S&nc Out is onl& associated #it% )%annel 1.
Enable S&nc Out in t%e 5tilit& Mode!. Set t%e freEuenc& to 100 G; #it% amplitude
some#%ere bet#een 1 7 and 10 7. Set t%e function generator mode to sine output
(sinusoidal #aves!. Press t%e auto scale button on t%e scope. ?ou s%ould observe a
sinusoidal #ave form on t%e displa& (*igure 1:!.

.
*"+5>E 19a@ /./8O+ Signal +enerator
3=

*"+5>E 19b@ D"+"6/8 Signal +enerator (frontMbac$!
39

*"+5>E 1@ OS)"88OS)OPE

*"+5>E 1:@ S)OPE D"SP8/?".+ S".5SO"D/8 S"+./8
3

6o understand t%e trigger function of t%e scope( select t%e trigger control. /fter pressing
t%e upper'rig%t corner 3/utoSet4 button t%e trigger is internall& set b& t%e scope. ,%ile
t%is is a good start( #e #is% to %ave more control. 6%erefore( ta$e direct control b& first
selecting t%e trigger menu and setting t%e source to be c%annel 1. ,it% t%e trigger in
3Edge4 mode( t%e (trigger! 38evel4 $nob can no# be used to control t%e voltage level at
#%ic% t%e scope #ill start its measurement( i.e. its time reference point or trigger point.
.ote@ if a trigger voltage point is selected t%at is outside of t%e range of voltages on
c%annel 1( t%en t%e scope #ill not displa& ne# data and #ill indicate on t%e displa& 3not
triggered4 or 3#aiting for trigger4( etc.
6%e trigger level is noted on t%e displa& b& eit%er a line or an arro# #it% 6 ne2t to it.
/dCust t%e trigger level to obtain an active displa&. 6%e displa& #ill no# sa& 3triggered4
or 3running4. /dCust t%e trigger level and note its effect on t%e position of t%e #ave form
on t%e displa& screen.
.ote t%e level control also allo#s t%e slope of t%e level to be observed. )%ange t%e slope
(or sense! from increasing to decreasing bac$ and fort% to note t%e effect on t%e displa&.
Set t%e trigger level about %alf#a& bet#een 0 and t%e ma2imum value of t%e #ave form.
.o# adCust t%e voltage level of t%e function generator and note t%e position of t%e 304
time c%anges #it% amplitude and t%at( as t%e voltage of t%e function generator gets small(
t%e trigger #ill eventuall& fail to #or$.
.o# c%ange t%e trigger input to c%annel 2 (s&nc output of t%e function generator!. .ote
t%at t%e trigger #ill no# remain constant regardless of t%e magnitude of t%e sinusoidal
signal. 6%is is t%e prime reason for t%e use of a s&nc output of t%e function generator.
)%ange t%e mode of t%e function generator from sine to triangular and t%en sEuare. .ote
eac% of t%ese #ave forms. 6%e actual voltage levels can be measured b& using t%e voltage
cursor function of t%e scope. 5sing t%e )5>SO> controls( measure t%e 7pp amplitude of
a sinusoidal #ave( i.e. t%e pea$'to'pea$ amplitude of t%e #ave.
5sing &our analog and digital multi'meters on t%e /) voltage settings( measure t%e
voltage of t%e #ave form. )ompare t%e scope and multi'meter indicated voltages. Go# do
&ou e2plain t%ese results`
.o# c%ange t%e mode to sEuare and t%en triangular( and repeat t%e e2periment.
6%e follo#ing are four sets of similar measurements( comparing t%e DMM and /MM@
*irst t%e #aveforms are measured at lo# freEuenc& (100 G;! and lo# level (A7pp!( t%en
lo# freEuenc& and %ig% level (207pp!. *ollo#ing t%ose pair of measurements &ou #ill
increase t%e freEuenc& to A $G; and repeat t%e lo#' and %i'level measurements. *rom all
t%ese measurements &ou can observe t%e limitations of eac% instrument.
3:

,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
,ave Scope 7oltage Meter 7oltage (>MS! Difference ( J ! 7s )alc
*orm ()5>SO>! )alc DMM /MM DMM /MM
100 G; PA 7pp 7rms 7rms 7rms 7rms 7rms
Sine@ IIIIIIII IIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII
6riangle@ IIIIIIII IIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII
SEuare@ IIIIIIII IIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII
"f t%ere are differences( e2plain@
/.S,E> GE>E@

,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
100 G; P20 7pp 7rms 7rms 7rms 7rms 7rms
/.S,E> GE>E@

<0

,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
A $G; PA 7pp 7rms 7rms 7rms 7rms 7rms
/.S,E> GE>E@

,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
A $G; P20 7pp 7rms 7rms 7rms 7rms 7rms
/.S,E> GE>E@

<1

Digital oscilloscopes %ave a limitation imposed b& t%eir sampling rates if #aveforms are
not sampled freEuentl& enoug% (at least t#ice per period i.e. t%e .&Euist criterion!.
Spurious results can occur and are referred to as 3aliasing4. 5sing a triangular #ave form(
set t%e timebase (%ori;ontal! to displa& several periods of t%e triangle( i.e. 1
microsecondsMdivision. Set t%e function generator freEuenc& to 1A0 $G; (see *igure 20!.

*"+5>E 20@ )O>>E)68? S/MP8ED 6>"/.+58/> ,/7E*O>M
"f &ou reduce t%e timebase to appro2imatel& 2A0 millisecondsMdivision( &ou #ill be
undersampling t%e #aveform and &ou #ill observe #aveforms similar to *igure 21.

<2

*"+5>E 21@ 5.DE>S/MP8ED 6>"/.+58/> ,/7E*O>M
?our 6/Mmentor #ill %elp &ou displa& t%is effect. 1ecause of undersampling( &our scope
is displa&ing a lo# freEuenc& #aveform( #%ic% does not e2ist and is an artifact of aliasing
(.&Euist!. *igures 22 and 23 s%o# t%e same results for sinusoidal #aves.

*"+5>E 22@ )O>>E)68? S/MP8ED S".5SO"D/8 ,/7E*O>M

*"+5>E 23@ ".)O>>E)68? S/MP8ED S".5SO"D/8 ,/7E*O>M
6%e 6/ and class mentors #ill demonstrate t%e use of t%e curve tracer and current sources
to t%e class as time permits.

<3

0ee1 33 Transducers
AcoustoElectric Transducers
,ide'band( i.e. 1 $G; N 1A $G;( acoustic transducers are available( see *igure 2<.
)onnect &our transducer to )%annel 2 of &our scope #it% a co'a2ial cable. 6%is acts as a
microp%one or detector converting acoustic vibrations into electrical signals. 6%e output of
&our signal generator s%ould be connected via coa2ial cable to a second transducer #%ic%
#ill serve as a source or transmitter converting t%e output sinusoidal signals of t%e
function generator to sound or acoustic energ&.

*"+5>E 2<. 6,O /)O5S6") 6>/.SD5)E>S MO5.6ED O. P7) )O5P8E>S.
)onnect t%e s&nc output of t%e function generator to )%annel 1 of &our scope( and set t%e
scope to trigger on )%annel 1 (6%is #ill be automaticall& done #%en &ou press t%e scopeQs
/utoSet button.! Select PA $G; on t%e function generator and an output a level P3 7pp.
/lso ma$e sure t%e function generator is set to sine #aves. )ouple t%e t#o transducers
acousticall& b& placing a s%ort piece of P7) pipe bet#een t%em. 6%e pipe acts as a
#aveguide for t%e acoustic #aves. See *igure 2A.
<<

*"+5>E 2A. )OMP8E6E /)O5S6") SE6'5P
.o# press auto'scale on t%e scope. ?ou s%ould observe a sEuare #ave on )%annel 1 (t%e
s&nc signal! and a sinusoidal #ave on )%annel 2 (t%e microp%one signal!. "f &ou do not
see t%e first( c%ec$ all connections and settings. "f &ou are unable to observe t%e sine and
sEuare #aves as$ &our 6/ or mentors for %elp.
6une t%roug% t%e freEuenc& range (1 N 1A $G;! and note t%at t%e conversion efficienc& of
electrical signal \ sound \ electrical is a strong function of freEuenc&. "n order to use
t%is s&stem( it #ould be necessar& to $no# in advance #%ere t%e conversion efficienc& is
%ig% and lo#. ,e suggest &ou measure t%is as a function of freEuenc& and plot &our
results. 6%at is( 7
(c%2!
M 7
input
versus freEuenc& for t%e 1 N 1A $G; range.
6o decide #%at freEuencies to plot( it is necessar& to pic$ a fine enoug% spacing of data to
reveal t%e be%avior of t%e s&stem but large enoug% steps to avoid tedious repetitions. 6al$
to &our partner and mentors about t%ese c%oices. "t is sufficient to manuall& find all t%e
pea$s and valle&s N a total of onl& about 20 points ma2 N and plot t%ose point on a t#o'
c&cle log c%art and connect t%ose dots.
.ote t%at using t%e digital signal generator &ou can Cust measure 7in once before%and and
trust t%at t%e amplitude of t%e digital signal generator is independent of freEuenc&. ?ou
can also note t%e level of 7in b& Cust noting t%e level displa&ed in t%e generatorQs front
panel.

<A

,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@ Decibels Sig Strengt%
*reEuenc& 7
out
7
in
7
out
M7
in
20 log 7
out
M7
in

1 $G;

1A $G;

<=

6%is s&stemQs be%avior is t&pical of man& suc% s&stems and freEuentl& a linear plot is not
t%e best manner to present t%e data in a visual #a&. Engineers %ave devised a met%od of
plotting data #%ic% is ver& useful #%en a #ide range of values occur. 6%is is t%e 31ode
Plot4 #%ic% is a log'log presentation of t%e data. 5suall& t%e & a2is (ordinate! is t%e
transfer function (in t%is case t%e ratio of t%e output voltage (microp%one! to t%e input
voltage. /nd t%e 2 a2is (abscissa! is t%e freEuenc&. 6%e log (based 10! of t%e po#er ratio
is used. 6%is is called t%e 31ell4 (after t%e fat%er of t%e telep%one inventor /le2ander
+ra%am 1ell( #%o studied %earing!. 6%is is( %o#ever( a ver& large unit and t%erefore t%e
decibel or 10 log (Po#er
out
MPo#er
in
! is plotted.
Go#ever( in practice( #e usuall& plot not t%e po#er ratio but rat%er t%e voltage ratio.
.ote@ po#er is proportional to t%e sEuare of t%e voltage. 6%erefore( #e plot 20 log
(7
out
M7
in
! versus freEuenc& also on a log scale.
/ general %int is t%at if t%ere is no ot%er reason for c%anging a freEuenc& step in t%is case a
general met%od of spacing t%e measurements is@ 0.1( .2( .A( 1( 2( A( 10( W
6%is %as t%e advantage of producing 3eEual steps4 on a log grap%. "t is sufficient to
manuall& find all t%e pea$s and valle&s( plot t%ose point on a t#o'c&cle log c%art and
connect t%ose dots.
Plot &our data on t#o plots@ #it% freEuenc& on a linear scale on first plot( dra#n free%and
belo#( and t%en a 1ode plot( #it% freEuenc& on log scale( and bot% plots %aving decibel
signal strengt% plotted on t%e vertical (note@ decibel K 20 log voltage ratio!.
8".E/> P8O6 GE>E (free%and!@

<9

/n& plot #it% t%e freEuenc& a2is plotted on a log scale is defined as a 1ode plot.
<

"f &ou c%oose to %ave &our proCect involve acoustic transducers possible e2periments
include@
1. Measurement of t%e velocit& of sound.
2. /coustic 3radar4( i.e. airborne sonar.
3. /coustic #aveguides
<. /coustic bandpass filters.
Please tal$ to &our 6/( mentors( and instructors about t%ese possibilities.
Electro('tic Transducers
P,otoconductors5 P,otodiodes5 Solar Cells5 and LEDs
Of t%e devices listed( onl& t%e p%otoconductor( *igure 2=( is a linear device. 6%at is( its
current versus voltage response is linear and bidirectional. "t be%aves as a resistor #%ose
value c%anges #it% illumination.
>
p
K 1 M +
p
and +
p
K +
0
L b "
#%ere +
0
is t%e dar$ conductance (1 M >
0
!. 6%is device %as a +
0
^ 10
=
o%m. 1rig%t lig%t(
i.e. sunlig%t #ill produce a resistance of ^1 - o%m or less.

*"+5>E 2=@ 8E*6@ PGO6OD"ODE( )E.6E>@ PGO6OD"ODE
>"+G6@ PGO6O')O.D5)6O>

?our 6/ or mentor can %elp &ou displa& t%e lig%t and dar$ c%aracteristics (current vs.
voltage! of t%e device on t%e curve tracer. 6%e correct range of t%e setup is 0 N 20 7 and
<:

2 7Mdivision %ori;ontal and 10 micro'amp N 1 milliampereMdivision vertical and a series
limiting resistor of 1 - o%m.
/ permanent "'7 relation can be obtained b& t%e circuit s%o#n in t%e diagram belo#. 5se
a digital D7M to measure t%e voltage drop across t%e resistor (>! and t%e device. 6%e
current can be calculated "
D
K 7
>
M >. Measure t%e device in dar$ room lig%t and brig%t
lig%t using t%e lig%t bulb provided. .ote@ in t%e dar$( a resistor value ^ 100 - o%ms is
appropriate and under brig%t lig%t 10 - or 1 - o%m.

Of t%e devices listed( all t%e ot%ers are diodes t%at can eit%er generate lig%t (8EDs! or
absorb lig%t and generate current( i.e. p%otodiodes( p%oto transistors( solar cells.
6%e current in a diode is a ver& non'linear and non's&mmetric function of voltage (see
*igures 29 and 2!. / reasonabl& accurate mat%ematical model of t%e current'voltage
relations%ip is@
"
D
K "
0
(e
7M7t
N 1!
"n t%e for#ard direction( i.e. 7 c 7
t

"
D
^ "
0
e
7M7t
"n reverse 7 d '7
t
t%en "
D
^ "
0

A0

*"+5>E 29@ PGO6OD"ODE D/>- *O>,/>D )G/>/)6E>"S6")

*"+5>E 2@ PGO6OD"ODE D/>- >E7E>SE )G/>/)6E>"S6")
A1

*"+5>E 2:@ PGO6OD"ODE "885M"./6ED )G/>/)6E>"S6")
(*O>,/>D /.D >E7E>SE!

1ecause t%e currents in t%e for#ard and reverse directions are ver& different in si;e( t%e
appropriate series resistors s%ould be c%anged. 6&picall&( t%e reverse current is man&
orders of magnitude smaller t%an t%e for#ard current. Go#ever( t%e po#er dissipation can
be large in t%e reverse direction because t%e voltage across t%e device can be Euite large
(tens of volts!. "n t%e for#ard direction( t%e t&pical voltage is in t%e order of a fraction of a
volt for silicon devices and a fe# volts for 8EDs. 6%e suggested resistor values are in t%e
)urve 6racer "nstructions (See /ppendi2 /!. Observe t%e c%aracteristics.
.ote@ t%e 8EDs actuall& emit lig%t in t%e for#ard direction. One possible future proCect for
&ou is to measure t%e lig%t output as a function of current andMor voltage.
P,otodiodes
5nli$e 8EDs( p%otodiodes are designed to absorb lig%t and convert it into electron %ole
pairs t%at generate a measurable voltage or current. / good circuit model for t%e
p%otodiode and its sc%ematic s&mbol are s%o#n %ere@

A2

Mat%ematicall&(
"
D
K "
0
(e
7M7t
N 1! ' "
gen

.ote@ "
gen
is in a direction to for#ard bias t%e diode.
Solar cells are designed to convert lig%t (t&picall& solar radiation! to electrical po#er.
)onversion efficiencies for silicon are 10J e AJ and t%e solar radiation level in sunn&
sout%ern )alifornia is about 100 m.#.Mcm
2
. P%otodiodes for t%e purpose of lig%t detection
are t&picall& small area devices t%at are designed to give %ig% sensitivit& and lo# noise.
Devices s%o#n in *igure 2= %ave areas in t%e order of 10
'
to 10
'=
cm
2
. 6%e values of
current are 10
'=
N 10
'3
amperes and care must be ta$en not to inCure t%ese devices. 6%e
correct settings for t%e devices can be found in t%e )urve 6racer "nstructions. Please use
t%e assistance of &our 6/ or mentor to operate t%e curve tracer (*igure 30!.

*"+5>E 30. )5>7E 6>/)E>
Solar cells are onl& used in t%e for#ard direction( i.e. for generating po#er. 1e sure to
loo$ at t%e for#ard c%aracteristic of &our single solar cell in t%e dar$ and illuminated.
One of t%e simplest Euestions t%at can be of interest is #%at load value( i.e. resistance #ill
&ield t%e ma2imum po#er` /nd does t%is c%ange #it% illumination level`
P%otodiodes are used bot% in t%e for#ard biased and reverse biased conditions. 1e sure to
measure t%e p%otodiodes bot% dar$ and illuminated in bot% for#ard and reverse biased
conditions. )onsider t%e t#o common p%otodiode circuits@ P7 f P). 6%e P7 mode
reEuires one less component (no batter&!( and P) mode responds faster to c%anges in lig%t.
A3

,%at are t%e advantages of eac% circuit`
/.S,E> GE>E@

A<

ElectroMec,anical Transducers
Motors and %enerators
?our eEuipment $it includes a small D) motor and gear set. 6%e motor #ill also function
as a generator (actuall& a d&namo invented b& Mic%ael *arada&!.
6o test t%e device as a generator( connect t%e t#o electrical terminals (at t%e plastic end! to
a DMM. Set t%e DMM to D) volts. Spin t%e motor s%aft #it% &our fingers and observe t%e
voltage produced. >everse t%e direction of t%e spin and note t%at t%e voltage reverses.
.e2t( investigate t%e device as a motor$ %&'() the s#all #otor can be da#aged if
#ore than * + ,C is applied directly across the #otor, so we ask that you always use
one of the big, white -. oh# power resistors in series with each #otor you use/
Set t%e po#er suppl& to 304 volts output( #it% t%e current $nob turned full& ),. )onnect
t%e motor( in series #it% a (#%ite! 10 o%m po#er resistor( to t%e po#er suppl&Qs output
terminals( and connect &our DMM to measure t%e voltage across onl& t%e motor. Ma$e
sure t%e motor is mec%anicall& separated from an& gears if t%e gear bo2 is assembled( so
t%e motor is free to turn #it%out being loaded b& an& gears. Set t%e s#itc% on t%e suppl&
to indicate /mps( and t%en var& t%e suppl& voltage until t%e voltage &ou measure across
onl& t%e motor is set to eac% of t%e values in t%e follo#ing table. /t eac% setting note t%e
current indicated on t%e suppl&Qs /mp reading. .ote t%at t%e motor s%aft spins rapidl& at
t%e %ig%er voltages. Measure t%e current b& separatel& measuring t%e voltage across t%e
resistor and using O%ms la#.
Stop measurement if t%e motor stops running at lo# voltages. .ever appl& more t%an 37
across t%e motor.

AA

,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
Motor 7olts Motor )urrent

2.A IIIIIII
2.0 IIIIIII
1.A IIIIIII
1.0 IIIIIII
0.A IIIIIII
0.2 IIIIIII
0.1 IIIIIII
Plot &our results@

,%at voltage and current( "o( is reEuired to Cust start t%e motor spinning`

6%is current "
0
represents t%e current reEuired to simpl& turn over t%e motor in t%e absence
of doing e2ternal #or$. /s$ &our 6/Mmentor to demonstrate t%e effects on t%e current of a
load reEuiring t%e motor to do e2ternal #or$.

A=

0ee1 63 NI )yDAQ
5sing t%e Elvis program( t%e ." m&D/0 can be launc%ed into modes in #%ic% it emulates
various laborator& devices. Details on %o# to do t%is can be found at t%e #ebsite@
###.ni.comM#%ite'paperM11<20Men
)onnect t%e red and blac$ test probes t%at came #it% &our M&D/0 into its side banana
connectors and use &our M&D/0 #it% (L+IS ,!! instrument to operate as a digital
multimeter to measure t%e output of t%e digital function generator Cust as &ou did bac$ in
#ee$ 2Qs lab. *or t%e 6e$troni2 oscilloscope use its measurement utilit& to measure
)&clic >MS.
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
1 $G; )&clic >MS
,ave 6e$ Scope Meter 7oltage J Difference (7s Scope!
(A 7pp! 7oltage DMM m&D/0MDMM DMM m&D/0
Sine@ IIIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII
6riangle@ IIIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII
SEuare@ IIIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII
"n particular( does t%e M&D/0 measurement of sine( sEuare #aves and triangular #aves
be%ave t%e same or differentl& t%an t%e digital multi'meter` ,%&`
/.S,E> GE>E@

A9

/ctivate t%e ." m&D/0 in (L+IS &scilloscope instrument. )onnect bot% t%e m&D/0
and t%e 6e$troni2 scopes to t%e digital function generator. .ote t%at t%e M&D/0 analog
inputs are made t%roug% its edge connector and are differential (Cust li$e an Op/mp!( #it%
a non'inverting and a inverting terminal( so &ou %ave to connect t#o #ires in order to
input t%e one signal. ?ou actuall& s%ould connect t%ree #ires for t%e one signal@
,%ic%ever input terminal (invertingMnon'inverting! t%at &ou connect to &our signal
generatorQs ground (1.) ground s%ield! &ou s%ould also connect t%at same terminal also
to t%e M&D/0Qs analog ground terminal. (6%is minimi;es ground loop noise.!
)ompare t%e be%avior of t%e lab benc% 6e$troni2 and &our m&D/0 oscilloscopes. Start
b& measuring t%e output of t%e function generator at about 1 $G; and amplitude of 1 N 10
7pp loo$ing at bot% sine and sEuare #aves. "ncrease t%e freEuenc& of t%e function
generator to 1 -G;( 10 $G;( :: $G;( ::: $G; and 1::: $G;. .ote #%et%er t%e amplitude
of t%e sine #aves and particularl& t%e s%ape of t%e sEuare #aves remain constant. 6%e
digital function generator output is in fact constant over t%is freEuenc& range( so c%anges
in rise and fall time( andMor amplitude #it% freEuenc& are t%e result of freEuenc&
limitations in &our measuring devices. (6%e output of t%e analog function generator varies
some#%at over t%is freEuenc& range.!
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
*reEuenc& Oscilloscope >MS 7oltages IIIIIIIIIIIIIII
$G; Sine (6e$! SEuare (6e$! Sine(m&D/0! SEuare (m&D/0!
1 IIIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII
10 IIIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII
:: IIIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII
::: IIIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII
1::: IIIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIII
SEuare #ave response reEuires a %ig%er freEuenc& response from t%e measuring s&stem
t%an sinusoidal #aves. /s &ou #ill see in t%e spectrum anal&;er e2periment( sEuare #aves
can be t%oug%t of as being formed from a fundamental sinusoidal #ave #%ose period is
t%e same as t%e sEuare #ave #it% %ig%er freEuenc& components (all odd %armonics! to
ma$e up t%e s%arp rise and flat top associated #it% t%e sEuare #ave.
6%erefore( as &our measuring s&stem goes to its %ig% freEuenc& limit( t%e s%arp rise and
fall of t%e sEuare #ave #ill be lost due to t%e lac$ of t%ese %ig%er freEuenc& components
being accuratel& displa&ed. Plot t%e sinusoidal freEuenc& response versus freEuenc& for
t%ese t#o oscilloscopes.
A

/.S,E> GE>E@

,e define t%e upper freEuenc& response of a s&stem to be t%e point at #%ic% t%e amplitude
decreases to 90.9J ('3 d1!. 5sing t%is criterion( can &ou estimate t%e freEuenc& response
of t%e m&D/0 and t%e 6e$troni2 oscilloscopes` Discuss.
/.S,E> GE>E@

*rom t%ese e2periments &ou #ill observe t%at t%e combination of a laptop computer and a
." m&D/0 can emulate t%e common functions of a standalone multi'meter or
oscilloscope.
6%e ." m&D/0 #ill also operate as a function generator. Put t%e device in function
generator mode and test its output using t%e 6e$troni2 oscilloscope. 6est various
#aveforms suc% as sine( sEuare( and triangular outputs.
A:

.ote t%at t%e generator can also be used to generate arbitrar& #aveforms. 6%is #ill be
useful for t%e various proCects t%at &ou #ill c%oose to #or$ on. "n &our outside time(
please e2amine t%is option of generating arbitrar& #aveforms.
S'ectru) Analy*er Mode
Put t%e ." m&D/0 in spectrum anal&;er mode called a 3D&namic Signal /nal&;er4. 5se
t%e function generator to produce 1 $G; sEuare #aves of about 1 volt amplitude. /nal&;e
t%e spectrum of t%is sEuare #ave. )ompare t%e freEuenc& components and t%eir
amplitudes to t%eor&. 6%at is( onl& odd %armonics s%ould appear (1 $G;( 3 $G;( A $G;(
etc.! and t%e ratio of t%e various %armonic amplitudes to t%at of t%e fundamental s%ould be
1M. #%ere . is t%e %armonic (1@ 1M3 @ 1MA @ 1M9 @ W etc.!.
.ote again@ t%e d&namic signal anal&;er can displa& t%e data in bot% a linear and
logarit%mic manner( called d1 (decibel! defined as a ratio of po#ers@
1ell K log
10
Po#er M Po#er
reference
d1 K 10 log
10
Po#er M Po#er
reference
K 20 log
10
7 M 7
reference
6a$e t%e data bot% linearl& and logarit%micall&. 6%e logarit%m displa& gives greater detail
over a #ide d&namic range and is t%erefore commonl& used in engineering.
Set t%e **6 settings M *reE Span to 20 $G;( *reEuenc& Displa& M 5nits to d1( and set t%e
Scale Settings M Scale to Manual (Ma2 K 0( Min K '<0!. )lic$ >un( t%en clic$ t%e lo#er'
left corner bo2 3)ursors On(4 drag t%e das%ed vertical green line (on t%e left side of t%e
displa&! %ori;ontall& until it snaps onto t%e first %armonic( t%en drag t%e remaining second
das%ed vertical line to snap respectivel& on eac% of t%e %ig%er %armonics N one b& one.
Eac% time (snapped onto eac% of t%e %ig%er %armonics! note and record t%e value on t%e
left middle indicator in green as dd17rms (delta d1!.

=0

=1

,O>- SGEE6 GE>E (S05/>E ,/7E /./8?S"S!@
n 20 log(7n M 71!Kd1n'd11 20log(1Mn!( nKodd[ 'inf( nKeven
Garmonic >atio( in d1 (n't% M 1st! 6%eor& .
1 0 0
2
3
<
A
=
9

:
10

=2

>epeat t%e process #it% a triangular #aveform. )ompare t%e results to t%e t%eoretical
values.
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E (6>"/.+58/> ,/7E /./8?S"S!@
n 20 log(7n M 71!Kd1n'd11 20log(1Mn
2
!( nKodd[ 'inf( nKeven
Garmonic >atio( in d1 (n't% M 1st! 6%eor& .
1 0 0
2
3
<
A
=
9

:
10

=3

6%ree optional( but informative e2periments@
1. "f t%e function generator %as a s&mmetr& adCustment( t%en #it% t%e function
generator set on 3triangular output4 adCust t%e #ave to be non's&mmetrical as seen
on t%e scope. )ompare t%e %armonic structure to t%e s&mmetrical #aveform.
2. Select a sinusoidal output on t%e function generator. 5se t%e ." m&D/0 to
anal&;e t%e spectrum. ,%at do &ou observe` )an &ou e2plain t%e result`
3. Set t%e function generator to sine #ave and observe t%e spectrum on bot% linear
and logarit%mic scales. "s t%e sine #ave generator ma$ing perfect sine #aves`
,%at do &ou observe`
6r& t%is e2periment #it% bot% an e2ternal function generator and t%e internal
m&D/0. "s t%ere a difference` ,%&`

=<

0ee1 7 PreLab3
P.(8ECT DEVEL(PMENT5 C(NST.UCTI(N5 AND TESTIN%
Discuss #it% &our proCect partner(s! possible proCects( decide #%at &ou #ould li$e to do
for &our proCect( and turn in a one'page proposal at t%e beginning of t%e lab( based on t%e
form belo#. ?our lab mentors and 6eac%ing /ssistant #ill be of %elp in selecting an
appropriate subCect. Gere are a fe# suggestions@
1. 8ED and P%otodiodes
a. /nal&sis of t%e bit stream #aveform output b& "> remote control
b. Optical data lin$ (electrical isolation! across a gap of at least a fe# inc%es.
c. *iber optic communications
d. Optical rotation direction sensor (), vs )),!
e. 8inear position andMor velocit& sensing
2. /coustic 6ransducers
a. 5ltrasonic sonar distance measurement
b. /coustic #aveguides
c. >eflectors
3. Electronic circuits
a. /udio amplifier #it% filtering (bass( treble!
<. Solar )ells
a. "'7 current voltage measurements
b. Po#er generation
A. Motor )ontrol S&stems
a. 8ig%t'activated garage'door opener
b. Optical' or ultrasonic'controlled dra#'bridge
=. ." m&D/0 (8ab7"E, programming
a. Elevator programmed to move to different 3floors.4
b. 5ltrasonic sonar( #it% measured distance displa&ed on &our laptop.
c. See t%e .ational "nstruments #ebsite student proCect blog for ideas.
.ote t%at basic ")Qs (operational amplifiers( logic gates! are available in t%e lab( and &ou
ma& submit a reEuest (no later t%an #ee$ 9! for a fe# speciali;ed (lo#'cost! items t%at
&ou mig%t need for &our proCect( #%ic% t%e course #ill procure for &ou.
/ form is provided on t%e follo#ing page to %elp &ou prepare a one'page proCect proposal
to turn in at t%e beginning of lab A.

=A

EE3 Laboratory Pro9ect Pro'osal

ProCect team members IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
8ab ProCect 6itle
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
ProCect description@
Main obCective@

Options@

Parts 8ist (most significant parts!@

Our plan for lab activities to be done to %ave t%e proCect #or$ing and read& to demonstrate
in t%e lab #ee$ 10@
,ee$ = activities@
,ee$ 9 activities@
,ee$ activities@
,ee$ : activities@
,ee$ 10 activities@ Ma$e Po#erpoint presentation (find template on course #ebpage!
and demonstration of t%e proCect in operation.

==

0ee1 73 Introduction to Pro9ects
See t%e pre'lab assignment above.
('toElectronic Pro9ects
6%e lig%t source #e emplo& is eit%er a visible (red! or an invisible (infrared ">! 8ED. 1ot%
can be used #it% a ma2imum continuous current of 20 milliamperes. 6o test t%e current
voltage relations%ips( #e use a circuit as s%o#n belo#@

6%e 0'20 volts 6e$troni2 po#er suppl& s%ould be connected to t%e 8ED under test t%roug%
a 1000 o%m resistor. 6%ereb&( onl& a ma2imum of 20 voltM1-'o%m( i.e. 20 milliamperes
can flo#.
5sing a DMM( measure t%e voltage across t%e resistor. 6%is allo#s t%e measurement of
t%e current. .ote@ t%e potential across t%e 1-'o%m resistor K 1000 g "
device
. 6%e current
t%roug% t%e device is ver& non'linear. 6%e measurements are best made b& observing t%e
voltage across t%e 1-'o%m resistor and setting its value b& adCusting t%e output of t%e
po#er suppl&. ,%en t%e proper voltage across t%e 1-'o%m resistor is obtained( t%en t%e
DMM s%ould be used to measure t%e voltage across t%e device.
%
e
5
t
r
o
n
i
&
/
o
0
e
r
+
u
p
p
l
y
V
R
)
(
R
.61
V
1
*
1
' V
R
7 R
=9

6%e setup is s%o#n in t%e *igures belo#@

*"+5>E 31@ " 7S. 7 ME/S5>EME.6 SE6'5P

*"+5>E 32@ )8OSE'5P SGO,".+ 8ED /.D SE>"ES >ES"S6O>

=

,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@ (5se DMM for &our measurements!
7olts (across 1-'o%m resistor! 7olts
Device
)urrent
Device
IIIIIIIII.10 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIII.20 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIII.A0 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIII1.00 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIII2.00 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIA.00 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIII10.00 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Plot t%e current vs. voltage of t%e device on bot% a linear and semi'log grap% (see ne2t set
of grap% pages!. .otice t%e e2treme non'linearit& of t%e " vs. 7 c%aracteristic of t%e
device. ,%en &ou plot t%e current vs. voltage on semi'log paper (3c&cles!( it #ill reveal
t%e true nature of t%e " vs. 7 c%aracteristic.
=:

90

.e2t measure t%e lig%t output vs. device current. Put a single cell solar cell ne2t to t%e
8ED. )onnect a multi'meter to t%e solar cell. 5se t%e meter in 3current mode4. See t%e
circuit diagram belo#. Put a s%ield over &our set up to avoid t%e effects of t%e laborator&
lig%ts. 6%e 8ED is connected as before.

1elo# is a picture of an /MM in current mode connected to a solar cell. .ote@ it is a
single cell rated at h volt <00 m/. 6%e /MM is used rat%er t%an t%e DMM because it %as
a lo#er resistance in current mode.

*"+5>E 33. SO8/> )E88 )O..E)6ED 6O /MM
6%e success of t%is e2periment depends upon #%ic% solar cell is used. Please use t%e h
volt output (single cells! in parallel. 6%e %ig%er voltage solar cells are series connected and
#ill not respond properl& unless all areas are illuminated.
%
e
5
t
r
o
n
i
&
/
o
0
e
r
+
u
p
p
l
y
V
R
)
(
R
LED
*
1
' V
R
7 R
LIGHT
91

1elo# see t%e set'up for measuring t%e lig%t output of a 8ED.

*"+5>E 3<. SE6'5P *O> ME/S5>EME.6 O* 8ED 8"+G6 O56P56
Mas$ing tape can be used to attac% t%e solar cell to t%e proto'board.
"n t%e picture belo#( #e see a cardboard bo2 s%ielding t%e e2periment from room lig%ting.

*"+5>E 3A. )/>D1O/>D 1OD 5SED /S 8"+G6 SG"E8D
.O6E@ a Cac$et can also serve t%is purpose.
92

Measure t%e current from t%e solar cell #%ic% is linear in lig%t intensit& as a function of
8ED current. Put t%e /MM in current mode and on t%e 2.A m/ scale.
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
7olts (across 1-'o%m resistor! "
Solar )ell
"
8ED
0.0gg IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
1.0 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
2.0 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
<.0 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
.0 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
12.0 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
1=.0 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
20.0 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
gg /n& "
Solar )ell
current is due to lab lig%ts and s%ould be subtracted from
ot%er measurements.

93

Plot t%e solar cell current( i.e. t%e lig%t output vs. t%e 8ED current.

/t t%is point( &ou %ave demonstrated t%at t%e lig%t output of a 8ED is a linear function of
t%e current in t%e device. ,e s%all use t%is fact to test t%e be%avior of anot%er $ind of
p%oto'detector( t%e p%otoconductor. 6%e p%otoconductor resistance #ill be measured b& a
multi'meter in t%e 3resistance measuring4 mode. >epeat t%e 8ED'solar cell e2periments
replacing t%e solar cell #it% t%e p%otoconductor. Measure t%e resistance of t%e
p%otoconductor as a function of 8ED current( t%at is t%e 8ED output. 6%e p%otocell s%ould
Cust 3$iss4 t%e 8ED to ensure proper alignment.
9<

)alculate t%e current in t%e 8ED b& measuring t%e voltage across t%e $'o%m resistor. 1&
measuring t%e voltage across t%e resistor( #e are avoiding using a meter in current mode
(t%at mig%t lead to eas& damage!.
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
7olts (across 1-'o%m resistor! >
P%otoconductor
"
8ED
IIIIIIII0.0 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIII<.0 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIII.0 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIII12.0 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIII1=.0 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIII20.0 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

9A

Plot t%e p%otoconductor resistance vs. "
8ED
.

9=

Plot t%e reciprocal of t%e p%otoconductor resistance vs "
8ED
.

.e2t #ee$ (=!( #e s%all e2plore t%e use of a 8ED lig%t source( a lig%t detector and its
circuitr&( P. Cunction( p%otoconductor( and p%ototransistor for@
t%e measurement of position
transmission of information (bot% digital and analog!
and #%atever else &ou need to e2plore for &our proCect

99

Acoustic De+ices Pro9ects
*or t%is proCect( &ou #ill be provided #it% broadband 3spea$ers4 and narro# band
(ultrasonic! transducers. 6%e laborator& also #ill %ave acoustic #aveguides (P7) pipe!
and couplers( bends( and special slip fittings. Pipes of i( h( and 1 meter in lengt% #ill be
available. 1elo# is t%e picture of t&pical devices available for t%is proCect.

*"+5>E 3=. /)O5S6") DE7")ES
"n t%e picture Ftop to bottomH( #e s%o#@ 1 m pipe( h m pipe( i m pipe( slip fittings(
#ideband transducer( narro# band transducer( :0j bend( <Aj bend.
5sing &our ." m&D/0( measure t%e broadband spea$ers efficiencies vs. freEuenc& from
3 ' 20 $G;. See t%e figure belo#@

*"+5>E 39. 7">65/8 1ODE ".S6>5ME.6
9

*ind t%e best freEuencies for operation.
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
1est *reEuencies Efficienc& (7
out
!

1
st
1est f
1
@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
2
nd
1est f
2
3
rd
1est f
3

.o# measure t%e narro# band transducerQs response( not using t%e m&D/0( but rat%er t%e
labQs digital signal generator and 6e$troni2 scope. ,e do t%is because t%e ultra'sonic
transducer operates above t%e freEuenc& t%e m&D/0 1ode instrument can %andle.
Pea$ *reEuenc& IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
1and ,idt% IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
.O6E@ t%e pea$ response occurs at about 2A -G;.
9:

5sing t%e best freEuenc& for t%e broadband spea$ers( measure t%e signal strengt% vs.
#aveguide lengt%.
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
Signal 8evel (7olts! Pipe 8engt%

i Meter IIIIIIII
1M2 Meter IIIIIIII
1 Meter IIIIIIIII

Plot t%e signal vs. distance (lengt%!

0

5sing t%e ultrasonic (narro# band! transducer( measure t%e loss vs. distance (operate at
t%e pea$ freEuenc&!.
*reEuenc&@ IIIIIIIIIII
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
Signal 8evel (7olts! Pipe 8engt%

i Meter IIIIIIII
1M2 Meter IIIIIIII
1 Meter IIIIIIIII

Plot t%e signal vs. distance.

1

)ontinuing to use t%e ultra'transducers( measure t%e effects of bending t%e pipe b&
inserting a :0j bend.
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
6%roug% aW Signal Strengt%

<Aj 1end IIIIIIIIIIIIIII
:0j 1end IIIIIIIIIIIIIII
2 ' <Aj 1ends IIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Measure)ent of t,e S'eed of Sound
)onnect one transducer #it% a s%ort pipe (1M< meter!. Put it into one end of t%e 3slip4
coupling. )onnect t%e second transducer to t%e special slip pipe. 1& sliding t%e pipe(
t%erefore increasing t%e lengt%( &ou #ill see t%e p%ase c%ange. "f &ou measure t%e distance
reEuired to c%ange t%e p%ase b& 2k( a full #avelengt%( &ou #ill be able to calculate t%e
speed of sound.
*reEuenc&@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
,avelengt%@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
)alculate t%e speed of sound@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
6%e accepted value at sea level is appro2imatel& 1100 ftMsec #it% some dependence on
temperature( air pressure( and %umidit&.
.e2t #ee$ (=!( #e #ill measure@
Open air transmission vs. distance
>eflection from an obCect
6ime dela& b& reflection (sonar ranging!
5se of a corner cube for reflection
>esonators
/nd ```

2

0ee1 :3 Introduction to Pro9ects "Continued#
('toElectronic Pro9ects
"n t%ese e2periments #e #ill investigate t%e use of a p%oto'source (8ED! and a p%oto
detector (p%otoconductor( p%otodiode( and p%ototransistor! as a position detector or as a
communications lin$.
/s a position detector( t%e 8ED is e2cited b& t%e continuous current in t%e circuit belo#@

*"+5>E 3. 8ED D>"7E> )">)5"6
*or communication( t%e 8ED is energi;ed as in t%e circuit belo#@
3

*"+5>E 3:. 8ED /M) D>"7E> )">)5"6
6%e 8ED output is detected b& t%e circuit belo#@

*"+5>E <0. PGO6ODE6E)6O> )">)5"6
6%e figure belo# s%o#s a t&pical e2perimental setup. .ote t%e polarit& of t%e
p%otoconductor is not important( %o#ever( t%e p%otodiode s%ould be reverse biased( i.e.
cat%ode to L and t%e p%ototransistor collector to L volts.
<

*"+5>E <1. 8ED 6>/.SM"66E> /.D PGO6O D"ODE >E)E"7E>
6%ree different detector devices are available@
1. P%otoconductor N t%e simplest of t%e devices( but slo# in its results[
2. P%otodiode N fast and reasonabl& sensitive[
3. P%ototransistor N medium speed but ver& sensitive.
E;'eri)ent
)onnect t%e 8ED to t%e po#er suppl& and using a 1- o%m resistor( set t%e voltage to
10 volts. 5sing t%e p%otodiode( connect it as &our detector using t%e follo#ing circuit as
s%o#n@

*"+5>E <2. OP6")/8 POS"6"O. DE6E)6O>
.ote@ t%e 8ED (not s%o#n in *ig <2! is bent to point to#ards t%e p%otodiode. ?ou can
c%ange t%e sensitivit& b& c%anging t%e resistor values. Measure t%e voltage across t%e 1-
A

o%m resistor #it% a DMM. Place an obstacle bet#een t%e 8ED and t%e p%otodiode and
measure t%e voltage again. .ote t%e results on t%e #or$s%eet.
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@ >esistor si;e KIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
7oltage #it% .O obstacle@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
7oltage #it% obstacle@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Suc% a c%ange could be used to note t%e presence of an obstruction. 6%is is( in fact( #%at is
used to stop garage doors from closing #%en somet%ing is in t%e #a& or supermar$et
c%ec$out stand conve&or belts. >eplace t%e p%otoconductor #it% a p%otodiode or
p%ototransistor and repeat &our measurements. .O6E@ it ma& be necessar& to replace t%e
10 - o%m resistor #it% a 1 - o%m resistor due to t%e increased sensitivit& of t%ese p%oto
devices.
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@ >esistor si;e K IIIIIIIIIIIIIII
7oltage #it% .O obstacle@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
7oltage #it% obstacle@ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

6o demonstrate communications applications( #e s%all connect t%e 8ED to a function
generator and our detector circuit using a p%otodiode connected to t%e oscilloscope. See
t%e follo#ing figure.
=

*"+5>E <3. OP6")/8 D/6/ 8".- )">)5"6
)onnect c%annel 1 of t%e scope to t%e detector circuit. )onnect c%annel 2 to t%e function
generator output. Set t%e freEuenc& of t%e function generator to 1 -G; and t%e amplitude
to about 10 volts. Ma$e sure t%at t%e scope is set to s&nc on c%annel 2. 6%e function
generator s%ould be set to sEuare #aves. 6%e receiver (detector! s%ould be biased to
10 volts and t%e load resistor value s%ould be 1- o%ms.
9

?our detector output( c%annel 1( s%ould be a sEuare #ave. Dra# t%e output( noting t%e
timescale and amplitude.

,%at %appens #%en &ou graduall& reduce t%e function generator voltage`

,%& does t%e signal suddenl& go a#a&`

)%ange t%e function generator output to sine #aves. ,it% t%e function generator set to 10
volts amplitude( dra# &our output #aveform. 1e sure to note amplitude and time.

.o# use t%e offset adCustment of t%e function generator. Move it bot% positivel& and
negativel&. .ote &our results@

)an &ou e2plain #%at %appened`
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
:

?ou #ill be provided #it% a .P. Darlington transistor #%ic% can be used in conCunction
#it% &our p%oto devices to control large loads. ?our p%oto detectors can control small
values of current( i.e. micro'amperes of current to a fe# milliamperes. ?our transistor #ill
amplif& t%ese currents b& a factor of 1000. /ssuming t%e emitter of t%e transistor is
grounded and a current "
1
flo#s in to t%e base of t%e transistor( t%en if t%e collector is
biased( %as a voltage positive #it% respect to ground( t%en a collector current 1000 times
larger #ill flo#. 6%is #ill allo# &our p%oto device to control a large device suc% as t%e
motor.
See data s%eets in /ppendi2 D 3Darlington 6ransistor4.

:0

Acoustic De+ices Pro9ects
,e s%all measure t%e free space transmission of t%e ultrasonic devices. ?ou ma& conduct
e2periments as outlined belo#( or ma$e use of t%e plastic parabolic reflectors. )onnect t%e
scope c%annel 2 to t%e sine output of t%e function generator. )onnect t%e signal out to t%e
narro# band transducer. 6%e second transducer( receiver( s%ould be connected to c%annel
1. Eac% transducer is connected to a s%ort piece of pipe as s%o#n belo#@

*"+5>E <<. 6,O G"+G *>E05E.)? /)O5S6") DE7")ES
6o start( t%e pipe ends s%ould be toget%er. Measure t%e pea$ response of &our s&stem b&
adCusting t%e freEuenc& device to t%e pea$ response of t%e transducers (appro2imatel&
2A - G;!. Measure t%e detector response as a function of distance bet#een t%e ends of t%e
pipe Fbe careful to $eep t%e ends alignedH. 1e sure to move t%e pipe spacing sufficient to
reduce t%e signal b& at least a factor of A. .O6E@ /coustic reflections from t%e table top
ma& interfere #it% t%e accurac& of &ou measurements. 6%is can be avoided b& putting
clot% do#n underneat% t%e e2periment( i.e. a Cac$et or s#eater #ill do a good Cob.
:1

,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
Distance (inc%es! Signal (volts N pea$ to pea$!

IIII04 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIII<4 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIA4 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIII=4 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIII:4 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIII104 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

:2

Plot &our results belo#@

Go# does t%e intensit& c%ange #it% distance( i.e. r
n
`
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Measure t%e angular pattern of &our transducer b& placing t%e t#o pipe ends about A4
apart. Starting #it% t%e ends aligned( measure t%e output as a function of lateral
displacement. See t%e figure belo#.
:3

*"+5>E <A. 6,O /)O5S6") DE7")ES SGO,".+ 8/6E>/8 D"SP8/)EME.6
,O>- SGEE6 GE>E@
Displacement (inc%es! Signal (volts N pea$ to pea$!

IIII<4 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

:<

Plot &our results@

Go# does it var& #it% lateral displacement` Describe t%e s%ape of t%e curve.
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
.esonators
Place a pair of #as%ers on eit%er side of a spacer( 3 or 9= mm( in a slip tube. Ma$e sure
t%e #as%ers are vertical. 6%is forms an acoustic filter( onl& allo#ing sound #aves to pass(
#it%out great attenuation #%ose #avelengt%s are a multiple of t%e spacer lengt% 2 2.
)onfirm t%is b& using a pair of #ide band transducers and t%e 1ode mode of &our
m&D/0 as &ou did last #ee$. See belo#@
:A

*"+5>E <=. /)O5S6") DE7")ES /.D P/>6S *O> >ESO./6O>
8astl&( place &our narro# band transducers side b& side facing t%e same direction.
)onnect to t%e function generator and scope as before.
Stand in front of t%e devices and note t%e larger returned signal. Place a %ard and flat
surface to reflect t%e sound bac$. .ote t%e effects of tilting t%e surface and t%e c%ange in
p%ase if t%e surface is moved in and a#a& from t%e transducer.
)omment on possible uses of t%ese effects@
/.S,E> GE>E@

:=

0ee1 <3 Si)'le MotorDri+e Circuits
6%e figure belo# #ill drive t%e motor in one direction onl&. "t is activated b& lig%t on t%e
p%oto device (PD!.

*"+5>E <9. S"MP8E 5."'D">E)6"O./8 D>"7E )">)5"6
6%e p%oto conductor #ill #or$ #ell and is almost unaffected b& room lig%ts. 6%e p%oto
transistor and p%oto diode must be reverse biased. "n particular( t%e p%oto transistor is ver&
sensitive to room lig%t and must be s%ielded from t%e laborator& lig%ts. 6%e side'loo$ing
p%oto diode is encased in blac$ plastic and is essentiall& blind to visible lig%t and must be
activated b& infrared.
/ simple bi'directional circuit is s%o#n in t%e ne2t figure. 6%e easiest #a& to implement
t%is circuit is to use t#o p%oto conductors as t%e p%oto devices. "f &ou illuminate onl& one
of t%e p%oto devices( t%e motor turns in one direction and #ill reverse #%en t%e ot%er
device is illuminated.
:9

*"+5>E <. 1"'D">E)6"O./8 MO6O> D>"7E )">)5"6

:

0ee1 2=3 Pro9ect De)onstration3 (ral and 0ritten .e'orts
On t%e last da& of t%e laborator&( eac% student (or student group! #ill be reEuired to
deliver a proCect verbal and #ritten report. 6%e details of t%e reporting reEuirements #ill
be given to &ou b& t%e A
t%
#ee$ b& t%e 6eac%ing /ssistant.
/'1

APPENDICES
APPENDI> A3 Cur+e Tracer Instructions
6%e curve tracer can be used to displa& t%e current voltage c%aracteristics of bot% t#o
terminal (diodes! and t%ree terminal devices (transistors bot% bipolar and field effect
t&pes!.

I0U1( A-$ CU1+( '1AC(1
1ecause t%e curve tracer applies a s#ept voltage to t%e device under test( it is capable of
destro&ing t%e device b& e2cess po#er dissipation. 6%e operator must avoid t%is b& use of
a series po#er limiting resistor.
/'2

I0U1( A2$ ,IS3LA4 S5&6I%0
7,ISSI3A'I&% LI!I'I%0 1(SIS'&18 9%&:

"t is good practice to reduce t%e voltage b& setting t%e nob (*igure /2! to ;ero #%en eit%er
starting tests or c%anging polarit&. 6%e polarit& selector labeled .P. (positive! or P.P
(negative! applies eit%er positive or negative voltage on t%e collector terminal #it% respect
to t%e emitter terminal.
6%e resistor value is c%osen to limit t%e po#er. *or e2ample( if 1- o%m is c%osen( t%en no
more t%an 20 milliamperes can flo# and t%e ma2imum po#er dissipation possible in t%e
device occurs if %alf of t%e voltage 207M2 is across t%e device and %alf across t%e series
limiting resistor. 6%erefore( 10 m/ #ould flo# and t%e po#er dissipation 10 m/ 2 10 7 K
100 milli#atts.
.e2t( #e need to set t%e displa& current and voltage range.
In addition, please select the . ; 2. volt range only$ ,o %ot operate in . ; 2.. +
#ode/ Serious shocks can occur if the . ; 2.. + range is used$ ,& %&' US( I'
/'3

I0U1( A*$ +(1'ICAL A%, 5&1I<&%'AL ,IS3LA4 C&%'1&LS
,e #ill give suggested starting values for eac% device in t%e lab e2periment. 6%e last step
is to connect t%e device to be tested.

I0U1( A=$ ,(+IC( C&%%(C'I&%S
*irst( put t%e selection s#itc% (/M1 toggle! to t%e vertical un'connected position and ma$e
sure t%at 3emitter grounded4 is selected. ,e suggest t%at &ou connect t%e anode to t%e
/'<

terminal mar$ed 3collector4 and t%e cat%ode to t%e terminal mar$ed 3emitter4. /t t%is
time( double c%ec$ &our c%osen values. 6%en move t%e selector (/M1 toggle! to connect
&our device. /dvance t%e voltage control. "f &ou selected .P. (positive!( &ou s%ould see
displa&ed t%e for#ard biased c%aracteristic of &our device. "f &ou c%ose P.P (negative!(
t%en &ou #ill observe t%e reverse biased condition. 6%ere is nominall& no current flo#ing
in t%e reverse direction. 1e careful not to cause reverse brea$do#n. 5nless &ou increase
t%e series resistor to at least 10 times t%at of t%e for#ard protection value( &ou #ill
dissipate too muc% energ& in t%e device.

I0U1( A>$ SU00(S'(, S(''I%0S
&1 5I05 :1I05'%(SS L(,S A%, 5I05 3&6(1(, L(,S
L(') 5I05 :1I05'%(SS L(, 1I05') 5I05 3&6(1(, L(,
)urve 6racer settings for@
Gig% brig%tness 8EDs
Series resistor (A - o%ms!
7ertical sensitivit& (1 milliampereMdivision!
Gori;ontal sensitivit& (1 7Mdivision!
Gig% po#ered sEuare 8EDs
Series resistor (A00 o%ms!
7ertical sensitivit& (10 milliamperesMdivision!
Gori;ontal sensitivit& (1 7Mdivision!
Solar cells (h7 <00 milliampere single cell!
Series resistor (100 o%ms!
7ertical sensitivit& (A0 milliampereMdivision!
Gori;ontal sensitivit& (0.1 7Mdivision!
/'A

P%otodiodes (detectors! i.e. small signal devices
Series resistor (10 - o%ms!
7ertical sensitivit& (0.2 milliamperesMdivision!
Gori;ontal sensitivit& (0.1 7Mdivision!
1'1

APPENDI> -3 Analo! MultiMeters

1'2

1'3

1'<

1'A

1'=

)'1

APPENDI> C3 Di!ital MultiMeters

)'2

)'3

)'<

)'A

D'1

APPENDI> D3 Darlin!ton Transistor

D'2

D'3

D'<

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