Thermal Engg.

CHAPTER 2 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics It is the science that deals with heat and work. Heat Engine A machine, which converts heat into mechanical work or vice versa, is known as Heat Engine. The working substance widely used in heat engines are in gaseous or liquid state. eg. IC engines - mi ture o! air and !uel, Turbine " steam. Concepts of Pure Substance A #ure substance is a single substance which retains an unvarying molecular structure during the #rocess o! energy trans!er. A #ure substance e ists in three #hases namely gaseous, liquid and solid, maintaining its chemical com#osition. A system o! ice, water and steam may be considered to be a #ure substance, since the molecular structure in all three #hases remains same. Also, a system that includes any chemical #rocess, such as combustion would not be a #ure substance during the #rocess because the molecular structure be!ore and a!ter the #rocess are di!!erent. Significance Any #articular condition or state o! a #ure !luid at rest is com#letely de!ined by two inde#endent #ro#erties. It is use!ul in determining the #ro#erties o! a working substance at various conditions o! #ressure and tem#erature. It is also convenient in the #re#aration o! charts and tables o! #ro#erties to be used in the design o! equi#ments using the #ure substance as working medium. Types of System
'+.*+,-I, '('TE )*+,-A.( C(0I,-E 3I'T*

$*/A)0E )*+,-A .( 1I2E)*+,-A. A thermodynamic system is de!ined as a region in s#ace or a quantity o! matter (

u#on which attention is !ocussed !or the study o! work and energy trans!er and conversion. Everything outside the system which has direct bearing on its behaviour is known as surroundings. The system is se#arated !rom the surroundings by the system boundary which can be !i ed or movable. $ass and energy trans!er takes #lace between the system and surroundings through the boundary o! the system. %hen system and surrounding are #ut together, it is called universe A !i ed region in s#ace through which mass and energy !low takes #lace is called control volume
&

Thermal Engg.

The sur!ace o! control volume is called control surface The di!!erent ty#es o! systems are ! Closed System %
3I'T*, 6 C(0I,-E. %ITH*+T /A0/E

3I'T* C(0I,-E 5A'

An e am#le o! a closed system is #iston and cylinder. The mass o! the closed system remains constant and only energy can !low through the boundary in or out o! a closed system. The volume o! a closed system need not be constant and it changes due to the movement o! the #iston in the cylinder. %ork trans!er between system and surroundings takes #lace due to the movement o! the boundary o! the system considered. *ther e am#le is thermal #ower #lant. 2 "pen System 'TEA$
C*,T.*0

7 C*,T.* 0 /*0+$E 'TEA$

An e am#le o! an o#en system is turbine, boiler, air com#ressor etc. $ass, heat and energy trans!er takes #lace through the boundary o! an o#en system. The boundary during the trans!er o! mass and energy may change or may not change. It can be described with the hel# o! control volume and control sur!ace. # $solated System An e am#le is gas enclosed in a insulated vessel. A system which is com#letely unin!luenced by the surrounding is an isolated system. It a system o! !i ed mass and no heat, mass or energy cross its boundary.
5A' I,'+0ATI*

Thermal Engg.

State of a System 'tate can be de!ined as e act condition o! the system. The state can be de!ined by thermodynamic #ro#erties such as #ressure, tem#erature, volume etc. At least two #ro#erties are necessary to de!ine the state o! system. Thermodynamic E%uilibrium A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium, i! it satis!ies the !ollowing three requirements o! equilibrium a &echanical E%uilibrium A system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium, when there is no unbalance !orces acting on any #art o! the system or the system as a whole. b Thermal E%uilibrium A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium, when there is no tem#erature di!!erence between the #arts o! the system or between the system and the surroundings. c Chemical E%uilibrium A system is said to be in chemical equilibrium, when there is no chemical reaction within the system and no reaction with surroundings. Thermodynamic Process %hen a system changes its state !rom one equilibrium state to another then the #ath o! successive states through which the system has #assed is known as thermodynamic #rocess. 3rocess &-4 re#resents a thermodynamic #rocess.
& 3 4

Thermodynamic Cycle or Cyclic Process / %hen #rocesses are #er!ormed on a system in such a way that the !inal state is identical with the initial state then it is known as thermodynamic cycle or cyclic #rocess. &-A-4 and 48& are #rocesses whereas &-A-4-)-& is cycle or cyclic #rocess.
& 3 A / ) 4

Reversible Process I! a #rocess occurs in such a way that the system #asses through a continuous series o! equilibrium states, then such a #rocess is called reversible #rocess. It can be shown by a well de!ined curve on two dimensional thermodynamic diagram.
9

Thermal Engg.

$rreversible Process I! a system does not #ass through equilibrium states then the #ro#erties at the intermediate states o! the system cannot be re#resented on two dimensional thermodynamic diagram. The #ath o! such irreversible #rocess between the two states is always re#resented by a dotted line as the #ath !ollowed is uncertain.
& 3 E7+I0I).I+ $ 'TATE' 4 / / & 3 4 ,*, E7+I0I).I+$ 3.*CE''

$rreversibility Any #rocess that is not reversible is known as an irreversible #rocess. All natural #rocesses ie s#ontaneous #rocesses are irreversible. Eg. Trans!er o! heat !rom high tem#erature to low tem#erature. 1actors making #rocess irreversible: a Friction' According to second law work can be entirely converted to heat but heat cannot be converted to work. %ork lost in !riction cannot be recovered and it makes the #rocess irreversible. b Free E(pansion' %hen gas e #ands !reely it is not #ossible to bring it to initial stage without a##lication o! work. Thus #rocesses become irreversible. c Heat transfer through finite temperature difference' Heat !lows s#ontaneously !rom high tem#erature to low tem#erature but to reverse the #rocess e ternal work is to be done. This makes the #rocess irreversible. Properties of System Any characteristic o! the substance which can be observed or measured is called a #ro#erty o! the substance. The basic #ro#erties o! system are volume, #ressure, tem#erature etc. There are two ty#es o! #ro#erties vi;< $ntensive Property The #ro#erties which are inde#endent o! mass are said to be intensive #ro#erties. eg. 3ressure, tem#erature, density etc. E(tensive Properties The #ro#erties which are de#endent o! mass are said to be e tensive #ro#erties. eg. /olume, energy, entro#y etc. Pressure )P* 3ressure is de!ined as the normal !orce e erted by a system #er unit area o! the bonding sur!aces. In 'I system unit o! #ressure is ,=m 4, ,=mm4. It is also measured in bar or #ascal. & bar > &?@ ,=m4 & 3a > & ,=m4 3>
F A

3ressure is measured with the hel# o! )ourden #ressure gauge Aabove & barB and $anometer Au#to &.4 barB.
C

Thermal Engg.

+auge and Absolute Pressure 3ressure gauges read the di!!erence between the actual #ressure in any system and the atmos#heric #ressure. The reading o! the #ressure gauge is known as gauge #ressure, while the actual #ressure is called absolute #ressure. Absolute #ressure > Atmos#heric #ressureD 5auge #ressure 1or #ressure below atmos#heric, the gauge #ressure will be negative. This negative gauge #ressure is known as vacuum #ressure. Absolute #ressure > Atmos#heric #ressure- /acuum #ressure 'tandard value o! atmos#heric #ressure > &.?&9 &? @ ,=m4 ?r EF? mm o! Hg at sea level.
3.E''+.E A)*/E AT$*'3HE.IC 3.E''+.E AT$*'3HE .IC 3.E''+.E 3.E''+.E )E0*% AT$*'3HE.IC 3.E''+.E A)'*0+ TE 3.E''+ 5A+5E 3.E''+.E /AC++$ 3.E''+.E A)'*0+ TE 3.E''+ A)'*0+TE JE.* 3.E''+.E

,olume ),* It is the s#ace occu#ied by a substance. Its unit is m 9 or litres. Specific ,olume )v* It is de!ined as volume #er unit mass. Its unit is m9=kg. v>
V m

-ensity ).* It is de!ined as the mass #er unit volume o! a substance. Its unit is kg=m 9. G>
m V

Temperature )T* It is an intensive thermodynamic #ro#erty, which determines the degree o! hotness o! a body. Tem#erature is measured by thermometer and thermocou#le. The two scales used !or measuring the tem#erature are Celsius or Centigrade AHCB or 1ahrenheit AH1B. Each o! these scales is based on two !i ed #oints known as !ree;ing #oint o! water under atmos#heric #ressure or ice #oint and the boiling #oint o! water or steam #oint. Celsius or Centigrade )/C* 1ree;ing #oint o! water is marked as ? and boiling #oint is marked as &??. The s#ace between these two #oints has &?? equal divisions each re#resenting & HC. Fahrenheit )/F* 1ree;ing #oint o! water is marked as 94 and boiling #oint is marked as 4&4. The s#ace between these two #oints has &I? equal divisions each re#resenting & H1. Conversion
@

Thermal Engg. C F 32 = 100 180

Absolute Temperature The tem#erature, below which the tem#erature o! any substance cannot !all, is known as absolute ;ero tem#erature. Absolute ;ero is taken as - 4E9 HC or - CF? H1. It is called degree Kelvin in Celsius scale such that K > HC D 4E9. And degree rankine in 1ahrenheit scale H. > H1 D CF?. Energy It is de!ined as the ca#acity to do work. The energy #ossessed by a system is o! the !ollowing two ty#es: ! Stored Energy It is the energy #ossessed by a system within its boundaries. The #otential energy, kinetic energy and internal energy are e am#les o! stored energy. 2 Transit Energy It is the energy #ossessed by a system which is ca#able o! crossing its boundaries. The heat, work and electrical energy are e am#les o! transit energy. 'tored energy is a thermodynamic #ro#erty whereas the transit energy is not a thermodynamic #ro#erty as it de#ends u#on the #ath. Stored Energy Potential Energy )PE* It is the energy #ossessed by a body due to its #osition above ground level or any re!erence level. Its units are ,-m or Loules. 3E > mgh %here m > mass o! the body g> acceleration due to gravity > M.I& m=s4 h > distance through which the body !alls 0inetic Energy )0E* It is the energy #ossessed by a body or a system !or doing work due to its mass and velocity o! motion. Its units are ,-m or Loules. KE >
1 2

m/4

%here / > velocity o! body m > mass o! the body $nternal Energy )1* It is the energy #ossessed by a body or a system due to its molecular arrangement and motion o! the molecules. In thermodynamics, we are concerned with the change in internal energy Ad+B which de#ends u#on the change in tem#erature o! the system. The total energy o! the system E > 3EDKED+ %hen the system is stationary and the e!!ect o! gravity is neglected then 3E>KE>? Hence E> + or e>u A!or unit massB
F

Thermal Engg.

Transit Energy Heat )2* It is de!ined as the energy trans!erred across the boundary o! a system because o! tem#erature di!!erence between the system and the surroundings. Its unit is Loule ALB. 'ign convention: Heat !lowing into a system is #ositive 7 Dve
7 -ve

Heat !lowing out o! a system is negative Specific Heat )C* It is de!ined as the amount o! heat required to raise the tem#erature o! a unit mass o! any substance through one degree. Its unit is kL=kgK. 'ince the solids and liquids do not change in volume on heating, there!ore they have only one s#eci!ic heat. )ut the gases have two s#eci!ic heats de#ending on the #rocess ado#ted !or heating the gas. '#eci!ic heat at constant volume ACvB '#eci!ic heat at constant #ressure AC#B C# is always greater than Cv . Thermal or Heat Capacity Heat ca#acity o! a substance may be de!ined as the heat required to raise the tem#erature o! whole mass o! a substance through one degree. Its unit is kL. Heat Ca#acity > mC kL m > mass o! the substance in kg. C > s#eci!ic heat o! the substance in kL=kgK. 3or4 )3* %ork is said to be done by a system during a given o#eration i! the sole e!!ect o! the system on things e ternal to the system AsurroundingsB can be reduced to the raising o! a weight. %> 1 d %here, 1 > !orce d > distance The work done by the system is #ositive work The work done on the system is negative work. -ifference bet5een 5or4 and heat 3or4 &. It is the #roduct o! !orce and dis#lacement trans!erred in the direction o! !orce. Heat &. It is de!ined as the energy across the boundary o! a system because o! tem#erature di!!erence between the system and the surroundings. 4. Heat is low grade energy. 9.Entire heat cannot be converted to
E

4. %ork is high grade energy. 9. Entire work can be converted to heat.

Thermal Engg.

C. %ork done by the system is #ositive and system is work done on the system is negative. the

work. C.

Heat

received

by

the

#ositive and heat reNected by system is negative.

Flo5 Energy or Flo5 3or4 )FE* It is de!ined as the work necessary to advance a !luid against the e isting #ressure. 1low energy > 1orce distance > 3 A Ol >3 / Enthalpy )H* It is the total heat content o! the system and is de!ined as the sum o! internal energy and !low work. It units are kL=kg. H > + D 3/ Entrophy )S* It is thermodynamic #ro#erty o! system which increases with addition o! heat and decreases with removal o! heat. Its unit are kL=K. O' >
dQ T

%here, d7> heat absorbed or heat reNected, T> Absolute Tem#erature, O'> change in entro#y

Point Function 3oint 1unction has single value at each state o! the system. They de#end on the state o! the system. Eg #ressure, tem#erature, volume etc. /olume does not de#end on #ath.

dV
1

> /4- /&

3

&

4 /

Path Function The thermodynamic quantities which are de#endent on the #ath !ollowed between the two states o! the #rocess are #ath !unctions. eg. %ork and heat.

dW

% & " %4
& 3 3ath A / I 3ath ) 4

Thermal Engg.

3or4 and Heat 6 A Path Function Work The work done during the #rocess !rom state & to state 4 is re#resented by area under the curve &-4. It is #ossible to go !rom state & to state 4 along many #aths such as A, ) or C. 'ince area under each curve re#resents work !or each #rocess it is evident that work is de#endent o! #ath that is !ollowed. That is why work is called a #ath !unction. %&-4>

V1

V2

PdV

&

%*.K T.A,'1E. 4

& 3 A C

) 4

/ Heat Area under a T' diagram gives the heat trans!er. There!ore heat is also a #ath !unction. It de#ends on the #ath the system has !ollowed !rom & to 4.

7&-4>

Tds
1

& T 4 s

All #ro#erties o! a system are #oint !unction ie stored energy A3E, KE, +B are #oint !unctions but transit energy ie heat and work are #ath !unction. 7a5s "f Thermodynamic 8eroth 7a5 "f Thermodynamics This law states P%hen two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then the two systems are also in thermal equilibrium with one anotherQ. This law #rovides basis !or tem#erature measurement. eg. A thermometer is used to com#are the tem#erature o! the body o! unknown thermal level with the tem#erature o! the body at a known thermal level. !st 7a5 of Thermodynamics )Conservation of energy* This law states that PThe energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it can be trans!ormed !rom one !orm to anotherQ. 1or a closed system, heat and mechanical work are mutually convertible ie net heat trans!er is equal to the net work trans!er. In other words, the cyclic integral o! heat trans!ers is equal to the cyclic integral o! work trans!ers. Q = W A stands !or integral around a com#lete cycleB %hen a system undergoes a change o! state, then both heat trans!er and work trans!er takes #lace. The net energy trans!er is stored within the system and is known as stored energy or total energy o! the system. R7 " R% > dE C(C0IC &
& 7&-4 4 /
3

3 3.*CE' /
3

3 4 M %&-4

Thermal Engg.

*n integrating !or a change o! state !rom & to 4, we get 7&-4 " %&-4 > E4 " E& %here, 7&-4 > Heat trans!erred to the system during the #rocess !rom state & to state 4, %&-4 > %ork done by the system on the surroundings during the #rocess E& > Total energy o! the system at state & > 3E& D KE& D +& E4 > Total energy o! the system at state 4 > 3E4 D KE4 D +4 1or non !low thermodynamic system or closed system there is no change o! 3E and KE 7&-4 " %&-4 > +4 " +& > d+ 1or an isolated system 7&-4 > %&-4 > ?, E4 > E & Application of !st 7a5 of Thermodynamics Steady Flo5 System' a. The mass !low rate through the system remains constant. b. There is no change in chemical com#osition o! the !luid or there is no chemical reaction. c. The state o! !luid at any #oint remains constant with time. d. 1luid is uni!orm in com#osition. e. The only interactions between the system and surroundings are work and heat and they are constant. !. The #otential, kinetic, internal and !low energies are only considered in the analysis. *ther !orms o! energy Aelectrical, chemical, magnetic etc.B are not considered. Consider & kg o! mass o! working !luid enters in the system at & and leaves the system at 4. 0et the energy at entry and e it be & and 4 res#ectively. *+T0E As #er &st law o! thermodynamics q&-4 " w&-4 > e4 " e& ----------------- equation & T Total energy e& entering the system #er kg at entry & w&-4 e& > 3E& D KE& DInternal Energy D 1low %ork
1 4 v& D u& D3&/& ---------------- equation 4 I,0E 2 Total energy e4 e iting the system #er kg at e it 4 T

> g;&D

'('TE $

e4

> 3E4 D KE4 DInternal Energy D 1low %ork

; ;
4

1 4 > g;4D v4 D u4 D34/4 -------------- equation 9 2

%here, g > acceleration due to gravity > M.I& m=sec & ;&, ;4 > elevation above ground level at enter and e it res#ectively, v&, v4 > velocity o! !luid at enter and e it res#ectively, u&, u4 > internal energy o! !luid at enter and e it res#ectively, 3&, 34 > 3ressure o! !luid at enter and e it res#ectively, /&, /4 > /olume at enter and e it res#ectively, .earranging equation &, 4 and 9 we get,
&?

q&-4

Thermal Engg. 1 4 1 4 v4 D u4 D34/4T - Sg;&D v& D u& D3&/&T 2 2

q&-4 " w&-4 > Sg;4D A!ter rearranging q&-4 D g;&D

1 4 1 4 v& D h& > w&-4 D g;4D v4 D h4 2 2

This is steady !low energy equation. Application of Steady Flo5 Energy E%uation ! 9oiler' It is a device which su##lies heat to water and generate steam. &. ,o change in KE and 3E 4. ,o work done A##lying '1EE g;&D
1 4 1 4 v& D h& D q&-4 > g;4D v4 D h4 D w&-4 2 2 %ATE . 'TEA$

)*I0E .

q&-4 > h4- h& Heat su##lied to the boiler increases enthal#y o! system.

q&-4

2 Condenser A condenser is a device used to condense steam in steam #ower #lants using water as cooling medium whereas in re!rigeration system air is used as cooling medium to condense re!rigerant va#our. &. ,o change in KE and 3E 4. ,o work done A##lying '1EE g;&D
1 4 1 4 v& D h& - q&-4 > g;4D v4 D h4 D w&-4 2 2

q&-4 > h&- h4 q&-4 is negative as heat is lost by working !luid. # :o;;le This is a device which increases the velocity o! working !luid at the e #ense o! #ressure dro#. The no;;le is insulated so that no heat enters or leaves the system. &. ,o heat trans!er 4. ,o work done by the system 9. ,o change in 3E A##lying '1EE
1 4 1 4 g;&D v& D h& D q&-4 > g;4D v4 D h4 D w&-4 2 2 1 h&- h4 > S v44-v&4T 2 I,0ET

*+T0E T

I! v& is small, it can be neglected v4> 2(h1 h 2 )

&&

C*,/E.5 E,T

-I/E.5E ,T

Thermal Engg.

< Turbine It is a device which converts energy o! working !luid Agas or steamB into work. The turbine is insulated so there is no heat trans!er. &. ,o heat trans!er 5A' *. 4. ,o change in KE and 3E A##lying '1EE g;&D
1 4 1 4 v& D h& D q&-4 > g;4D v4 D h4 D w&-4 2 2 T+.)I, w&-4 I,'+0ATI*

w&-4 > h&-h4 This shows that work is done on the system due to decrease in enthal#y o! working !luid.

5A' *. 'TEA$ = Reciprocating Compressor It is a device which com#resses air and su##lies the same at a considerably higher #ressure. &. ,o change in KE and 3E

A##lying '1EE g;&D

1 4 1 4 v& D h& - q&-4 > g;4D v4 D h4 - w&-4 2 2

w&-4 > h4 - h& D q&-4 > Evaporator It is a device used in re!rigeration system in which liquid receives heat and 0iquid leaves as va#our. .e!rigerant &. ,o work done by the system In 4. ,o change in KE and 3E A##lying '1EE g;&D
1 1 v&4 D h& D q&-4 > g;4D v44 D h4 D w&-4 2 2 q&-4

/a#our .e!rigerant *ut

q&-4 > h4-h&

:ote' %ork and heat are not com#letely interchangeable !orms o! energy. %ork is said as high grade energy while heat is low grade energy. Com#lete conversion !rom low grade to high grade in a cycle is im#ossible. 7$&$TAT$":S "F F$RST 7A3 "F THER&"-?:A&$CS &. The law does not s#eci!y the direction o! !low o! heat and work. 4. It also does not give any condition under which these trans!ers take #lace. 9. Though the mechanical work can be !ully converted into heat energy, but only a #art o! heat energy can be converted into mechanical work. Perpetual &otion &achine $ )P&&@$* A machine which violates the !irst law o! thermodynamics is known as 3$$ I. It is de!ined as a machine which #roduces work energy without consuming an equivalent o! energy !rom other sources. It is im#ossible to obtain such a machine.
&4

Thermal Engg.

E:ER+? RESER,"$R A thermal energy reservoir is de!ined as large body o! in!inite heat which is ca#able o! absorbing or reNecting an unlimited quantity o! heat without a!!ecting its tem#erature.

S"1RCE The thermal energy reservoir !rom which heat is trans!erred to the system o#erating in a heat engine cycle is called the source. Eg: the sun, a constant tem#erature !urnace where !uel is continuously burnt. S$:0 The thermal energy reservoir to which heat is reNected !rom the system during a cycle is called the sink. Eg: river, sea or atmos#here

ii

SEC":- 7A3 "F THER&"-?:A&$CS It is commonly de!ined in two ways Kelvin 3lanck and Clausius statements: ! 0elvin Planc4 Statement' It is im#ossible to construct an engine working on a cyclic #rocess, whose sole #ur#ose is to convert heat energy !rom a single thermal reservoir into an equivalent amount o! work. In other words, no actual heat engine, working on a cyclic #rocess, can convert whole o! the heat su##lied to it into mechanical work. It means that there is a degradation o! energy in the #rocess o! #roducing mechanical work !rom the heat su##lied. Perpetual &otion &achine $$ )P&&@$$* A heat engine which violates the second law is known as #er#etual motion machine o! 4nd kind. It converts whole o! heat energy into mechanical work. It is a &?? U e!!icient machine which is im#ossible in actual #ractice.

Application of second la5 to heat engines 1or the satis!actory o#eration o! heat engine there should be atleast two reservoirs o! heat one at a higher tem#erature and one at a lower tem#erature.
&9

Thermal Engg.

ma > >

maximum work obtained Heat sup plied

>

Q1 Q2 Q1

T1 T2 T1

Aheat engineB

2 Clausius Statement It is im#ossible !or a sel! acting machine, working in acyclic #rocess, to trans!er heat !rom a body at a lower tem#erature to a body at a higher tem#erature without the aid o! an e ternal agency. In other words, heat cannot !low itsel! !rom a cold body to a hot body without the hel# o! an e ternal agency Awithout the e #enditure o! mechanical workB. Perpetual &otion &achine $$ )P&&@$$* The device such as a re!rigerator or a heat #um# violates the Clausius statement because no in#ut work is su##lied to the device to trans!er heat !rom a cold body to a hot body. 'uch a device is called #er#etual motion machine o! the second kind.

Application of second la5 to refrigerator and heat pump Refrigerator It is a device which o#erating in a cyclic #rocess, maintains the tem#erature o! a cold body Are!rigerated s#aceB at a tem#erature lower than tem#erature o! the surrounding.
&C

Thermal Engg.

Though the body will be insulated there will be always heat leakage 7 4 into the body !rom surrounding due to tem#erature di!!erence. In order to maintain cold body at tem#erature T4, heat is to be removed !rom the body at same rate at which the heat is leaking in same body. The #er!ormance o! re!rigerator is measured in terms o! co e!!icient o! #er!ormance which is de!ined as ratio o! desired e!!ect to the work required to #roduce it.
Q2 Desired Effect C*3. > Work Re quired > Q1 Q2 T2 > T1 T2

Heat Pump It is a device which o#erating in a cyclic #rocess, maintains the tem#erature o! a hot body Aheated s#aceB at a tem#erature higher than the tem#erature o! surroundings.

The body will be maintained at T& i! heat is su##lied to it at same rate at which it is leaking out o! the body. The heat is e tracted !rom low tem#erature reservoir Aatmos#hereB and discharged into high tem#erature body by work in#ut.

&@

Thermal Engg.

Q1 Desired Effect C*3# > Work Re quired > Q1 Q2 T1 > T1 T2 T1 T2 + T2 T2 > > &D T1 T2 T1 T2 > &D C*3.

Aadding and subtracting T4B

C*3 o! a heat #um# is greater than C*3 o! a re!rigerator by unity. Also, a re!rigerator works between the cold body tem#erature and the atmos#heric tem#erature Ahot bodyB whereas a heat #um# o#erates between the hot body tem#erature and the atmos#heric tem#erature Acold bodyB. E%uivalence of 0elvin@Planc4 and Clausius Statements Kelvin-3lanck and Clausius statement are virtually equivalent in all res#ects. The equivalence can be #roved i! violation o! Kelvin-3lanck statement im#lies the violation o! Clausius statement and vice versa. &. /iolation o! Kelvin- 3lanck 'tatement:

Consider a system, a heat engine having &?? U thermal e!!iciency Aie 3$$ IIB is violating the Kelvin-3lanck statement as it converts the heat energy A7 &B
&F

Thermal Engg.

!rom a single high tem#erature reservoir at T &, into an equivalent amount o! work Aie %> 7&B. This work out#ut o! the heat engine can be used to drive a heat #um# Aor re!rigeratorB which receives an amount o! heat 7 4 !rom a low tem#erature reservoir at T4 and reNects an amount o! heat A7 &D74B to a high tem#erature reservoir at T&. I! the combination o! a heat engine and a heat #um# Aor re!rigeratorB is considered as a single system, then the result is a device that o#erates in a cycle and has no e!!ect on the surroundings other than the trans!er o! heat 7 4 !rom a low tem#erature reservoir to a high tem#erature reservoir, thus violating the Clausius statement. Hence, a violation o! Kelvin3lanck statement leads to a violation o! Clausius 'tatement. 4. /iolation o! Clausius 'tatement Consider a system, a heat #um# or re!rigerator Aie 3$$ IIB is violating the Clausius statement as it trans!ers heat !rom a low tem#erature reservoir at T 4 to a high tem#erature reservoir at T& without any e #enditure o! work. ,ow let a heat engine, o#erating between the same heat reservoirs, receives an amount o! heat 7& Aas discharged by the heat #um#B !rom the high tem#erature reservoir at T&, does work A%E> 7&-74B and reNects an amount o! heat 74 to the low tem#erature reservoir at T 4. I! the combination o! the heat #um# Aor re!rigeratorB and the heat engine is considered as a single system, then the result is a device that o#erates in a cycle whose sole e!!ect is to remove heat at the rate o! A7&-74B and convert it com#letely into an equivalent amount o! work, thus violating the Kelvin-3lanck statement. Hence, a violation o! Clausius statement leads to a violation o! Kelvin-3lanck statement.
HI5H TE$3E.AT+.E .E'E./*I. AT T& 7
&

7
&

. 7
&

H E
4

%> 7&74 7

H E

%> 7&74 7&- 74

0*% TE$3E.AT+.E .E'E./*I. AT T4

0*% TE$3E.AT+.E .E'E./*I. AT T4

&E

Thermal Engg.

Problems on SFEE' &. The velocity and enthal#y o! !luid at inlet o! certain no;;le are @? m=sec and 4I?? kL=kg. The no;;le is hori;ontal and insulated so that no heat trans!er takes #lace !rom it. 1ind a. /elocity o! !luid at e it o! the no;;le. b. $ass !low rate i! area at inlet o! no;;le is ?.?M m 4 and the s#eci!ic volume is ?.&I@ m9=kg. c. E it area o! no;;le i! s#eci!ic volume at e it o! no;;le is ?.CM@ m 9=kg Enthal#y at e it is 4F?? kL=kg. 5iven: /& > @? m=sec , h& > 4I?? kL=kg, h4 > 4F?? kL=kg, A& > ?.?M m4, v& > ?.&I@ m9=kg v4 > ?.CM@ m9=kg, q&-4 > ?, w&-4 > ? 1ind: /4 , , A4 'olution: A##lying '1EE
1 4 1 4 /& D h& D q&-4 > g;4D /4 D h4 D w&-4 2 2 1 h&- h4 > S /44-/&4T 2

g;&D

/4 > F9C.C9 m=sec > G&/&A& > G4/4A4

1 > 4C.94C kg=sec

>
V2 A2

>

V1 A1

>

50 0.09 0.185

4C.94C > A4

634.43 A2 0.495

> ?.?&IM m4

4. In a gas turbine gases !low at a state o! @ kg=sec. The gases enter the turbine at a #ressure o! E bar with velocity o! &4? m=sec and leaves at a #ressure o! 4 bar with velocity 4@? m=sec. The turbine is insulated. I! enthal#y o! the gas at inlet is M?? kL=kg and outlet is F?? kL=kg determine ca#acity o! turbine. 5iven: > @ kg=sec, 3& > E bar, /& > &4? m=sec, 34 > 4 bar, /4 > 4@? m=sec h& > M?? kL=kg, h4 > F?? kL=kg, q&-4 > ?, 3E > ? 1ind: Ca#acity o! turbine

'olution:
&I

Thermal Engg.

A##lying '1EE g;&D w&-4

1 4 1 4 /& D h& D q&-4 > g;4D /4 D h4 D w&-4 2 2 1 4 1 > /& D h& " S /44 D h4T 2 2

w&-4 > 4E@.M@ kL=kg Ca#acity o! turbine > w&-4 > @ 4E@.M@ &?9 > &9EM.E@ kL=sec

Problems on 2nd 7a5' &. An engine works between the tem#erature limits o! &EE@ K and 9E@ K. %hat can be the ma imum thermal e!!iciency o! this engineV '*+.CE 5iven: T&> &EE@ k T& > &EE@ K T4 > 9E@ K 7 1ind : ma th
&

'olution: ma th >
T1 T2 T1
1775 375 1775

H E
4

%> 7&74 7

>

'I,K T4> 9E@ k

> EI.IE U 4. Cold storage is to be maintained at -@ HC while the surrounding is at 9@ HC. The heat leakage !rom the surrounding into the cold storage is 4M k%. The actual C*3 o! the re!rigeration #lant is estimated to be 4Mk%. The actual C*3 is &=9rd o! ideal #lant working between same tem#eratures. 1ind the #ower required to drive the #lant. 5iven: '+..*+,-I,5 T& > 9@ HC > 4E9D9@ > 9?I K T&> 9?I k T4 > -@ HC > 4E9-@ > 4FI K 74 > 4M k% AC*3Bactual > 1ind: %. 'olution:
T2 268 > T1 T2 308 268 > F.E 1 1 AC*3Bactual > AC*3Bideal > F.E 3 3 > 4.49
1 AC*3Bideal 3 7 %.> 7&74
&

. 7
4

AC*3Bideal >

C*0'T*.A5E T4> 4FI k

&M

Thermal Engg.

AC*3Bactual > %.

Q2 29 > W 2.23 > &4.MIE k%

9. A machine o#erating between 9? K and 4F? K. -etermine the C*3 when it is o#erated as re!rigerator machine and heat #um#. -raw block diagrams. 5iven: T& > 4F? K '+..*+,-I,5 '+..*+,-I,5 T4 > 9? K T&> 4F? k T&> 4F? k 1ind: AC*3BH3 , AC*3B. T2 30 AC*3B. > > T1 T2 260 30 > ?.&9?C
T1 260 AC*3BH3 > > T1 T2 260 30
7
4

7 %.> 7&74
&

7 %H3> 7&- 74 H 3 7
4 &

> &.&9?C C. The higher and lower tem#erature in a re!rigerator working on a reversed carnot cycle are 9@ HC and -&@ HC. Ca#acity o! machine is 9@.&F k%. 1ind C*3, #ower to run and heat reNected !rom system. 5iven: T& > 9@ HC > 4E9D9@ > 9?I K '+..*+,-I,5 T4 > -&@ HC > 4E9-&@ > 4@I K T&> 9?I k 74 > 9@.&F k% 1ind: 7 AC*3B. , %., 7& 'olution: & %.> 7&T2 258 . 74 AC*3B. > > T1 T2 308 258 > @.&F Q2 35.16 AC*3B. > > W 5.16 %. > F.I& k% 7& > %. D 74 > F.I& D 9@.&F > C&.ME k%

C*0'T*.A5E T4> 9? k

C*0'T*.A5E T4> 9? k

74 > 9@.&F k% C*0'T*.A5E T4> 4@I k

@. An engineer claims that its re!rigeration gives C*3 at F while working tem#erature limit o! 9@ HC and -&@HC. Lusti!y the claim. '+..*+,-I,5 5iven: T&> 9?I k T& > 9@ HC > 4E9D9@ > 9?I K T4 > -&@ HC > 4E9-&@ > 4@I K AC*3Bactual > F 7 1ind: &
4? %.> 7&74 . C*0'T*.A5E T > 4@I k

Thermal Engg.

AC*3Bideal 'olution: AC*3Bideal >

T2 258 > T1 T2 308 258 > @.&F
74

An ideal cycle will have C*3 o! @.&F so actual C*3 cannot be more than ideal. 'o the claim is !alse. F. The C*3 o! re!rigerator o#erating on carnot cycle is @.C and it maintains -@HC in the eva#orator. Calculate the condenser tem#erature and re!rigeration e!!ect i! #ower required to drive the unit is @ k%. 5iven: '+..*+,-I,5 %. > @ k% T& T4 > -@ HC > 4E9-@ > 4FI K AC*3B. > @.C 7 1ind: T&, 74 & %.> @ 'olution: . k% T2 AC*3B. > T1 T2 @.C > T 268 1 T& > 9&E.F9 K Q2 AC*3B. > W 74 > @.C @ 74 > 4E k%
268

74

C*0'T*.A5E T4> 4FI k

E. A re!rigerator o#erates between C?HC and -4@HC. Ca#acity is &4 tons. 1ind C*3, #ower required and heat reNected.

5iven: T& > C? HC > 4E9DC? > 9&9 K T4 > -4@ HC > 4E9-4@ > 4CI K 74 > &4 tons & ton > 9.@&E k% 1ind: AC*3B. , %., 7& 'olution: T2 248 AC*3B. > > T1 T2 313 248 > 9.I&@
4&

'+..*+,-I,5 T&> 9&9 k 7 %.> 7&74

&

. 74 > C4.4? k% C*0'T*.A5E T4> 4CI k

Thermal Engg.

AC*3B. >

Q2 42.20 > W 3.815

%. > &&.?F9 k% 7& > %. D 74 > &&.?F9 D C4.4? > @9.4FE k% I. A domestic !ood !ree;er is to be maintained at tem#erature o! -&@ HC. The ambient air tem#erature is 9? HC. I! the heat leaks into !ree;er at the continuous rate o! &.E@ kL=s. 1ind the #ower required to #um# this heat out continuously. 5iven: T& > 9? HC > 4E9D9? > 9?9 K '+..*+,-I,5 T4 > -&@ HC > 4E9-&@ > 4@I K T&> 9?9 k 74 > &.E@ kL=s 1ind: 7 AC*3B. , %., 'olution: & %.> 7&T2 258 . 74 AC*3B. > > T1 T2 303 258 > @.E9 Q2 1.75 AC*3B. > > W 5.73 %. > ?.9?@ kL=s
74 >&.E@ kL=s C*0'T*.A5E T4> 4@I k

M. A cyclic heat engine o#erates between a source tem#erature o! I?? HC and sink tem#erature o! 9?HC. %hat is the least rate o! heat reNection #er k% net out#ut o! an engineV 5iven: T& > I?? HC > 4E9 D I?? > &?E9 K T4 > 9? HC > 4E9 D 9? > 9?9 K % > & k% '*+.CE 1ind : T &> &?E9 k 74 'olution: 7 T1 T2 th > & T1 %> 7&>
1073 303 1073 H E 74 7
4

> E&.EF U Q1 Q2 W th > > Q1 Q1 7& > &.9M k% 74 > 7& - % > ?.9M k%
44

'I,K T4> 9?9 k

Thermal Engg.

CHAPTER 2 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics 2uestions From Previous 9oard Papers

&. -e!ine PE tensive #ro#ertyQ. 5ive two e am#le. $ay ?I A4B -i!!erentiate between intensive and e tensive #ro#erty. 5ive two e am#les o! each. $ay &? -ec ?I ACB -e!ine intensive #ro#erty and e tensive #ro#erty o! the system. 5ive one e am#le o! each. $ay &4 A4B 4. -e!ine a thermodynamic system. -i!!erentiate between o#en, closed and isolated system with one e am#le each. $ay ?M $ay ?I AFB 9. -i!!erentiate between o#en and closed system. $ay &? AFB E #lain closed and o#en system. 5ive two e am#les o! each. -ec && ACB C. -e!ine system. 0ist its di!!erent ty#es. -ec ?M A4B -e!ine system and give its classi!ication with e am#les. $ay && ACB
49

Thermal Engg.

@. -i!!erentiate between heat and work. $ay && ACB -e!ine high grade and low grade energy with the hel# o! e am#les. -ec && ACB F. %hat is #ure substanceV $ay ?M A4B E. -e!ine #ro#erty o! system. $ay ?M A4B -e!ine thermodynamic #ro#erty. 'tate its ty#es and give two e am#les o! each. -ec ?M ACB I. .e#resent system, surrounding and boundary with suitable e am#le. $ay ?M ACB M. -e!ine #oint !unction and #ath !unction. $ay &4 $ay && -ec ?M A4B -i!!erentiate between #oint !unction and #ath !unction. -ec &4 ACB &?. -e!ine the !ollowing #rocess: reversible and irreversible #rocess. -ec && A4B &&. Comment on PIn #ractice most o! the #rocesses are irreversibleQ to some e tent. $ay ?I AFB &4. E #lain the !actors which make the #rocess irreversible. -ec ?I ACB &9. -i!!erentiate between reversible and irreversible #rocess. $ay &4 ACB &C. -e!ine entro#y. %hat are the characteristics o! entro#yV -ec && ACB &@. -e!ine thermodynamic work, give its unit. -ec &4 A4B &F. -e!ine enthal#y and write its unit. $ay &4 A4B &E. 'tate and e #lain Jeroth law o! thermodynamics. 5ive one e am#le o! it. -ec &4 -ec ?M ACB &I. E #lain thermal equilibrium and state ;eroth law o! thermodynamics. -ec ?I ACB &M. 'tate !irst law o! thermodynamics. -ec &4 $ay &4 $ay ?M ACB 5ive various statements !or P!irst law o! thermodynamics.Q $ay && ACB 4?. %hat are the limitations o! 1irst law o! thermodynamicsV -ec &4 ACB 4&. -e!ine Jeroth law and Kelvin 3lankQs 'tatement o! second law o! thermodynamics. $ay &4 $ay &? ACB 44. 'tate the two statements o! second law o! thermodynamics. -ec &4 -ec && $ay ?I ACB 'tate Kelvin-3lank and Clausius 'tatement o! second law o! thermodynamics.
4C

Thermal Engg.

$ay &4 $ay && -ec ?I ACB 49. %rite steady state energy equation. A##ly it to no;;le. $ay ?I ACB %rite steady !low energy equation and a##ly it to boiler, ,o;;le, condenser, com#ressor and Turbine. $ay &4 -ec && $ay &? -ec ?M $ay ?M -ec ?I AFB 'tate steady !low energy equation. 5ive the meaning o! all #arameters contained in it. A##ly this equation to boiler, ,o;;le. $ay && ACB 4C. 3rove the relation between C*3 o! heat #um# and C*3 o! re!rigeration. $ay 4??M ACB 4@. -i!!erentiate between heat engine and re!rigerator with block diagrams. $ay && ACB 4F. -i!!erentiate between heat #um# and re!rigerator. $ay &? ACB 4E. E #lain the #er!ormance o! a re!rigerator. How is C*3 o! a re!rigerator determinedV -ec && ACB 4I. 3rove the equivalence o! Kelvin 3lank statement to Clausius statement. Also #rove the equivalence o! clausius statement to Kelvin 3lank statement. -ec && AIB 4M. E #lain conce#ts o! 3$$ & and 3$$ 4V $ay &4 ACB
Problems' &. The velocity and enthal#y o! !luid at inlet o! certain no;;le are @? m=sec and 4I?? kL=kg. The no;;le is hori;ontal and insulated so that no heat trans!er takes #lace !rom it. 1ind a. /elocity o! !luid at e it o! the no;;le. b. $ass !low rate i! area at inlet o! no;;le is ?.?M m4 and the s#eci!ic volume is ?.&I@ m9=kg. c. E it area o! no;;le i! s#eci!ic volume at e it o! no;;le is ?.CM@ m9=kg Enthal#y at e it is 4F?? kL=kg. 4. In a gas turbine gases !low at a state o! @ kg=sec. The gases enter the turbine at a #ressure o! E bar with velocity o! &4? m=sec and leaves at a #ressure o! 4 bar with velocity 4@? m=sec. The turbine is insulated. I! enthal#y o! the gas at inlet is M?? kL=kg and outlet is F?? kL=kg determine ca#acity o! turbine. 9. A stream o! gases at E.@ bar, E@? C and &C? m=s is #assed through a turbine o! a Net engine. The stream comes out o! the turbine at 4? bar, @@? C and 4I? m=s. The #rocess is assumed to be adiabatic. The enthal#y o! gas at the entry and e it o! the turbine are M@? kL=kg and F@? kL=kg o! gas res#ectively. 1ind ca#acity o! turbine. -ec &4 AIB C. An engine works between the tem#erature limits o! &EE@ K and 9E@ K. %hat can be the ma imum thermal e!!iciency o! this engineV @. Cold storage is to be maintained at -@ HC while the surrounding is at 9@ HC. The heat leakage !rom the surrounding into the cold storage is 4M k%. The actual C*3 o! the re!rigeration #lant is estimated to be 4Mk%. The actual C*3 is &=9 rd o! ideal #lant working between same tem#eratures. 1ind the #ower required to drive the #lant. F. A machine o#erating between 9? K and 4F? K. -etermine the C*3 when it is o#erated as re!rigerator machine and heat #um#. -raw block diagrams. E. The higher and lower tem#erature in a re!rigerator working on a reversed carnot cycle are 9@ HC and -&@ HC. Ca#acity o! machine is 9@.&F k%. 1ind C*3, #ower to run and heat reNected !rom system. 4@

Thermal Engg. I. An engineer claims that its re!rigeration gives C*3 at F while working tem#erature limit o! 9@ HC and -&@HC. Lusti!y the claim. M. The C*3 o! re!rigerator o#erating on carnot cycle is @.C and it maintains -@HC in the eva#orator. Calculate the condenser tem#erature and re!rigeration e!!ect i! #ower required to drive the unit is @ k%. -ec &4 ACB &?. A re!rigerator o#erates between C?HC and -4@HC. Ca#acity is &4 tons. 1ind C*3, #ower required and heat reNected. &&. A domestic !ood !ree;er is to be maintained at tem#erature o! -&@ HC. The ambient air tem#erature is 9? HC. I! the heat leaks into !ree;er at the continuous rate o! &.E@ kL=s. 1ind the #ower required to #um# this heat out continuously. -ec && ACB &4. A cyclic heat engine o#erates between a source tem#erature o! I?? HC and sink tem#erature o! 9?HC. %hat is the least rate o! heat reNection #er k% net out#ut o! an engineV $ay ?I ACB &9. A re!rigerator works between the tem#erature limits o! -C C and 9@C. I! re!rigerator works on PCarnot CycleQ !ind out its C*3. $ay && A4B &C. A carnot re!rigerator requires &.9 k%=ton o! re!rigeration to maintain the tem#erature o! 4CE K. 1ind iB C*3 o! re!rigerator iiB Tem#erature at which heat is reNected. A Take & ton o! re!rigeration > 9.@&E k%B $ay &4 ACB

4F