3

BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

OBJECTIVES
In This Chapter, we will Learn functions of computer system and its various units Learn about CPU, its components, its features, processing speed Learn various types of storage and its characteristics Learn variations of RAM, ROM, VRAM, and Flash memory

INTRODUCTION Computer is potentially a very powerful data processing tool consisting of the units known as peripheral devices, which serve either a means of feeding data into the system or receiving results from the system. The objective of this chapter is to provide an overview of the working units of computer system to the user. In this chapter, the key terms, such as logical components, organizations, technologies employed in main memory systems are described. 3.1 BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION A digital computer primarily comprises of three units as shown in Fig 3.1, such as input unit, processing unit and output unit. Each unit is described below in the text. 3.2 INPUT UNIT

In the beginning of a computer-based information system, the term input is used to describe the process of collecting raw data into a form as quickly and efficiently as possible, that is usable by computer for processing. Thus, an input unit is responsible for accepting data and instruction in the form, that depends upon the device used. It is generally an electromechanical device that accesses the data that computer uses, which is communicated from outside. This is the actual means by which data is converted into electronic pulses and further transformed and stored as binary codes. This task is performed by
[3.1]

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Computer Fundamentals

input interface. Input unit functions can be summarized as follows : (1) It provides a means for the machine to communicate with its external environment by accepting (or reading) data and the list of instructions. The common input devices are: Card reader, Paper tape reader, Magnetic tape drive, Disk drive, Keyboard, etc. (2) It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form. (3) It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further processing.

CPU

Figure 3.1: Basic organization of a computer system 3.3 OUTPUT UNIT

The output devices of the computer enable it to communicate results to the outside world or user. It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form and hence cannot be easily understood. It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form. This activity is performed by output interfaces, which are designed in compatible with output devices. It supplies the converted results to the outside world. Output devices fall into two categories: 1. Devices which produce output that is understood by human beings, e.g., Printers and Monitors (VDU) 2. Auxiliary storage devices that hold data may be intended for further processing (e.g., Magnetic disks) Input/output is a piece of hardware that can be used for both providing data to a computer and for receiving data from it, e.g., disk drive.

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3.4

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The CPU is known to be heart or brain of the computer system as it follows the instructions of the software/program to manipulate data into information. A digital computer consists of various types of units, all interconnected and functioning under central control. The central processor or Central Processing Unit (CPU) carries out a variety of essential data manipulation (including, calculations, comparisons, sorting, etc.) and controlling tasks in the computer which is also known as microprocessor i.e., microprocessor = ALU + CU. The architecture of the CPU determines the way of processing of data. Modern computers transmit data by employing multi-staged pipelines. Generally, CPU includes some sort of error correction mechanism to ensure proper flow of data through these lines. In this unit actual execution of the instruction takes place. Every microprocessor contains a system clock. The speed at which processor executes instruction is known as clock speed and it is measured in Megahertz (MHz). Where mega means millions and hertz means cycles. Therefore 550 MHz processor performs 550 million cycles per second. Generally, clock speed determines the system performance. Technology advances for higher clock speed. The latest generation of processors operate in gigahertz (GHz) i.e., a billion cycles per second. System clock determines and controls the speed of operations taking place within a computer. Clock speed is the speed at which system clock oscillates. For microcomputers it is measured in Megahertz (MHz) and Gigahertz (GHz). Megahertz (MHz): a measure of frequency equivalent to 1 million cycles per second Gigahertz (GHz) : a billion cycles per second. A computer performs its operation in fraction of a second. The increasing speed given below are: Millisecond = 10-3 second Microsecond = 10-6 second Nanosecond = 10-9 second Picosecond = 10-12 second. CPU consists of two parts Control Unit (CU) and an Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU). Both of them contain high storage areas and all are linked by electronic path known as bus.

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Computer Fundamentals

3.4-1 Arithmetic and Logical Unit ALU is the principal element of the CPU. It performs the basic four arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc. To determine whether one number is larger than another, or whether the number is positive or negative, or zero, it performs logical (comparison) operations on data. Additionally it also performs logical boolean operators such as and, or, not. When not is applied to binary operands, it forms complement of that operand. These operations are carried out at very high speeds. The arithmetic logic unit also allows the control unit to make logical decisions that affect the flow of the program. The arithmetic and control units heavily depend on third element of a computer, the main storage or memory unit. The arithmetic unit needs numbers to operate on and to store the immediate results until the end of calculation. Arithmetic/Logic unit, performs arithmetic and logical operations and controls the speed of these operations. 3.4-2 Control Unit The other important element of the CPU is control unit, which is required to supervise the functioning as whole. Control unit acts as automatic operator, it provides the means of communication within the machine, by moving, advancing or transferring information. CU does not perform any actual processing on data. Rather, it manages and co-ordinates the entire computer system. Basically, control unit is incharge of decoding instructions and sequencing the actions of various functional units. It fetches program instructions one by one in sequence, stored in main memory. It interprets (or decodes) them, and sends appropriate control signals to the various units. It resolves conflicts between on chip resources and responds to external and internal interrupts. Control unit refers to a functioning unit which carries out four basic operations, these are: (1) fetches an instruction, (2) decodes the instructions, (3) executes the instruction, and (4) it stores the result. 3.5 STORAGE UNIT Different types of memory (or storage) are usually used in a computer system. Any storage unit of a computer may have following characteristics: (i) Access time is the amount of time needed for locating and delivering data from memory (storage device) to the processor after the address for the data has been selected. Access time is usually measured in millisecond and is used as a performance measure for disks and CDs.

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3.5

(il) Storage capacity is the amount of information/ data a storage unit can hold. Higher storage capacity devices are desirable. (iii) Cost per bit of storage is generally higher with fast devices, though the objective is to minimize the cost. These may be fast or slow. The availability of fast, inexpensive memory has had enormous impact on computer technology. Fast is relatively small and expensive storage units, used as fast access by the central processing unit. Slow is significantly large and inexpensive storage units. Storage unit of computer system consist of four types of storage, namely, Registers, Cache memory, Primary memory and Secondary memory. The description of each memory is classified according to its performance and cost as given in Fig.3.2. Since the 1970s, memory performance and cost have reduced at the rate of 27% per year. Over this period, the price per bit of main memory has decreased at the astonishing rate of approximately 27% per year. These advances have taken place primarily, due to improvement in the integrated microelectronic technologies. The commonly used memory types are described as per the hierarchy (see Fig. 3.2) further in this chapter.

Registers Cache Main memory Secondary storage (disks) Off-line storage (tape) Slow and inexpensive Increasing Performance and cost

Figure 3.2: The Memory Hierarchy

(Source: Computer Science Encyclopaedia: Memory, Nature Publishing House- 2001)

3.5.1 Register Registers are high speed storage areas that temporarily store data during processing to enhance computers performance The size of the internal registers indicates how much information the processor can operate on at one time and how data moves around internally within the chip. A Register is capable of holding one number and its location is with an execution unit. For example, the processor can add numbers in two different registers storing the result in a third register. The register size determines the

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Computer Fundamentals

size of data the processor can operate on. It is usually a small chip data array that is addressable by program instructions. Registers are in cluded in all major microprocessor and provide storage with fastest possible access time. 3.5.2 Cache Memory Cache memory is a small high speed buffer memory used to hold instructions temporarily that the processor is likely to use frequently, to speed up processing. The CPU of a computer system commonly use Cache memory where it holds or buffers the contents of the main memory because CPU runs much faster than main memory RAM. Thus to reduce the waiting time of CPU cache is used. Cache memory also holds the contents of the secondary storage (viz: disk or tape). Caching is used in various purposes such as for look up files in directory system and web pages on a web server. Cache memory reduces traditional system bottleneck because system RAM is much slower than CPU. This prevents the processor from having to wait for program and data from slower main memory.

C.P.U

Cache Memory

Main memory
(Large in capacity and slow in speed than cache memory)

Figure 3.3: Illustrates The Cache Memory 3.5-3 Main Memories or Integrated Circuits (Semi-conductor memories) The characteristics of main memory lie between the two extremes of slow and fast memories. In general, the main memory will contain instructions and data that are accessed by a program while it is executing. Main memory stores data and instructions for the CPU. It has four basic purposes: 1. To hold data and instructions for a given job, from an input unit (keyboard, terminal, etc.) before processing. 2. To hold intermediate results, while processing. 3. To hold data after processing, until they are transferred to output device (for example, to a printer). 4. It also holds program and instructions not only received from input devices but also from secondary storage devices. 5. It also stores complex programs such as operating system. Thus, primary storage or main memory consists of mainly four areas: (1) Input Storage Area : It holds data and instruction required for processing. (2) Working Storage Area : It holds the data being processed and

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intermediate results of such processing. (3) Output Storage Area: This holds the final result of processing. (4) Program Storage Area: This area holds the sequence of instructions for the computer. A word is the largest amount of data that can be handled by the microprocessor in one operation, word size of 16 bits and 32 bits are common. Physically, this memory is thin silicon chip which contains a number of small storage cells that hold data. Each of these cells or locations can store fixed number of bits called word length. Thus, memory is divided into N (0 to N-l) words (where N is power of 2). Each location holds either data item or an instruction. Typically, each memory address refers to more than one bit of data in the memory system. The minimum uniquely addressable unit of data in main memory is typically eight bits, or a byte. However, the size of this addressable quantum, is often called Word. Word is usually of 4 bytes. This chip is an integrated circuits containing number of transistors on a single, thin silicon wafer. The built-in memory allows the CPU to store and retrieve data quickly, that it is 100 times faster than secondary storage. Memory is like catalog system in the library, where each drawer contains number of references as number of bits in each cell with a particular address. Even small computer systems now have relatively large memories. Since memory addresses are binary numbers, the memory size is typically related to a power of two and described in units of Kilobytes (KB), Megabytes (MB), Gigabytes (GB), or (for mass storage) Terabytes (TB). A Bit = each 0 or 1, short for binary digit A Byte = group of 8 bit, represent one character where 8 bits = 1 byte = 1 character A Kilobyte = 210 or 1,024 bytes A Megabyte = 1024 Kilobytes A Gigabyte = 1024 Megabytes A Terabyte = 1024 Gigabytes and A Petabyte = 1024 Terabytes Main memory sizes ranged from 64 MB-l GB on an inexpensive personal computer to several GB on a mainframe. There are two types of built-in memory, permanent and temporary, known as ROM and RAM, respectively, details of each given below: 3.5.3-1 Read Only Memory As we know in computer terminology read means transferring data instruction

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Computer Fundamentals

from an input source to the computers main memory (or CPU) and write is transferring data/instruction from computers main memory to an output device. Therefore, Read only means data/instruction can be retrieved from the ROM Chip but cannot be modified. Read Only Memory (ROM) is simple type of memory, whose contents cannot be changed even after loss of electrical power. There are two types of read only memory, namely, (a) manufacturer programmed, and (b) user programmed. (a) Manufacturer programmed ROM: ROM is one in which the contents are programmed by the manufacturer during the construction of the chip, it is unalterable. Usually, ROMs are used for high volume controlled applications such as the set of instructions known as system boot program that is needed to make the computer system ready for use when its power is switched on. These instructions are startup instructions, commonly found in ROM. ROM-BIOS means Read only Memory Basic Input Output Services. These services or instructions perform the basic control over hardware including I/O devices. Generally, ROM chip of a computer stores Operating System, Disk Drivers, Printers drivers, etc. Thus, ROM stores program and data which do not change and are frequently used. ROM (read only memory) chip contain fixed start-up instructions. It cannot be written on or erased by the computer user, only trained programmers can write by using special equipment. (b) User-programmed ROM: The user-programmed ROM is one in which user can load and store read only programs and data. The userprogrammed ROM include the following: Programmable Read only Memory (PROM) : It can be written once via an irreversible process. PROM is a non-volatile storage, i.e., the stored information cannot be changed even if the power is switched off. Erasable Programmable Read only Memory (EPROM) : Data on EPROM can be erased to store new information. However, the information on this chip can only be read. When EPROM is in use, information in the chip remains until it is erased. EPROM chips are generally used by R&D personnel who test the efficiency of the system with new programs. EPROMs are of two types namely, E lectrically E rasable P rogrammable R ead O nly M emory (EEPROM) and Ultra Violet Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (UVEPROM). Data on EEPROM can be erased by using high electric voltage and due to this ease with which stored program can be altered, EEPROM is also known as flash memory. Whereas data on UVEPROM can be reset by exposure to intense ultra violet

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rays. Flash memory : Flash memory is small variant of Electrically Erasable programmable Read Only Memory. These memory chips are the latest known storage devices, available in capacities ranging from 512 MB to 2GB. They are non-volatile memories as they retain the data stored in them without a power source. They may be used to replace magnetic storage i.e., floppy diskette. The other advantages are that the read time of flash memory is quite less than the write time. Currently, flash memories are used to store images from digital cameras also in pagers, cell phones, MP3 players. The recent advancements are that flash memory cards would replace tape and disk storage. The size of flash memory cards is compact of 1 I. Compared to hard disk storage, flash memory cards are expensive. Flash memory chips can be erased and reprogrammed more than once

3.5.3-2 Random Access Memory RAM (random access memory) chips are meant for primary storage. They hold temporarily (a) software/program instructions and (b) data before and after processing. Random access means that any location can be referenced in the same time and in same manner, as it is independent of the address or location in the memory. It is a volatile memory. It holds data and instructions, during TABLE 3.2: COMPARISON BETWEEN RAM AND ROM ROM Read Only Memory i.e., information can only be read and cannot be written on to it. It stores information permanently. Information is not lost even if power supply is switched off. Known as non-volatile memory. Holds system softwares such as operating systems. Types of ROMs are PROM, EPROM EEPROM. RAM Random Access Memory as it randomly selects and uses location of the memory to access the information. It holds information temporarily. Information is lost when power supply is switched off. Known as volatile memory. Holds application programs which are currently in use. Types of RAMs are Dynamic RAM and Static RAM.

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Computer Fundamentals

3.5.3-3 Video RAM (VRAM) Video RAM is a special type of dynamic RAM (DRAM) used in high speed video applications. VRAM uses special circuitry that transfers pixel from video RAM to screen serially (bit by bit) Monitor has its own memory known as VRAM that is used to accelerate the display of graphics on the screen. It does this by the use of two ports, one port is connected to the screen and other to CPU. Data from CPU flow to the screen VRAM very smoothly. That is why we see clean graphic display on the screen. A variation of this is Window RAM (WRAM) that supports memory. 3.5-4 Secondary Storage Secondary storage is required to supplement the limited capacity and volatile characteristics of primary storage. The secondary storage is inexpensive, having large capacity and is non-volatile in nature. It stores program and data, which may be required at later date. The most commonly used secondary storage devices are magnetic disks, tapes, or optical disks (refer Chapter 8). Characteristics Of Primary And Secondary Storage S.N Primary Storage 1. It is the main memory as part of the CPU. 2. It is most expensive. 3. Storage capacity is generally in Megabytes (MB) Now available in few GB. 4. Information can be retrieved and processed very very fast. 5. Program and data are processed directly on RAM componentof primary memory. 6. Based on semi conductor Technology. 7. Access is random 8. It holds system software such as operating system, Application programs and user programs that are currently in use Secondary Storage It is auxiliary memory which works under the control of CPU. Relatively less expensive than primary memory. Storage Capacity is in Giga bytes (GB). Retrieval and processing of information is relatively higher than primary memory. Program and data cannot be processed directly but first it is placed on RAM of main memory. Made up of plastic coated with iron oxide material. Access can be sequential or random. It holds program and data other than those which are not currently in use i.e., used for backup purposes.

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SUMMARY Digital computer consist of three units such as input unit, processing unit and output unit. Input/output unit is nothing but hardware, which is used for both sending to and receiving from computer. CPU follows the instruction to manipulate data into information. The speed at which processor executes instruction is known as clock speed. ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations and also control operations. Cache memory is high speed buffer memory. Built-in memory is of two types ROM and RAM which are permanent and temporary respectively. Video RAM is used to accelerate the display of graphics on the screen. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Fill in the blanks with one of the words given in the bracket. (a) Results are obtained from the computer through its ......... unit. (Input/ Output/CPU) (b) .............unit provides communication from the main machine.(Input/ Output/ Control) (c) ...................... is the name given to main computer equipment and its peripheral devices. (Software/Hardware/Firmware) (d) Instructions to the computer are given through ..................... (Hardware/Program/Input) (e) Calculations are made in the computer with the help of its .................... (Memory/Arithmetic and Logic Unit/Control Unit) 2. Draw a Block diagram to illustrate the basic organization of a computer system and explain the functions of various units. 3. Distinguish between primary memory and secondary memory. 4. CPU is the heart and brain of computer. Comment. 5. What type of calculations are performed in ALU? 6. Define the architecture of the CPU. 7. Describe the main functions performed by control unit. 8. What are the basic operations performed by the computer system?

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Computer Fundamentals

9. Why computer is called as computer system? 10. What do you understand by bus in computer system? What are the primary functions it performs? 11. Identify the functions of main memory. 12. What is system clock? How clock speed can be determined? 13. What tasks are performed by main memory while ALU is performing calculations? 14. A computer has 64 MB memory. How many characters can be stored in its memory? 15. Differentiate between static and dynamic RAM. Which is more commonly used? 16. Explain the storage hierarchy of a computer system. 17. What are the basic functions performed by output unit? 18. What type of information is generally stored in ROM? Discuss the variations of ROM. 19. Differentiate between RAM and ROM. 20. Main memory contains four types of storage area. Specify the purpose of each. 21. What are registers? State its use. 22. What is cache memory? What is the purpose of this memory with the help of a diagram. 23. Differentiate between register and cache memory. 24. Arrange the following four measures of time from smallest to largest: ( i) Microsecond (ii) Millisecond (iii) Picosecond (iv) Nanosecond 25. Distinguish between (a) Main and Cache Memory (b) PROM and EPROM (c) Control Unit and Arithmetic Logic Unit 26. What is execution cycle? 27. Give one or two reason for cache memory in a processor. 28. How memory chips affect on system performance? 29. State What happens to RAM when: (a) Double-click on application icon (b) When more than one application windows are opened?

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REVIEW AND THINKING TASK Start your computer and take a note of the capacities of RAM, ROM, Cache Memory, Speed. Differentiate the same characteristics with calculator and mobile phone memory. Try to change the wallpaper, screen saver, style of your computer system etc.