Academic Discourse Practices

ACADEMIC DISCOURSE PRACTICES
(HOW TO WRITE A BA PROJECT)

SESSION ONE
COURSE OUTLINE; TOPIC OF THE BA PROJECT; WORK
DONE SO FAR; SUPERVISION AND SUPERVISORS;
PROBLEMS/QUESTIONS
1. Topic of the BA Project and work done so far
If you have done your homework, get in your group of four
and, together, find answers to the following questions. Appoint a
speaker to report on the work of your group:
a. What is the topic of your project? How did you choose it?
Have you made any changes?
b. What/how much have you done so far?
To help you think and discuss you might want to look at what
Bell (1996: 15-16) says about selecting a topic:
1.
The topic may be given to you. Did this happen in your
case? By whom? What was your reaction?
2. You may have an idea or a particular area of interest that you

would like to explore.
3. You may have several ideas, all equally interesting. If so,
write them down and try to decide which one is the most
feasible (remember there are time and space constraints for a
BA project!). To explore feasibility:
a) consult the library catalogue to see how much has
been written;
b) talk to fellow students, teachers, possible
supervisor. Their views may differ from or even
conflict with your own and may suggest
alternative ways of inquiry.
2. Supervision and supervisors

Use the space below to make notes about such issues as how
you got your supervisor, how you communicate with
him/her, how he/she helped at the initial stage of your
project, things that go/went well, things that do not/did not
work in your common endeavour.
Then discuss your notes with the other members of your group
and see what you have in common and what is different in
this matter. Next appoint a speaker to report on your
discussion.
To help you here is an adapted version of what Phillips and
Pugh (1996: 82-99) have to say in the matter of what
supervisors expect of their supervisees:
a) Supervisors expect their supervisees to be independent.
This is not as straightforward as it may first appear.
Despite the emphasis put on independence throughout
the whole period of your undergraduate studies and that
3
of working on your BA project, there are still very

important
aspects
of
the
process
that
demand
conformity: conformity to accepted methodologies, to

departmental and university policies, to style of
presentation, and to those things which your supervisor
considers to be important. Your supervisor is in a
powerful position with regard to your work and your
progress through the system. For these matters it is no
simple matter to balance the required degree of
conformity with the need to be independent.
b) Supervisors expect their supervisees to produce legible
written work. There is nothing more irritating to a busy
academic than to be expected to read through pages and
pages of illegible handwritten script. Not only does it
slow down the task intolerably but it detracts from
concentrating on the line of the argument being
developed, as the concentration is needed to decipher
words and phrases. Sometimes illegible parts are
skipped, so the supervisor can miss completely a major
point that the student is attempting to justify. To add
insult to injury from the supervisors point of view
the student will probably complain subsequently that
the supervisor merely made a cursory and superficial
reading of the document. To prevent all these problems,
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any written work submitted to the supervisor needs to

be legible. It can be either handwritten (legibly!) with
wide margins and space between paragraphs to allow
space for comments, or word processed with the same
spaces.
c) Supervisors expect to have regular meetings with their
supervisees. The more frequent the meetings, the more
casual they are likely to be , helping to create a climate
for discussion.
d) Supervisors expect their supervisees to follow the
advice that they give, when it was given at the request
of the student. This really seems to be a most reasonable
expectation, yet it is surprising how often it is
contravened.
And finally, some tips for those of you who find it hard to
manage their supervisors (again adapted from Phillips and
Pugh (1996)):
- Discuss your expectations and hopes for the working
relationship between the two of you.
- Deadlines are very important: agree with your
supervisor on the dates of your meetings and the
amount of work you are supposed to do before each
meeting. Get your supervisor to mark the dates in
5
his/her diary and sometimes remind them (politely) that

you have given them things to read.
- On the occasion of your meetings ask for clarification
on your supervisors comments on your work if you
think they are not clear enough. Do not go away with
things that you cannot understand and cannot therefore
improve.
3.
Problems? Questions/
Is there any thing you would like to clarify/ask?

HOMEWORK FOR SESSION TWO:
In your groups examine the BA projects you have been given
and prepare to speak about: their font and font size, justification,
bold and italic, margins, spacing, page numbers, notes,
appendices, and referencing.

SESSION TWO
TECHNICALITIES OF WRITING A BA PROJECT
STYLESHEET; PLANNING THE PROJECT
The main points of this session are:
1. Stylesheet
2. Starting out: list of first thoughts/research questions
3. Contents [page(s)]
4. Title/Working title of the project
1. Stylesheet
In writing a BA project the main aims are that you get some
practice
in
and
demonstrate
knowledge
of
writing
scholarly/academic pieces of non-fiction, from a stylistic,

content and technical point of view.
The emphasis in this session is on the technical aspects of the
project and on your looking at existing BA projects for purposes
of comparison. Mention need to be made that the stylesheet you
will be introduced to in this session, and therefore advised to use
in your project, has been agreed upon by members of the
department staff (your supervisors being among them). There
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are at least two reasons for which the department has made such
a decision: first, there seems to be a need for standardisation of
all BA projects and second, (but not less important, for that
matter), reader friendliness should be the concept which
underlies all your efforts to produce a good project.
All the information about the technical aspects of writing your
BA project starts from the assumption that you are able to use a
computer or that you can instruct the person who will do the
word processing for you, which is going to make your task
somewhat harder.
1.1
Font and font size.
You are advised to use Times New Roman in your choice of

font and 12 for font size. For reasons of comparison you may
want to look at the materials in this course which are written
with Times New Roman 12 points.
1.2
Justification
Full justification, blocked paragraphs (not indented) and a

blank line between paragraphs are recommended. Again, if
you want an example, these materials abide by these
instructions.
Justification for: Chapter titles = centred
8
e.g.:
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
Introduction
1.7 Conclusion
Section/subsection titles = left
1.3 Bold and Italic
a) Bold
Use it for: - the front page of your project
- the contents page of your project
- chapter, section and subsection titles
- names of authors in the reference list
- bold italic may be used in the text for special emphasis
b) Italic
Use it for: - unassimilated borrowings, and for Latin, French,
German formulae (e.g. status quo, ad hoc, comme il faut,
Zeitgeist)
- isolated
Romanian
words
in
otherwise
English
sentences
- for emphasis, i.e. when you are especially attracting
your readers attention to one or several words. If these
words belong to a quotation and they are not in italics in
the original text, do not forget to put: (my
emphasis/emphasis added/emphasis in the original)
9
e.g.: The pronunciation may also be heard, [], from

natives of Southern England []. (Jones, 1974: xvii)
(my emphasis)
- titles of books in the reference list
2 Margins
Leave a wider left margin because your project needs to be
bound. Wider means 3 centimetres or 3.5 if your computer
says otherwise.
1.4
Line spacing
Use 1,5 line spacing. Reader friendliness is what makes this

spacing important; less than 1,5 spacing makes your text
uncomfortable to read and more than that makes the reader
suspicious that you are just trying to fill the required number of
pages.
1.5
Page numbers
Number each page of your project. The position of the page

numbers must be at the bottom of the page and their alignment
at the centre of the page. It is however, advisable to keep your
document without page numbers while you are working on it
and give it page numbers when you think (and your supervisor
agrees!) it is ready for submission.
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1.6
Notes
Use end of chapter notes or footnotes with numbers in the text

and a numbered list at the end of each chapter or at the bottom
of the page. Do not forget to check the existence of the numbers
in the text, they tend to disappear in the process of writing and
give the reader a hard time making sense of your work.
1.7
Other bits and pieces
a). Headed sections must be numbered, thus 4. 3. Analysis. One,

two, three or four decimal numbers for sub-section numbers
may be used if desired (e.g. 4.1./4.1.2/4.1.2.1.). but not more.
b). For short items listed after bullets or numbers use the
bullets/numbers icon and no punctuation at line ends. Use
either capitals or low case after bullets.
c). Appendices (if any) must be placed at the end of the project,
after the list of references (see below), with Appendix One and
(after a blank line) the appendix heading, if applicable.
d) Chapter numbers must be written as letters, e.g. Chapter
One; section numbers must be figures, e.g. 1.1.
e) Use full-stops after: etc. and e.g. i.e. (do not use suspension
points = three dots)
f) Use single spaces between sentences, i.e. do not double space
after a full-stop, question mark, etc.
11
ACTIVITY:
Look at the BA project you have been given and in groups of
three or four, discuss whether it meets the aforementioned
requirements. Assign a speaker for the group to report to the
class.
1.8
Referencing
One of the things you have to do in academic writing is to show

how your ideas relate to the ideas of other writers whose work
you have read. Exactly which other writers to refer to and how
to do it is the most difficult part of this kind of writing. In this
last section of session two we will just deal with the
practicalities: how to physically present the evidence of your
reading in your writing. Once you know what you are expected
to put in your project and in the reference list at the end of it,
you will be able to see what sorts of things you need to keep a
record of as you read.
We will here look at two aspects of referencing:
a) References in the text
There are several ways an authority can be cited in a paper.
Most people use the following system:
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- direct quotation: e.g. Valdman (1973: 15) suggests that

() perfectly controlled research that answers
significant and relevant questions in second-language
learning is an illusion.
- paraphrase of the authors words: e.g.: Valdman claims
that it is highly difficult to do research that answers
relevant questions in the area of second-language
learning for reasons which (etc.) (1973: 15)
- in both cases it is useful to give the year of publication
and the page number of the book/journal you got your
information from. It is in the reference list that the
reader can trace the title and all the other details.
- references in the body of your text should be ordered
either alphabetically or chronologically, e.g.:
Faerch
and
Kasper
(1981),
Godfrey
(1980),
Schachter (1974) and Schachter and Celce-Murcia

(1977) have all pointed to avoidance strategies as
another form of covert grammatical error.
Schachter (1974), Schachter and Celce-Murcia
(1977), Godfrey (1980) and Faerch and Kasper
(1981) have all pointed to avoidance strategies as
anther form of covert grammatical error.
13
- if you take a quotation from a source other than the

original, (secondary quotation) show where you got it
from, e.g.
According to Skehan (1978) (quoted/cited in Ellis,
1994) ..
It is however somewhat dangerous to quote something
that is already quoted where you quote it from and, in
such cases, it is advisable to go after the original source.
The practice is yet, not unknown. Do not use it
excessively and always indicate the fact that you are not
quoting the original. Views vary whether in this case
Skehan (1978) (in the example above) has to go in the
reference list. To make sure you do not get criticised for
that, you should put such secondary references in the
list at the end of your project.
b) Reference list
A BA project ends with a reference list, not a bibliography (see
materials for the Academic Writing course - IInd year). When
doing library research, it is useful to make notes about the
content of the work you read but it is highly important for you
not to forget to write down the bibliographical details of the
works which will have to go in your reference list. This will
14
save you the time and effort of chasing after your sources again
at the end of your work on your project and will spare you the
readers doubt about whether you have actually read and used
the books and papers you refer to.
In the reference list therefore, you have to give the following
information about:
- a book: (one author)- authors family name (in bold)
- authors first name (initials) (in bold)
- the year of publication (in brackets)
- the title of the book, the edition you have used (if it is
not the first/only edition) (in italic)
- the city of publication and the publisher. (Many
publishers have offices in more than one city (like
London and New York: Longman) In your reference list
give only the first. (In the case of smaller US cities, the
state is also given.))
Here is an example:
Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language
Acquisition. Oxford: OUP
- a book: (two authors)- authors family name (bold)
- first authors first name (initials); when you write the
second author start with the initial
15

- the title of the book, the edition you have used (if it is
not the first/only edition) (in italics)
- the city of publication and the publisher.
Here is an example:
Schumann, J., and N. Stenson. (eds.) (1974). New Frontiers in
Second Language Learning. Rowley Mass: Newbury
House.
NB: 1. If the author(s) of the book is/are the editor(s), write
(ed(s.)) after the names.
2. If an item in the reference list takes up more than one line,
indent the second line (one tab)
- an article in a journal:
- authors family name (in
bold)
- the title of the article, NOT in italics
- name and volume number of journal (in italics)
- page references
Here is an example:
Schumann, J. (1993). Some problems with falsification: an
illustration from SLA research. Applied Linguistics 14:
295-306. (pp.
295-306)
16
- an article in an edited book: - authors family name (in

bold)
- the title of the article, NOT in italics
- name(s) of editor(s)of the book in which it appears
(NOT in bold)
- year of publication
- title of the book (in italics)
- page references
- place of publication
- name of publisher
Here is an example:
Lightbown, P. (1983). Exploring relationships between
developmental and instructional sequences in L2
acquisition. In Seliger, H. and M. Long. (eds.) Classroomoriented Research in Second Language Acquisition.
Rowley Mass: Newbury House.
ACTIVITY:
17
Look at the BA project you have been given and in groups of

three or four, discuss whether it meets the requirements about
referencing. Assign a speaker for the group to report to the class.
1.9
FRONT PAGE
Your project will have to have a cover (information written in

ROMANIAN) and a front/first page (information written in
English). The next two pages are examples of what your cover
and first page should look like.
18
UNIVERSITATEA TRANSILVANIA DIN BRAOV

FACULTATEA DE LITERE
DEPARTAMENTUL DE LINGVISTIC TEORETIC I
APLICAT
(size: 18 points)
LUCRARE DE DIPLOM
(size: 20 points)
Absolvent
Ioana Ionescu
(size: 18 points)
Coordonator
Lector universitar Paula Popescu
(size: 18 points)
Braov
2014 (size: 18 points)
19
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY OF BRAOV

FACULTY OF LETTERS
DEPARTMENT OF THEORETICAL AND APPLIED
LINGUISTICS
(size: 18 points)
BA PROJECT
(size: 24 points)
THE SYMBOL OF THE SEA IN
E. M. HEMINGWAYS NOVEL
THE OLD MAN AND THE SEA
(size: 18 points)
Candidate
Ioana Ionescu
(size: 18 points)
Supervisor
Senior lecturer Paula Popescu
(size:18 points)
Braov
2014 (size: 18 points)
20
HOMEWORK FOR SESSION THREE

1. Think and make notes about the way you have planned your
project. Did you need any help? Did you get it?
2. Come to class with a copy of your contents page at this stage
of your writing. If you do not have one, write one before the
session.
2. Starting out: list of first thoughts/research questions
In a short project, the size of a BA project, it is not possible to
do everything, so what you have to do is consider your
priorities. Planning the project is one of these priorities. In the
process of planning your project you need to start from choosing
a topic (see Session ONE) and draw up a first thoughts list of
questions (Bell, 1996:17) or a list of research questions. The
idea of research and research questions may be a little
overwhelming for you as undergraduates writing a BA project.
Even if such a project is meant to show your ability to mainly do
bibliographical research and prove understanding of the
literature (here read non-fiction) when you write, it is highly
unlikely that anyone would write about any topic without asking
themselves all sorts of why, what, how etc. questions
before and while writing.
21
What this course is trying to demonstrate is that it necessary for

you to be able to formulate such questions and, more
importantly, it is necessary to tell the reader of your project
about them and spell them out properly.
At the beginning stage of planning your project the order and
wording of your questions are not important. Your aim is to
write down all possible questions, no matter how vague. You
will refine and order them later on.
In research however, in order to obtain reasonable answers,
scholars need to ask the right sort of questions. Nunan (1992:
213) discusses the issue of research questions and gives highly
illuminating examples. He maintains that:
The [research] questions need to be:
1. worth asking in the first place
2. capable of being answered.
There are many questions or issues which are
eminently capable of being researched, but which
may not be worth asking. For example, it would be
technically feasible to determine the number of
Spanish interpreters who wear designer jeans, or the
relationship between the wearing of rubber thongs
(AmE = a type of shoes that you hold on with your
toes; BrE = flipflops) and academic achievement.
However, it is highly dubious whether these
questions are worth asking. Unfortunately, often the
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questions which are the easiest to answer are not

worth asking.
For the purposes of this session, in order to give you examples
of possible research questions, two of your project topics have
been chosen (the choice may not have been a happy one and
the course tutor does not claim any authority in any of the two
domains). Of these two topics, the former is Relationships in D.
H. Lawrences novels: Sons and Lovers and The Rainbow
and the latter, New methods of teaching a foreign language.
Your list of first thoughts or research questions might be on the
following lines:
a) 1. What is meant by relationship in this investigation?
1. Is there a relationship between the two novels?
2. What barriers to relationships are there in the two novels?
3. etc.
b) 1. What is meant by new methods in language
teaching?
2.What is the difference between older and new language
teaching methods?
3. What is the role of the teacher in implementing the new
language teaching methods?
4.etc.
ACTIVITY:
23
Now that you have some idea about what questions you could
try to answer in your project, take some time and think about it.
Then write at least three questions that you might want to
answer in your project, (your questions must be either wh- or
yes/no questions) discuss them in your groups, see if your
partners can give you any feed-back and finally appoint a
speaker to summarise the activity to the class.
2.1 First thoughts/research questions where in the

project? (if at all !)
ACTIVITY:
This is an activity where you are required to discuss about and
decide, as a group, if the questions we have been talking about
are worth asking, if they are worth being mentioned in your
project and where. Again, a speaker for the group will have to
report to the class.
24
The important thing is to discuss the issue of these questions

with your supervisor and abide by her/his advice.
3. Contents [page(s)]
The Contents Page is an important element of your BA project.
It therefore needs a lot of thinking and the stage at which you
are planning your project is the time when you have to think
about and write down a first version of the contents page of your
project.
ACTIVITY:
If you havent thought about the contents page of your project so
far, its high time you did! If you have already got one, (good
for you!) a discussion about it will certainly help. But, at this
moment of the session, take some time to think of the chapters,
subchapters/sections, subsections, appendices, tables, and
reference list you have planned, write down a version of the
contents page and then discuss it in your group. In your
discussion of your own contents page, give arguments for your
decisions. Of course, one of you needs to report to the class at
the end of your discussions.
25
4. Title/Working title of the project

The title of your project is of course very much related to the
topic you have all looked at in Session One. You will have
certainly understood that that is only a working title which
usually changes several times before you can finally print it on
the front page of your project.
The final version of the title should tell the reader what your
project is about so you will only be ready to devise a final title
when you are clear about the focus of your study. Relationships
in D. H. Lawrences novels etc., for example, will serve for the
time being but, later on, a refined version or even a subtitle will
no doubt clarify the nature of the topic and give the reader a clue
about what she/he will look at.
QUESTION:
Has anyone gone through several versions of their title? If so,
can they share their experience with everyone else?
HOMEWORK FOR SESSION FOUR:
Bring with you a (ONE) book that you have read (or are
currently reading for your project) and any piece of paper on
26
which you have made notes while reading and which you have
used or intend to use in writing your paper.
27

SESSION THREE
READING THE LITERATURE KEEPING RECORDS AND
MAKING NOTES
1. Reading the literature for your BA project.
2. Keeping records and making notes
1. Reading the literature
Once you have established the topic of your BA project, planned
it and did all this with some books or journal articles in front of
you or at least in your mind you are ready to start reading.
Reading is, of course, a very complex process, but it is not the
main focus of this course. What we are interested in here is how
we read what we read and how we make notes of what we find
relevant in our reading. The way these notes are used in the
actual writing of the project is the focus of a future session.
ACTIVITY:
28
In your groups tell one another about the way you have read the
sources of your project.
You may want these guidelines in your discussion:
- what do you do first when you have a new (?) and
highly relevant book in front of you?
- how do you know the books/articles you have gathered
in view of reading and using them for your project are
relevant for your topic?
- demonstrate the relevance of the book you have brought
to your group mates
Do not forget: one of you has to report to the class about your
activity.
COMMENTS:
Use this space to note any interesting things coming out of the
discussion:
ACTIVITY:
29
In your groups again look at the pieces of paper with your

reading notes and discuss about the way you make notes when
you read. Appoint a speaker to report to the class.
2. Keeping records and making notes
a) Keeping records by using index cards
The virtues of index cards (which you can buy at any stationary
or you can make yourselves) have often been pointed out:
- they are neat, easy to handle and give you a nice
physical feeling of something achieved
- they are useful as a record of everything youve read
because they will contain: bibliographical details (name
of author, date, title of article or book, place of
publication, publisher, page numbers if it is an article)
- on the same card you can put: page references to the
original and/or to your own paper and some key words
- some people like to keep their favourite quotations in a
separate index card system
- some people keep a card index system for issues, e.g.
feminine characters in 19th century novel then notes
on what they have found out about that in various
places
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Here are some examples of how to record bibliographic

information:
a) Source card for a book:
Subjec
t (optional):
SLA
Author: R. Ellis
Year of publication: 1994
Title: The Study of Second Language Acquisition
Publisher: Oxford University Press
Place of publication: Oxford
b) source card for a journal article:
Sub
ject (optional)
Lan
guage Testing
Author: Patricia A. Denham
Title: Tests of aural/oral control of language
31
Journal: Papua New Guinea Journal of Education

Volume No; Issue No.: Vol. 16, No. 3
Date of volume/issue: 1969
Page reference: pp. 1-16
c) source card for an article or chapter in a book:
Subject (optional)
African History
Author: D.H. Jones
Year of publication: 1961
Title of article/chapter: Peoples and kingdoms of the Central
Sudan
Editor: in Roland Oliver (ed.)
Title of book: The Dawn of African History
Place of publication: London
Publisher: Oxford University Press
b) Making notes
ACTIVITY:
32
1. Read this quotation from Bell (1996: 29) which includes

valuable advice about the way you should make notes when
reading:
[] devise a system of note-taking which records the actual
evidence obtained from your sources. Some researchers prefer
notebooks, some prefer loose sheets of paper and others prefer
note cards. If you use a notebook, information will be recorded
as it is obtained. Leave a wide margin. At a later stage you may
wish to cut up the notebook, preferably into pieces of uniform
size, to enable you to sort material into sections ready for
planning the format of your report.
Whether you use notebooks, loose sheets or note cards will
depend on your preference, but the type of information you
record and the method of recording will be the same. There is
some merit in selecting cards. [] Experience has shown that it
is best to make only one point on each card and to use only one
side of the paper or card. You will then have maximum
flexibility in sorting out the cards at the writing stage.
2. In the space below make notes about the relevance of this
quotation for your own note-taking style.
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3. What is the content of the notes you make when you read?
Prepare to tell this to the class.
Examples of using cards for note taking:

a) quotation
Heading
(optional)
LANGUAGE: CORRECT USAGE
(use quotation marks to indicate direct quotation)
(use dots in square brackets to indicate something omitted)
Even though the language changes century by century [] we
ought to be able to see it is still an important question for every
generation whether it should say this or that, whether this or that
form is correct, and so on, it would be regrettable if those who
were most competent to decide such questions were to leave the
34
decision to the less competent.

Author/date of publication/page reference:
Jesperson, 1946, pp. 98-99
b) summary
Heading
(optional)
LANGUAGE: CORRECT USAGE
(abbreviation for authors name) J. admits that nothing can stop
language from changing, but insists that linguistic historians
(direct quotation) still have a duty to guide the less wellinformed on what is acceptable or not acceptable at a particular
time.
Author/date of publication/page reference: Jesperson, 1946, pp.
98-99
A final word about keeping records and making notes in the

computer
If you prefer to keep records and make notes directly in the
computer, and are obviously able to use one with this aim, by all
means do so. And, if you have experience in doing this in the
computer, can you give everybody some tips?
HOMEWORK FOR SESSION FIVE
35
In your groups (if possible), inspect (again) the BA projects

you have been given. This time look at how the authors use
other peoples ideas in their own writing and prepare to use your
findings in the class discussions.
36

SESSION FOUR
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN READING AND
WRITING
1. Quotations and quoting (tying loose ends from session two)
2. Introducing/reporting and commenting on other peoples
ideas in your writing
3. Plagiarism
ideas in your writing (follow up)
5. Identifying the main points of the source materials for
your BA projects: claim(s), argumentation, evidence,
conclusion(s)
1. Quotations and quoting (tying loose ends from session one)
This section will, hopefully, bring more information about the
use of quotations in your own writing.
Two things need be mentioned here: (a) from the point of view
of form, in your own text there has to be a distinction between
short quotations (one or two lines) and long quotations (more
than two lines), and (b) any quotation has to be introduced and
37
possibly followed by your own words of appreciation,

agreement, disagreement, etc. In other (rather joking) words: do
not quote and run!
To go back to short quotations here is an example from Ellis
(1994:565). It will show you how this author uses another
persons words and how he introduces the quotation and follows
it up:
A second perspective involves going inside the black box of the
classroom itself. It views the classroom as a place where
interactions of various kinds take place, affording learners
opportunities to acquire the L2. Allwright (1984:156) sees
interaction as the fundamental fact of classroom pedagogy
because everything that happens in the classroom happens
through a process of live person-to-person interaction. This
perspective has drawn heavily on the research and theories
dealing with the relationship between input/interaction and L2
learning.
NB: 1. For the purposes of this session, Elliss words have been
put in italics to demonstrate how he makes the connection
between his own line of thought and the quotation.
38
2. The name of the quoted author, the year and the page are in
bold italics to show you that you have to put such reference in
your text, but not in bold italics.
In order to demonstrate how a long quotation should appear in
your text, here is another passage from Ellis (1994:575):
The Communicative Orientation in Language Teaching (COLT)
(Allen, Frolich and Spada, 1984) differs from the systems that
preceded it in that it was not only informed by current theories
of communicative competence and communicative language
teaching but also by research into L1 and L2 acquisition. The
authors comment:
The observational categories are designed (a) to
capture significant
features of verbal interaction in L2 classrooms and
(b) to provide a
means of comparing some aspects of classroom
discourse with natural
language as it is used outside the classroom
(1984:232)
39
The system is in two parts. The first part, A description of

classroom activities, is designed for use in real time coding.
NB: 1. Again, the words in italics are Elliss with bold italic for
the words that he actually uses to introduce the quotation after
having commented on the idea(s) that it includes.
2. As you can see, a long quotation must be indented (two tabs)
and in smaller font size (10 points if the main text is written in
12 points).
Another issue worth looking at when we have quotations in
mind is that of secondary quotations. You are referred to
SESSION TWO for information on how to use (in your text)
quotations already quoted. However you must remember that
such quotations must be used sparingly otherwise you may be
accused of not making enough effort to trace the original
sources.
ACTIVITY:
With what you have read so far about the use of quotations at
the back of your mind, look at the papers you wrote for the CLL
course, find any quotations or paraphrases you may have used,
point them out to your group mates. Prepare to report to the
40
class. Then do the same thing with the BA projects you have
been given.
Use this space to make notes:
ideas in your writing
Here are some useful expressions for introducing/reporting and
commenting on other peoples arguments and ideas in your
writing.
NB: This list is not exhaustive, however, you may find it useful:
a) when selecting the reporting verb appropriate to your
own stand
b) for reasons of elegant variation
[The author]:
- says/argues/explains/states/notes (that)
- holds
the
view/puts
forward
the
view/maintains/expresses the view (that)

- puts
(something)
across
(very)
convincingly/unconvincingly
- acknowledges/recognises/admits/(dis)agrees (that)
- alleges/claims/suggests/implies/refers
out/indicates/shows (that)
41
to/points
- highlights/underlines/emphasises/brings out/points to
- wonders (if/why)/asks him/herself (why)/questions
(whether)/addresses the issue/question/problem of
- concludes (that/by)/sums up (by)/reaches the conclusion
(that)
Comment on other peoples ideas:
e.g.: - As X argues, . (indicates you agree)
- X argues, wrongly in my view, that .. (indicates
disagreement)
Acknowledge your role in interpreting an author:

e.g.: In my understanding, X means that .
As I understand Xs point, .
My understanding of Xs view is that
Xs view would suggest, in my opinion, that ..
ACTIVITY:
Imagine that you are writing an assignment for this course, and
that you have read among other things, an article by
Bartholomae 1985 (see end of session for complete reference).
Read these three extracts from this article:
42
The student has to appropriate (or to be appropriated by) a

specialised
discourse, and he [Bartholomaes generic pronoun] and he
has to do this as though he were easily and comfortably at
one with his audience, as though he were a member of the
academy or an historian or an anthropologist or an
economist; he has to invent the university by mimicking its
language while finding some compromise between
idiosyncrasy, a personal history, on the other hand, and the
requirements of convention, the history of a discipline, on
the other. He must speak our language. Or he must dare to
speak it to carry off the bluff, since speaking and writing
will most certainly be required long before the skill is
learned . (page 134)
To speak with authority [student writers] have to speak
not only in anothers voice but through anothers code; and
they not only have to do this, they have to speak in the
voice and through the codes of those of us with power and
wisdom; and they not only have to do this, they have to do
it before they know what they are doing. (page 156)
43
Their initial progress will be marked by their abilities to

take on the role of privilege, by their abilities to establish
authority. (page 162)
Referring to these three extracts, quote or paraphrase them and
write:
1. One or two sentences in which you appeal to Bartholomae as
authority for a point in your own argument.
2. One or two sentences in which you explain what you
understand by one of Bartholomaes points, and how it is
relevant to your argument.
3. One or two sentences in which you present Bartholomaes
contribution to thinking about academic writing.
4. One or two sentences in which you show how you disagree
with something Bartholomae says.
Work in groups. Use the list of useful expressions in writing
your sentences. Report to the class. There will be a follow up of
this activity in SESSION SIX. You are therefore required to
bring to class your answers to questions 1-4.
3. Plagiarism
To sum up, you need to understand that it is practically
unavoidable and, in fact, very welcome to discuss what other
people have to say about the topic you have chosen for your BA
44
project. The most faithful way of presenting the views of an

author is by quoting his words verbatim. This, however, must be
indicated, actually if you put something in quotation marks, this
acts as a disclaimer stating that you do not necessarily agree
with the view put forward. Between the quotation marks you
have to cite your source as faithfully as possible. If you want to
add something put it in square brackets (see extracts from
Bartholomae, 1985), if you delete something replace it by dots
(). Even italicisation for emphasis must be noted if not present
in the original, therefore you must write italics mine/my
emphasis after the reference data.
Any other practice in the use of other peoples words and ideas
in ones own writing, i.e. failure to observe the above-mentioned
rules constitutes plagiarism.
To end this session, here is what Joan Leib writes about the
issue of plagiarism:
Plagiarism is the theft and presentation of anothers words
or ideas as ones
own, the unacknowledged use of material from another
source. Of course facts and ideas which are common
knowledge are not the property of any writer, even though
he or she has written about them, and thus you may present
45
material that is common knowledge (e.g. that the French

revolution began in 1789) without worrying about
documentation. But you must give credit (through formal
or informal documentation) for any idea not considered
common knowledge which you take from a source even
though you have developed the idea on your own such that
it is no longer recognisable as the idea of another. Also,
you must acknowledge you indebtedness to an author if
have borrowed any wording or phraseology, regardless of
the idea being treated (e.g. you would need a footnote if
you used all or part of an authors sentence such as the
following: The summer of 1789 precipitated that
frightening and cacophonous tumult called the French
Revolution.).
Blatant plagiarism is viewed as a serious breach of
academic ethics, on a par with cheating on examinations.
Sometimes students get into trouble by using ideas from a
book or article to bolster their own discussion because they
dont have to do a good job by themselves or because they
feel insecure about their ideas. And it is easy to brush aside
the seriousness of the infraction because many people do
not equate copying some words from a book with stealing.
But even a limited, casual borrowing constitutes
46
plagiarism and is likely to raise doubts in the experienced

readers mind as to the students ability and integrity.
More extensive plagiarism could result in a loss of credit
for the paper or even the entire course.
D.
Joan
Leib,
SDL3966@OBERLIN.EDU
http://www.oberlin.edu/english/writing/html

ideas in your writing (follow up)
ACTIVITY 1:
At the beginning of this SESSION you worked on three extracts
from Bartholomae
(1985) and used them to practice
introducing/reporting and commenting on other peoples ideas

in your writing. Now you have a chance to compare your
writing with that of Ivanic (1998) (see complete reference at the
end of this session). The two extracts below demonstrate how
Ivanic incorporates Bartholomaes ideas in her writing and the
way she incorporates quotations in her text.
47
Read the two extracts and compare them with your writing.
Prepare to report to the class.
Extract 1
Bartholomae, while not using the term intertextuality, nor
referring to Bakhtin, is referring to the same phenomenon when
writing about the way in which student writers have to invent
the university:
The student has to appropriate (or to be appropriated by) a
specialised
discourse, and he [Bartholomaes generic pronoun] and he
has to do this as though he were easily and comfortably at
one with his audience, as though he were a member of the
academy or an historian or an anthropologist or an
economist; he has to invent the university by mimicking its
language while finding some compromise between
idiosyncrasy, a personal history, on the other hand, and the
requirements of convention, the history of a discipline, on
the other. He must speak our language. Or he must dare to
speak it to carry off the bluff, since speaking and writing
will most certainly be required long before the skill is
learned . (Bartholomae 1985:134)
48
This is an intuitively appealing explanation for why students

write as they do, pointing out that students have to adopt a voice
which they do not yet own. However, Bartholomae treats the
requirements of convention as if they were incontestable, and
does not explore the possibility of students bringing alternative
discourses to the academy which might eventually have an
effect on its conventions. In the rest of this book I explore what
this compromise between idiosyncrasy, a personal history, on
the one hand, and the requirements of convention, the history of
a discipline, on the other means not only for my co-researchers,
but also for the institution of higher education.
Through studies such as these it is becoming increasingly
recognised that learner writers (like all writers) are not so much
learning to be creative as learning to use discourses which
already exist creatively. Intertextuality contributes to a theory
of writer identity in two ways. A writers identity is not
individual and new, but constituted by the discourses s/he
adopts. On the other hand, a writers identity is determined not
completely by other discourses, but rather by the unique way in
which she draws on and combines them.
Extract 2
49
Bartholomae presents intertextuality not only in terms of taking

on the words of others, but also taking on the roles of others. He
writes:
To speak with authority [student writers] have to speak
not only in anothers voice and through anothers code;
and they not only have to do this, they have to speak in the
voice and through the codes of those of us with power and
wisdom; and they not only have to do this, they have to do
it before they know what they are doing. (156)
and
Their initial progress will be marked by their abilities to
take on the role of privilege, by their abilities to establish
authority. (162)
He is making the point that a writer, when writing with the
discourses of the community, takes on the identity of a member
of that community. In the case of writing within the university,
that is the identity of a person with authority. This is a crucial
insight, because the one thing that characterises most of the
writers I worked with was a sense of inferiority, a lack of
confidence in themselves, a sense of powerlessness, a view of
themselves as people without knowledge, and hence without
authority. For some, this was the legacy of a working-class
50
background. For others, it was associated with age or gender; for

all, it was associated with previous failure in the education
system and an uncertainty as to whether they had the right to be
members of the academic community at all. On the other hand,
there are some who bring authority of different types into the
academic institution from different domains, such as business,
local politics or parenthood: authority which often goes
unrecognised by the academic community. I take these issues up
with examples in Chapter 10.
ACTIVITY 2:
Look at the two extracts again and answer the following
questions:
1. How does Ivanic (an academic writer) present/refer to the
work of others (in this case Bartholomae)?
2. How does she do it?
- quotation/paraphrase/summary?
- details about wording, layout, etc.
(You cant always tell exactly what she has done, as
you dont have the whole book to refer to)
3. Any observations about WHAT is referred to WHERE in the
extracts?
4. Any
observations
about
quotations/paraphrases are?
51
HOW
LONG
the
5. What language does she use to refer to the work of others?

5. Critical reading - identifying the main points of the source
materials for your BA projects: claim(s), argumentation,
evidence, conclusion(s)
This section of SESSION FOUR looks at reading as a
purposeful activity (i.e. reading with a critical eye) especially
when it is meant to be the support for the writing of your BA
project. The critical reading of source materials will be of help
when you use the ideas of other writers on your topic and in so
doing you should look for the following in your readings:
a) The major claim(s) made in the book/chapter/article,
if any.
What you should be interested in here is what the author wants
you, as reader, to believe about the questions addressed, the
issues raised as a result of your reading his work. You may
expect to find this in the introduction or conclusion of a
book/chapter or in the abstract of an article or in an opening
paragraph. But you need to remember that the author may make
claims at the beginning of his work and then modify them
through the argument so that the conclusions are somewhat
(even very) different. Note also that a sloppy author may make
claims that get forgotten thereafter.
52
b) The nature and quality of any argumentation used to

substantiate any claim(s) made.
Here you should look at what the author does, in his/her writing,
to try to persuade you to believe in the justice and wisdom of his
or her claims. You may already agree with the author, anyway,
of course, but this is not the point here at all. The point is to
analyse the structure (including the logic and evidence) of the
authors argument and then decide whether the author gives you
sufficient reason to believe him or her, whatever you may
already think on the issue in question. Note that sloppy authors
(i.e. almost all of us, including ourselves) are likely to fail to
take properly into account (and properly dispose of) possible
counter-arguments to their chosen position.
c) The nature and quality of evidence used as part of
any argument to substantiate any claim(s) made.
Part of the structure of an argument is likely to be evidence
brought forward in support of the authors claim(s). Evidence
could take a variety of forms, from experimental findings to the
wisdom of the ages (e.g. quotations from ancient philosophers).
What you, as readers, should look for is whether the author uses
evidence in support of any claim and whether this evidence is
convincing. Note also that evidence may well be entirely
consistent with a claim, but not actually any proof of its validity,
53
because it may also be consistent with quite different claims. It

is also quite common for authors to fail to seriously consider the
available counter-evidence.
d) The validity of the conclusions drawn;
i)
internal:
in
argumentation
relationship
provided
to
by
the
the
book/chapter/article,
ii)
external: in relationship to anything else you

may already know about the topic.
Note, as above, that it is in the conclusion to the

book/chapter/article that you should have been able to find the
definitive statement of the authors major claims in the first
place, but he/she may have stated some claims at the beginning
and then modified them in the argument offered throughout the
work and thus offer conclusions that do not match the original
claims made
Note that in response to ii) you will not be expected to know
everything there is to know, but there may be things you do
already know (without having to do a lot of extra reading) that
you can bring in at this stage.
54
HOMEWORK:
Go back to one of the materials you have read for your BA
project and analyse it in terms of point 2 in this Session. Prepare
to speak about it in SESSION FIVE.
REFERENCES:
Bartholomae, D. (1985). Inventing the University. In M. Rose
(ed.), When a Writer
Cant Write. New York. Guilford
Ivanic, R. (1997). Writing and Identity: The Discoursal
Construction of Identity in
Academic Writing. Amsterdam. Benjamins
Leib, J. SDL3966@OBERLIN.EDU
http://www.oberlin.edu/-english/writing/html
55

SESSION FIVE
THE LITERATURE REVIEW
1. What is a literature review?
2. A critical review characteristics
3. Making your voice heard
4. Some academic discourse conventions
1. What is a literature review?
In SESSION FOUR you focused on the critical reading of the
source materials for your BA project. This activity materialised
in reading notes, of course, is the fist stage in the production of
the literature review in your project.
Starting from the assumption that there in no one good way in
which a review of literature should be done we could however
attempt to define the concept and look at how Hart (1998) (see
end of session for full reference) views this piece of writing:
Initially we can say that a review of the literature is
important because without it you will not acquire an
understanding of your topic, of what has already
56
been done on it, how it has been researched, and

what the key issues are. In your written project you
will be expected to show that you understand
previous research on your topic. This amounts to
showing that you have understood the main theories
in the subject area and how they have been applied
and developed, as well as the main criticisms that
have been made of work on the topic. The review is
therefore part of your academic development of
becoming an expert in the field. (page 1)
The following quotation, also from Hart (1998), looks at the
good and bad points in a literature review:
Undertaking a review of a body of literature is often
seen as something obvious and as a task easily done.
In practice, although () students do produce
reviews of the literature, the quality of these varies
considerably. Many reviews, in fact, are only
disguised annotated bibliographies [i.e. poor copy
and paste jobs]. Quality means appropriate breadth
and depth, rigour and consistency, clarity and
brevity, and effective analysis and synthesis; in other
words, the use of the ideas in the literature to justify
the particular approach to the topic, the selection of
57
methods, and demonstration that this research [i.e.

your work] contributes something new. Poor reviews
of a topic literature cannot always be blamed on the
student (). It is not necessarily their fault or a
failing in their ability: poor literature reviews can
often be the fault of those who provide the education
and training in research. (pages 1-2)
ACTIVITY:
Read the two extracts from Hart again and, in groups, discuss
and then make notes under the following headings:
a) definition of a literature review
b) dos and donts in a literature review
2. A critical review characteristics
58
It is clear that a lot of time and thought need be given to the

literature review, in terms of both content and the demands of
academic writing.
Below are some suggestions as to how your reviews could be
developed. Obviously, not all these will apply to everyone, but
they are things that might be helpful to several people, at least:
a) describe the book/chapter/article you are reviewing, in
terms of concepts or theory, research questions,
approach,
methodology,
analysis,
findings
and
interpretation o findings. There is no escaping this need

to be reader-friendly the impact of any judgements
you make will be lost if it is unclear what they refer to.
b) give credit where credit is due: you may not like the
book/chapter/article you are reviewing, but presumable
someone in the field thought there was worthwhile
about it. Any criticisms you have are likely to more
validity if you are seen to be able to recognise positive
points too. Even if you have many reservations about
what you are reviewing, you may still agree with the
writer, for example that the topic is important: perhaps
because it partly fills a gap in the literature, or that the
study is important since it is trying to replicate another
59
in a different context, to see if the findings are

comparable.
c) be constructively critical: even if you are unfamiliar
with the research area and the methodology, you are
still in a position to evaluate (i) the major claims in the
book/chapter/article, if any, (ii) the nature and quality of
the argumentation, (iii) the nature and quality of the
evidence and (iv) the conclusion (s) the author draws.
If
what
you
read
at
first
seems
altogether
unobjectionable, consider not just what you think is

important but also what has not been said, and also
emphasis: has something been included but its importance
exaggerated, or underplayed, for example?
The main crafting skill in writing a critical review is to
integrate these three. In order to do b) and c) successfully,
you need to engage in the academic discourse practice of
making your voice heard.
3. Making your voice heard
Clearly, giving credit where credit is due and constructively
criticising, mean putting yourself into the text. This discourse
practice is likely to be something done more in some contexts
60
than others; it is also something individuals within the same

context will vary in as regards the extent they feel comfortable
with it and we shall be discussing this soon. If you accept that
your voice is a legitimately academic one and, to my mind, as
experienced university undergraduates, with a wealth of reading
and writing experience to draw on, you have every right to do
this then the use of I is correspondingly not only appropriate,
but important. I would suggest that a reader is likely to want to
know not only where you stand, but also to see you take
responsibility for your stance.
4. Some academic discourse conventions, or Tips for

academic writers
(a)In your literature review, make clear where all the ideas and
claims came from:
e.g. Hutchinson and Torres (1975) claim that .
As Ellis (1994) says in
In my own experience as a
Do not leave the reader feeling that an idea has simply
fallen from the sky.
(b)
Make sure that it is clear how each paragraph relates to the
whole of a section, how each section relates to the whole of a

61
chapter and how the chapters relate to the topic of your BA

project. And again, make sure that all the components of the
project has a role to play in the ensemble. Always ask
yourselves: How is this sentence/paragraph/section/chapter
relevant? And, be prepared to use the Delete key
(c)If you can, do not simply introduce a quotation, (most of you
do very well), but comment on it too.
(d)
When you are evaluating negatively something the writer
has said, quote the writers actual words otherwise you run
the risk of the reader thinking you might be exaggerating, or
being selective, or simply have misinterpreted the writer. This
will lend your criticism mo0re conviction and interest. It will
also allow the reader to evaluate your evaluation. And,
perhaps most importantly, it will make you think particularly
carefully about the validity of your criticism.
(e)In relation to the above, the more specific examples and
specific quotations you can give, the better (within limits, of
course); these make your writing vivid and interesting.
ACTIVITY:
With sections 3 and 4 in mind, work in groups and tell your
partners which of the above you have done/are currently doing.
Prepare to report to the class.
62
REFERENCE:
Hart, C. (1998). Doing a Literature Review. London: Sage
Publications
63

SESSION SIX
WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW
After having looked at general points about the literature review,
this session introduces you to its actual writing.
The main points of this session are;
1. Organising and expressing ideas
2. Writing the review
3. Video session
1. Organising and expressing ideas
Once you have identified, read and made notes from the most
relevant items of literature for your own topic you are in a
position to write your literature review. Such tools as analysis,
synthesis and comparison might be the ones you need in order to
write a successful literature review.
(a)
Analysis and synthesis
ACTIVITY:
The following extracts from Hart (1998) define, in general
terms, what he understands by analysis and synthesis as basic
64
procedures for the writing of a review of literature as part of a

project similar to the one you are supposed to write. Read them
carefully and then think of your own work in terms of his ideas.
Make notes about how you have used/are using these two tools
in your writing and prepare to report to the class.
Extract 1
Analysis is the job of systematically breaking down something
into its constituent parts and describing how they relate to each
other it is not a random dissection but a methodological
examination. There is a degree of exploration in analysis. You
can play around with the parts, rearranging them in various
configurations to explore possible leads. You should not be
afraid to try things out purely to see how they fit together.
Nevertheless, when it comes to analysing several items, such as
a batch of articles, you should attempt to be systematic, rigorous
and consistent. If a range of arguments is being analysed, you
will need to explicate the claim, data and warrant for each
argument. In this way, the identification of the individual and
similar elements in a range of items can be compared and
contrasted.(page 110)
65
Extract 2
Synthesis, (), is the act of making connections between the
parts identified in the analysis. It is not simply a matter of
reassembling the parts back into the original order, but looking
for a new order. It is about recasting the information into a new
or different arrangement. That arrangement should show
connections and patterns that have not been produced
previously. (ibid.)
(b)
Comparison
ACTIVITY:
In these two extracts from Hart (1998) you will find his view on
the use of comparison in the review of literature. Read it
carefully and prepare to speak about if and how you have used
comparison in your writing, if at all.
Extract 1
A common practice in the social sciences is to make
comparisons between the works and ideas of different authors.
This usually involves finding common points of interest
between, say, definitions of main concepts, kinds of data
collected and the interpretation of findings. The practice can be
useful in identifying common areas of interest and differing
positions on similar topic areas. () The point to note, however,
66
is that comparing theorists has inherent difficulties, mainly to do

with the selection of criteria or points of reference that are valid
and comparable. (page 131)
Extract 2
Not all things can be compared with other things. Any number
of phenomena belonging to the same family of things () can
usually be analysed in comparative framework, but rarely can all
the elements in one phenomenon be compared to those of
another with equivalent degrees of similarity and difference.
There will be certain elements in one phenomenon not present in
others and vice versa. Selectivity, therefore, is essential to any
successful comparative analysis.
One of the requirements of selection is that choices made need
to be clear, explicit and justified, because the choice of which
elements to compare might affect the degree to which the reader
agrees with the analysis. The detail required for a justification
(i.e. argument) depends on the audience and the degree of
novelty of the comparison. Taking account of, and writing for, a
particular hypothetical readership is important. When setting out
on the analysis you need to have in mind just what type of
person will read the research report. Try to think about the level
of knowledge you can reasonably expect from your potential
67
readers. Similarly, the more novel or radical the comparison, the

greater the need for detailed explication. Conversely, the more
familiar the comparison, the less will be the need for
explication. (page 132)
2. Writing the review
(a)
Making a plan
We talked about planning in SESSION ONE, in this session we

look at such issues as (i) defining your purpose and (ii) choosing
an appropriate structure for your argument.
(i)
Defining your purpose

This is when you clarify your purpose in terms of
what you are aiming to achieve. This needs to be a
clear statement that is expressed in no more than a
few short sentences. It can help if you write down the
aims of the review and include them in the
introduction to the review chapter. The aims are
therefore the main reference point for the review.
The content of the review should realise those aims
in a way that is clear, systematic and direct. To do
this you need to think about the arrangement of the
chapter, and in a moment we look at three possible
arrangements. At this stage, however, remember that
your notes need to be organised in a way that
68
addresses your aims. Try to arrange your materials

into three basic blocks (each with as many
subsections as you feel are necessary):
Summary of existing work on the topic. This
includes the different ways in which the topic has
been studied and the issues different authors have
highlighted as a result of their work. Identify the
different ways key terms and concepts have been
defined or used.
Critical evaluation of previous work. Assess the
methodologies and methods that have been
employed previously to study the topic and
evaluate the relative strengths and weaknesses of
the literature. The key thing in this block is to
make
visible
the
map
of
methodological
assumptions in the literature.

Some general and specific conclusions about
work done to date on the topic. General
conclusions can be about the overall direction of
work on the topic in relation to earlier more
foundational work. Specific conclusions are about
identifying gaps, fallacies (weakness in someones
arguments or ideas) and failures in previous work
in order to show the legitimacy of your own work.
69
(ii) Choosing an appropriate structure for your argument

If you have a structure that you can work with, then you
have a starting point to begin writing. There are a number of
possible structures that you can use. The table below shows
three of them. Elements can be taken from each of these
structures. However, if, for instance, you are making
recommendations then in all cases you need to explain the
benefits of those recommendations. This is the most popular
arrangement for writing a recommendation:
describe what is wrong; what the problem is;
make a proposal to solve the problem;
examine the benefits that would result if the
proposal were adopted;
acknowledge and refute (prove that a
statement or idea is not correct) any possible
objection to the proposal.
Possible structures for your argument
Problem-
Cause and effect Possible
solution
awareness pattern pattern (analytical pattern (formative

(summative
evaluation)
evaluation)
evaluation)
Describe
the Establish
the Consider
nature
problem;
of
the
give
existence of the
definitions
problem
solutions already
70
and
examples of the
(problem
tried:
problem showing
awareness):
relevant
its extent; offer
propose possible
examples
of
evidence that the
causes
solutions
tried;
problem
exists;
problem;
develop
the main factors
failed
definition of the
underpinning the
inadequate; show
problem.
proposed causes.
factors
causing
failure;
provide
Show
of
the
show
the Clarify
any
give
show why they

or
relevance of the
confusing areas:
evidence
problem to the
eliminate
factors.
reader:
improbable,
provide
any
of
Consider
specific evidence
irrelevant
possible
/argument
causes/definition
alternatives:
s;
distinguish
of
negative effects.
Explain
the
provide
evidence
were
for
between
consequences if
causes/definition
alternatives;
nothing is done
s eliminated.
provide summary
or if current state Focus
attention
of
continues:
on
proposed
effects
provide evidence
cause/definition:
alternatives;
of effects/current
provide evidence
make a choice
practice;
for
from alternatives
summarise
the
proposed
cause/definition;
71
by
possible
of
elimination;
problem
summarise
situation.
argument.
Outline
the Suggest
the
provide evidence
for
course
elimination
and choice.
parameters of the
(recommendation Summarise
problem
s) of action to
problem,
(definitional
deal
solutions
tried
argument)
problem.
and
they
Outline
with
the
why
the
failed and give
an
approach
recommendations
(recommendation
for
s) for tackling the
approaches.
problem
situation.
72
alternative
(b)
Thinking about the needs of the reader
A useful technique here is to ask yourselves a number of

questions, called the writers questions. The idea is that if you
are aware of who will read your work and what they will need to
know then you can work towards producing work that is suited
to your reader. The kinds of questions to think about are:
How much knowledge can we assume the reader will
have?
What will the reader want to know?
How will they read my project:
What kinds of answers to possible questions will I need
to provide?
(c) Editing your draft
The list below will help you to do some editing a necessary
task that will improve what you have written, helping to make it
clear, simple and consistent.
1. Identify unclear or excessively long sentences and
rewrite into shorter ones.
2. Examine each paragraph to ensure it covers only one
topic.
3. See if any paragraphs can be rewritten to be more
effective
73
4. List the topics for each paragraph to ensure that you

have links between them that are sequential.
5. Replace jargon with either an everyday word or explain
the meaning of the jargon.
6. Look for unnecessary adjectives and delete vague
qualifications such as very.
7. Look at the analogies and metaphors you have used and
check that they are appropriate
8. Look for pompous and unnecessarily long words and
replace them with simpler , more sensible words.
There are a number of presentational devices that may help and
some which you should avoid, in order to give more coherence
to your work; examples are shown in the list below:
Sentences
Express one idea in a sentence.
Ensure that all your sentences have a subject, verb and

object.
Paragraphs Group sentences that express and develop
one aspect of your topic. When another aspect of the
topic or another topic is introduced use a new
paragraph.
Consistent grammar
Use sentences and paragraphs
with appropriate use of commas, colons and semicolons. This is something difficult to achieve, but look
74
out for incorrect uses of punctuation that affect the

meaning.
Transition words
Use words that link paragraphs and
which show contrast and development in your

argument, such as, hence, therefore, as a result,
but, thus, etc.
3. VIDEO SESSION
This part of SESSION SIX focuses on a discussion of several
aspects of the writing of the literature review in a PhD
dissertation/thesis. This may be a little too much for you as
undergraduates writing a BA project. However, the problems
approached by the speakers seem to quite similar to the ones you
are/may be facing.
The people who take part in this discussion are:
Jay Banerjee the moderator of the discussion, a research
student at the time the video was made.
Inez a research student.
Karen a research student.
Dr. Caroline Clapham - Lancaster University, Department
of Linguistics and modern English Language field of
research: testing
75
Dr Roz Ivanic - Lancaster University, Department of

Linguistics and modern English Language field of
research: literacy, writing, academic writing
Dr Gerg Meyers - Lancaster University, Department of
Linguistics and modern English Language field of
research: discourse analysis, pragmatics
At the beginning of the discussion Jay announces the two
perspectives from which the literature review is to be looked at:
1. doing it i.e., the perspective of the writer
2. receiving
it
i.e.,
the
perspective
of
the
supervisor/examiner/reader of a PhD thesis

The other framework of the discussion is that of the following
four areas:
1. the writer reader relationship
2. the issue of how to survey the field/topic one is
interested in
3. organising and presenting the literature review
4. the affective dimension: what goes on when you are in
the process of actually doing it?
ACTIVITY:
In order for you to be active listeners, you have to solve a task
while watching the video and take part in the discussion towards
the end of the session. The main areas of the discussion (in the
76
video) and most of the questions asked by the moderator have

been listed in the next part of this handout. This is what your
activity will be (a) while watching the video and (b) after having
watched it:
(a)use the space provided after each question, under the
name of each speaker
to make notes about what these people say
(b)
prepare to speak about what you have seen
Area 1: writer reader relationship

Karen:
Greg:
Inez:
Roz:
Caroline:
77
Karen:
Jay: Question 1: To what extent should you come through as

vulnerable in your
literature review?
Roz:
Inez:
Jay: Question 2: How explicit about your social and background

should you be in the literature review or anywhere else in your
writing?
Inez:
Roz:
78
Jay: Question 3: Do you have to make decisions about the

extent to which you comment on other peoples writing in the
literature review?
Caroline:
Greg:
Karen:
Area 2: the issue of how to survey the field

Jay: Question 4: How do you make decisions about what you
survey?
Greg:
Area 3: organising and presenting the literature review

Jay: Question 5: How do you organise the literature review:
Ines:
79
Caroline:
Karen:
Jay: Question 6: How do you decide what needs to be in and

what needs to be let out
of the literature review?
Roz:
Greg:
Caroline:
Inez:
Roz:
80
Jay: Question 7: The literature review where?

- in a single chapter?
- in different chapters?
Roz:
Karen:
Inez:
Caroline: Question 8: can you mention something new (new

reading!) towards the
end of the thesis, e.g., in the conclusion?
Roz:
Greg:
81
Jay: Question 9: can/should new information/new reading be

woven back in the
thesis?
Roz:
Greg:
Jay: Question 10: what if new reading takes your thinking in a

rather different
direction? How do you go on from here?
Greg:
Roz:
Area 4: the affective dimension

Jay: Question 11: how do you deal with the ups and downs in
your writing of the
literature review?
82
Caroline:
Roz:
Karen:
Inez:
Caroline:
Jay: Question 12: How does a learning diary fit in with the
writing of the literature
review?
Inez:
Roz:
83
Jay:
Inez:
Karen:
Here is one last question for you:

Roz says she once asked some people a question about writing.
What was her question and what did those people answer?
REFERENCE:
Hart, C. (1998). Doing a Literature Review. London: Sage
Publications
84

SESSION SEVEN
WRITER IDENTITY: THE SELF AS AUTHOR; WRITING
THE ABSTRACT THE INTRODUCTION AND
CONCLUSION
This session is based mainly on Clark and Ivanic (1997) and
Ivanic (1997) (see end of session for references) and aims at
helping you focus on the issue of your identity as writers and the
way in which you should make it evident in your writing. The
final sections of this last session of the course will hopefully
help you to clarify problems related to the writing of the
Abstract, the Introduction and the Conclusion of your BA
project.
1. Writer identity
2. Academic writing characteristics
3. Abstract: main points and length
4. Introduction and Conclusion: the process and the product
5. What examiners expect to read in Introductions and
Conclusion
85
1. Writer identity
ACTIVITY:
In this first activity you should first read the extract from the
aforementioned writers book individually and then, in groups,
discuss and make notes on the main points in the extract and the
way in which these ideas can be traced in your writing, if at all.
In your discussion you may want to follow these points:
1. Voice of the writer. Do you think your voice can be
seen in your writing? What makes it evident?
2. Viewing yourselves as authors. Do/did/have/ you
feel/felt the need to exert a presence in your text? How
do you usually go about it?
3. To what extent and where in your text do you use the
first person: I, me, my?
Extract
This aspect of writer identity [the self as author] is more to do
with writers having their own voice in the sense of its content
than its form. The writers voice in this sense means
expressing their own ideas and beliefs. This is what people
usually first think of as writer identity: whether the writer is
present in the writing with a strong authorial voice or not:
whether s/he is saying something.
86
One component of the self as author is the issue of how

authoritative writers feel as they write. Many writers approach
writing, particularly academic writing, without a sense that the
have anything worth saying. They do not see it as their place to
have a position to argue or an experience or idea worth
communicating to others. Viewing oneself as an authorfeeling authoritative, and feeling the right to exert a presence in
the text, is often related to the sense of power and status writers
bring with them from their life-history ().
The other component of the self as author is how, and how far,
writers appear authoritative by establishing an authorial
presence in their texts. () Some writers, in some types of
writing, make their voice in this sense heard more than others.
Writers may put themselves at the centre of the writing, exerting
control over it and establishing a presence within it. At the other
extreme writers may relinquish control of the situation to other,
named authorities, or to some abstract, impersonal source, or
perhaps to the reader. Authoritativeness is sometimes condoned
[accept and forgive behaviour that most people think is morally
wrong] by the currently dominant discourse conventions, and
sometimes not. Writers can accommodate to or resist the degree
of authoritativeness that is sanctioned by the conventions for a
particular type of writing.
87
The most obvious type of authorial presence, especially in

academic writing, is the use of the first person: I, me, my. But it
has other manifestations too (). The overarching idea is that
writers differ in how much they feel, and appear to be in control
of the act of writing: how much they feel themselves to be not
just writers but also authors with the authority to say
something. (pages 152-153)
2. Academic writing characteristics
This section is based on a piece of research and examples from
Ivanic (1997) (see end of session for complete reference). It is
meant to show you some of the features of academic writing in
order for you to be able to take them into account in your own
writing.
a) Lexical density
Lexical density is introduced by Ivanic (1997) in terms of
Hallidays (1989) definition. It is the
average number of lexical words [meaning-carrying
words such as verbs and nouns] per clause. This
involves counting (a) the number of lexical words in
an extract, and (b) the number of clauses in it, then
dividing (a) by (b). An average of 5 or above counts
88
as high lexical density, as one might expect in many

academic and bureaucratic texts. (page 260)
The example below, again form Ivanic (1997:257), is an extract
from a paper written by John, a student of Medical Ethics and in
it she has found 36 lexical items in 3 clauses with a lexical
density of 12. (the extract is in italics as in the original)
The argument that this would be encouraging
people to take drugs is strongly outweighed by the
fact that if we dont give people the chance to come
into the health service without chastising them in
some way Aids will just carry on to spread. If health
carers actually had to think about funding for
supplying users with drugs as well as needles they
might actually start to make some progress in the
fight against Aids in the drug user community.
b) Verbs (process types)
The verbs generally used by academic writers are, in Ivanics
opinion (1997:264), of two types: (a) verbs which express
states of affairs [relational processes- in Hallidays terms]
and (b) verbs which suggest action (what Halliday calls
material processes).
89
In the extract from Johns writing, Ivanic identifies the

following verbs suggesting action: is outweighed, might start to
make. The construction had to think (in the same extract) is
thought to represent a mental process.
To end this subsection, it is important to mention that Ivanic
considers that academic writers define themselves as members
of the academic discourse community by
their choice of verbs [which] is identifying them
with the academic
communitys interest in the relationships among
entities and ideas, and
in intellectual activity. Although these interests may
be based in the
lived reality of peoples day-to-day lives and actions,
they are
abstracted from them, and expressed in terms of
states of affairs and
universal truths. (1997:265)
c) Nouns, nominalization and nominal groups
Academic writing is characterised by the preponderent use of
abstract and inanimate nouns which, Ivanic (1997: 266) posits,
gives writing () its character of being about abstract,
90
generalised content, one or more steps removed from actual

events in peoples lives.
Here are the examples from Johns writing: argument, fact,
health carers, funding, they (= health carers), progress
Nominalisations are nouny ways of expressing an idea where
a verby way would be possible (ibid.). They allow the writer
to cram ideas together, to pack them into each other (page 267).
And here are the examples from Johns paper: argument,
chastising, funding, supplying, progress, fight, user.
As for the nominal groups, here is what Ivanic (1997: 267)
states:
Another discourse characteristic which is associated
with knowledgecompacting is long nominal groups. Nominal groups
are groups of
words which function as subject or object, consisting
of a head noun () and all its associated words:
the adjectives, prepositional phrases and, in some
cases, embedded clauses which modify it.
Here a long nominal group from Johns text (Ivanic counted 29
words in it, of which 41% are lexical words): the fact that if we
dont give people the chance to come into the health service
91
without chastising them in some way Aids will just carry on to

spread.
d) Tense, mood and modality
When it comes to the verb tense most academic texts are
written in present tenses which, in Ivanics words function to
express timeless truths, and position their writers as interested in
such truths. (page 269)
The mood that characterises academic writing is the declarative
mood. Academic texts contain few interrogatives and negatives.
The term modality has to do with the use modal verbs and
modal equivalents in order to refrain from expressing complete
certainty in academic texts. This has to do with both the
modesty that urges the academic writer to doubt that s/he is
totally right about whatever issue s/he discusses and with the
possibility of ones arguments being challenged by other
champions of universal truth.
To exemplify, Ivanic presents Johns would be encouraging
() [as] not his own voice, but that of the unnamed person or
people who put forward this argument. (ibid) And on page 270
she treats Johns might () [as] () [a] modal representing the
92
writers own tentativeness, suggesting uncertainty rather than

being in control of facts and truths.
The way Ivanic concludes the section on modality is highly
relevant for the meaning of this term:
the patterns of modality are positioning the
writers as relatively
certain and knowledgeable. I suggest that this is a
fairly pervasive characteristic of members of the
academic community, or at any rate a characteristic
which new members of the community think they
should be displaying. This is often, however, a site of
misunderstanding between students and tutors, sine
tutors often expect more provisionality in student
writing, but do not make this requirement explicit.
(page 270)
e) Lexis
In the matter of the use of words in academic texts one of the
observations that Ivanic (1997:270-271) makes is that the
language of the academic community includes, among others,
Graeco-Latin words, technical words in the sense that they
belong to particular disciplines, words associated with
argumentation, defining, evaluating, and/or classifying and that
93
such words convey an impression that [writers] know what they

mean , and that they belong to the community of those who use
them comfortably.
Here are some words of Graeco-Latin origin in Johns text:
argument, fact, chastising, progress.
3. Abstract: main points and length
ACTIVITY:
This section of Session Seven involves your examining of some
abstracts (see appendix) and then the presentation of your
findings along these lines:
(a)Identify the main points in the 6 abstracts in the appendix.
How many are they (on an average basis) and what exactly
are they?
(b)
Similarities and differences between the 6 abstracts
(c)Think of the abstract you will write for your BA project, what
do you consider it should include. Do not forget to take into
account the READER of your abstract.
Make notes here:
YOUR ABSTRACT SHOULD BE BETWEEN 200 AND

250 WORDS IN LENGTH
94
4. Introduction and Conclusion: the process and the

product
a) the process
Tips: - have a draft Introduction and add to it as write your
project;
- write the Introduction proper at the end;
- make
sure
your
project
delivers
what
your
Introduction promises;
- compare your Introduction and your Conclusion. Do
they tie up? It would make sense if there was some sort
of symmetry between your Introduction and your
Conclusion
- compare the Introduction and the Conclusion with the
rest of the project. Have you done everything in full and
in detail?
b) the product
ACTIVITY:
1. Individually think and make notes about the things you think
you will include in your introduction and your conclusion.
Make a list for each.
95
2. Discuss with you partner and find out what s/he is

considering in her/his introduction and Conclusion.
3. Report to the class. Any surprises?

5. What examiners expect to read in Introductions and
Conclusion
Here are some hints at what examiners usually look for when
they read Introductions and Conclusions of various projects;
a) Introduction
- A clear statement of why the candidate undertook to
tackle the chosen topic, and of what to expect in the
project.
- The reasons for the study , the topic of research and
perhaps some background. Introductions vary hugely,
and there is not any one best way of writing it.
- Some indication of whether the project is going to be
primarily focused on a concept, a particular site, or a
particular research method.
- Some indication of the main issue(s) and the sorts of
conclusions aimed at.
96
- Some indication of the structure of the project, as a

readers guide to what follows.
- Definition or description of the topic, the main
questions/hypotheses being researched, the scope of the
project. Brief contextualisation of the project in terms of
where it fits into what other people have done and
published.
b) Conclusion
- A statement that the expectations of the Introduction
have been achieved.
- It may be boring to reiterate your findings from the
study, its certainly boring to repeat findings in great
detail. An interesting Conclusion would talk perhaps
about things not covered in the project, and the way
forward. So it could contain general conclusions and a
discussion of further research needed, but again,
conclusions come in many forms; there is no perfect
way of writing one.
- Retrospective summary of what the project has
achieved.
REFERENCES:
Clark, R. and Ivanic, R. (1997). The Politics of Writing.
London: Routledge
97
Ivanic, R. (1997). Writing and Identity: The Discoursal

Construction of Identity in
Academic Writing. Amsterdam: Benjamins
Halliday, M.A.K. (1989). Spoken and Written Language.
London: Edward Arnold
98
APPENDIX: ABSTRACTS
LANGUAGE AS AN ELEMENT OF CULTURE
M.A. DISSERTATION
ABSTRACT
This study is based on the assumption that there is a certain
influence exerted on the degree of attachment one has to the
language by the system of values that person holds. The stronger
the system of values is, the less likely they will be more attached
to the language they speak. The concept of system of values
has been preferred as a more specific term than culture which
seems to be a familiar term that could encompass traditions,
rituals, customs etc.
This paper presents an exploratory study examining the length to
which this correlation between the system of values and the
degree of attachment to language seems to apply to native
speakers of Romanian in Brasov of various ages, both genders
and different backgrounds. The study was designed to bring new
insights into the way in which native speakers of Romanian feel
about their mother tongue and whether this is dependent or not
on age and gender of the respondents or on their level of
education.
99
The data came from 38 adults, 19 females and 19 males of over

18, pupils, students, teachers, other employees or retirees, living
and working in Brasov, native speakers of Romanian who
agreed to answer the questionnaire presented. The data were
then analysed through the theoretical framework presented in
the beginning both horizontally (within each age group) and
vertically (comparing the results of the groups).
The data gathered thus suggested that there is a direct
correlation between a strong system of values and a seemingly
strong attachment to language regardless of age, education or
gender even if some expected variety occurs in the results.
SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF COCKNEY ENGLISH

ABSTRACT
This paper presents some of the main characteristics
of Cockney English and compares it with the
standard variety of the language. Moreover, the
research chapter discusses the ways in which English
peoples attitudes regarding this dialect and its
speakers have changed throughout time. To this end,
100
I designed two types of questionnaires, namely one

for speakers and the other for non-speakers of
Cockney. These were sent over the Internet to several
native speakers of English. Furthermore, the findings
of the present study were contrasted with both the
theory and an older similar study.
There are several conclusions that can be drawn
about the implications of Cockney English in the
British society. Firstly, the way a person speaks
appears
to
be
less
important
nowadays
in
determining that persons social status, but at the

same time, it can influence the perception of others
regarding the position occupied by someone in
society. Secondly, young British people seem to be
more aware of the stereotypes surrounding various
dialects, including Cockney. Thirdly, this dialect
appears
to
have
undergone
various
changes
throughout time, the most obvious of which having

occurred in its rhyming slang.
101
THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF

BUSINESS ENGLISH LEARNING
Abstract
This paper aims at analyzing some of the aspects that
contributed to the evolution of a business writing course with
Romanian participants, learners of English as a foreign
language. The method I intend to use in my study is mainly
qualitative but the analysis will also employ quantitative
methodology and a few of the techniques of discourse analysis.
First of all, I attempt to delineate the theoretical background of
the field of business writing as an emerging study subject. The
next step is setting the basic principles and regulations of
business writing. Further on, I want to define the three species of
business writing present in the case study that constitutes the
analytical part of this paper and at the same time to describe the
data comprise the object of this analysis. Then, I identify the
three factors contributing to the learners evolution as their level
of mastery of the English language, their previous experience in
102
the field of business communication and their ability to

understand the role of presentation in business writing.
Furthermore, I identify the categories that will help demonstrate
the role of these three factors and I present the findings and
interpretation of the data based on these categories. The
conclusion of my study is that these three factors play a deciding
role in the learners progress in the business writing course and
that once having identified these aspects they can be used as
guidelines for future activities and testing methods for
participants in this type of course.
103
HIP-HOP LANGUAGE IN
AMERICA AND ROMANIA
-A SOCIOLINGUISTIC APPROACHABSTRACT
Hip-hop is not only a world-wide social phenomenon, but also a
phenomenon in Academia. In many foreign countries, hip-hop is
analysed in detail, whether focusing on its social representations
or on its social influence, or on both. This paper is focused on
the main idea that hip-hop transfers from America, where it first
appeared, to different countries around the world, where it
adapts to the social context. However, being a subject of great
dimensions, my study lays accent on the transfer between
American and Romanian hip-hop. In order to be more precisely,
the transfer is analysed considering three topics: cultural transfer
at the thematic level, femcees' response to the gendered
language of male rappers and their gendered language, and
power and resistance in hip-hop. The method used to analyse the
cultural transfer is using available data. The data was selected
from the both countries considering the criteria of diversity, as
in the case of the analysis of gender, and mainstreamunderground classification. In analysing the data, three different
analytical frameworks were used. By applying them to the data,
it can be showed that the gender problem is not one-sided, but
104
also contradictions are to be found in some of the

representations of femcees. Correspondingly, the problem of
power in hip-hop is not one-sided either, namely there exist
rappers that developed a discourse of resistance towards the
dominant discourse. This paper takes into account a range of
disciplines as anthropology, sociolinguistics, rhetoric and
stylistics in order to offer a better understanding of this complex
phenomenon, that is hip-hop.
105
THE PHENOMENON OF CODESWITCHING IN THE

ROMANIAN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETY
ABSTRACT
Codeswitching is a common linguistic phenomenon that mainly

occurs in multilingual societies. It refers to the tendency of the
language users to combine the languages they know during their
discourse. The present study focuses on the multilingual society
in Romania. It is based on data collected in thirty-three
questionnaires, four natural conversations and thirteen Internet
messenger conversations gathered form several Romanian,
Saxon and Hungarian subjects living in Romania. For the
analysis proper of the data, two theories were brought into
discussion: the formal and functional constraint and the genetic
connection developed by Rajeshwari V. Pandharipande that
were applied on the Marathi society. Also, another focus of the
paper is to show how the interacting languages influence each
other and whether there are local borrowings that particularise
them compared to the standard languages spoken in the source
countries. According to the findings, the functional constraint is
easily applicable to the data collected from the participants and
that the languages are indeed chosen most of the time according
to the communicative needs and the social contexts of the
106
language users. Also, according to the data collected, the

interference between the languages has led to borrowings and
structural influences among the languages in discussion. As
there are very few studies made in this field in the Romanian
society, it is impossible to cover a large amount of information
in only one research but it is meant to open the way to a more
extensive study in this field, because the Romanian multilingual
society has the ability to provide valuable data in the field of
codeswitching.
107
LANGUAGE IN OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS

ABSTRACT
In a period when official interaction between the authorities in

Romania and the ones from the European Union is of major
interest both to the media and to the general public, revealing
the mechanism behind the encoded message comes in aid for
those who wish to decipher official documents. This particular
domain of expertise has been challenged also by Roz Ivanic
(1997) who based her theory regarding the high lexical density
that exists in an academic text on another researchers
definition, Halliday (1989). She puts forward a really interesting
and highly productive method of analyzing data in this field of
interest, namely counting the words containing lexical meaning,
a method I myself use in my research. This project focuses on
the academic characteristics of writing used especially in official
letters and invitations, such as: the use of specific vocabulary
and of special connectors, methods of addressing and of
controlling the way the message is conveyed according to a
given situation. The second part of the project presents the
patterns found in each given situation and will connect the
particular situation with the instances of communication, for
example a successful or unsuccessful act of communication will
108
have as a result a negative or a positive reply. Another important

finding is that the lexical density Roz Ivanic (1997) proposed
applies to the materials used in this research and the result was a
density above an average of 5, which proves the letters belong to
the official register. The conclusions indicate that the decoding
of the message at a deeper level provides the necessary
information so that almost any speaker of English would be able
to write a very good official letter using the given pattern.
109

Academic Discourse Practices

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ACADEMIC DISCOURSE PRACTICES

(HOW TO WRITE A BA PROJECT)

The topic may be given to you. Did this happen in your

case? By whom? What was your reaction?

2. You may have an idea or a particular area of interest that you

2. Supervision and supervisors

of working on your BA project, there are still very

conformity: conformity to accepted methodologies, to

any written work submitted to the supervisor needs to

his/her diary and sometimes remind them (politely) that

Is there any thing you would like to clarify/ask?