A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts
University of Washington
2005
Program Authorized to Offer Degree: Department of Asian Languages and Literature
University of Washington Abstract
The Authorship of the Pacada and the Textual Context of its Tptidpa-prakaraa
Prem Pahlajrai
Chair of the Supervisory Committee: Professor Richard Salomon Department of Asian Languages and Literature
The Tptidpa-prakaraa- of the Pacada presents an overview of fourteenth-century Advaita Vednta. This thesis explores the various theories of authorship regarding the Pacada. In doing so, the identities of Mdhava, Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha are examined, along with the various texts ascribed to each. A new hypothesis in support of joint authorship of the Pacada by Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha is proposed. A chapter-by-chapter synopsis of the Pacada as well as a detailed look at the Tptidpa-prakaraa are presented along with the prakaraas extra-textual context in the Bhadrayaka Upaniad and its primary and secondary commentaries. Vidyrayas innovations and contributions to Advaita Vednta are presented in brief.
i TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... iii Abbreviations..................................................................................................................... iv 1. Introduction......................................................................................................................1 2. The Significance of PD7, Tptidpa-prakaraa ..............................................................4 3. Who were Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha? .......................................................................8 3.1 Theories of Authorship of the PD....................................................................... 8 3.2 Many Mdhavas.................................................................................................. 9 3.3 Historical facts about Mdhava, Vidy raya, ger and Vijayanagara ......... 12 3.4 Works ascribed to Mdhava-Vidyraya.......................................................... 14 3.5 Works ascribed to Bhrattrtha ........................................................................ 21 3.6 Bhrattrtha, Vidyraya and the PD............................................................... 23 3.7 Textual parallels between the AP and the PD................................................... 29 3.8 Impact of AP-PD parallels on joint-authorship theory (A2)............................. 31 3.9 Revised ascription of works to Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha.......................... 33 4. A Synopsis of the Pacada .........................................................................................37 4.1 Tattvaviveka Discrimination of Reality....................................................... 37 4.2 Pacamahbhtaviveka Discrimination of the Five Elements..................... 38 4.3 Pacakoaviveka Discrimination of the Five Sheaths ................................. 38 4.4 Dvaitaviveka Discrimination of Duality...................................................... 39 4.5 Mahvkyaviveka Discrimination of the Great Utterances ......................... 40 4.6 Citradpa Light of the Picture ...................................................................... 40 4.7 Tptidpa Light of Contentment ................................................................... 41 4.8 Kasthadpa Light of the Kastha ............................................................. 42 4.9 Dhynadpa Light of Meditation.................................................................. 42 4.10 Nakadpa Light of the Theatre .................................................................. 43 4.11 Yognanda Bliss of Yoga ............................................................................ 44 4.12 tmnanda Bliss of the Self ........................................................................ 45 4.13 Advaitnanda Bliss of Non-duality.............................................................. 46 4.14 Vidynanda Bliss of Knowledge ................................................................. 47 4.15 Viaynanda Bliss of Objects ...................................................................... 48 5. A Closer Look at Tptidpa-Prakaraa, PD7................................................................50 6. Extra-textual Context of PD7 ........................................................................................56 6.1 The context of BU 4.4.12 within the Bhadrayaka Upaniad ....................... 56 6.2 akarcryas bhya (BUBh) on BU 4.4.12 ............................................... 60 6.3 Vidyrayas Bhadrayaka-vrtika-sra (BVS) on BU 4.4.12 ...................... 63 7. Comparison of the various discourses on BU 4.4.12.....................................................67 7.1 The PD7s treatment of BU 4.4.12 ................................................................... 67 7.2 Comparison and consistency of the three treatments of BU 4.4.12.................. 69
ii 8. Vidyrayas Contributions to and Innovations in Advaita Vednta............................71 9. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................75 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................79 Primary sources & indices (including translations):..................................................... 79 Secondary sources......................................................................................................... 85 Appendix 1: PD7 Citations................................................................................................93 Appendix 2: Passages in Sanskrit ......................................................................................95 A. akar ryas bhya on BU 4.4.12: c .............................................................. 95 B. Vidyrayas Bhadranyaka-vrtikasra (BVS) on BU 4.4.12:...................... 95 C. Mahevaratrthas k on BVS 4.4.272-6: ....................................................... 96 Index ..................................................................................................................................97
iii LIST OF TABLES Table Number Page 1. ger mahas guru succession .................................................................................. 12 2. Texts and persons honored therein by Mdhava/Vidyraya....................................... 19 3. Texts and persons honored therein by Bhrattrtha ..................................................... 23 4. Works by Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha ....................................................................... 34 5. Texts Cited by PD7, Frequency.................................................................................... 93 6. Citations in PD7, sorted by Source............................................................................... 94
iv Abbreviations ABORI Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona AiU Aitareya-Upaniad AiUD Aitareya-Upaniad-Dpik AP Anubhti-praka BG Bhagavad Gt BS Brahma Stra BU Bhadrayaka Upaniad BUBh akara-bhya on Bhadrayaka Upaniad BVS Bhadrayaka-vrtika-sra ChU Chndogya Upaniad DDV Dg-dya-viveka DV Dhtu-vtti JMV Jvan-mukti-viveka JNM Jaiminya-nyya-ml KM Kla-mdhavya KauU Kautaki Upaniad MU Muaka Upaniad MU Mkya Upaniad Nai. Naikarmya-siddhi NUTU Nsiha-uttara-tpanya-upaniad NUTUD Nsiha-uttara-tpanya-upaniad-dpik PaM Parara-mdhavya PD Pacada PrM Praava-mms RV g Veda Bh akara-bhya SDS Sarva-darana-sagraha DV akara-digvijaya SLS Siddhnta-lea-sagraha
v TU Taittirya Upaniad US Upadea-shasr VNM Vaiysika-nyya-ml VPS Vivaraa-prameya-sagraha
vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to gratefully acknowledge the encouragement, support and understanding of the two most important women in his life his wife, Theresa Pahlajrai and his mother, Usha Pahlajrai without which this thesis would never have been completed. The author also appreciates the rich and fertile learning environment and culture nurtured and sustained by the faculty and staff of the Department of Asian Languages and Literature, and of the Jackson School of International Studies; they make learning a joyous and rewarding experience.
vii DEDICATION
To all my teachers:
U - - - Salutations to the all-knowing teachers by whom we have been led by means of knowledge across the great ignorance-filled ocean of birth and death. US 1.17.88
1. Introduction The Pacada (PD) is considered a prakaraa grantha, 1 an independent introductory text on Advaita Vednta. It comprises fifteen chapters and is further subdivided into three sections, each containing five prakaraas, chapters. The first section, viveka-pacaka, considers the discrimination of the real from the unreal. The dpa-pacaka describes the nature of tman as pure illuminating consciousness. The last section, nanda-pacaka, elaborates on the ultimate, blissful nature of tman. Some 2
hold that each of these three sections elucidate respectively the attributes sat, cit and nanda (existence, consciousness and bliss) of brahman. This is a superficial correspondence, however, as it will be observed in the synopsis to follow (in chapter 4) that almost every prakaraa deals with one or more of these three aspects to varying degrees. The authorship of the Pacada is usually ascribed to Swm Vidyraya, the akarcrya of the ger maha or monastery. Tradition also holds that the authorship of the text changes with the seventh chapter, the Tptidpa-prakaraa, and that Bhrattrtha, Vidyrayas guru also had a hand in authorship. Vidyraya is typically associated with helping the Sagama kings Harihara I, Bukka I and Harihara II to establish the city of Vijayanagara, near present day Hampi in Karnataka. Prior to becoming a renunciate (sannysin) his name was Mdhava, and he is said to have been a
1 Mahadevan (1969), p. xiii: The characteristic feature of a prakaraa is that it selects a few topics falling within the scope of a philosophical tradition and deals with them in a clear and concise manner. straikadea-sambandham strakryntare sthitam | hu prakaraam nma grantha-bheda vipacita || The source of this verse is not provided. 2 For example, Punjani, p. 22; Swahananda, p.ix. 2
minister of these kings. But the identities of Mdhava, Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha are shrouded in conflicting opinions and historical controversies. This thesis takes a closer look at the identity of these individuals, and their connection to Vijayanagara. There are various works ascribed either to Mdhava-Vidyraya, or to Bhrattrtha or to both. These works shall be examined with a view to sorting out their authorship, with the greatest attention being paid to determining who really wrote the Pacada. Was it exclusively authored by Vidyraya, by Bhrattrtha, or by both? If authored by both, what, if anything, can be determined regarding which sections were written by whom? The Tptidpa-prakaraa is of particular interest in connection with these questions; tradition holds that the transition in the authorship of the Pacada occurred at this chapter. An comparison of the writing style and contents of the Tptidpa- prakaraa to the that of the rest of the Pacada will help shed light on these questions. The Tptidpa-prakaraa also happens to be the longest chapter of the Pacada, and as such it affords us a unique view of key Advaita Vednta concepts and their inter- relationship. It is structured as an exposition of a ruti-vkya, a scriptural statement from the Bhadrayaka Upaniad (BU) with which it opens (BU 4.4.12). In order to gain an understanding of Vidyrayas thought and an appreciation for his masterful exposition of Advaita Vednta in the Tptidpa, this chapter is examined in great detail and its content is compared with: 1. the context of BU 4.4.12 within the Yjavalkya ka of the Bhadrayaka Upaniad itself, 2. the bhya or commentary by akarcrya, the de facto founder 3 of Advaita Vednta on BU 4.4.12, and 3. a sub-commentary on the
3 While there were earlier thinkers on Advaita Vednta (cf. Nakamura), very little of their work is extant in entirety. akaras thought has had the greatest influence not only on Advaita Vednta, but on the many 3
BU passage, also attributed to Vidyraya, called the Bhadrayaka-vrtika-sra. This may provide us a glimpse into the evolution of Advaita Vednta thought over time as well as any innovations that Vidyraya may have contributed in the process to Advaita thought.
other varieties of Vednta too, which often differentiate themselves from Advaita in terms of how they differ from akara. 4
2. The Significance of PD7, Tptidpa-prakaraa Though the Pacada is ascribed to Vidyraya, tradition holds that there was a change in authorship at the seventh prakaraa. For example, according to Swami Abhedananda, the first six chapters of Panchadasi was [sic] written by Bharati Tirtha, but his sudden and unexpected death left the work to be completed by his disciple [Vidyraya] who wrote the remaining nine chapters. 4 Acyutarya Moaka indicates a similar transition in authorship in his sub-commentary on the PD, Prnandendu- kaumud, though he has the direction of the handoff reversed: Now r Bhrattrtha, with great compassion, thoroughly examined the six prakaraas ending with Citradpa. [These six prakaraa-s] were a part of the fifteen extremely simple prakaraas, uniquely helpful to the most eminent and intense seekers of liberation, conforming to the Advaita stras. [The six prakaraa-s] had been begun by his own disciple, r Vidyraya- crya, who was known as the omniscient Mdhavcrya in his prvrama. [Bhrattrtha] was pleased [with it], and in order to explore the meaning of the last section, particularly the last loka [of the sixth prakaraa], for the sake of diversion alone, himself commenced the remaining nine prakaraas. He began with this very seventh prakaraa, called tptidpa on account of the generation of the satisfaction [by its mere] mention, by reading the mantra from the BU [4.4.12]. 5
4 Abhedananda, p. 266. 5 Triph, p. 273: atha bhagavn bhrattrtha-munivara {sarvad vakyama-vaicrika-yaugiknyatar- dvaittmatattva-nihaika-paryana} paramakaruay rmad-vidyraycrykhya-prvrama- prakhyta-sarvaja-mdhavcrybhidha-svaiya-samrabdhdvaita-strya-tvratara-mumuku- varaikopakraka-parama-sarala-pacadaa-prakaragata-citradpntaaprakara sampr samavalokya santuas tadantyaloka-viia-carama-carartham anusandhya llayaivvaia- navaprakara svayameva samrambhamas tatrdv ukta-tptimtra-janyatvt tptidpkhyam ida saptama-prakaraam eva {vakyama-vaicrika-saptamabhmy-ekaniviatvena kurvas 5
In the introduction to his Marathi work, Srtha Pacada, D. V. Jog goes one step further and claims that Vidyraya took sannysa at the hands of the then pontiff of ger Maha, akarnanda in 1380 CE at the age of eighty-five. At this time he undertook to write the Pacada but passed away (lit. became samdhi-stha) in 1386 CE after completing only six prakaraa-s and therefore his guru Bhrattrtha completed the text. He further posits that this Bhrattrtha was none other than Vidyrayas younger brother, named Bhogantha prior to sannysa, 6 who was well versed in Vednta himself. 7 Venimadhava Shastri presents yet another plausible theory: namely, that only the Tptidpa-prakaraa was written by Bhrattrtha, and the remaining fourteen chapters by Vidyraya. He does not provide any evidence or sources to back up this claim, 8 but this is no doubt based on the fact that Rmakas commentary to PD7 opens, Beginning the prakaraa called Tptidpa, since it is an explanation of the ruti, guru Bhrattrtha first states the ruti [passage] which is to be explained in detail. 9 Nowhere else in his commentary does Rmaka refer only to Bhrattrtha; the invocations in all the magala-loka-s at the beginning of each prakaraa or chapter are to both Vidyraya
tadviaydyapy vikurva prathita-pramdi-magalam apy kalayan} kvopanianmantram eva pahati {tmnam ced iti} | Text enclosed within { } has not been translated above. 6 Well explore this aspect further in Section 3.5, p. 21. 7 Jog, pp. 4-5 (of the prastvan, in Marathi): rakarnanda he ty vees ger mahvar jagadguru mhan hote. tyce psn ake 1302 (1380 CE) madhye sanys ghen rmdhavcrya he rvidyraya bann gdvar basle. tyvees tyce vay 85 varce hote. evhy vddhvasyet rvidyrayn pacada y nvc gratha lihvays ghetl. pa sah prakarae lihn jhlyvar ake 1308 (1386 CE) madhye te samdhistha jhle, va rahilel gratha rmdhavcryce (vidyrayce) guru rbhrattrtha yn pur kel. mjh as tarka he k to gratha tycy dhky badhn rbhrattrtha (bhogantha) yn pur kel asv. kra te vedntastrt prav hote. 8 Shastri (1986), p. 115. 9 tptidpkhya prakaraam rabhama r-bhrattrtha-gurus tasya ruti-vykhyna-rpatvt tad- vykhyey rutim dau pahati. crya, p. 188. 6
and Bhrattrtha. 10 We shall keep this scenario in mind as we proceed with the investigation. Yet another dual-authorship scenario is attributed to a Nicalnanda or Nicaladsa Svmin, author of the Vtti-prabhkara, namely that the first ten chapters were written by Vidyraya and the remaining five by Bhrattrtha. 11 Mahadevan also mentions Nicaladsas scenario, but states that it cannot be relied upon since Nicaladsa (1800- 1900 CE) 12 is so much later than Vidyraya, Bhrattrtha and even Appayya Dkita (ca. 1585 CE). 13 The Vtti-prabhkara is said to be a commentary on the PD published in 1911, 14 but this may be incorrect. I was able to locate a reprint of this text 15 and it is an independent work on prama-s or means of knowledge, written in a Brajbh-like dialect of Hindi. 16 This work does refer to the PD, in connection with the absence of the nandamaya koa, the sheath of bliss, in the state of being vara, the lord. But the reference to the dual-authorship theory is more to the effect that even if differing works are examined, even though tradition says that the five viveka [prakaraa-s] and the five dpa [prakaraa-s] are written by Vidyraya and the five nanda [prakaraa-s] by Bhrattrtha, even so it is not at all possible that in one and the same text, there can be a
10 For example, at the beginning of his work, he states: natv r-bhrattrtha-vidyraya-munvarau | pratyak-tattvavivekasya kriyate pada-dpik || The concluding (third) verse of the opening to the commentary on PD7 states: natv r-bhrattrtha-vidyraya-munvarau | kriyate tptidpasya vykhyna gurv-anugraht || Ibid., pp. 1,188. See also the discussion infra, p. 25. 11 Kripacharyulu, p. 128. 12 Thangaswami, p. 359. 13 Mahadevan (1938), p. 7. Appayya Dkitas date per Potter (2005). 14 Dasgupta, v. 2, p. 216, n. 1; Thangaswami, p. 127; Potter (2005). 15 Nicaladsa (1984). 16 Thangaswami, p. 263, however, quotes Nicaladsa in Sanskrit: prthamikdaa paricch[e]d eva vidyraya-nirmit. 7
contradiction of what was stated earlier [in that text]. 17 From the context of the quoted passage it is actually clear that Nicaladsa thinks that the citradpa-prakaraa (PD6) and the brahmnanda-pacaka (PD11-15) were written by Vidyraya, and that there is agreement among the ideas presented in the two places. Perhaps it is due to the alleged handoff, either from Bhrattrtha, the teacher to Vidyraya, his student (per Abhedananda) or from student to teacher (per Acyutarya Moaka and Jog), that PD7 is the longest of the fifteen chapters of this text. Or perhaps it is because this was the only prakaraa that Bhrattrtha wrote. The incoming author might have felt it necessary to review all that had been mentioned thus far and then introduce the matter to be treated in the chapters that are to follow. In any case, PD7 serves as a comprehensive overview of general Advaita principles and can be studied by itself. At the same time, it does not appear to be discontinuous with the earlier six chapters of the text and is in fact well integrated with the subject matter of the text as a whole. In order to explore the connection of PD7 to the rest of the Pacada, I shall provide a synopsis of the remaining chapters (chapter 4, A Synopsis of the Pacada, p. 37) followed by a detailed look at PD7 itself and how it relates to the rest of the text (chapter 5, A Closer Look at Tptidpa-Prakaraa, PD7, p. 50). But first we shall look at the issue of authorship more closely.
17 Nicaladsa, p.355, infra Vtti-prabhkara 8.19: yadyapi vilaka lekh dekhikai au [sic] parapar- vacan-mai parapar-tai yah kahai hai; pc viveka au pc dp tau vidyraya-kt hai, aur pc nand bhrattrtha-kt hai, tathpi ek-h granth-mai prva uttar-k virodh sabhavai nah; yatai pacada-granth-mai nandamay-k vart vivakit nah, 8
3. Who were Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha? 3.1 Theories of Authorship of the PD From the previous section, it is evident that the identity of the author(s) of the Pacada is not certain. In brief, there are three theories of authorship prevailing: A1. The PD was written solely by Vidyraya, who was named Mdhavcrya before sannysa, i.e. during his prvrama. A2. The PD was a collaboration between Vidyraya (of A1) and Bhrattrtha, who was Vidyrayas guru. 18
A3. The PD was written exclusively by Bhrattrtha-Vidyraya, the latter name being an appellation Forest of Learning. 19
Based on the discussion in the preceding section, the joint-authorship theory, A2, itself has four branches: A2.6V: Vidyraya wrote the first six prakaraa-s and Bhrattrtha, the remaining nine; A2.6B: Bhrattrtha wrote the first six prakaraa-s and Vidyraya, the remaining nine; A2.10V: Vidyraya wrote the first ten prakaraa-s and Bhrattrtha, the remaining five (the scenario incorrectly attributed to Nicaladsa); A2.B1: Bhrattrtha wrote only PD7 and Vidyraya wrote the rest of the PD.
18 As seen in chapter , p. 4. 2, The Significance of PD7, Tptidpa-prakaraa 19 Mahadevan (1969), p. xxi. 9
3.2 Many Mdhavas Then there is the city of Vijayanagara, City of Victory, located on the banks of the Tungabhadra river near the present-day village of Hampi in Karnataka. An alternate name for this city is Vidynagara, City of Learning after Vidyraya, because it is traditionally held that it was upon Vidyrayas sage advice that the brothers Bukka and Harihara founded the city at its location. 20 There were four Mdhavas associated with Vijayanagara during the time period of interest to us: M1. Mdhavcrya, kulaguru and minister of the kings Bukka I (1354-1377 CE) and Harihara II (1376-1404 CE), 21
M2. Mdhavamantrin, a minister of the kings Harihara I (1336-1354 CE), Bukka I, and Harihara II, M3. Mdhava, a possibly Sanskritized version of Myaa, son of Syaa and possibly the author of Sarva-darana-sagraha (SDS), 22 and M4. Mdhava, the older brother of Syaa, the famous commentator of the Vedas; their younger brother Bhogantha may have taken sannysa earlier, becoming Bhrattrtha. 23
Mdhavamantrin (M2) is accepted as being different from Mdhavcrya (M1). A great warrior and governor of the Banavsi near Goa, Mdhavamantrin had different
20 See Sewell, pp. 20-22 and Saletore, v. 1, pp. 83-87 for an enumeration of the various founding myths. 21 Dates for the kings reigns are based on Rma Sharma, pp. x ii-xviii. v 22 Punjani, p. 9 suggests Mdhava is a corrupt form of Myaa. See n. 26. infra for more details on SDS authorship. 23 In the Parara-mdhavya, authored by Mdhava, loka-s 1.6-7 state: rmat janan yasya sukrtir myaa pit | syao bhogantha ca manobuddhi sahodarau || yasya baudhyana stra kh yasya ca yju | bhradvja kula yasya sarvaja sa hi mdhava || In Kane (1975), p. 785, n. 1173, Mahadevan (1938), p. 1 and crya (1994), p.20 (introd.) have a slightly variant version for v. 7 (variations in bold) : baudhyana yasya stra kh yasya ca yju | bhradvja yasya gotra sarvaja sa hi mdhava || 10
parents and teachers and belonged to the grasa gotra. 24 He has however been mistakenly identified with Vidyraya in the past and a commentary on the Sta-sahita written by him (Mdhava-mantrin) called Ttparya-dpik has often been incorrectly attributed to Vidyraya, due to the conflation of the two ministers, M1 and M2. 25
Very little is known about Mdhava (M3), but according to Kripacharyulu this Mdhava is different from Mdhavcrya, he is Mdhavas (M1) nephew and the author of the Sarva-darana-sagraha (SDS). 26 Some also credit him with writing the akara- digvijaya (DV), also often mistakenly ascribed to Vidyraya. 27 It is safe to conclude that he too is not connected to the author of the PD. This leaves us with M1 and M4. The generally accepted view is that they are one and the same person, who took the name Vidyraya after sannysa (A1 above). As mentioned earlier, he is said to have influenced Harihara Is choice of the site for the capital city of Vijayanagara. 28 It is often said that the city was originally named Vidynagara in honor of Vidyrayas role in its establishment in 1336 CE 29 but this is
24 In an inscription dated to 1368-69 by Filliozat, pp. 93,98: v. 6: asti svastimatm udrayaasm kraya ryas r bukkanm nrupa [sic]v. 7: mdhavay [sic] ity amtya | v. 8: gtr ygiras pracaatapasa capruthvsura prahd udbhavam See also Kane, p. 791; Kulke, p. 129; Kripacharyulu, pp. 74-6. 25 According to Jagannadham et al, pp. 79-84; Mishra, p. iii; Kripacharyulu, p. 76. Also cf. n. 156 infra. 26 Kripacharyulu, pp. 96-7. This is based on loka 1.3 of the SDS rmat-syaa-dugdhbdhi- kaustubhena mahaujas | kriyate mdhavryea sarvadaranasagraha || Cowell & Gough, in their translation of SDS want to emend the reading of rmat-syaa to riman-myaa to make it conform to M4! (p. 1, n. 1). Updhyya, in his Hindi work on Syaa and Mdhava, says that Syaa had three sons. Myaa being the second, who wrote SDS (pp. 61-2). 27 Venkataraman (1976), p.20. Updhyya, pp. 153-5, provides evidence proving that the DV is definitely not a work by Mdhava-Vidyraya. But he makes no mention of Mdhavas nephew in this context. Cf. n. 26 supra and n. 155 infra.. 28 For example, Verghese, p. 421 and Michell, pp. 41-2 both tell of myths whereby the city was established through Vidyrayas advice. 29 See various stories enumerated by Saletore, v. 1, pp. 83-90. Jog (among others) also gives this date in his prastvan, p. 5. 11
held to be an erroneous view by Sewell, Saletore and others. 30 Heras questioned the authenticity of the inscriptional evidence linking Vidyraya with Vijayanagara, considering it a fabrication by the sixteenth century ger pontiff Rmacandra Bhrati. 31 This was verified by Saletore 32 and tacitly assented to by Kane. 33 The best that can be said reliably about Vijayanagaras founding is that it came into existence gradually between 1346 and 1368 CE 34 and that Mdhavcrya (M1) played no significant role in its foundation. 35 However, up until the present time, people persist in associating Vijayanagaras foundation with Vidyraya. 36 The issue is made more sensitive by the confluence of at least three ideological conflicts: 1) the perceived historical importance of ger to the akarcrya tradition, 2) the struggle for the revival of Hindu religion and culture in face of Muslim invaders, allegedly intent on converting Hindus to Islam, and 3) the conflicting claims of regional affiliation, regarding whether the rulers of Vijayanagara were kannaa or ndhra. However, this should in no way detract from Vidyrayas importance to Advaita Vednta. In fact, Hacker suggests that the establishment of the Advaita monastaries (maha-s) all over India, typically credited to akara, was really the work of Vidyraya; 37 his scholarship and facility with Advaita doctrine, which we are about to explore next, would certainly be a considerable asset in carrying out such a monumental task.
30 Sewell, p. 19, n. 2, p. 300, n. 1; Saletore, v. 1, pp. 93-101. See also Kulke (1985). 31 Heras, pp. 33-5. 32 pp. 93-101. 33 Though with protestations Kane, pp. 782,789; Kulke, p. 123. 34 Kulke, p. 126. 35 Ibid., p. 129. 36 See, for example, the essay Birth of Vijayanagar in Jagannadham et al (1990), pp. 12-23. Also cf. Wagoner, pp. 300-305 (I am grateful to Robert Goodding for bringing this article to my attention). 37 In On akara and Advaitism in Halbfass (1995), p. 31. 12
3.3 Historical facts about Mdhava, Vidyraya, ger and Vijayanagara What do we know about Vidyraya in connection with the ger maha? According to the mahmnya-s, texts describing institutional history, we have the following dates for Vidyraya and his gurus: 38 Table 1: ger mahas guru succession Head Consecrated Died Vidytrtha (or Vidyakara/ Vidy karatrtha) a 1228 CE 1333 CE Bhratt tha (or Bhratkatrtha) r 1328 CE 1380 CE Vidyraya 1331 CE 1386 CE
There are many issues with these dates. Vidytrthas longevity could perhaps be ascribed to yogic practices. 39 The overlaps between Vidytrtha and Bhrattrthas reigns (1328-1333 CE) and Bhrattrtha and Vidyrayas reigns (1331-1380 CE) may be explained by interpreting the consecration date to refer to the date each took sannysa. 40 The more likely explanation, proposed by Heras, 41 is that the mahmnya was later falsified to allow for Vidyraya to already be the head of ger by the time Vijayanagara was established in 1336 CE 42 Kulkes examination of the non-spurious epigraphical evidence confirms that Vidyraya is first mentioned only in 1375 CE, as
38 Based on Nanjundayya, v. 2, p. 458 and Srikantaya, p.138, n. 470. Venkataraman (1967), p. 23 and Shastry, p. 121 have the same end dates, but the start dates for Bhrattrtha (1333) and Vidyraya (1380) do not have the overlap discussed below. 39 According to Srikantaya, p. 158, Vidyatrtha entered lambika yoga in 1333 and the Vidyakara temple was built at the site. (Srikantaya does not elaborate on the nature of lambika yoga). Also Venkataraman (1976), p. 1: There was nothing strange about this long period, considering his mastery over the siddhis that enabled him to prolong his life as long as he liked. 40 Updhyya suggests this approach. Then Bhrattrtha became the akarcrya of the maha in 1333 CE (1255 aka, p. 66) and Vidyraya in 1380 CE (1437 Vikrama-savat., p. 141), upon the deaths of their respective predecessors. 41 n. 31 supra. 42 Also Updhyya, p. 140, n. 1; also Kripacharyulu, pp. 31-2, though he goes on to (rather unconvincingly) defend the mahmnya view, pp. 30-37. 13
the head of ger. 43 An inscription commemorating King Bukkas visit to ger in 1356 CE has Vidytrtha as the receiver of Bukkas largess and does not mention Vidyraya at all. 44 Thus Vidyraya must have been consecrated sometime during the interval 1356-1375 CE 45 There then follow several inscriptions 46 reflecting the importance of Vidyraya as gers mahant and the high regard he was held in by the kings Bukka I and Harihara II through his death in 1386 CE. 47
That the Mdhavas M1 and M4 are one and the same is not contested by anyone. 48
Both Syaa and Mdhavcrya seem to have been politically active in the courts of the Vijayanagara kings, 49 and their younger brother Bhogantha was the narmasaciva, 50 sport or pleasure companion of King Sagama II. 51 The identity of Mdhavcrya (M1, M4) with Vidyraya (A1), on the other hand, is not as uncontested. 52 The works of Mdhavcrya do not mention the name Vidyraya and later references to Vidyraya do not link him with his prvrama name, Mdhava. Some would say that this is but natural in ones prvrama one typically does not know whether one will take sannysa, much less the name one will be assigned at that time. On assuming sannysa,
43 Kuupu Stone Inscription, Uttankita Epigraphs, pp. 84-86; Filliozat, Appendix, no. 25, p. 145. 44 Filliozat, no. 43, pp. 30-32. 45 Kulke, p. 130. 46 For example, the Beagua copper plates of 1384, Uttankita Epigraphs, pp. 104-9; the Vidyrayapura copper plate of Harihara II in 1386, Uttankita Epigraphs, pp. 112-117. 47 Kulke, pp. 130-32. 48 See, for example, Kane, pp. 785-787; Kripacharyulu, pp. 77-81; Kulke, p. 136. 49 See, among others, Kane, p. 786; Srikantaya, p. 104. 50 Kane, p. 785, n. 1174: To translate the word Narmasaciva as simply jester is not quite accurate. The idea is this: the very learned brothers Syaa and Mdhava (both ministers) were far above playfulness or the cracking of jokes with the king, but Bhogantha, a poet, being young and less learned than the other two, could be intimate with the king. 51 Kane, ibid.; Updhyya, p. 58; Punjani, p. 10. 52 Kripacharyulu, pp. 54-72 lists seven objections to the identity theory and then refutes them point-by- point. I do not agree with all the issues raised and their treatment. For the sake of brevity, I have dealt with only the issues I consider most relevant. 14
a renunciant in effect dies to his previous identity 53 and therefore would no longer refer to himself by his prvrama identity. 54 3.4 Works ascribed to Mdhava-Vidyraya The identity of Vidyraya with Mdhavcrya can be established through textual sources. For example, Vidyrayas Jvan-mukti-viveka (JMV), an Advaita Vednta work on the doctrine of liberation, refers to Mdhavas commentary on Parara-smti, commonly known as the Parara-mdhavya (PaM), as being written by himself. 55 This clearly indicates that Vidyraya, the author of the JMV, is the same as Mdhava, the author of the PaM. The identity of Mdhava and Vidyraya is confirmed if we observe the parallels in the persons being paid homage to in the two works. In the JMV, Vidyraya pays homage to his guru Vidytrtha at the beginning and end of the text. 56
In the PaM, a dharma-stra digest of civil and religious law, 57 in the opening stanza, Mdhava pays homage to Lord Gaea, 58 and in the next stanza lauds his three teachers, Bhrattrtha, Vidytrtha and rkaha. 59 Mdhava also goes on to pay homage to King
53 Olivelle (1993), p. 207, speaks of renunciation as a ritual and civil death of the renouncer. 54 Updhyya, p. 134: sanys ram svkr kar lene par ko bh yati apne prapac me phase rahnevle prva ram ke nm k ullekh karn acch nah samajht 55 JMV 1.0.11: ete tu samcr prokt prarasmte | vykhyne smbhir atrya parahaso vivicyate || (Goodding, pp. 298-9). 56 JMV 1.0.1: yasya nivasita ved yo vedebhyo khila jagat | nirmame tam aha vande vidytrtha- mahevaram || JMV 5.4.48: jvan-mukti-vivekena bandha hrda nivrayan | pumrtham akhila deyd vidytrthamahevara || JMV 1.0.1 is identical to the opening verse of Syaas commentary to the gveda. Cf. n. 58 infra regarding Syaa. 57 Kane, p. 779. 58 PaM 1.1: vgdy sumanasa sarvrthnm upakrame | ya natv kta-kty syus ta nammi gajnanam || This verse also occurs as v.2 of the opening of Syaas commentary to the gveda. Some scholars have suggested that Syaas works were jointly authored with Mdhava, e.g. Kripacharyulu, pp. 182-3. Exploration of the works of Syaa is sadly outside the scope of the present analysis. 59 PaM 1.2: so ha prpya viveka-trtha-padavm mnya-trthe para majjan sajjana-trtha-saga- nipua sadvtta-trtha rayan | labdhmkalayan prabhva-lahar rbhrattrthato vidytrtham uprayan hdi bhaje rkaham avyhatam || Srikantaya, p. 102 considers rkaha to be Vidytrthas 15
Bukka 60 and his own parents; he also mentions his brothers Syaa and Bhogantha, and clearly indicates that he himself is the author. 61 We see that Vidyraya of the JMV and Mdhava of the PaM both honor Vidytrtha as guru. The others honored by Mdhava in the PaM, Bhrattrtha, rkaha and Bukka are not mentioned by Vidyraya in the JMV. But we can say with greatest confidence that Mdhava-Vidyraya is the author of the PaM and the JMV. Another work that is universally attributed to the same author is the Kla- mdhavya (KM), also referred to as the Kla-niraya, a dharma-stra treatise on the proper times for the performance of religious rites. 62 The first three stanzas are identical 63 to PaM 1.1-3: homage is paid to Lord Gaea, Bhrattrtha, Vidytrtha, rkaha, and King Bukka. 64 The KM was written after the PaM as v. 5 of the KM mentions the PaM explicitly. 65
The Jaiminya-nyya-ml (JNM) is yet another work universally ascribed to Mdhava, 66 whose first verse is identical to the PaM 1.1 and KM 1 already cited. 67 The
prvrama-nman but that raises the question as to why Mdhavcrya would mention him by both names in this context. rkaha may have been the guru of Syaa, Mdhava and Bhogantha in their early years (Updhyya, pp. 67-9; Kripacharyulu, pp. 6-7). According to Rma Sharma, pp.19,25, n. 9, rkahantha was their guru in Knchi and a aiva philosopher. 60 PaM 1.3d: smrttocchrya dhurandharo vijayate r-bukkaa-km-pati || 61 For the verse mentioning his parents and brothers, see n. 23 supra. PaM 1.9: parara-smti prvair na vykhyt nibandhbhi | may to mdhavryyea tad vykhyy prayatyate || 62 For example, by Kane, p. 788; Mahadevan (1938), p. 2; Kripacharyulu, pp. 114-6; Updhyya, pp. 147-8. 63 Except for v. 2b where PaM has sajjana-trtha-saga-nipua, KM 2b has sajjana-saga-trtha- nipua. 64 See nn. 58, 59, 60 supra. 65 KM 5: vykhyya mdhavcryo dharmn prarn atha | tad anuhna-klasya niraya vaktum udyata || 66 For example, by Kane, p. 788; Mahadevan (1938), p. 2; Updhyya, pp. 148-9; Venimadhava Shastri, p. 113; Kripcharyulu, pp. 116-120. 67 See n. 58 supra. 16
next verse offers homage to King Bukka, 68 and the following verse to King Bukka and Vidytrtha. 69 Bhrattrtha is mentioned in v. 7, 70 and Mdhava names himself as the author in v. 8. 71 In the PD, however, the opening verse offers salutations to akarnanda. 72
Rmakas commentary to the PD (ca. 1375 CE) 73 interprets akarnanda as paramtman, who alone is the guru. 74 Thus akarnanda can possibly be interpreted as standing in for any or all of Vidyrayas teachers and is definitely treated as such by subsequent commentators. akarnanda is also invoked in the opening benediction to Vivaraa-prameya-sagraha (VPS), 75 a commentary on Praktmans (10 th or 13 th c. CE) 76 Paca-pdik-vivaraa. 77 The VPS, like the PD, is also ascribed to either Vidyraya, Bhrattrtha or both. 78 The closing verse to the VPS, however, mentions Vidytrtha as the authors guru, 79 strengthening the argument that akarnanda implies
68 JNM 1.2cd: nitya-sphrty-adhikravn gata-sadbdha svatantrevaro, jgarti rutimat-prasaga- carita r-bukkaa-kmpati || Cf. PaM 1.3d (also KM 3d), n. 61 above. 69 JNM 1.3: yad brahma pratipdyate praguayat tat paca-mrti-prath, tatrya sthiti-mrtim kalayati r-bukkaa-kmpati | vidytrtha-munis tad tmani lasan mrtis tvanugrhik, tensya svaguair akhaita-pada srvajam udyotate || 70 JNM 1.7: sa bhavyd bhrattrtha-yatndra-caturnant | kpm avyhat labdhv parrthya-pratimo bhavat || 71 JNM 1.8: nirmya mdhavcryo vidvad-nanda-dyinm | jaiminya-nyya-ml vycae blabuddhaye || 72 PD 1.1: nama rakarnanda-guru-pdmbu-janmane | savilsa-mahmoha-grha-grsaika- karmae || 73 Per Potter (2005). Cf. n. 133, p. 26 infra. 74 PD 1.1 s.v.: akarnanda pratyag-abhinna paramtm | sa eva guru 75 VPS 1: svamtray nanda yad atra jantn sarvtma-bhvena tath paratra | yac chakarnandapada hdabje vibhrjate tad yatayo vianti || 76 Potter (2005) gives 975 CE, while Dasgupta, v. 2, p. 52 and Venimadhava Shastri, p. 115 place him in the thirteenth century. 77 The Paca-pdik-vivaraa itself is a commentary on Padmapdas Paca-pdik (8 th century), dealing with the first four stras of the Brahmastras and akara bhya. s 78 Two of the three editions consulted ascribe it to Vidyraya, one to Bhrattrtha. Venkataraman (1976) suggests it could be a joint work (along with PD, JMV and DDV)! 79 yad vidytrthagurave ur ny na rocate tasmt | astv e bhaktiyut rvidytrtha-pdayo sev || 17
Vidytrtha. 80 This would then indicate that at the very least, the author of the PD, if not the same as the author Vidyraya of the JMV and Mdhava of the PaM, has the same guru Vidytrtha. There is also the closing verse of the PD, where the reference to Harihara can be interpreted as a clever pun on the word referring to the deities Viu and iva as well as Bhrattrtha and Mdhavcrya/Vidyrayas royal patrons, Harihara I (1336-54 CE) & Harihara II (1376-1404 CE). 81 Based on the evidence presented thus far, either Vidyraya or Bhrattrtha or both could be the author of the PD. There is yet another text ascribed to Vidyraya, the Bhadrayaka-vrtika-sra (BVS), a sub-commentary on Surevaras Vrttika (8 th century) on the BU. 82 We will look at a portion of this work in greater detail in section 6.3, Vidyrayas Bhadrayaka-vrtika-sra (BVS) on BU 4.4.12, p. 63 infra when considering the extra-textual context of the PD. As far as opening and closing verses are concerned, this text is not very helpful as no specific teachers are named, but the opening verse is identical to the first verse of both the PaM and the KM. 83
80 Venkataraman (1976), however, says that akarnanda was a student of Vidytrtha who collaborated with Vidyraya in founding several small maha-s (p. 18). No sources are provided. There is also a akarnanda Bhrat listed in the ger mhmnya (Nanjundayya, p. 458) for the period 1428-1454, which puts him out of consideration for our discussion. Thangaswami, pp. 257-261 presents three possibilities: 1. akarnanda was an alternate name for Vidytrtha, 2. he was Vidytrthas guru, 3. he was not Vidytrthas guru but along with him (Vidytrtha), he was a guru of Vidyraya. 81 A similar argument is presented in Kripacharyulu, pp. 66-7. Dates for the kings reigns based on Rma Sharma, pp. xvii-xviii. 82 Marcaurelle, p.189; Updhyya, p. 153; Kripacharyulu, pp. 140-44. 83 The opening loka, BVS 1.0.1: vgdy sumanasa sarvrthnm upakrame | yan natv ktakty syus ta nammi gajnanam || Cf. n. 58 supra. (There is a possibility that this opening verse has been inserted later, since the next verse again is numbered 1 and seems to be the beginning of the work proper, with homage paid to Surevara and his Vrttika. In the Dwived edition, the opening verse is unnumbered). The final two lokas of this work dont mention any teachers 6.6.1-2: upasahtya t vidy kavao tha varyate | sa vykhyta prvameva brahmptyai japyatm iti || navaty adhika- sakhyt lok navaatni ca | santi vrtikasare smin adhyyasya sagrahe || 18
The Anubhti-praka (AP), yet another work attributed to Vidyraya, 84 is a metrical work interpreting selections from twelve upaniads in twenty chapters. While there is no opening invocation, the concluding verse of every chapter honors Vidytrtha. 85 The AP seems to be composed after the BVS, since its section on the BU, chapters AP13-18, shares many verses with the BVS. 86
Vidyraya is also said to have written commentaries called Dpik-s on the Aitareya and the Nsihottara-tpanya Upaniads (AiU, NUTU). 87 The opening and closing loka-s of the AiU-Dpik are virtually identical to those of the JMV, wherein Vidytrtha is invoked. 88 Thus we can confidently ascribe this work to Mdhava- Vidyraya too. The NUTUD is entirely a prose commentary, 89 with the exception of the opening and closing verses, neither of which resemble any of the invocations seen so far. 90 For the purpose of the present analysis, I conclude that this work was most likely not authored by Mdhava-Vidyraya. 91
84 Venimadhava Shastri, p. 115; Kripacharyulu, pp. 149-157; Updhyya, pp. 152-3 calls it the Anupama- praka. 85 For example, AP 12.120: anta pravia steti yo ntarym rutrita | so smn mukhyaguru ptu vidytrtha-mahevara || AP 20.156: r-smttihsnm abhipryavid-avyaya | ruti-vykhynatas tuyd vidytrtha-mahevara || 86 For example AP13.3 = BVS 4.1.5; AP 13.4 = BVS 4.1.10; AP 13.5-10 = BVS 4.2.1-2,8-11 u.s.w. 87 Updhyya, p. 153; Venimadhava Shastri, p. 116; Kripacharyulu, pp. 123-4. 88 AiUD opening loka is the same as that of the JMV (cf. n. 56 supra): yasya nivasita ved yo vedebhyo khila jagat | nirmame tam aha vande vidytrtha-mahevaram || AiUD closing loka: vedrthasya prakena tamo hrda nivrayan | pumrtham akhila deyd vidytrthamahevara || Cf. JMV closing loka in n. 56 supra where the text in bold is instead jvan-mukti-vivekena bandha . 89 All the other works considered so far have been metrical. 90 NUTUD opening vv.: o namo bhagavate r-divyalakm-nsikya nama || nirasta-nikhilnartha-paramnanda-rpie | nsihya namaskurma sarvadh-vtti-skie ||1|| carabja-rajolea-samparkt sahs sakt | sarva-sasra-hno ha tnnatosmi gurn sad ||2|| tpanya-rahasyrtha-vivtir leato may | kriyate lpadhiy tasmt kantavya katam uttamai ||3||, Closing vv.: tpanya-rahasyrtha-dpik timirpah | gurv-anugraha-labdhai satmas tu sukptaye ||1|| saccidnanda-sampra-pratyag-ekarastmane | tejase mahate bhyn nama pusiha-rpie ||2|| ye sasmti-mtrea taranti bhavasgaram | tn nato smi gurn bhakty dhiy vc ca karma ||3|| 91 In the context of the commentary to NUTU 1.1, the Dpik cites lokas from texts referred to as Mantra- rja-kalpa and Sra-sagraha. I was unable to locate the Mantra-rja-kalpa text in either Potter (2005) or 19
Lastly, there is a text of Vidyrayas which was recently discovered by Olivelle (1981), the Praava-mms (PrM), on the syllable om. The text begins with homage to Lord Gaea, 92 and a few verses later there occurs what Olivelle terms the signature verse of both Vidyraya and his brother Syaa, 93 offering homage to Vidytrtha. 94
For the present analysis, I have deliberately not taken the colophons of texts into account, since these can be later scribal additions. But this text can be considered an exception owing to its uniqueness, 95 and its colophon also pays homage to Vidytrtha and King Bukka. The evidence presented can now be summed up tabularly: Table 2: Texts and persons honored therein by Mdhava/Vidyraya Text Abbr. Author Homage paid to: 1. Parara-mdhavya PaM Mdhava Gajnana, Vidytrtha, Bhrattrtha, rkaha, Bukkaa 2. Kla-mdhavya KM Mdhava Gajnana, Vidytrtha, Bhrattrtha, rk ha, Bukkaa a Bukkaa, Vidytrtha, Bhrattrtha 3. Jaiminya-nyya- ml JNM Mdhava 4. Jvan-mukti-viveka JMV Vidyraya Vidytrtha
Thangaswami. There are many works titled Sra-sagraha. Potter (2005) lists four titles, three of which can be ruled out by virtue of their being Jain, Viidvaita (and Tamil) or Acintya-bhedbheda (ca. 1770 CE) texts. The Sra-sagraha by Vednta Deika or Vekaantha (1268-1369 CE) is of a period contemporaneous with Mdhava-Vidyraya and is also unlikely to be cited profusely by him (26 consecutive lokas). Thangaswami mentions two Advaita texts by the same name, one a secondary commentary on the rrika-nyya-maimla (itself a commentary on the BS Bh) is by an Anantnandagiri (1900 CE) and the other, a commentary on Sarvajtmans Sakepa-rraka by Madhusdana Sarasvati (1565-1665 CE), post-dating Vidyraya. If it be argued that Sra-sagraha is an abbreviation for the Sarva-vednta-siddhnta-sra-sagraha ascribed to akara (falsely according to Belvalkar, pp. 228-9), the verses cited in the NUTUD do not occur therein. 92 PrM 1: r-gaeya nama || 93 p. 82 (1981). 94 PrM 4: yasya nivasita ved yo vedebhyo khila jagat | nirmame tam aha vande vidytrtha- mahevaram || This is virtually identical to JMV 1.0.1 except that the text in bold is instead nivasita cf. n. 56 supra. 95 Only one manuscript is extant. Olivelle (1981), pp.77-8. 20
Text Abbr. Author Homage paid to: 5. Vivaraa-prameya- sagraha VPS Vidyraya and/or Bhr trtha at akarnanda, idytrtha V 6. Pacada PD Vidyraya and/or Bhr trtha at Vidyraya akarnanda, Harihara 7. Bhadrayaka- vrtika-sra BVS Gajnana 8. Anubhti-praka AP Vidyraya Vidytrtha 9. Aitareyopaniada- dpik AiUD Vidyraya Vidytrtha 10. Praava-mms PrM Vidyraya Gaea, Vidytrtha, Bukka
The first three entries are definitively associated with Mdhava without any question. The fact that Bhrattrtha is recognized in these texts as a guru means that he is not in contention for authorship. Further, through the clear reference to the PaM in Vidyrayas JMV as the authors own work, this Mdhava is Vidyraya and thus the first four texts of Table 2 are by the same author, Mdhava-Vidyraya. Since the same signature verse 96 occurs in JMV, AiUD and PrM, we can presume these works were written by the same author, allowing us to group together entries 1-4 and 9-10. Due to the extensive reuse of verses from the BVS in the AP without attribution to another author, 97 we can group these two (7 & 8) as being the works of the same author. If we take the opening loka of the BVS as genuine, it being identical to the first loka of the PaM and the KM, 98 we can make the case that the BVS and AP were also written by Mdhava-Vidyraya, extending the list of works that can be ascribed to him to consist
96 yasya nivasita ved yo vedebhyokhila jagat | nirmame tam aha vande vidytrtha-mahevaram || Cf. nn. 56, 88, 94 supra. 97 As attested to in n. 86 supra. 98 vgdy sumanasa sarvrthnm upakrame | ya natv kta-kty syus ta nammi gajnanam || Cf. nn. 58, 63-64, 83 supra. 21
of entries 1-4 and 7-10. Next, due to the shared and unique feature of homage paid to akarnanda, 99 we can group the VPS and PD together as being authored by the same individual, or in case the PD has two authors, begun by the same author who wrote the VPS. Both works pay homage to akarnanda in the beginning, so the author who wrote the VPS began the PD. In order to definitively ascribe authorship of the PD to Mdhava-Vidyraya based on this evidence we would need to show a stronger link between any of the texts in the first group (entries 1-4 and 7-10) with either of the texts in the second group (entries 5 and 6). I believe this can be done, but first we need to examine the facts known about Bhrattrtha. 3.5 Works ascribed to Bhrattrtha What do we know about Bhrattrtha? As seen in the discussion in this chapter so far, there is sufficient evidence to confirm that he was one of Mdhavcrya/ Vidyrayas gurus and his predecessor as the head of the ger maha. Mdhavcrya is said to have obtained sannysa from Bhrattrtha. 100 Both of them may also have counted Vidytrtha as their guru. The earliest known inscription mentioning the ger maha (as a trtha, a place of pilgrimage) 101 is dated to 1346 CE and mentions donations by King Harihara I to support Bhrattrtha-rpda and his disciples. Earlier, we saw Jogs opinion that Bhrattrtha was Vidyrayas younger brother Bhogantha, who took sannysa earlier. 102 This opinion is also put forth by Venkataraman (1967) 103 but is not
99 Cf. nn. 72, 75 supra. 100 Updhyya, p. 66. 101 Filliozat, no. 14, pp. 8-10; Uttankita Epigraphs, pp. 69-73. 102 See chapter , , p. 4 supra. 2 The Significance of PD7, Tptidpa-prakaraa 22
accepted by Srikantaya, because it is apparently based on ger kaita or account books of the maha, whose accuracy is doubted. 104 Most other sources do not report any connection between Bhogantha and Bhrattrtha. 105 Besides the PD and VPS seen earlier, there are two more works that are attributed to Bhrattrtha the Dg-dya-viveka (DDV) and the Vaiysika-nyya-ml (VNM). 106
These texts are also often attributed to Vidyraya instead of, or in addition to, Bhrattrtha, on the basis of Mdhava-Vidyrayas authorship of the Jaiminya-nyya- ml (JNM). 107 The DDV is a brief work consisting of only 46 loka-s and has no opening and closing magala-loka-s. It is also known as the Vkya-sudh. 108 It is an inquiry into the discrimination of the Self from the not-Self, and is often mistakenly attributed to akara (8 th c. CE). 109 The VNM is a summary of the Brahmastras and it opens with salutations to Vidytrtha. 110 There is no closing salutation. The brevity of the opening salutation and the absence of a closing salutation may be dictated by the
103 p. 23. This is most likely based on the account of the guru-vaa-kvya (ca. 1735 CE, per Shastry, p. 8), whose historical accuracy is in doubt. See, for example, Kulke pp.130-1, 135; Srikantaya, pp. 110,138- 9. 104 Srikantaya, pp. 127,137-8; Kulke, p. 140, n. 53. 105 For example, Kane, pp. 785-6,789; Kripacharyulu, Thangaswami pp. 260-61. 106 Mahadevan (1938), p. 7; Updhyya, pp 66-7; Nikhilnanda, p. vi (in his tr. of the DDV), Thangaswami, pp. 259-60. Updhyya says that some commentators suggest that Vidyraya may have helped his guru in the composition of one or both of these texts. 107 For example, Venimadhava Shastri, pp. 113-6 attributes both texts to Vidyraya. Venkatarama Iyer ascribes joint authorship (in Venkataraman (1976), pt. 2, p.p. 4-5) for both texts. In the preface to his commentary on the BS and the VNM, the Brahma-stra-rahasyam, Ramanuja Tatacharya credits Vidyraya with the authorship of the VNM. So does Kane, p. 788. Nicaladsa, p. 355, attributes the DDV to Vidyraya. 108 Venimadhava Shastri, p. 116; Thangaswami, p.259. However, Nikhilnanda, p. vi (in his tr.), suggests that Vkya-sudh is the name of the commentary on the DDV by Brahmnanda Bhrat. Thangaswami, p. 260 confirms this. 109 For example, Raphaels translation of the DDV is titled Self and Non-self: The Drigdriyaviveka Attributed to akara. 110 VNM 1.1: praamya paramtmna r-vidytrtha-rpiam | vaiysika-nyya-mla lokai saghyate sphuam || 23
format for each adhikaraa 111 of the Brahmastra, there are two loka-s. The first loka states the viaya, sandeha and prvapaka (subject, doubt, and prima facie view) for the adhikaraa, while the second loka states the siddhnta or conclusion. The last member of the adhikaraa, sagati or consistency is considered self-evident. 112 The evidence regarding texts attributed to Bhrattrtha can be tabularly summarized: Table 3: Texts and persons honored therein by Bhrattrtha Text Abbr. Author Homage paid to: 1. Dg-dya-viveka DDV Bhrattrtha and/or Vidyraya
2. Vaiysika-nyya-ml VNM Bhrattrth and/or a Vidyraya Vidytrtha
3.6 Bhrattrtha, Vidyraya and the PD The theory that Bhrattrtha was the author of the PD (A3 in Section 3.1, p. 8 supra) is propounded primarily by T.M.P. Mahadevan. According to Mahadevan, while it is probable that Mdhava may have been Vidyraya (M1 above), the PD is not authored by him (ruling out M1, M2, M3 and M4) but by his guru, Bhrattrtha, who also possessed as an appellation the title Vidyraya or Forest of Learning, 113 and who was also connected with the early kings of Vijayanagara. 114 Mahadevan based this view primarily on Appayya Dkitas attribution of the PD to Bhrattrtha in his
111 Each adhikaraa of the Brahma-Stras consists of six parts: 1. viaya, subject. 2. saaya, doubt. 3. prvapaka, prima facie view. 4. uttarapaka, opposite view. 5. siddhnta, conclusion and 6. sagati, consistency with other parts of the work. 112 VNM 1.2: eko viaya-sandeha-prvapakvabhsaka | loko paras tu siddhntavd sagataya sphu || 113 Mahadevan (1969), p. xxi. 114 Mahadevan (1938), p. 8. 24
Siddhnta-lea-sagraha (SLS, ca. 1585 CE), 115 supported by other textual citations occurring even later. 116 Mahadevan holds that Mdhava-Vidyraya is the author of the JMV, where the PD is quoted as though it is authored by someone else, whom he calls Bhrattrtha-Vidyraya. To the objection that trtha and araya are distinct sannys- surnames and cannot occur in the same individuals name, 117 he counters that the Vidyraya is not a surname as such but only an appellation meaning Forest of Learning applied to [Bhrattrtha]. 118 Let us examine Mahadevans arguments more closely. Appayya Dkitas SLS mentions Bhrattrtha as the author of the VPS. 119 He mentions the DDV in connection with the Citradpa-prakaraa, PD6. 120 Slightly earlier he also refers to the Brahmnanda-pacaka, PD11-15. 121 In an earlier section there is a reference to Bhrattrtha and others in connection with the views expressed in PD6. 122
In a later section, Bhrattrtha is mentioned as the author of the Dhynadpa, PD9. 123 Is there any significance to the fact that the name appears in the nominative plural? 124 One
115 Potter (2005). 116 Mahadevan (1938), pp. 6-7; (1969), pp. xiv-xxi. 117 The sannysins are often referred to as daanmins on account of their using one of ten surnames derived from the academic titles of ten disciples of akaras immediate pupils. The names are 1. Sarasvati, 2. Bhrati, 3. Pri, 4. Trtha, 5. Sgara, 6. Vana, 7. Araya, 8. Giri, 9. Parvata and 10. Sgara (again). Of these, Sgara, Araya and Parvata are no longer used, according to Nanjundayya, v. 2, p. 455. 118 Mahadevan (1969), pp. xx-xxi. 119 SLS II.3.5421 (Suryanarayana Sastri, v. 2, p. 93): vivaraopanyse bhrattrtha-vacanam iti. Vivaraopanysa is Appayya Dkits name for VPS. 120 SLS I.2.3117 (Ibid., p. 22): dg-dya-viveke tu citradpa-vyutpditam kastham jva-kov antarbhvya cit-trai-vidhya-prakriyaivvalambiteti viea | 121 SLS I.2.3116 (Ibid., p. 20): brahmnande tu 122 SLS I.4.1 (Ibid., p. 31): iti bhrattrthdi-paka prg eva darita. Suryanarayana Sastri, v. 2, notes p. vi, n. 137: Cp. Pacada 6.153-163. 123 SLS III.3.0 (Ibid., p. 131): evam bhrattrth dhynadpe hu | 124 i.e. bhrattrth hu instead of bhrattrtha ha. 25
possibility is that the plural is used to indicate respect, 125 but there may be another explanation. Vidyraya is mentioned ambiguously as Vidyraya-guru 126 the compound can be interpreted as either Guru Vidyraya or the guru of Vidyraya, i.e. Bhrattrtha. 127 I suggest that Appayya Dkitas references to Bhrattrtha and Vidyraya can also be taken as indicative of his awareness of the joint-authorship theory ( A2), that the PD was authored by both Bhrattrtha and Vidyraya. That is why Appayya Dkita says Bhrattrtha and others, and uses the plural form Bhrattrth. The reference Vidyraya-guru could either be deliberately ambiguous, or simply indicative of the respect that Vidyraya has come to be held in by the Advaita tradition in the two hundred years that have elapsed since his death 1386 CE. Furthermore, Mahadevans view that the PD is solely authored by Bhrattrtha- Vidyraya is also based on deliberately deprecating an important source of evidence. Mahadevan writes, That Rmaka Paita at the beginning of his commentary on the Tpti-dpa mentions 128 Bhrattrtha as the author is no ground for stating that the earlier chapters are the work of Mdhava-Vidyraya. The mention of Bhrattrtha in the Tptidpa may indicate his authorship not of that chapter alone, nor of that and the succeeding chapters alone but of the whole book. Rmaka Paita no doubt pays obeisance to both Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha. But this would at best prove that
125 pjy bahuvacanam 126 SLS II.3.4112 (Ibid., p. 83): trividh-jva-vdinm vidyraya-guruprabhtnm 127 SLS Suryanarayana Sastri, v. 2, notes p. x, n. 50: The reference seems clearly to be to vv. 36-46 of the DDV, attributed to Bhratttha. It is an open question therefore whether Appayya means the preceptor of Vidyraya or the preceptor, Vidyraya, identifying him with Bhrattrtha. In the translation, v. 1, p. 276, he chooses the latter, Preceptor Vidyraya. 128 Rmakas commentary to PD7 starts: tptidpkhya prakaraam rabhama r-bhrattrtha- gurus tasya ruti-vykhyna-rpatvt tad-vykhyey rutim dau pahati. crya, p. 188. 26
Rmaka was probably the disciple of both and not that the Pacada was the work of both. 129 Rmaka was indeed a disciple of Vidyraya according to Thangaswamis bibliographical survey of Advaita Vednta literature. 130 Potter dates Rmaka to 1375 CE. 131 According to Thangaswami, Bhrattrtha had two other disciples besides Vidyraya: Brahmnanda-bhrat who wrote the Vkya-sudh commentary on the DDV, and Knanda-bhrat, who wrote a work called the Mahvkya-darpaa. 132 He shows Vidyraya, on the other hand, as having three disciples Knanda-bhrat, Brahmnanda-bhrat, and Rmaka. 133 Rmaka is the only disciple of the three who does not also have Bhrattrtha as a guru. His commentary to the PD only mentions Bhrattrtha the one time. 134 Everywhere else, he refers to the author of the PD as crya. 135 If anything, this serves to draw greater attention to his mention of Bhrattrtha at the start of his commentary to PD7. This would suggest that Rmaka was aware that PD7 was authored by Bhrattrtha, while his guru Vidyraya wrote the rest of the PD. There would be no other reason for Rmaka to share his gurus authorship credit with Bhrattrtha and every reason to ascribe complete authorship to Vidyraya, if he wished to do so. Based on the contemporaneity of Rmaka with Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha, and his direct association with Vidyraya, I am inclined to
129 Mahadevan (1938), p. 7. 130 pp. 260-61. 131 Potter (2005). 132 p. 259: brahmnanda-bhrty-khy apara-iyopi bhrattrthasya | brahmnanda-bhrty dg-dya- vivekasya vykhy kt | mahvkya-darpaa-kra knanda-bhrat ca bhrattrtha-iya | 133 p. 260: vidyraya knanda-bhrat-brahmnanda-bhrati-rmakn guru See also: guru-iya-prampar-vka on p. 261. 134 See n. 128 supra. 135 See, for example, the introduction to PD3 and PD8, in crya, pp. 63,283. 27
attach greater significance to the implications of his mention of Bhrattrtha at the start of PD7 than Mahadevan does. Mahadevan also draws attention to the fact that when, in the JMV, the author refers to his prior work, the PM, he does so unambiguously, 136 whereas when he cites the PD, it is done neutrally without any allusion to whether the PD too was authored by him. In the JMV, the author says have been explained in the fourth chapter of the Brahmnanda [pacaka, i.e. PD14]. 137 There are certainly no metrical constraints inhibiting the author from inserting by us if he so desired. Mahadevan also points out that in the PD itself, a similar neutral statement is made, have been explained, 138 but the context makes it clear that what is being referred to is the preceding verse. 139 But in the very next verse we have have been set forth by us in the Tptidpa [prakaraa] (emphasis mine), 140
and the remainder of the chapter is a repetition of verses from PD7. 141 Mahadevan himself suggests that one should not read too much into the use of the phrase have been explained versus have been explained by us, and he says that the evidence is inconclusive It is true that such an expression is sometimes used to refer to ones own earlier work; but it may also be used to refer to a work other than ones own the work
136 (1969), p. xix. See also n. 55 and the relevant discussion on p. 14 supra. 137 JMV 4.4.1-2: dukha-na-sukhvirbhva-rpa-caturtha-pacama-rpe prayojane vidynandtmakena brahmnanda-gatena caturthdhyyena nirpite | tad ubhayam atra sakipyocyate: This is followed by a citation of BU 4.4.12/PD 7.1/PD 14.5. Dasgupta, v. 2, p. 251, n. 2 also revises his earlier opinion (that the same Vidyraya wrote the PD and JMV) based on this reference to brahmnanda in JMV. 138 PD 14.38: dukhbhva ca kmptir ubhe nirpite | kta-ktyatvam anyac ca prpta-prpyatvam kat || 139 Mahadevan (1969), p. xx. 140 PD 14.39: ubhaya tptidpe hi samyag asmbhir ritam | ta evtrnusandhey lok buddhi- viuddhaye || 141 PD 14.40-64 = PD 7.253-270,291-297. 28
of ones preceptor which is well-known, or of one with whom one is closely connected. 142
There is another possible explanation for such usage. If the dual-authorship theory of the PD (A2, p. 8) is true, then Mdhava-Vidyraya, the author of the JMV might have deliberately chosen to say have been explained in order to refer to the portion of the PD written by his guru, Bhrattrtha. 143 Whereas, if the second portion of the PD (chapters 7-15) were indeed written by Bhrattrtha, in PD 14.39 144 it would be but natural for him (Bhrattrtha) to refer to his own passages in PD7 by saying have been set forth by us. Or, if Bhrattrtha did indeed write only PD7, as suggested by the evidence in Rmakas commentary, then perhaps Vidyraya is referring in PD 14.39 to both Bhrattrtha and himself when he says by us. Once again, this is merely conjecture and by no means conclusive evidence, but it does help, in my opinion, to strengthen the case for the possibility of Mdhava-Vidyrayas joint authorship of the PD with Bhrattrtha.
142 Mahadevan (1969), p. xix. 143 The PD is cited in four more places in the JMV: 1) JMV 2.3.26 cites PD 7.156, using hu, they said. 2) JMV 2.10.10 cites PD 7.139 (also MB 13.15.3971-2 per Goodding, p. 181, n. 66) using iti. 3) JMV 2.10.27-29 cites PD 12.65-67, prefaced by putraviveko brahmnande darita, discernement regarding sons is described in the Brahmnanda [pacaka, PD 11-15]. 4) JMV 5.1.25 cites PD 4.68 (also Muktika Upaniad 2.64, per Goodding, p. 443), prefaced by tath ca smaryate, similary, it is mentioned in the Smti. All four mentions are impersonal, with the exception of the fourth, all the references are within PD 7-15, the section thought to have been authored by the second author of the PD, who would have to be Bhrattrtha by my current reasoning. The impersonal reference to the fourth citation, though it falls outside this section, is a smti reference and thus would not merit asmbhir uktam/ritam, it was said/set- forth by us. 144 See n. 140 supra. 29
3.7 Textual parallels between the AP and the PD There is one final piece of evidence to consider. There is the suggestion of Mdhava-Vidyrayas authorship of the PD based on inter-textual sharing between the AP and the PD. Through a by no means complete examination 145 of the loka indices to both the PD and the AP, I have found a few instances of sharing between these two texts. Here is a list of the parallels found (the variations are in bold type): 1. PD 2.2: abda-sparau rpa-rasau gandho bhta-gu ime | eka-dvi-tri-catu-paca-gu vyomdiu kramt || AP 11.62: abda-sparau rpa-rasau gandho bhta-gu ime | eka-dvi-tri-catu-paca-gu vyomdaya kramt ||
3. PD 8.73: yay yay bhavet pus vyutpatti pratyagtmani | sa saiva prakriyeha syt sdhvty crya-bhitam || AP 13.108: yay yay bhavet pus vyutpatti pratyagtmani | sa saiva prakriyeha syt sdhv s cnavasthit || [cf. Surevaras works 146 ]
5. PD 11.18: sa purn paca ved chstri vividhni ca | jtvpy antmavittvena nrado ti-uoca ha || AP 4.2: pura-pacamn vedn stri vividhni ca | jtvpy antmavittvena nrad okamptavn || [cf. ChU 7.1.2]
145 The indices on which I base my analysis only provided the beginnings of the lokas, i.e., pda-a of a four-part loka. If the comparison were done on the basis of comparing each pda of the loka, more matches might presumably be found. 146 The verse is not in Nai, though. 30
6. PD 11.19: vedbhyst pur tpa-traya-mtrea okit | pact tv abhysa-vismra-bhaga-garvai ca okit || AP 4.3: vedbhyst pur tpa-traya-mtrea okit | pact tv abhysa-vismra-bhaga-garvai ca okit || [cf. ChU 7.1.3]
7. PD 12.60: vittt putra priya putrt pia pit tathendriya | indriyc ca priya pra prd tm priya para || AP 13.201: vittt putra priya putrt pia pit tathendriya | indriyebhya priya pra tm priyatamas tata || [cf. BU 1.4.8]
There are also some partial pda matches: 8. PD 4.7 visphulig yath vahner jyante karatas tath | vividh cij-ja bhv ity tharvaik ruti || AP 14.58 visphulig yath cgner jyante gni-svabhvata | tath supttmanau jv vijnamaya-nmak || [cf. MU 2.1.1]
9. PD 11.47 akuni stra-baddha san diku vyptya viramam | alabdhv bandhana-sthna hasta-stambhdy uprayet || AP 11.62 akuni stra-baddho ya sa gacchan vividh dia | alabdhvdhram ke bandhana-sthnam vrajet || [cf. ChU 6.8.2]
11. PD 4.4ab kha vyv-agni-jalor vyoadhy anna-deh kramd am | AP 2.32ab kha vyv-agni-jalor vyoadhy anna-deheu kraam | [cf 2.1.1]
12. PD 6.181ab etasya v akarasya prasana iti ruti | AP 13.172ab etasya v akarasya asane saty ado jagat | [BU 3.8.9]
However, these parallels cannot be considered as incontrovertible evidence of common authorship for two reasons. First, with the exception of three instances, the rest are all references to ruti passages, and two (nos. 4 and 12) are outright quotations. It is 31
feasible that these passages are standard formulaic references that were commonly known. Even the three remaining cases might be references to texts that I am not familiar with, either minor upaniads or secondary literature. Second, even if these were not commonly occurring passages, it could be argued that two distinct, talented individuals composing works in the same anuubh metre, referring to the same textual passage or doctrinal concept, might come up with virtually identical loka-s, particularly if they shared the same teaching lineage (as Bhrattrtha and Vidyraya did). 147
Tempering any conjecture with these two counter-explanations, if we were to persist in supposing that the author of the PD and the AP were the same, how does it affect the dual-authorship theory (A2, p. 8)? 3.8 Impact of AP-PD parallels on joint-authorship theory ( A2) Even though we have squarely assigned authorship of the AP to Mdhava- Vidyraya, we have no idea of the relative chronology of composition, i.e., whether the PD was composed later than the AP or not. Tradition holds that the PD was composed in the last few years of Vidyrayas life, even though no evidence has been offered to support this. 148 Setting aside for the moment the lack of evidence, the AP, being simply a synopsis of select upaniads, could have been composed earlier than the PD. The PD may have been composed later to present Vidyrayas comprehensive overview of Advaita Vednta.
147 Both acknowledge Vidytrtha as their guru. Vidytrtha was also their predecessor as head of ger Maha. Cf. , p. 12; nn. 56, 59, 64, 69 et passim and , p. 19 for Vidyraya and n. 110 and , p. 23 for Bhrattrtha. Also Thangaswami, p. 261. for a vaa-vka. Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 148 See for example, the discussion of Jogs opinion on p. 5 supra and also n. 7. 32
Some even hold that the JMV was Vidyrayas penultimate work and a supplement to the PD, perhaps intended to be its sixteenth chapter. 149 That could make the PD his last work, which was interrupted by his death and then completed by Bhrattrtha (supporting theories A2.6V and A2.10V in section 3.1 supra). There is, however, a problem with this scenario which puts the JMVs authorship as occuring before the PD: there are multiple instances where the JMV refers to the PD, specifically sections from PD chapters 4, 7, 12 and 14. 150 This would either require the opposite, that the PD was written before the JMV, or that at the very least PD7 and PD12 were written (by either Bhrattrtha or Vidyraya) before the JMV, 151 and that Vidyraya, as author of JMV was already planning to organize the PD into three pacaka-s, and was intending to name the last pacaka the brahmnanda pacaka. 152 This would suggest that perhaps Vidyraya sketched out an outline for the organization of his PD, wrote at least a couple of possibly non-sequential chapters for the PD, then setting the unfinished PD aside, wrote the JMV, after which he resumed the PD, and passed away before completing it. This seems highly contrived and improbable. The simpler possibility, that the PD was written before the JMV, is more likely. Do the shared references between the AP and the PD support the hypothesis that Bhrattrtha completed the PD after Vidyrayas death? Parallels to the AP are found
149 Kripacaryulu reports this opinion without any references, p. 131: Scholars already considered [that] the JMV[,] the penultimate work of the same author[,] is a supplement to this work PD as its sixteenth chapter. 150 Cf. nn. 137, 143 supra. 151 The verses referred to from PD4 and PD14 also occur in the Muktika Upaniad and the BU respectively, and thus arguably need not necessarily be PD references. Cf. n 143 supra. 152 JMV 4.4.1 very specifically references the fourth chapter of the Brahmnanda pacaka, i.e., PD14, before citing BU 4.4.12 which is also PD 14.5 and PD 7.1. Cf. n. 137 supra. 33
in the following prakaraa-s of the PD: 2, 4, 6, 8, 11, 12. This would contradict the theories that Vidyraya only wrote PD1-6 (theory A2.6V) or PD1-10 (theory A2.10V, improperly attributed to Nicaladsa). It is still possible that Bhrattrtha wrote only PD7 (theory A2.B1). There is also the other, more remote possibility, that Bhrattrtha did write either PD1-6 or PD7-15 (theories A2.6B and A2.6V respectively) but was familiar enough with Vidyrayas AP to quote from it. Of course, all of the preceding discussion in this paragraph has been conjecture based upon conjecture. The most we can say with certainty regarding the data presented by the parallels between the PD and the AP is that it strengthens the likelihood the same author, Mdhava-Vidyraya wrote both the AP and the PD (theory A1) or portions of the PD (particularly theory A2.B1). 3.9 Revised ascription of works to Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha Thus, if one were to take Rmakas references to Bhrattrtha at the start of PD7 more seriously than Mahadevan does, for the reasons discussed above, it would strengthen the case that Bhrattrtha wrote only PD7. The evidence reviewed regarding the JMVs references to the PD also supports joint authorship of the PD, either that Bhrattrtha wrote only PD7 or that he wrote PD7-15, which is far less likely. The evidence, albeit incomplete, of parallels between Mdhava-Vidyrayas AP and the PD examined earlier in section 3.8, p. 31 strongly favors the theory that only the PD7 was written by Bhrattrtha, while Vidyraya wrote the rest of the prakaraa-s. Thus I would like to propose that we revise our opinion of authorship regarding the PD accordingly. The assignment of the various texts between Bhrattrtha and Vidyraya can be revised as follows: 34
Table 4: Works by Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha Text Abbr. Author Homage paid to: 1. Parara-mdhavya PaM Mdhava Gajnana, Vidytrtha, Bhrattrtha, rkaha, Bukkaa 2. Kla-mdhavya KM Mdhava Gajnana, Vidytrtha, Bhrattrtha, rkaha, Bukkaa 3. Jaiminya-nyya-ml JNM Mdhava Bukkaa, Vidytrtha, Bhrattrtha 4. Jvan-mukti-viveka JMV Vidyraya Vidytrtha 5. Vivaraa-prameya- sagraha VPS Bhrattrtha* akarnanda, Vidytrtha 6. Pacada PD Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha (PD7 only) akarnanda, Harihara 7. Bhadrayaka- vrtika-sra BVS Vidyraya Gajnana 8. Anubhti-praka AP Vidyraya Vidytrtha 9. Aitareyopaniada- dpik AiUD Vidyraya Vidytrtha 10. Praava-mms PrM Vidyraya Gaea, Vidytrtha, Bukka 11. Dg-dya-viveka DDV Bhrattrtha* 12. Vaiysika-nyya-ml VNM Bhrattrtha Vidytrtha Authorship marked by * is assigned provisionally. The VPS and the DDV are provisionally assigned to Bhrattrtha, the VPS primarily on the basis of Appayya Dkitas explicit attribution of the work to Bhrattrtha, 153 and the DDV mainly because there is no convincing evidence to counter its traditional ascription to Bhrattrtha, 154 and possibly also on stylistic parallel to VPS
153 See n. 119 supra. 154 Venimadhava Shastri, p. 116 makes a case for attributing the DDV to Vidyraya based on Appaya Dkitas reference to the DDV in SLS 2.3.4112: advaita-vidy-ktas tu pratibimbasya mithytvam abhyupagacchat trividha-jva-vdin vidyraya-guru-prabhtinm Venimadhava Shastri says, And the three types of self is the thesis found in DDV only. He is referring to DDV 32: avacchinna cidbhsas ttya svapna-kalpita | vijeyas tri-vidho jvas tatrdya pramrthika || This is a tenuous argument, because a) this concept is not exclusive to Vidyraya and b) there is no reason why Vidyraya could not refer to ideas in Bhrattrthas work (the DDV). 35
with regard to brevity. More work is needed to definitively settle issues of authorship regarding these texts. In the preceding analysis, I have restricted myself primarily to analyzing the opening and closing invocations, purposefully choosing not to consider the evidence of the colophons, as their authenticity is often tenuous perhaps inserted by scribes at some later point in time rather than by the authors themselves. A more thorough analysis would, of course, have to consider the coherency of the content of these various texts. I have attempted to do so, albeit to a very limited extent, in section 3.7 supra, where the parallels between the PD and the AP were explored, and in chapter 6, Extra-textual Context of PD7 infra, where I shall compare the context of PD7 to the context of BU 4.4.12, its commentary BUBh and the corresponding section in the BVS. Lastly, there are five texts often ascribed to Mdhava-Vidyraya which I have not considered in this discussion. One is the akara-digvijaya (DV), which is almost certainly a later text. 155 The commentary Ttparya-dpik on the Sta-sahita is also not by our Mdhava-Vidyraya but instead by Mdhavamantrin (M2). 156 Then there is the Dhtu-vtti (DV), whose authorship by Mdhava is also uncertain. 157 The Sagta-sra is
155 For example, Updhyya, pp. 153-5. Thangaswami, p. 263: granthoyam na vidyraya-krti | parantu abhinava-klidsa-ktir iti siddhnta | Also cf. n. 27 supra. 156 See, for example, S. S. Janakis Madhava, the Commentator on Suta Samhita in Jagannadham et al, pp. 79-84; Srikantaya, pp. 152-5. Cf. n. 25 supra. 157 For example, Srikantaya, pp. 147-8. The opening invocatory verse to this text actually is the same as seen earlier in the PaM, KM and BVS (nn. 58, 83): DV 1: vgdy sumanasa sarvrthnm upakrame | ya natv kta-kty syus ta nammi gajnanam || Further along, there is a verse (v. 7) mentioning Myaa-syaa, minister of King Sagama. In vv. 12-13 the text is named the mdhavya-dhtu-vtti and the author is given as Syaa, son of Myana. Kripacharyulu, pp. 85-9 also assigns the authorship to Syaa. The issue of shared authorship of works by Syaa and Mdhava is also a complex issue and one that Ive deliberately side-stepped in this present work. Cf. nn. 56, 58 supra. 36
a work on music attributed to Vidyraya, but is not extant. 158 There is also a commentary or dpik on an Advaita text reputedly by akara himself, the Aparoknubhti. It is a non-metrical work and its attribution to Vidyraya is in doubt. 159 We now have a clearer understanding of the authorship issues as well as some evidence in favor of joint authorship of the Pacada, suggesting that Vidyraya may have written all of it except for the Tptidpa- prakaraa, (PD7). I have suggested that PD7 was authored by Bhrattrtha, Vidyrayas guru and predecessor at geri. Is this conclusion supported by the text itself? Can we detect any divergence either in literary style or in doctrinal content between PD7 and the rest of the text? In order to explore this facet of the issue, I shall first present a chapter-by-chapter overview of the ideas treated by the Pacada in chapter 4, A Synopsis of the Pacada. This will set the stage for chapter 5, A Closer Look at Tptidpa-Prakaraa, PD7.
158 Kripacharyulu, pp. 157-8; Updhyya, pp. 158-9; P. S. Sundaram Iyer, Sri Vidyaranya and Music in Karmarkar et al., pp. 333-342. 159 Belvalkar, p. 226, n. 1: The editor [of akaras Misc. Works, Mysore, 1898] is not sure about the ascription of the com. to Vidyraya. Even the original work [the Aparoknubhti] does not rise above the common place, and may have been an early work of the crya [akara]. 37
4. A Synopsis of the Pacada 4.1 Tattvaviveka Discrimination of Reality This chapter introduces the subject matter of this text, namely reality, tattva which is brahman. The nature of ones experience in the waking, dreaming and deep-sleep states is examined, showing that consciousness is common to all three states. This consciousness is our true Self, tman, of the nature of sat-cit-nanda, existence- consciousness-bliss, which is identical to brahman, as taught in the upaniads. Yet one does not live with this awareness of tman/brahman and is instead attracted to objects and experiences duality. The cause of this contrary experience is beginningless ignorance, avidy. Avidy, my (illusion), 160 vara (the creator) and jva (the individual) are analyzed in terms of prakti and its constituent guas, namely sattva, goodness, rajas, passion and tamas, inertia. 161 The jva is also described as consisting of three bodies, arras or five sheaths, koas (PD3). By differentiating the Self from the three bodies or the five sheaths, one is able to recognize the identity of the jva with brahman through reasoning, yukti. ravaa is defined as the investigation of this identity through the mahvkyas, upaniadic utterances and manana, exploring the validity of this identity by means of logical reasoning. Through ravaa and manana, one can then achieve nididhysana, unbroken meditation, described as single-pointedly dwelling on brahman without any doubts. 162 This then leads to samdhi, a state of the mind where ones identity as meditator, the effort of meditation and the object being meditated on all
160 Illusion for my is a provisional translation. The term my also connotes unreality, falseness, magic, mysterious power. Henceforth, the Sanskrit term will be used. 161 The translation of these terms is limited and the original Sanskrit terms will be used instead. 162 PD 1.52-53 38
merge. This neutralizes obstacles and leads to direct realization of self-knowledge, aparoktma-vijna, which leads to immediate freedom from bondage. In effect, this chapter serves to introduce the aspects of self-realization that will be elaborated in detail in the remaining fourteen chapters. 4.2 Pacamahbhtaviveka Discrimination of the Five Elements To know the non-dual reality brahman, one must know what it is not. To that end the five elements, their properties and relationship to the senses, the mind, and organs of action are considered here. Sat, being is other than all these and is relationless, without any svagata, sajtya and vijtya bheda-s, differences within itself, between members of the same species, and with members from other species. Nor is sat non-existent, nya (as claimed by the Buddhists). The world as we empirically see it is a creation of my, which is neither sat nor nya. 163 My is a power that is mithy, apparent and creates illusory modifications with brahman as its basis. The one who understands that the appearance of duality is due to my and is illusory and unreal, knows that reality is non- dual. When one is firmly rooted in this understanding of non-duality, one becomes jvanmukta, liberated while still alive. 4.3 Pacakoaviveka Discrimination of the Five Sheaths The five-sheath model of the human body presented by the TU is taken up with a view to differentiating these from brahman/tman. Each koa, sheath, envelops the next one, proceeding from the gross to subtler versions. The annamayakoa is the physical
163 PD 2.49 39
body constituted by food. Within it is the pramayakoa, the sheath composed of the vital airs. Next are the manomayakoa and the vijnamayakoa, the mental and intellectual sheaths respectively. Innermost is the nandamayakoa, the sheath of bliss. None of these are the tman, since they are either devoid of consciousness (the first two koas), or changing (the next two) or temporary (nandamayakoa), whereas the tman is eternal and the source of all joy. 164 Having concluded that none of these koas is tman, the nature of tman is taken up by the rest of the chapter. tman is brahman, not limited by space, time or objects. vara, the creator is the superimposition on brahman due to my; jva, the individual is the superimposition on brahman due to avidy. 165 Knowing brahman to be thus, one becomes brahman and is free from rebirth. 4.4 Dvaitaviveka Discrimination of Duality This chapter explores the extent of duality created by vara and jva so that it may be understood and overcome. My is the creative power of vara. The world and jva-s are created by vara, as affirmed by various Upaniads. My also has the power to delude the jva into forgetting that its true nature is brahman; the jva instead identifies with the body and therefore is subject to grief. Objects are created by vara, but jva also creates, by converting these into objects of enjoyment. Different jva-s relate to the same object differently as conditioned by their respective mental states. There is a mentally modified version of the material object to which the jva relates it is this version that causes the jva pleasure and pain. Thus the duality created by the jva is binding, whereas varas duality simply is the substratum on which jvas duality is
164 PD 3.10 165 PD 3.37 40
projected. The tendency to mentally dwell on objects can be overcome by meditation on brahman. By gaining control of the mind through understanding of the nature of brahman, one knows that the objects are not real and is freed from the modifications of the mind such as attachment, desire, anger, etc. Then one knows oneself to be brahman. 4.5 Mahvkyaviveka Discrimination of the Great Utterances This brief chapter (8 verses) explains the meaning of the four mahvkyas of the Upaniads: prajna brahma, consciousness is brahman (AiU 3.1.1), aha brahmsmi, I am brahman (BU 1.4.10), tat tvam asi, you are that (ChU 6.8.7) and ayam tm brahma, this Self is brahman (MU 2). All express the identity of tman and brahman. 4.6 Citradpa Light of the Picture 166
This chapter starts by drawing an analogy between the superimposition of empirical reality on brahman and a painting on a canvas. tman/brahman is at various times referred to as kastha, vara, cidtm, jva, and the different terms and their interrelationship, as well as the superimposition of jva on kastha is explained. Various opposing theories from other philosophical schools regarding where tman resides as well as the nature of vara and jva-s are presented and refuted. According to ruti, tman is infinite, without parts and all-pervading; vara is the lord of my, prakti and the gua-s, and the antarymin, the inner controller. Jva-s are only bound on account of
166 In the dpa-pacakam, the nature of the chapter title samsa is ambiguous; it can be treated as either a ah tatpurua, Lamp/light of or a saptam tatpurua, Light on . Ive chosen the former in keeping with the analysis of the remaining pacakas as ah tatpuruas as well, viveka-pacaka = Discrimination of and nanda-pacaka = Bliss of . 41
their ignorance. My is neither sat nor asat, but inexplicable, anirvcya. Yet from a worldly standpoint, it is quite real. Without affecting brahman, my transforms it into vara, the jva-s and the creation, like a magician putting on a convincing show. Inconceivable entities like my cannot be dealt with by logic. 167 My as a reflection of tman appears as vara and the jva-s. However, vara controls my whereas the jva is but a fraction of vara and is controlled by my. Instead of being distracted by the relative natures of vara and jva, it is most important to understand brahman. Even bondage and release are ultimately illusory, being caused by my. Kastha and brahman differ in name alone. 168 Duality is caused by my; by the negation of duality, one is left with non-duality, free from all ills. The unreality of duality cannot be arrived at by logic alone, it has to be directly perceived. Once one disidentifies with the I-notion, ahakra, desires and diseases cease to bind. The knot of ignorance is cut and one no longer mistakes the ahakra to be tman. Knowledge of reality is the direct cause of liberation. Detachment, vairgya and withdrawal from action, uparama assist in the arising of knowledge. ravaa, manana and nididhysana (PD1) are the cause of the knowledge of reality. The nature of this knowledge is the discrimination between the real and the unreal, and prevents the knot of ignorance from ever arising again. 4.7 Tptidpa Light of Contentment This prakaraa begins by quoting Bhadrayaka Upaniad (BU) 4.4.12, which is then analyzed in detail in the remainder of the prakaraa with the goal of explaining the
167 PD 6.150 168 PD 6.237 42
contentment, tpti of one who is liberated while living, jvanmukta. 169 This prakaraa is the focus of this thesis and will be explored in greater detail shortly in chapter 5, A Closer Look at Tptidpa-Prakaraa, PD7. 4.8 Kasthadpa Light of the Kastha The relationship between the kastha, the unchangeable (brahman) and the cidbhsa, reflected consciousness is explained here. Their roles in cognition are analyzed and the difference between the two is explained. Kastha brahman is not the cidbhsa but rather the basis for it. The relationship between the kastha, cidbhsa and the locus (of cidbhsa, i.e., the mind, antakaraa) is compared to the relationship between the face, its reflection and the mirror. 170 The association between an embodied, limited and changing jva and immutable brahman is explained to be one of superimposition based on avidy; actually they are identical. From the perspective of the kastha, there is no creation or destruction, bondage or liberation. The ruti conveys this reality, which is beyond words and the mind, in terms of jva, vara and jagat, the world. 4.9 Dhynadpa Light of Meditation In earlier chapters (PD1, PD6, PD7), ravaa, manana, and nididhysana were presented as the means to knowing brahman. For those who are not capable of these, the method of dhyna, meditation is offered here as a subordinate means. Even though one is ignorant of the true nature of brahman and worships it in the form of deities, this can still lead to proper knowledge via paroka, indirect or mediate knowledge. Such paroka
169 PD 7.2: asy ruter abhiprya samyag atra vicryate | jvanmuktasya y tpti s tena viadyate || 170 PD 8.26 43
knowledge is gained through study of the stras, scriptures. Direct, aparoka knowledge of brahman is only achieved through vicra, enquiry. There are three kinds of obstructions to vicra past, present and future, which are described. But no vicra is in vain either in the present birth or in some future birth, all impediments will be removed through vicra and one will eventually gain aparoka knowledge. For those not able to practice vicra due to such obstacles, upsana, meditation on brahman, sagua or nirgua, with or without attributes, is prescribed. Nirga upsana is held to be superior since it is closest to the goal, brahman. The relationship between meditation and knowledge is discussed at length. Meditation, bhvan should be engaged in constantly since it results in the meditator feeling identity with brahman. This feeling however ceases when meditation, dhyna ceases. The attitude towards the world of one who is one-pointed in meditation and the states of samdhi and nirodha are described. The one who sees enquiry (skhya) and meditation (yoga) as one, he truly knows. 171
Ultimately, meditation helps one to overcome ones doubts, to dissociate from the body, to see the difference between tman and antman and to realize brahman directly. 4.10 Nakadpa Light of the Theatre Here tman or consciousness, cit is presented as the witness, skin to the agent, the action and the various objects. It is likened to a lamp in a theatre which equally reveals the patron (ego, ahakra), the audience (sense objects, viaya), the dancer (intellect, mati) and the musicians (sense organs). Even when these are not present, the lamp (consciousness) continues to shine. Divisions of internal and external, object and
171 PD 9.134, also BG 5.5 44
perceiver are only possible with reference to the mind and the body, but the witness consciousness is neither internal nor external it is all-pervading, beyond words, the mind, and means of knowledge. It is self-luminous, and to know it one must study the ruti from a teacher (ravaa), reflect on the teachings intellectually (manana) and understand (through nididhysana) the internal and external creations to be based on the witness-consciousness. 4.11 Yognanda Bliss of Yoga The remaining five chapters describe the nanda, bliss resulting from the knowledge of brahman. nanda is said to be of three kinds 1. brahmnanda, the bliss of brahman, 2. the bliss born of knowledge, vidysukha and 3. the bliss created by sense objects, viaynanda. This chapter and the next two describe brahmnanda. Deep sleep is presented as an example of the nanda directly experienced as arising from non- duality. The ignorance prevailing in this state, the nandamaya koa, is discussed. The mind and intellect are latent during deep sleep. The bliss known in the absence of objects is an impression, vsan of brahmnanda. 172 So we have yet another three-way classification of nanda 1. brahmnanda, 2. vsannanda, the bliss arising due to impressions of brahmnanda, and 3. viaynanda, the bliss from objects. The latter two are dependent on the first. Vsannanda is also experienced via the ego during the waking state during detached intervals between pleasure and pain. Through practice of yoga, concentration, one forgets the ego and increasingly experiences non-dual brahmnanda while not asleep. Yoga is defined as the dissociation from connection with
172 PD 11.85 45
suffering. 173 Such practice is likened to baling out the ocean drop by drop with a blade of grass, and to starving a fire of fuel. But even a brief glimpse of brahmnanda motivates one to strive for it ceaselessly. Once attained, one is ever present in brahmnanda, even while engaged in worldly tasks. One is able to enjoy both brahmnanda and worldly nanda like a person who knows two languages. One is no longer affected by suffering. And since one dreams of what one experiences while awake, even in ones dreams there is brahmnanda. Thus there is brahmnanda in waking, dream and deep sleep. 4.12 tmnanda Bliss of the Self In contrast to the previous chapter which dealt with brahmnanda with regard to those capable of concentration, the present chapter concerns the experience of nanda by ignorant, mha and (spiritually) dull, mandapraja persons. Such persons are to be shown that one does not love other persons or objects for their sake but for ones own sake. Therefore the tman alone is the real goal of ones love. This love is other than rga, passionate love, raddh, pious faith, bhakti, devotion to deities and icch, desire. The love of tman is independent of all these emotions and their objects. Then what is one to make of ruti statements which equate tman to the son (KauU 2.11, BU 1.5.17 etc)? These are figurative, gaua statements. The term tman can be mentioned in either the figurative, illusory (mithy) or primary (mukhya) sense. The love for tman is always greatest with regard to the primary sense; towards that which is dependent, the love is moderate and towards what is not tman, there is either disregard or hatred. Through discrimination, one learns to see the witness as tman and not anything else. One who
173 PD 11.85, also BG 6.23ab: ta vidyd dukha-sayoga-viyoga yogasajitam | 46
loves something other than tman only experiences suffering. But the tman is indestructible, the source of highest bliss as the love for tman increases, nanda increases. So long as one arrives at this knowledge, whether one does so through concentration, yoga or discrimination, viveka is immaterial. 4.13 Advaitnanda Bliss of Non-duality The previous two chapters dealt with brahmnanda (attained through yoga) and tmnanda (attained through viveka). This chapter presents the non-duality of brahman and equates the earlier two types of nanda. The world is mere appearance of change, vivarta in the non-dual nanda brought about by my, the indescribable power of brahman. This power does not exist apart from brahman, yet is not identical to it. If it were identical to brahman, in the absence of my, there would be no brahman either. The power of my is different from its effect and also from its substratum, it is beyond thought and description. As an analogy, a pot (the effect) and clay (its substratum) are both other than the power that created the pot. Yet the pot is not different from the clay, nor is it identical to clay it is not visible in the clay state, but its potential to be is implicit in the clay, and it cannot be separated from clay once formed. The pot as a product of power when not perceptible is indescribable; when perceptible, it is a pot. Similarly, products of my are considered unreal; reality is only possible for that which is the substrate of my, brahman, just like clay for the pot. The substrate and its manifest effect exist by turns, while the unmanifest power persists at all times. The substrate is real, unchanged and indestructible at all times while the manifest effect has a name and form. Name and form are both unreal as they are subject to creation and 47
destruction. Liberation is achieved by knowledge of the unreality of the world, which is a manifest effect superimposed on the substrate, brahman. By knowing one lump of clay, one effectively knows the nature of all objects made of clay; similarly by knowing brahman, one knows the nature of the entire phenomenal world. In the steady natural bliss of the Self, there is no duality, no name and form, nor creation and destruction. Through the continuous practice, abhysa of brahman, one is liberated even while living. When the worldly objects are disregarded, the mind is freed of obstacles and abides in brahman, no longer affected by the worldly effects. 4.14 Vidynanda Bliss of Knowledge The bliss arising from knowledge of brahman is a modification of the intellect, dh. It has four aspects: the absence of sorrow, the fulfillment of all desires, the feeling that all that is to be done has been done, and the feeling that all that is to be obtained has been obtained. BU 4.4.12, with which PD7 began, is restated here, and its insights are reiterated. Suffering persists as long as one identifies with the body and the jva; the tman does not suffer. Desire too is only for one who considers objects of enjoyment to be real, but the knower of non-duality has no desire for or attachment to anything. Even worries regarding the future cease as the store of all future actions, sacita-karman ceases to exist with knowledge of brahman, and there is no further rebirth. The bliss of tman is unsurpassed and beyond the bliss of all other stations or attainments, worldly or otherwise. Until one knows oneself to be the witness, skin, one doesnt experience any satisfaction. The chapter concludes by repeating twenty-five verses from chapter 7 (vv. 48
253-270, 291-297) describing the nature of the perfect satisfaction of one who knows brahman. 4.15 Viaynanda Bliss of Objects Lastly the bliss experienced through sense objects is described. Though it is only a reflection of a fraction of the bliss of brahman, the viaynanda functions as a door into brahmnanda. tman, though non-dual, exists in every being. If there is a prevalence of rjasika and tmasika vtti-s of the mind, the bliss of brahman is obscured while the consciousness, cit aspect is reflected. When sttvika vtti-s predominate, both consciousness and bliss are manifested. Desires when fulfilled usually provide happiness; however, when thwarted, there is grief, anger and hatred. This is due to rajas and tamas. However, the greatest happiness results when one is dispassionate, virakta, as seen in previous chapter. There is a continuum of manifestation of brahmans sat, cit and nanda: objects only possess sat, existence, while rjasika and tmasika vtti-s manifest sat and cit, and sttivika vtti-s manifest all three attributes, gua-s. My manifests objects and takes three forms: 1. non-existence or absence of sat, 2. inertness or absence of cit, and 3. sorrow or absence of nanda. To get to know brahman, one must ignore non-existent objects and contemplate the inert objects by rejecting their name and form (PD13) and focusing on their sat-aspect. Similarly, one must contemplate the rjasika and tmasika vtti-s by rejecting the sorrow associated with them and instead focusing on their sat and cit aspects. The most superior contemplation is on sttvika vtti-s where one focuses on all three aspects of brahman. These three forms of contemplation are intended for those who are dull, manda, and engaged in worldly affairs. Eventually, 49
through the development of indifference to objects, an even higher form of contemplation arises focusing on the bliss of impressions, vsannanda (discussed in PD11). These four types of meditation involve both yoga and knowledge, jna, and thus provide knowledge of brahman itself. Through one-pointed meditation, this knowledge becomes steady and one knows sat, cit, and nanda not individually but as a single indivisible essence. In fact, the knower-known-knowledge distinctions cease and there is an abundance of bliss, bhumnanda.
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5. A Closer Look at Tptidpa-Prakaraa, PD7 Now that weve examined the rest of the PD, let us take a detailed look at PD7, the Tptidpa-prakaraa, paying attention to concepts also treated in other chapters. PD7 is composed of 298 anuubh loka-s, making it the longest of the fifteen chapters in the PD. As mentioned earlier, the goal of PD7 is to elucidate the contentment, tpti of one who is liberated while living, jvanmukta, by analyzing BU 4.4.12 in detail. 174 BU 4.4.12 states: tmna ced vijnyd ayam asmti prua | kim icchan kasya kmya arram anusajvaret || If a person truly knows the self, tman, as I am this, desiring what, and for the love of whom (or what) would (s)he suffer on account of the body? PD 7.3-6 present the meaning of prua, followed by vv. 7-18 discussing the meaning of aham asmi, and 19-22 the meaning of ayam in the ruti-vkya PD 7.1/BU 4.4.12. In the process the terms cidbhsa, reflected consciousness and kastha, immutable consciousness or brahman, are both introduced as secondary senses of the word aham. Paroka- and aparoka-jna, indirect and direct knowledge are also introduced. Vv. 23-27 introduce the "tenth man" allegory to illustrate how, despite the potential for direct knowledge of the self being ever-present, one can still have a mistaken sense regarding oneself. The indirect knowledge of brahman which is signified by ayam alleviates suffering, but with direct knowledge the cause for suffering itself is eliminated. This section briefly alludes to portions of PD1 (mys relationship with vara and jva), PD2 (the nature of creation, si), PD6 and PD8 (kastha and cidbhsa) and PD12 (three senses of the term tman).
174 PD 7.2: asy ruter abhiprya samyag atra vicryate | jvanmuktasya y tpti s tena viadyate || 51
In vv. 28-84, the seven stages of self-knowledge are discussed: 1. ajna, ignorance, 2. vti, covering, 3. vikepa, superimposition, 4. paroka-jna, indirect knowledge, 5. aparoka-jna, direct knowledge, 6. oka-apagama, the cessation of affliction, and 7. tpti, contentment. The first three are considered the cause of bondage and the remaining four are causes of liberation. BU 4.4.12 refers to two of these stages, direct knowledge as in I am this (brahman) and the cessation of affliction. The difference between paroka and aparoka knowledge is discussed (48-84, and features of the tenth-man allegory are used to illustrate the distinction between the two (57-60. Paroka and aparoka knowledge are also discussed in PD9. In PD2, mys ability to obscure non-dual reality is examined through the analysis of the five elements. In vv. 83-96, the differences between jva and brahman are discussed along with the nature of direct knowledge produced. Vv. 97-135 consider the need for repeated study, abhysa to be performed by means of ravaa, listening, manana, reflection and nididhysana, deep meditation for the sake of strengthening the direct knowledge produced by the mahvkyas. These topics were also introduced in PD1 and again alluded to in PD6. The entire (albeit short, 8 vv.) PD5, mahvkyaviveka is devoted to the four mahvkyas. PD9, dhynadpa is devoted to the practice of meditation. The practice of yoga, concentration on tman is also treated in PD11, yognanda while viveka, discrimination is treated in PD12, tmnanda. There is a fourth process to be performed after ravaa, manana and nididhysana have been perfected: samdhi, where the meditator-meditation difference dissolves. 175
Though samdhi is not explicitly mentioned as a practice in PD7, one can infer its utility in attaining aparoka-jna. 176 PD1 and PD9 refer to samdhi explicitly. Then in vv. 136-142, the meaning of kim icchan, desiring what is considered. On realizing the deficiency in objects of pleasure, ones desire for pleasure goes away. Vv. 143-191 discuss desires arising due to prrabdha karman which is of three varieties: 1. icch-, causing enjoyments with desire, 2. anicch-, causing enjoyments without desire, and 3. parecch-prrabdha, causing enjoyments through the desire of others. The wise person spontaneously enjoys the fruits of such karman without being bound by their karmic results. Even desires that arise for such an individual are like roasted seeds that are nourishing but do not have the potential to bear fruit anymore. 177 The wise recognize duality in order to teach in much the way one derives enjoyment from a magic show while still knowing it to be an illusion. Due to self-knowledge, any desires that arise for the wise are non-binding. The nature of objects and desire is also discussed in PD4 and PD6, and treated at length in PD15, viaynanda. PD10 presents tman as a skin, witness to a play, tranquilly relating to all objects without being affected by them. Next, vv. 192-221 elaborate on the meaning of kasya kmya, regarding enjoyership in light of the falsity, mithytva of the world. The self as cidbhsa is subject to change, but as kastha is neither a doer nor an enjoyer. The afflictions produced due to desire for pleasure have no effect. Thus one is exhorted to devote oneself to gaining this self-knowledge and to strengthening it. Vv. 222-251 then go on to
176 For instance, PD 7.265: vikepo nsti yasmn me samdhis tato mama | vikepo v samdhir v manasa syd vikria || 177 PD 7.164: bharjitni tu bjni santy akrya-kari ca | vidvad-icch tatheavy sattva-bodhn na krya-kt || 53
consider the absence of bodily afflictions for a knower of brahman by way of examining the nature of afflictions in the three arras, bodies, namely sthla-, gross physical, skma-, subtle and kraa-, causal. Once again, by means of the tenth-man story, the nature of affliction is illustrated. Though the understanding of ones self-nature may occur instantaneously, overcoming ones prrabdha karman and the habit of identifying with ones body might take a while (247,50), but one does eventually heal, 178 i.e., suffering/affliction ceases when identification with the body ceases. The nature of the body was also treated in PD1 (in terms of the sthla, skma and kraa arras) and in terms of the paca koas in PD3. Once released from suffering, one enters the final of the seven stages, tpti, satisfaction. Vv. 251-298 describe the state of unlimited satisfaction for a knower of brahman and his/her conduct in the midst of those who are still ignorant of their true nature. All that was to be achieved has already been achieved, nothing more remains to be done, 179 not even ravaa, manana, nididhysana or samdhi, since one already knows oneself to be brahman. The wise one can act or remain actionless ones firm, unshakeable self-knowledge is not affected or obstructed by this one is ever free from suffering. The body will persist as long as there are prrabdha karma-s to be exhausted, but their results do not affect the limitless self, brahman (262-3). The nanda-pacaka, PD11-15 also exhaustively describes the nature of bliss resulting from the knowledge of brahman. In fact, PD 14.40-67 are identical to PD 7.253-270, 7.291-297.
178 PD 7.247: irovraas tu msena anai myati 179 PD 7.252: kta ktya prpaya prptam ity eva tpyati || 54
Thus we can see that in the process of expanding on the ruti-vkya BU 4.4.12, PD7 touched upon topics covered throughout the rest of the PD in varying degrees of detail. While there is no apparent divergence in content between the PD7 and the rest of the text to suggest a change in authorship, this does not necessarily mean that there was no change in authorship. The two authors could very well have been in agreement regarding their doctrinal views. Bhrattrtha was after all, one of Vidyrayas gurus and they both share Vidytrtha as a teacher as well. The PD7 serves as an overarching review of the entire text, outlining the entire trajectory of an individual from ignorance through contentment resulting from enlightenment through the intervening five stages (vti, vikepa, paroka-jna, aparoka-jna and oka-apagama). Also woven in are the means for attaining this knowledge of ones true advaita nature, assurances that there is no backsliding and descriptions of what it is like to function in the world after liberation. PD7 in effect provides us a condensed representation of the life cycle of a mumuku (seeker of liberation), within which we can examine select Advaita issues to understand the interaction between the epistemological, metaphysical and praxeological aspects of the system. It provides us a microcosm within which we can explore aspects of Advaita praxis such as the means advocated for knowing brahman and achieving jvanmukti. (Such aspects are generally implicit to any given text and not typically treated independently. I plan to research this in a future work). We are also afforded a forum for investigating innovations made by Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha on akaras system of Advaita, if any. Before that task is undertaken in chapter 8, Vidyrayas Contributions 55
to and Innovations in Advaita Vednta, we need to complete our contextual analysis of PD7 by comparing its context to the context of BU 4.4.12, its BUBh and the corresponding section in the BVS. We now turn to the analysis of the PD7s extra- textual context.
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6. Extra-textual Context of PD7 In chapter 5, A Closer Look at Tptidpa-Prakaraa, PD7, we saw how Bhrattrthas Tptidpa-prakaraa-, the seventh chapter of the Pacada (PD) starts with the ruti-vkya, BU 4.4.12. Now, lets take a look at: 1. The context of BU 4.4.12 within the Bhadrayaka Upaniad (BU), 2. akarcryas bhya (BUBh) on BU 4.4.12, and 3. Vidyrayas Bhadrayaka-vrtika-sra (BVS) on BU 4.4.12 accompanied by Mahevaratrthas Laghusagraha on the same. This will then enable us to examine the similarities and differences, if any, among akara, Vidyraya in the BVS, Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha in the PD and the author(s) of the BU. 6.1 The context of BU 4.4.12 within the Bhadrayaka Upaniad The BU is considered the oldest of the Upaniads, based on linguistic evidence. It is divided into three kas, sections. The first, Madhu-ka conveys the main teaching of the Advaita doctrine and is of the nature of upadea, instruction. The second, Yjavalkya- or Muni-ka, wherein BU 4.4.12 occurs, embodies the logical argument and explanation showing the soundness of the upadea. The third, Khila- ka deals with certain upsanas or modes of meditation. 180 It is the Yjavalkya- kas context which is primarily relevant for this discussion. It comprises two adhyyas, chapters (3-4), each further subdivided into brhmaas. In the third adhyya,
180 Mdhavnanda (1988), p. xii. 57
the jalpa style of argumentation 181 is employed by Yjavalkya to gain victory over various opponents and to elucidate the nature of brahman and tman in the process. In the fourth adhyya, King Janaka, in whose assembly the debates of the third adhyya had taken place, is asked by Yjavalkya to tell him what he has learned from various teachers. Yjavalkya dismisses the teachings of each teacher that Janaka relates as obvious 182 and incomplete, 183 and is then asked by Janaka to complete the picture. Eventually Janaka explicitly asks Yjavalkya to teach him (4.2.1) and Yjavalkyas response culminates in the famous statement by Yjavalkya that all one can say about this tman is neti, neti. 184 In 4.3, Yjavalkya doesnt wish to say anything, but Janaka calls in a boon granted him earlier by Yjavalkya to ask him any question he (Janaka) wished. Janaka asks, What is the (source of) light for a person here? 185 Yjavalkyas answer is that it is the self, tman (4.3.6). He goes on to discuss how the self travels between the realms of dream and wakefulness (4.3.9-18). Deep sleep is the state where the self has no desires and sees no dreams (4.3.19). The person embraced by the self consisting of knowledge is oblivious to everything within or without. 186 There isnt a second (reality) here that he could see as something distinct and separate from himself. 187 This, O King, is the world of brahman. 188 After the glory of brahman has been extolled, Janaka still
181 jalpa - a kind of disputation (overbearing reply and disputed rejoinder), MW, s.v. 182 BU 4.1.2: Yath mtmn pitmn cryavn bryt tath 183 BU 4.1.2: eka-pd v etat 184 See n. 197. 185 BU 4.3.2: kijyotir aya purua iti | 186 BU 4.3.21: aya purua prjentman saparivakto na bhya kicana veda nntaram | 187 BU 4.3.23: na tu tad dvityam asti tato nyad vibhakta yat payet | 188 BU 4.3.32: ea brahmaloka samr | 58
wants to know more, much to Yjavalkyas chagrin. 189 He then launches into a description of transmigration (4.3.34-38) which is continued in the next brhmaa (4.4). The deterioration of the vital breath, pra is described, leading to the withdrawal of the tman from the old body to a new one. This non-corporeal and immortal pra is nothing but brahman, nothing but light. 190 Next a series of loka-s are cited (4.4.8-21), which includes 4.4.12, the ruti-vkya of particular interest to us. Vv. 8-9 describe the path by which the knowers of brahman, brahmavid-s go to the heavenly world on release. Vv. 10-11 describe the progressively darker worlds of blind darkness, andha tama, entered by worshippers of ignorance and by worshippers of learning. 191 In contrast, a person who truly knows tman wants for nothing and is not afflicted by his body; on the contrary the tman is the maker of everything, indeed he is the world (12-13). 192 Those who know this become immortal, while others only have suffering to look forward to (14). The tman is to be sought out; it is venerated as life immortal. tman is the immortal brahman (15-17). Brahman is behind breathing, sight, hearing, thinking; it is non-diverse, realized through the mind alone, singular, immeasurable, immovable, taintless, beyond space, unborn, immense (18-20). It should be known though intuitive knowledge, praj and not through words (21). 193
The prose section then resumes. tman is the goal of all, brahmins and ascetics alike. Knowing tman, they give up desire for sons, wealth and worlds. tman is
189 BU 4.3.33: yjavalkyo bibhycakra medhv rj sarvebhyo mntebhya udarautsd iti | This is an interesting situation and certainly raises questions as to why Yjavalkya would be afraid. Fodder for a future exploration 190 BU 4.4.7: ayam aarro mrta pro brahmaiva teja eva | 191 BU 4.4.10: andha tama pravianti ye vidym upsate | tato bhya iva te tamo ya u vidyy rat || 192 BU 4.4.13: sa vivakt sa hi sarvasya kart tasya loka sa u loka eva || 193 BU 4.4.21: tam eva dhro vijya praj kurvta brhmaa | nnudhyyd bahu chabdn vco viglpana hi tad iti || 59
ungraspable, undecaying, unbound, not subject to fear or injury, beyond good and bad, not subject to that which is done or undone. One who knows this becomes tman/brahman (22-25). Thus the fourth brhmaa concludes. The fifth brhmaa repeats the Maitrey-Yjavalkya dialogue of 2.4 in the Madhu- ka. The sixth and final brhmaa provides the lineage of the teachers. This is followed by the two adhyyas of the Khila-ka, whose contents are not relevant to this discussion. Thus BU 4.4.12 occurs in the midst of Yjavalkyas teachings on brahma-tattva to Janaka. The transmigration of the tman upon death to a new body is described and the nature of this new body depends on the nature of ones desires and actions in the past body (4.3.35-38, 4.4.1-6). On the other hand, one who is without desire becomes immortal and attains brahman right here, in this life (7). Then deprecating both ignorance and learning (10-11), 4.4.12 rhetorically suggests that the body and its ills are of no consequence when compared to what is gained by the knowledge of tman. The remainder of the fourth brhmaa then adds greater detail to this suggestive proposition, explicitly stating that what is gained by this knowledge is the awareness that one is the maker of all, vivakt (13), immortal, amta (14), brahman (17). In contrast, those who do not know this face suffering, dukha and great destruction, mahat vinai (14). The implicit message of BU 4.4.12 is the desirability of the knowledge of tman/brahman. When known, nothing else is needed and nothing can adversely affect one. 60
6.2 akarcryas bhya (BUBh) on BU 4.4.12 akaras commentary on this verse is short enough that a complete translation can be provided here. English words in italics are from BU 4.4.12 itself. (The footnotes provide the relevant Sanskrit passages in the sequence corresponding to the English translation, see Appendix 2A, p. 95 for the entire Sanskrit passage): If (a person), one in thousands 194 truly knows the self, tman, his own (which is also) the highest which knows the desires of all sentient beings, (which is) situated in the heart, (which is) beyond hunger and other characteristics: 195 (The qualification) if shows the rarity of self-knowledge, tma-vidy. How (does one know)? I am this supreme self, the witness to the notions of all sentient beings, 196 described by (statements) such as neti, neti, 197 (and) other than which (there is) no one who sees, hears, thinks, or knows, 198 constant, situated in all beings, whose nature is eternal, pure, awake and liberated. 199 That person, what other object could he possibly desire as a result that is other than his own nature? 200 And for the love of whom (or what) other than himself, 201 for what motive? 202 Because there is no result to be desired by him, (since he is) the self. Nor is there anyone other than the self, for whose sake he desires, since he is
194 sahasreu kacit 195 sva para sarva-pri-manita-ja htstham aanydi-dharmttam 196 sarva-pri-pratyaya-sk 197 Olivelle, p.67, pp.501-2 n.3.6, suggests neti, neti be rendered as not , not instead of the commonly held not this, not this which would require iti na instead. While this is syntactically valid, not this seems a friendlier translation than not without causing any significant violation to the import of the text. 198 yasmn nnyo sti dra rot mant vijt 199 sama sarva-bhta-stho nitya-uddha-buddha-mukta-svabhvo 200 tat-svarpa-vyatiriktam anyad vastu phala-bhta 201 anyasya tmano vyatiriktasya kmya 202 [kasya] prayojanya 61
the self of all. 203 Therefore, desiring what and for whose sake would he suffer, be ruined, 204 on account of the body, i.e., (why) would he be afflicted on account of the suffering caused by bodily limitations, 205 (why) would he suffer on account of bodily affliction? 206 Because (this happens) only to one who does not know the tman, 207 (and therefore is) striving to obtain some object other than it (tman). 208 Desiring 209 (that) this should be mine, this (other) for my son, this (third thing) for my wife, 210 mounted on (the sasra-cakras) uninterrupted sequence of birth and death, 211 (he) suffers the disease(s) of the body. 212 But this could not happen to one who sees the whole self: this is what is said (here). 213 It appears that akara is reinforcing what weve already gathered from our analysis of the Yjavalkya-ka. The limitations of the body and its attendant ills such as hunger are reinforced particularly in contrast to the ultimacy of the knowledge of the self. The all-pervasiveness of the self is also highlighted, as is the rarity of achieving self-knowledge. In effect, akara is saying that according to the ruti, given that knowing tman means knowing ones true nature, which is eternal, pure, awake, liberated, all-pervasive, all-knowing, it is absurd to persist in identifying with the body,
203 na hi tasya tmana eavya phalam, na cpy tmano nyo sti, yasya kmyecchati, sarvasytma- bhtatvt | 204 bhraet 205 arropdhikta-dukham-anu dukh syt 206 arra-tpam-anutapyeta | 207 antma-darino hi 208 tad-vyatirikta-vastv-antarepso Ive taken antara in this compound as different from, strengthening the force of vyatirikta. 209 hamna 210 mameda syt putrasyeda bhryy ida ity evam 211 puna punar janana-maraa-prabandha-rha 212 arra-rogam anu rujyate 213 sarvtma-darinas tu tad asabhava ity etad ha | 62
enduring the ills it undergoes, viewing oneself as limited and pursuing limited desires, thereby committing to sasra. In fact, one who knows the self has no truck with limited desires firstly, being all-pervasive there is nothing other than ones self that can be desired and secondly, limited desires only reinforce the identifying with the body and its ills. Further, while at first glance it may seem odd that akara is situating the all- pervasive tman in the heart, he is not adding a new inconsistency, but is being informed by the BU itself. For example, 4.3.7: the inner light within the heart, hdyantar jyoti, 4.4.1: (the tman) descends back into the heart, hdayam evnvavakrmati. Later, we have 4.4.20: (The self is) beyond space, para kd. 4.1.7 unequivocally states: The highest brahman is the heart, hdaya vai samr parama brahma. This last occurs after successive declarative statements in the first brhmaa that brahman has as its abode speech, breath, sight, hearing and the mind, but ultimately it is the heart that is the foundation of all beings. Thus it is clear from the BU context that a statement locating tman/brahman in a specific place in the body is not to be taken literally. It is intended as a metaphor, perhaps suggesting at the same time the nearness of brahman in fact nothing could be nearer as one is brahman, because that is ones true nature as well as its dearness, that which is most desirable to know, upon knowing which all suffering, let alone that associated with the body, ceases. 63
6.3 Vidyrayas Bhadrayaka-vrtika-sra (BVS) on BU 4.4.12 The Bhadrayaka-vrtika-sra, a sub-commentary on Surevaras Vrttika 214 on the BU, 215 is a relatively lesser known work of Vidyraya. For example, there is no mention of it in Dasguptas A History of Indian Philosophy (1922), or by other works dealing with Vidyraya, such as Mahadevan (1938, 69), Punjani (1985), and Goodding (2002). Potters bibliography has three editions listed, the earliest by Vajhe (1915-19) which includes Mahevaratrthas k, a recent edition by Dwived (1999) which is accompanied by a Hindi translation and commentary, and another dating to 1941 which I was unable to examine. 216 Based on my analysis in section 3.4, Works ascribed to Mdhava-Vidyraya, particularly pp. 17,20, I have concluded that the ascription of the authorship of BVS to Mdhava-Vidyraya is genuine and thus it will be of great interest to compare Vidyrayas treatment of BU 4.4.12 here with that in PD7. The BVS is a metrical text, mostly in anuubh meter, like the PD. The fourth brhmaa of the BVSs fourth adhyya has a total of 491 loka-s, among which BU 4.4.12 receives just five, 4.4.272-276. This section is brief enough to be translated in its entirety. 217 English words in italics are from BU 4.4.12, (the corresponding Sanskrit appears in boldface in the footnotes; see Appendix 2B, p. 95 for the entire Sanskrit
214 I wished to consult this as well, but sadly, I was unable to locate the section containing BU 4.4.12. 215 Marcaurelle, p.189. 216 Potter (2005): 809.5.1 Edited, with Uttamalokatrtha's Laghuvrttikavykhy and Mahevara Trtha's Laghusagraha, by Bhau Sastri Vajhe. ChSS 46, 1915, 1919; 809.5.2 Edited by Chandiprasada Sukla Sastri and Krsna Pant. AG 10, 1941; 809.5.3 Edited by Vacaspati Dwivedi. Varanasi 1999 217 As far as I am aware, there are no published English translations of the BVS. 64
passage), and Mahevaratrthas relevant k is provided within square brackets (see Appendix 2C, p. 96 for the Sanskrit): The fifth loka 218 here clearly sets forth the complete disappearance of suffering for those who are possessed of the knowledge of brahman. [(The BU loka) tmnam is taken up]. 219 What suffering is there on account of the body for the fully satisfied person who directly knows, I am this? [Analyzing 220 the words of the (BU) loka, the nature of (self-)knowledge is brought forth (in this BVS loka)]. 221 Someone who does not know ones self, tman, would subsequently suffer on account of mistaking the self to be the body, desiring pleasure for the sake of pleasure for oneself (as an) enjoyer. [To present the cause of the cessation of affliction due to self-knowledge, the cause of the affliction of that ignorance is stated. On account of mistaking oneself as an enjoyer, there is desire (lit: desiring) (for) all sorts of (objects of) enjoyment (lit: what is to be enjoyed); upon the destruction of (the objects of) enjoyment, (there is) suffering i.e. ones body would consequently suffer]. 222 The one who, on account of (realizing) the knowledge of being the tman of all, would be excluded from (being the) enjoyer and from (the experience of) enjoyment, what could he possibly desire, and for the love of whom (or what) would he suffer on account of the body? [(This loka) presents knowledge as the
218 BU 4.4.12 is fifth in the series of lokas quoted starting at BU 4.4.8. 219 BVS 4.4.272: brahmvabodha-yuktn nieo dukha-sakaya | lokena pacamentra vispaam abhidhyate || [tmnam ity ady avatrayati brahmeti |] 220 vykurvan literally means to separate from, to sever, divide; to explain. Hence my translation, to analyze. 221 Ibid. 273: purua paripro yam asmti hy parokata | ya tmna vijnti arrnu jvaro sya ka || [lokkari vykurvan jna-prakram abhinayati purua iti |] 222 Ibid. 274: na vetti cet svam tmna dehtmatva-bhramd asau | bhoktus tasyaiva bhogya bhogam icchann anujvaret || [tmadhiyo jvara-nivtti-hetutvam upapdayitu tad ajnasya jvara-hetutvam ha neti | svasya bhokttva-bhramd bhogya-jtam icchan bhogya-ne jvaran tad deham anu jvaret tapyetety artha | ] 65
cause of the cessation of that (suffering). When the knowledge of the enjoyers brahman-nature and (the knowledge of) the emptiness of enjoyment(s) (is there), desiring what enjoyment for the love of which enjoyer, would one suffer on account of the suffering created by the limitations of the body?] 223 For this detached (person), there is no association at all with the body, and hence there is no suffering on account of the suffering related to the body, etc., for the individual self, pratyag-tman. [(This loka) clarifies (what was) already stated, (that) there isnt any affliction (caused) for the self by the affliction(s) of the body.] 224 It appears that Vidyraya, and to an even greater extent, Mahevaratrtha is interested in explicitly stating the connection between identification with the body, desires for the enjoyment of pleasure, and the consequent suffering that arises when the enjoyment ceases. This connection is implicitly and unknowingly made by those who do not have the knowledge of tman/brahman and who instead identify the self as the body, the enjoyer, bhokt in search of enjoyment, bhogya. However, enjoyments are limited and can be destroyed, leading to suffering. The body too is subject to limitations and afflictions and identification with the body leads to the consequent experience of suffering. Therefore, the one who knows the self, tman to be brahman, the self of all beings, knows (that) (s)he is not the body or the enjoyer and thus is not subject to their desires and suffering. Vidyraya is consistent with akaras commentary on this
223 Ibid., 275: yasya srvtmyabodhena bdha syd bhoktbhogyayo | kim i[c]chan kasya kmya arram anusajvaret || [jnasya tan nivtti-hetutvam upapdayati yasyeti | bhoktur brahma-rpatve bhogyasya tucchatve ca jne ki bhogya kasya bhoktu kmyecchan arropadhi-kta-dukham anu dukh syad ity artha | ] 224 Ibid., 276: nisagasybhisambandho dehensya na kacana | nto dehdi-dukhena dukhitva prtyagtmana || [deha-tpentmanas tpbhvam uktam eva spaayati nisagasyeti | ] 66
passage; the difference lies mainly in the seeming intensity of Vidyrayas focus regarding this passage. Vidyraya doesnt say anything about the significance of the cet, or elaborate on the nature of bodily afflictions, and desires leading to an uninterrupted cycle of birth and death. Vidyraya single-mindedly focuses on the contrast between the individual who knows tman and the one who doesnt, as seen in regards to being an enjoyer and sufferer of bodily afflictions. Mahevaratrtha, following Vidyrayas example, also restricts himself to the these aspects. However, this isnt really a shortcoming on either Vidyraya or Mahevaratrthas part; they have dealt with some of these issues a few verses earlier in the BVS, in connection with BU 4.4.10-11. 67
7. Comparison of the various discourses on BU 4.4.12 7.1 The PD7s treatment of BU 4.4.12 In chapter 5, A Closer Look at Tptidpa-Prakaraa, PD7, we saw that Bhrattrtha covers a lot of ground in the process of explaining the ruti-vkya, BU 4.4.12. Perhaps the context of the source text placed constraints on the commentators in the cases of the BUBh and the BVS and restricted the range of their discursions. Because the PD is an independent treatise, there are no such constraints and Bhrattrtha is free to support his analysis with other ruti and smti as well as worldly and accessible similes and allegories. As Rmaka points out in his commentary to PD 7.2, there are five attributes to an explanation, vykhyna: padaccheda, separation of (constituent) words, padrthokti, stating the meaning of the words (glossing), vigraha, analysis, vkyayojan, syntax of the sentence, and kepasya samdhna, replying to objections. 225 In PD7, Bhrattrtha certainly addresses all of these aspects in far greater detail than in the other two versions we looked at, the BUBh and the BVS. Beyond explaining the constituent words and phrases of the passage, he also presents other Advaita concepts to support the concepts he wishes to convey. Thus in PD7 we have discussions on the difference between jva and vara, cidbhsa and kastha (vv. 3-18) and jva and brahman (vv. 83-96). The seven stages of knowledge are considered in great detail, ranging from ignorance to perfect contentment (vv. 28-84), with an embedded treatment on the difference between paroka and aparoka knowledge and how the former leads to the latter (vv. 48-84). How the direct knowledge of brahman
is brought about is covered in vv. 87-129, including by means of ravaa, manana and nididhysana. In connection with desire, the concept of prrabdha karman is treated thoroughly (vv. 143-191). With regard to bodily afflictions, the sthla, skma and kraa arras and their respective afflictions are discussed (vv. 222-251). Lastly, the nature of liberation, jvanmukti is described extensively. In connection with these topics, objections are raised and resolved but the emphasis is not merely on demonstrating the consistency, samdhna of the Advaita metaphysics, but also on making the subject accessible by means of parallels from daily life and by parables and similes, 226 and providing the reader with an introductory how-to manual on achieving self-knowledge. Bhrattrtha cites ruti (BU, ChU, TU, Katha, Kaivalya and MU are cited multiple times), smti (BS, BG and others) and also the works of other Vedntins such as akaras Brahmastra bhya and the Upadeashasr, Surevaras Naikarmyasiddhi and Mandana Miras Bhmati among others. [See Appendix 1: PD7 Citations on pp.95- 94 for details]. While bringing all of this additional material into the picture, Bhrattrtha still remains true to the overall context of BU 4.4.12. Transmigration is the lot of one who does not know the self 227 and weve already reviewed the detailed discussions of the consequences of prrabdha karman on jvanmukti in chapter 5, A Closer Look at Tptidpa-Prakaraa, PD7. 228 PDs jvanmukti itself is corroborated by BU 4.4.7. 229 As
226 See n. 251, p. 74 supra. 227 e.g. PD 7.103: bahu-janma-dhbhysd dehdiv tmadh kat | puna punar udety eva jagat- satyatva-dhr api || 228 Cf. the discussion concerning PD 7.143-191, 247, 250, 262-3 229 BU 4.4.7: yad sarve pramucyante km yesya hdi rit | atha martyomto bhavaty atra brahma samanuta iti || 69
in BU 4.4.10-11, the pursuit of worldly knowledge for its own sake is mocked. 230 We can see why the Pacada is called a prakaraa grantha, on account of the lucid and comprehensive yet accessible treatment of Advaita fundamentals. 7.2 Comparison and consistency of the three treatments of BU 4.4.12 What can be said regarding the faithfulness of three separate discourses on BU 4.4.12 as compared to each other and to the source context itself in the BU? Weve seen that all the versions considered (BUBh, BVS, PD7) are faithful to the context of BU 4.4.12. They differ in the manner in which the contrast between the ignorant and those who know the self is presented. akara highlights the consequence of uninterrupted, repeated birth and death resulting from identification with the body and seems to be suggesting, Why on earth would anyone persist with such a worldview, given that the alternative is liberation?! The BVS seems more interested in explicitly spelling out the connection between identification with the body and desires and the consequent suffering resulting from lack of self-knowledge, contrasting it with the lack of suffering for one who does not associate the self with the body, thereby implicitly suggesting the attractiveness of the latter view. Both the BUBh and BVS passages are constrained by their formats, occurring within primary or secondary commentaries to the BU. Thus they restrict themselves to elucidating the ruti at hand and do not elaborate at great length, since the relevant context of the BU presents more appropriate opportunities for elaboration elsewhere. PD7, on the other hand, being within an independent prakaraa- grantha has far more flexibility, and we see how Bhrattrtha avails himself of the
230 e.g. PD 7.206: kvya-naka-tarkdim abhyasyati nirantaram | vijigur yath tadvan mumumku sva vicrayet || 70
opportunity to make relevant Advaita concepts accessible and understood in the process of exegesis. Not surprisingly, all three advaitin authors do not deviate from the basic message of BU 4.4.12, that self-knowledge is the logical alternative to identifying with the body, its desires and afflictions. The area of innovation then seems to be on what aspect they each choose to emphasize, and in the case of PD7, the thoroughness with which Bhrattrtha and Vidyraya elaborate on the basics of Advaita Vednta, using BU 4.4.12 to provide a framework within which concepts are masterfully laid out. Now that weve examined Bhrattrtha and Vidyrayas innovation in the framework of textual context, we can pull back further and look next at their contributions to Advaita Vednta as a whole as evidenced in the PD.
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8. Vidyrayas Contributions to and Innovations in Advaita Vednta Vidyraya 231 belongs to the Vivaraa sub-school of akaras Advaita Vednta, so named after Praktmans subcommentary, Paca-pdik-vivaraa on akaras direct disciple Padmapdas Paca-pdik. 232 This sub-school advocates study of Vednta and a direct apprehension of brahman for the attainment of liberation; it also holds brahman to be the locus of avidy, ignorance. 233 Vidyraya is considered an important Advaita scholar and is credited with strengthening the position of the Vivaraa school through his works. 234 Perhaps Vidyrayas most significant contribution is his description of the relationship between my and avidy. For akara, these terms are used synonymously. Vidyraya distinguishes between the two: he describes my as prakti with only pure sattva, whereas avidy is prakti tainted by rajas and tamas. 235 vara is the reflection of brahman in my, 236 while the jva-s, the corresponding reflections of brahman in
231 In this section, for brevity sake, I speak only of Vidyraya since these remarks apply to the PD as a whole. But in all likelihood, based on what we have seen of the concord between Bhrattrthas thought in PD7 and that of Vidyrayas in the rest of the PD, these innovations can be credited to Bhrattrtha as well. 232 Cf. n. 77, p. 16 supra. 233 In contrast, the other sub-school based on ankaras exposition of Vednta, the Bhmat school (named after Maana Miras commentary on the first four stras of the Bh on the BS, 9 th century CE) holds that yogic practices and mmsaka activities are key to achieving liberation and also that the individual jva-s are the locus of avidy (King 1999, pp. 55-6). 234 Venkatarama Iyer in Venkataraman et al (1976), pt. 2, p. i: It will not be an exaggeration if we say that [Bhrattrtha and Vidyraya] occupy the topmost place among post-Sankara writers on Advaita Vednta. S.P. Sharma, p. 85: The credit of establishing the Vivarana School in the Post-Sankara-Vedanta goes to Vidyaranya only. 235 PD 1.16ab: sattvauddhyaviuddhibhy my vidye ca te mate | 236 PD 1.16cd: mybimbo vaktya t syt sarvaja vara || 72
avidy, are diverse because avidy has differing degrees of rajas and tamas. 237 But fundamentally, vara and jva-s are just two different superimpositions on brahman. 238
Vidyrayas fourfold categorization of consciousness, cit into kastha, brahman, vara, and jva is also novel; 239 the conventional list is brahman, vara and jva only. 240
The concept of cidbhsa in particular is also a distinctive contribution: cidbhsa is the reflection of consciousness, which is illumined by brahman and in turn appears in and illumines the mind and its modifications. 241 The kastha consciousness is distinct from cidbhsa; cidbhsa is in effect when intellectual modifications (vtti-s) arise, but the kastha is in effect in the intervals between the vtti-s, 242 it is the skin, witness. 243 The relationship between kastha, cidbhsa and the mind is like that between a face, its reflection and the mirror. 244
The concept of savdi-bhrama, coinciding-error is also novel: even though the idea of meditation on or worship of brahman is erroneous since it treats brahman as an object, it still leads to liberation, the right end, hence the name concurring- or
237 PD 1.17: avidy-vaa-gas tv-anyas tad-vaicitryd anekadh | s kraa-arra syt prajas tatrbhimnavn || 238 PD 3.37: satya jnam ananta yad brahma tad vastu tasya tat | varatva ca jvatvam updhi- dvaya-kalpita || 239 PD 6.18ab: kastho brahma jvesv ityeva cic caturvidh | Cf. PD 6.1-5, PD 7.83-96. 240 S.P. Sharma, p. 89. 241 Fort (2000), p. 497. Also cf. PD 8.6-10. 242 PD 8.3: cidbhsa-viin tathneka-dhiym asau | sandhi dhiym abhva ca bhsayan pravivicyatm || 243 PD 8.25: antakarana-tad-vtti-skty-dv-anekadh | kastha eva sarvatra prvcryair vinicita || 244 PD 8.26: tmbhsray caiva mukhbhsray yath | gamyante stra-yuktibhym ity-bhsa ca varita || Here Vidyraya is quoting akaras US I.18.43abc, but while akara is talking about tman, its reflection and the mind, Vidyraya is re-mapping the loka to his own terms by context, particularly kastha and cidbhsa. 73
coinciding-error. 245 While such meditation is naturally second to meditation on the attributeless brahman, it is still suited to those with manda-buddhi, dull intellects or those otherwise incapable of ravaa, manana and nididhysana, 246 and yet it is better than performing scripturally enjoined actions, and far superior to being engaged in worldly activity, vyavahra. 247
The notion of the enjoyment of objects causing happiness through the reflection of brahman is not novel, yet Vidyraya presents such enjoyment as a door to brahmnanda and dedicates an entire chapter to it (PD15). In his mind understanding the nature of such enjoyments helps a seeker strengthen ones understanding effectively. 248
Lastly, Vidyraya and Bhrattrthas use of easily accessible analogies and metaphors get his ideas across effectively the allegory of the tenth-man 249 is skillfully developed to illustrate the progression through the seven stages of self-knowledge in PD7. 250 Such similes occur in virtually every chapter, with PD7 having the highest
245 PD 9.13: svayabhramo pi savd yath samyakphalaprada | brahmatattvopsanpi tath muktiphalaprad || Also PD 9.123: yath savdi-vibhrnti phala-kle pramyate | vidyyate tathopstir mukti-kle tipkata || 246 PD 9.54: atyanta-buddhimndyd v smagry vpy-asambhavt | yo vicra na labhate brahmopsta so niam || 247 PD 9. 121: pmara vyavahter vara karmady-anuhiti | tato pi saguopstir nirguopsan tata || 248 PD 15.19ab: yadyat sukha bhavet tattad brahmaiva pratibimbant | PD 15.34cd: viaynanda etena dvren praviyatm || ta 249 This allegory is by no means novel. akara also draws upon this story in US 1.12.3, 1.18.170- 4,187,190,199, and also in his Bh to BU 1.4.7, and to TU 2.1 (Mayeda 1979, p. 131, n. 2 et passim). The trope is also common in folk tales see the entry Numskulls Unable to Count their own Number, Thompson & Roberts, pp. 135-6. The folk tales have a wide regional distribution, for example in Kashmir (Knowles 1893), the upper Indus area (Swynnerton 1892), Kumaon and Garwhal in the Himalayas (Upreti 1894), Mahakoshal in Central India (Elwin1944) and the Nilgiri Hills in South India (Rivers 1906). Animal versions of this tale also exist (Bdker 1957). 250 PD 7.23-27, 57-60, 80, 247-48, 250. 74
concentration. 251 Such anecdotes give the reader a sense of the authors first-hand experience with the subject matter and at the same time provide the reader with the assurance that she, too, is capable of having similar experiences. At the same time, the author does not shy away from dialectic analysis and refutation, 252 but these are subordinated to explaining and clarifying the primary concepts. This accounts for the great popularity and importance that this work has enjoyed in the Advaita tradition and it continues to do so in the present time as well.
251 Punjani, p. 246, n. 1 shows that the most similes in the text occur in PD7. Some of these (besides the tenth-man allegory) are: 7.114-117, a hungry man eats as he likes, without following any rules or injunctions; 134, two tired travelers on a journey, one knows the destination is near and perseveres, the other doesnt; 136, desire for a knower is like a lamp without oil; 164, desire is like roasted grain; 219, a dying man has no desire to marry; 228, the three bodies without any affliction are like cloth without thread or a blanket without wool; 237-8, the embarrassment of cidbhsa on knowing the truth is like that of a man doing repeated penance for sins, or of a disfigured courtesan; 240, cidbhsa avoids associating with the body as a brahman avoids mlecchas; 259, a wise man not affected by worldly pleasure, like a bush with red berries is not really on fire; 279, if a living rat cant kill a cat, how can a dead one? Similarly for the perception of duality affecting the wise ones knowledge; 282, the corpses of ignorance only proclaim the conquerors glory; 287-8 a wise man is towards ignorant ones like an indulgent father towards a disrespectful young child. 252 For example, PD 7.14-16 on the unreality of the cidbhsa and kastha, v. 21 on the knowability of brahman, vv. 81-84 on direct knowledge through the stra-s, vv. 88-89 on giving up the I notion, vv. 130-32, 276-278 regarding coexistance of knowledge and action, vv. 181-190 on the nature of direct knowledge. 75
9. Conclusion With a view to establishing the identity of the author(s) of the Pacada, this thesis has reviewed the historical evidence regarding the connection of Vidyraya with the founding of Vijayanagara, with the ger maha and also with the different Mdhava-s contemporaneous in the mid-fourteenth century. We have very strong evidence that Vidyraya, prior to his sannysa, was Mdhavcrya, minister of the kings Bukka I and Harihara II, on the grounds that Vidyraya in his Jvan-mukti-viveka (JMV) mentions Mdhavcryas work, the Parara-mdhavya (PaM), as being written by himself. 253
But this Mdhavcrya was not connected with the founding of Vijayanagara, and the inscriptional evidence linking Vidyraya with Vijayanagara had been proven by scholars such as Kulke (1985) and Saletore (1934) to be the fabrication of the sixteenth century ger pontiff Rmacandra Bhrati. 254 This fact, however, does not detract from the significance of Vidyraya as a scholar and an important contributor to the Advaita tradition. Through the examination of the parallels in the opening and closing verses to various works, an attempt has been made to identify works that are definitely authored by Mdhava-Vidyraya and by his guru and predecessor at geri, Bhrattrtha. 255 An argument has been made for the joint authorship of the Pacada by Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha, on the basis of a re-examination of the evidence, primarily references to the PD in the JMV, as well as Appayya Dkitas references to the PD in his Siddhnta-lea- sagraha (SLS). This is further augmented by the attribution of the Tptidpa-prakaraa,
253 Cf. p. 14. 254 Cf. pp. 10-11. 255 Cf. , p. 34. Table 4: Works by Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha 76
PD7 to Bhrattrtha by Vidyrayas disciple, Rmaka in his commentary to the PD. I suggest that we would be ill-advised to deprecate the testimony afforded by Rmaka, owing to his contemporaneity with Vidyraya and Bhrattrtha as well as his direct discipleship of Vidyraya. If anything, the historical proximity ought to force us to consider this evidence more significant relative to textual citations made approximately two hundered years later (by Appayya Dkita). The persistence of memory regarding dual-authorship in traditional accounts may have some basis in fact, particularly when there seems more prestige to be gained by attributing the entire work to Vidyraya alone. Taken altogether, it appears that Vidyraya authored the PD with Bhrattrtha authoring only PD7. The review of the parallel loka-s and pda-s found between the PD and the Anubhti-praka (AP), 256 particularly the lack of any shared references to verses in PD7, also supports this conclusion, though this aspect of the analysis is by no means complete or definitive and presumably some hitherto undetected parallels may surface on further exhaustive study. I then turn to the Pacada itself, in order to investigate whether there is any evidence of sylistic or doctrinal discontinuity between PD7 and the rest of the text that would corroborate the joint authorship hypothesis. 257 PD7 proves to be a comprehensive overview of the entire text, structured as an exposition of the ruti-vkya BU 4.4.12. As such, no evident discontinuity of doctrinal ideas or literary style between PD7 and the whole text is observed. This is not altogether surprising, since Bhrattrtha, the proposed author of PD7, was Vidyrayas guru, and both of them also acknowledged Vidytrtha
256 Cf. sections 3.7 and 3.8, pp. 29-33. 257 Cf. chapters 4 and 5, pp. 37-55 77
as their guru; therefore their ideas of Advaita Vednta doctrine, as evidenced in their writings in the PD at the very least, would likely be in concord. PD7 proves to be a masterful presentation of the stages that a seeker after liberation, moka, passes through, beginning with being ignorant of ones true, non-dual nature and culminating with experiencing endless and absolute satisfaction, tpti during jvanmukti, liberation while still alive. Next, in order to investigate whether Bhrattrtha and Vidyraya present any novel interpretations of Advaita Vednta doctrine in the PD, the extra-textual context of the ruti-vkya BU 4.4.12 was examined in three sources: the Bhadrayaka Upaniad (BU) itself, akaras bhya on this vkya (BUBh), and its treatment in Vidyrayas Bhadrayaka-vrtika-sra (BVS). 258 We find that all the texts considered are faithful to the context of BU 4.4.12. differing only in the presentation of the contrast between an ignorant person and one who knows ones true nature. BUBh and BVS are relatively terse as they are constrained by the circumstance of occuring within a commentary to the BU. The PD7, being part of an independent treatise, has far greater freedom to provide a detailed exegesis and a thorough exposition of the fundamentals of Advaita doctrine. Vidyraya (and Bhrattrtha) can be credited with several innovations, which were summarized in chapter 8. 259 Without oversimplifying matters, the importance of liberation and the means for achieving it are succintly presented in the Pacada, and doubts are raised and resolved. Most importantly, the view from the other side what life looks like from the perspective of one who is enlightened is dealt with at length.
258 Cf. chapter , , pp. 56-66; chapter , Comparison of the various discourses on BU 4.4.12, pp. 67-70. 6 Extra-textual Context of PD7 7 259 Cf. pp. 71-74. 78
The text is highly accessible owing to its use of delightful analogies and metaphors. It makes the attainment of liberation seem not just the purview of a select, exalted few but rather something that anybody can achieve with the proper preparation and effort. These factors help explain why the Pacada is one of the more popular Advaita Vednta texts even today.
79
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Appendix 1: PD7 Citations Table 5: Texts Cited by PD7, Frequency Abbrev. Text Times Cited AiU Aitareya Upaniad 2 BU Bhadrayaka Upaniad 19 BBU Brahma- (or Amta-) Bindu Upaniad 2 BG Bhagavad Gt 9 BhP Bhgavata Pura 1 BS Brahmastra 2 BSBh Brahmastra Bhmati 1 ChU Chndogya Upaniad 6 a a Upaniad 1 Ka Kaha Upaniad 4 Kaiv Kaivalya Upaniad 4 MS Manu Sahita 1 MN Mahnryaa Upaniad 1 MU Muaka Upaniad 4 NUTU Nsihottara-tpanya Upaniad 2 Nai Naikarmyasiddhi of Surevara 2 PD Pacada 7 Bh akara Bhya 1 vet vetvatara Upaniad 1 TU Taittirya Upaniad 3 US Upadeashasr 2 V Vkyavtti (akara?) 5 VR UP Vsiha Rmyaa, Utpatti Prakaraa 1 VR VP Vsiha Rmyaa, Vairgya Prakaraa 1 ViP Viu Pura 1 YS Yogastra 1 YV Yoga Vsiha 1
94
Table 6: Citations in PD7, sorted by Source Source PD7 v. Source PD7 v. AiU 1.1.1-1.3 68 a 7 181 AiU 3.1.1 199 Ka 1.2.7+ 297 BU 1.4.8+ 202 Ka 2.1.4+ 171 BU 2.4.14+ 181 Ka 2.2.4,8 219 BU 2.4.5 193 Ka 4.11 95 BU 2.4.5 202 Kaiv 1.12-14 217 BU 2.4.5+ 97 Kaiv 1.17 or 20 213 BU 2.5.18+ 5 Kaiv 1.18 or 21 215 BU 4.1.4+ 198 Kaiv 42 286 BU 4.3.15-17 212 MN 10.5 286 BU 4.3.23+ 219 MS 2.94 147 BU 4.4.12 1 MU 2.2.5 128 BU 4.4.12+ 18 MU 3.1.4 107 BU 4.4.21 107 MU 3.1.7 95 BU 4.4.21 128 MU 3.2.9 241 BU 4.4.6+ 183 NUTU 9 217 BU 4.4.9 95 NUTU 9 3 BU 4.5.13-15 183 Nai 2.77 195 BU 4.5.6 193 Nai 4.67 191 BU 4.5.6 97 PD 1.40+ 72 BU Bh 1.4.15-39 191 PD 1.44+ 72 BBU 11 214 PD 13.83 106 BBU 9 95 PD 14.40-57 253-270 BG 14.22 225 PD 14.5 1 BG 18.60 161 PD 14.58-64 291-297 BG 18.66 286 PD 6.213 4 BG 3.25-26 285 vet 4.9-10 217 BG 3.33 155 TU 2.1.5 66 BG 3.36 159 TU 3.1.1 63 BG 3.37 160 TU 3.6.1 64 BG 6.34 120 US 17.61+ 173 BG 9.22 108 US 4.5 20 BS 4.1.1+ 97 V 37-53+ 70 BS 4.4.16 183 V 38-41 75-78 BSBh 4.1.16 17 V 44-46 71-73 BhP 11.23.17 139 V 48 74 ChU 6.2.1 61 V 49 97 ChU 6.8.1 183 VR UP 22.24 106 ChU 6.8.7 61 V VP 21.1 R 140 ChU 7.24.1 181 ViP 1.20.19 203 ChU 8.11.1 226 YS 1.50+ 149 ChU 8.7.1-3 67 YV ? 121 The notation XX nn+ indicates a paraphrase of or allusion to the specified section as opposed to an exact citation. 95
Appendix 2: Passages in Sanskrit A. akarcryas bhya on BU 4.4.12: 260
tmna sva para sarva-pri-manita-ja htstham aanydi-dharmttam ced yadi vijnyt sahasreu kacit | ced ity tma-vidyy durlabhatava darayati | katha? aya para tm sarva-pri-pratyaya-sk yo neti nettydy ukto, yasmn nnyo sti dra rot mant vijt sama sarva-bhta-stho nitya-uddha-buddha- mukta-svabhvosmi bhavmti, prua purua | sa kim icchan tat-svarpa- vyatiriktam anyad vastu phala-bhta kim icchan kasya vnyasya tmano vyatiriktasya kmya prayojanya | na hi tasytmana eavya phalam | na cpy tmanonyo sti, yasya kmyecchati, sarvasytma-bhtatvt | ata kim icchan kasya kmya arram anusajvaret bhraet | arropdhikta-dukham anudukh syt | arra-tpam anutapyeta | antma-darino hi tad-vyatirikta-vastv-antarepso | mameda syt putrasyeda bhryy ida ity evam hamna puna punar janana-maraa- prabandha-rha arra-rogam anurujyate | sarvtma-darinas tu tad asabhava ity etad ha | B. Vidyrayas Bhadranyaka-vrtikasra (BVS) on BU 4.4.12: 261
BVS 4.4.272: brahmvabodha-yuktn nieo dukha-sakaya | lokena pacamentra vispaam abhidhyate || 273: purua paripro yam asmti hy parokyata | ya tmna vijnti arrnujvaro sya ka || 274: na vetti cet svam tmna dehtmatva-bhramd asau | bhoktus tasyaiva bhogya bhogam icchann anujvaret || 275: yasya srvtmya-bodhena bdha syd bhokt-bhogyayo | kim i[c]chan kasya kmya arram anusajvaret || 276: nisagasybhisambandho dehensya na kacana | nto dehdi-dukhena dukhitva pratyag-tmana ||
272: tmnam ity ady avatrayati brahmeti | 273: lokkari vykurvan jna-prakram abhinayati purua iti | 274: tmadhiyo jvara-nivtti-hetutvam upapdayitu tad ajnasya jvara-hetutvam ha neti | svasya bhokttva-bhramd bhogya-jtam icchan bhogya-ne jvaran tad deham anu jvaret tapyetety artha | 275: jnasya tan nivtti-hetutvam upapdayati yasyeti | bhoktur brahma-rpatve bhogyasya tucchatve ca jne ki bhogya kasya bhoktu kmyecchan arropadhi-kta-dukham anu dukh syad ity artha | 276: deha-tpentmanas tpbhvam uktam eva spaayati nisagasyeti |
Image of Vidyraya in JNM, Dkita (1983), p. iii.
262 BVS: Vajhe, p.928. 97
Index Entries are arranged in the order of the English alphabet. Sanskrit terms are in italics. Names of persons, places, works and other proper nouns are listed without italics, with the first letter capitalized. Though footnotes are also indexed, limitations of the indexing software do not allow for listing the footnote numbers wherein an entry occurs, only the page number where it occurs is provided.