FALL 2013 ASSIGNMENT MC0086- DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

1 Explain any two fields that use digital image processing. Answer: A. Origins of Digital Image Processing Processing of digital image involves the following steps to be carried out in a sequence: Image acquisition, Image enhancement, Image restoration, Color image processing, Wavelets and Multiresolution processing, Compression, Morphological processing, Segmentation, Representation with description and finally Object recognition. Image acquisition is the first process. To do so requires an imaging sensor and the capability to digitize the signal produced by the sensor. The sensor could be a monochrome or a color TV camera that produces an entire image of the problem domain every 1/30 seconds. The imaging sensor could also be a line-scan camera that produces a single image line at a time. If the output of the camera or other imaging sensor is not already in digital form, an analog-to-digital converter digitizes it. Note that acquisition could be as being given an image that is already in digital form. Generally, the image acquisition stage involves preprocessing, such as scaling. B. Examples of Fields that use Digital Image Processing Image enhancement is one of the simplest and most appealing areas of digital image processing. Basically, the idea behind enhancement techniques is to bring out detail that is obscured, or simply to highlight certain features of interest in an image. A familiar example of enhancement is when we increase the contrast of an image because it looks better. It is important to keep in mind that enhancement is a very subjective area of image processing. Image restoration is an area that also deals with improving the appearance of an image. However, unlike enhancement, which is subjective, image restoration is objective, in the sense that restoration techniques tend to be based on mathematical or probabilistic models of image degradation. Color image processing is an area that has been gaining in importance because of the significant increase in the use of digital images on the Internet. Color is used as the basis for extracting features of interest in an image. Wavelets are the foundation for representing images in various degrees of resolution. In particular, this is used for image data compression and for pyramidal representation, in which images are subdivided successively into smaller regions. C. Components of an Image Processing SystemMass storage capability is a must in image processing applications. An image of size 1024X1024 pixels, in which the intensity of each pixel is an 8-bit quantity, requires one megabyte of storage space if the image is not compressed. When dealing with thousands, or even millions, of images, providing adequate storage in an image processing system can be a challenge. Digital storage for image processing applications falls into three principal categories: (1) shortterm storage for use during processing. (2) On-line storage for relatively fast re-call, and (3) archival storage, characterized by infrequent access. Storage is measured in bytes (eight bits), Kbytes (one thousand bytes), Mbytes (one million bytes), Gbytes (meaning giga, or one billion, bytes), and Tbytes (meaning tera, or one trillion, bytes). Image displays in use today are mainly color (preferably flat screen) TV monitors. Monitors are driven by the outputs of image and graphics display cards that are an integral part of the computer system. Seldom are there requirements for image display applications that cannot be met by display cards available commercially as part of the computer system. In some cases, it is necessary to have stereo displays, and these are implemented in the form of headgear containing two small displays embedded in goggles worn by the user. Hardcopy devices for recording images include laser printers, film camera, heat-sensitive devices, inkjet units, and digital units, such as optical and CD-ROM disks. Film provides the highest possible resolution, but paper is the obvious medium of choice for written material. For presentations, images are displayed on film transparencies or in a digital medium if image projection equipment is used. The latter approach is gaining acceptance as the standard for image presentations.Networking is almost a default function in any computer system in use today. Because of the large amount of data inherent in image processing applications, the key consideration in image transmission is bandwidth. In dedicated networks, this typically is not a problem, but communications with remote sites via the Internet are not always as efficient. Fortunately, this situation is improving quickly as a result of optical fiber and other broadband technologies. 2.Explain the properties and uses of electromagnetic spectrum Answer: Elements of Visual Perception In addition to foundation of mathematical and probabilistic formulations on which digital image processing is based, human intuition and analysis play a central role which depends on subjective, visual judgments. Hence, developing a basic understanding of human visual perception is the fundamental step. Our interest lies in the mechanics and parameters related to how images are formed in the eye and in learning the physical limitations of human vision in terms of factors that are also used in our work with digital images. Thus, factors such as how

human and electronic imaging compare in terms of resolution and ability to adapt to changes in illumination are important from a practical point of view. Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum In 1666, Sir Isaac Newton discovered that when a beam of sunlight is passed through a glass prism, the emerging beam of light is not white but consists instead of a continuous spectrum of colors ranging from violet at one end to red at the other. As shown in Fig. 2.8, the range of colors we perceive in visible light represents a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. On one end of the spectrum are radio waves with wavelengths billions of times longer than those of visible light. At the other end of the spectrum are gamma rays with wavelengths millions of times smaller than those of visible light.

The electromagnetic spectrum can be expressed in terms of wavelength, frequency, or energy. Wavelength () and frequency () are related by the expression = c / (2. 3-1) where c is the speed of light (2.998*108 m/s).The energy of the various components of the electromagnetic spectrum is given by the expression E =h (2.3-2) where h is Plancks constant. The units of wavelength are meters, with the terms microns (denoted m and equal to 106 m) and nanometers (109 m) being used frequently. Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz), with one Hertz being equal to one cycle of a sinusoidal wave per second. Electromagnetic waves can be visualized as propagating sinusoidal waves with wavelength l as shown Fig. 2.9, or they can be thought of as a stream of massless particles, each traveling in a wavelike pattern and moving at the speed of light. Each massless particle contains a certain amount (or bundle) of energy. Each bundle of energy is called a photon. We see from Eq. (2.3-2) that energy is proportional to frequency, so the higher-frequency (shorter wavelength) electromagnetic phenomena carry more energy per photon. Thus, radio waves have photons with low energies; microwaves have more energy than radio waves, infrared still more, then visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, and finally gamma rays, the most energetic of all. This is the reason that gamma rays are so dangerous to living organisms.

Light is a particular type of electromagnetic radiation that can be seen and sensed by the human eye. The visible band of the electromagnetic spectrum spans the range from approximately 0.43 m (violet) to about 0.79 m (red).For convenience, the color spectrum is divided into six broad regions: violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. No color (or other component of the electromagnetic spectrum) ends abruptly, but rather each range blends smoothly into the next. The colors that humans perceive in an object are determined by the nature of the light reflected from the object. A body that reflects light and is relatively balanced in all visible wavelengths

appears white to the observer. However, a body that favors reflectance in a limited range of the visible spectrum exhibits some shades of color. For example, green objects reflect light with wavelengths primarily in the 500 to 570 nm range while absorbing most of the energy at other wavelengths. Light that is void of color is called achromatic or monochromatic light. The only attribute of such light is its intensity, or amount. The term gray level is generally used to describe monochromatic intensity because it ranges from black, to grays, and finally to white. Chromatic light spans the electromagnetic energy spectrum from approximately 0.43 to 0.79 m, as noted previously. Three basic quantities are used to describe the quality of a chromatic light source: radiance; luminance; and brightness. Radiance is the total amount of energy that flows from the light source, and it is usually measured in watts (W). Luminance, measured in lumens (lm), gives a measure of the amount of energy an observer perceives from a light source. For example, light emitted from a source operating in the far infrared region of the spectrum could have significant energy (radiance), but an observer would hardly perceive it; its luminance would be almost zero. At the short-wavelength end of the electromagnetic spectrum, we have gamma rays and hard X-rays. Gamma radiation is important for medical and astronomical imaging, and for imaging radiation in nuclear environments. Hard (high-energy) X-rays are used in industrial applications. Moving still higher in wavelength, we encounter the infrared band, which radiates heat, a fact that makes it useful in imaging applications th at rely on heat signatures. The part of the infrared band close to the visible spectrum is called the near -infrared region. The opposite end of this band is called the far-infrared region. This latter region blends with the microwave band. This band is well known as the source of energy in microwave ovens, but it has many other uses, including communication and radar. Finally, the radio wave band encompasses television as well as AM and FM radio. In the higher energies, radio signals emanating from certain stellar bodies are useful in astronomical observations. Image Sensing and Acquisition The types of images are generated by the combination of an illumination source and the reflection or absorption of energy from that source by the elements of the scene being imaged. For example, the illumination may originate from a source of electromagnetic energy such as radar, infrared, or X-ray energy. But, as noted earlier, it could originate from less traditional sources, such as ultrasound or even a computergenerated illumination pattern. Similarly, the scene elements could be familiar objects, but they can just as easily be molecules, buried rock formations, or a human brain. We could even image a source, such as acquiring images of the sun. Depending on the nature of the source, illumination energy is reflected from, or transmitted through, objects. An example in the first category is light reflected from a planar surface. An example in the second category is when X-rays pass through a patients body for the purpose of generating a diagnostic X-ray film. In some applications, the reflected or transmitted energy is focused onto a photo converter (e.g., a phosphor screen), which converts the energy into visible light. Fig. 2.10 shows a principal sensor arrangement used to transform illumination energy into digital images. Incoming energy is transformed into a voltage by the combination of input electrical power and sensor material that is responsive to the particular type of energy being detected. The output voltage waveform is the response of the sensor(s), and a digital quantity is obtained from each sensor by digitizing its response. In this section, we look at the principal modalities for image sensing and generation.

Image Acquisition using a Single Sensor

Fig. 2.10 shows the components of a single sensor. The most common sensor of this type is the photodiode, which is constructed of silicon materials and whose output voltage waveform is proportional to light. The use of a filter in front of a sensor improves selectivity. For example, a green (pass) filter in front of a light sensor favors light in the green band of the color spectrum. As a consequence, the sensor output will be stronger for green light than for other components in the visible spectrum.

Figure 2.11: Combining a single sensor with motion to generate a 2-D image. In order to generate a 2-D image using a single sensor, there have to be relative displacements in both the x- and y-directions between the sensor and the area to be imaged. Figure 2.11 shows an arrangement used in highprecision scanning, where a film negative is mounted onto a drum whose mechanical rotation provides displacement in one dimension. The single sensor is mounted on a lead screw that provides motion in the perpendicular direction. Since mechanical motion can be controlled with high precision, this method is an inexpensive (but slow) way to obtain high-resolution images. Other similar mechanical arrangements use a flat bed, with the sensor moving in two linear directions. These types of mechanical digitizers sometimes are referred to as microdensitometers. Another example of imaging with a single sensor places a laser source coincident with the sensor. Moving mirrors are used to control the outgoing beam in a scanning pattern and to direct the reflected laser signal onto the sensor. Image Acquisition using Sensor Strips A geometry that is used much more frequently than single sensors consists of an in-line arrangement of sensors in the form of a sensor strip. The strip provides imaging elements in one direction. Motion perpendicular to the strip provides imaging in the other direction, as shown in Fig. 2.12.

Figure 2.12: Image acquisition using a linear sensor strip.

This is the type of arrangement used in most flatbed scanners. Sensing devices with 4000 or more in-line sensors are possible. Inline sensors are used routinely in airborne imaging applications, in which the imaging system is mounted on an aircraft that flies at a constant altitude and speed over the geographical area to be imaged. One-dimensional imaging sensor strips that respond to various bands of the electromagnetic spectrum are mounted perpendicular to the direction of flight. The imaging strip gives one line of an image at a time, and the motion of the strip completes the other dimension of a two-dimensional image. Lenses or other focusing schemes are used to project the area to be scanned onto the sensors. 3.Explain different Photographic process models. Answer : There are many different types of materials and chemical processes that have been utilized for photographic image recording. No attempt is made here either to survey the field of photography or to deeply investigate the physics of photography. Rather, the attempt here is to develop mathematical models of the photographic process in order to characterize quantitatively the photographic components of an imaging system. 5.4.1 Monochromatic Photography The most common material for photographic image recording is silver halide emulsion, depicted .In this material, silver halide grains are suspended in a transparent layer of gelatin that is deposited on a glass, acetate or paper backing. If the backing is transparent, a transparency can be produced, and if the backing is a white paper, a reflection print can be obtained. When light strikes a grain, an electrochemical conversion process occurs, and part of the grain is converted to metallic silver. A development center is then said to exist in the grain. In the development process, a chemical developing agent causes grains with partial silver content to be converted entirely to metallic silver. Next, the film is fixed by chemically removing unexposed grains. The photographic process described above is called a nonreversal process. It produces a negative image in the sense that the silver density is inversely proportional to the exposing light. A positive reflection print of an image can be obtained in a two-stage process with nonreversal materials. First, a negative transparency is produced, and then the negative transparency is illuminated to expose negative reflection print paper. The resulting silver density on the developed paper is then proportional to the light intensity that exposed the negative transparency. A positive transparency of an image can be obtained with a reversal type of film. 5.4.2 Color Photography Modern color photography systems utilize an integral tripack film, as to produce positive or negative transparencies. In a cross section of this film, the first layer is a silver halide emulsion sensitive to blue light. A yellow filter following the blue emulsion prevents blue light from passing through to the green and red silver emulsions that follow in consecutive layers and are naturally sensitive to blue light. A transparent base supports the emulsion layers. Upon development, the blue emulsion layer is converted into a yellow dye transparency whose dye concentration is proportional to the blue exposure for a negative transparency and inversely proportional for a positive transparency. Similarly, the green and red emulsion layers become magenta and cyan dye layers, respectively. Color prints can be obtained by a variety of processes. The most common technique is to produce a positive print from a color negative transparency onto nonreversal color paper. In the establishment of a mathematical model of the color photographic process, each emulsion layer can be considered to react to light as does an emulsion layer of a monochrome photographic material. To a first approximation, this assumption is correct. However, there are often significant interactions between the emulsion and dye layers. Each emulsion layer possesses a characteristic sensitivity, 4.Define and explain Dilation and Erosion concept Answer: The foundation of morphological processing is in the mathematically rigorous field of set theory. We will discuss some fundamental concepts of image set algebra which are the basis for defining the generalized dilation and erosions operators. Consider a binary-valued source image function F(j, k). A pixel at coordinate (j, k) is a member of F(j, k), as indicated by the symbol , if and only if it is a logical 1. A binary-valued image B(j, k) is a subset of a binary-valued image A(j,k), as indicated by B(j,k) A(j,k), if for every spatial occurrence of a logical 1 of A(j, k), B(j, k) is a logical 1. A reflected image F~( j, k) is an image that has been flipped from left to right and from top to bottom. this provides an example of image complementation. Translation of an image, as indicated by the function G j k = Tr c F j k

consists of spatially offsetting F( j, k) with respect to itself by r rows and c columns, where R r R and C c C. 6.2.1 Dilation With dilation, an object grows uniformly in spatial extent. Generalized dilation is expressed symbolically as Gjk=FjkHjk where F(j, k), for 1 j, k N is a binary-valued image and H(j, k) for , 1 j, k L, where L is an odd integer, is a binary-valued array called a structuring element. For notational simplicity, F(j,k) and H(j,k) are assumed to be square arrays. Generalized dilation can be defined mathematically and implemented in several ways. The Minkowski addition definition is 6.2.2 Erosion With erosion an object shrinks uniformly. Generalized erosion is expressed symbolically as Gjk= Fjk Hjkwhere H(j,k) is an odd size L * L structuring element. Generalized erosion is defined to be 6.2.3 Properties of Dilation and Erosion i. Dilation is commutative: AB=BA but in general, erosion is not commutative. AB#BA ii. Dilation and erosion are opposite in effect; dilation of the background of an object behaves like erosion of the object. This statement can be quantified by the duality relationship. 6.2.4 Close and Open Dilation and erosion are often applied to an image in concatenation. Dilation followed by erosion is called a close operation. It is expressed symbolically as Gjk= FjkHjkwhere H(j,k) is a L * L structuring element. The close operation is defined as Gjk= FjkHjkH~ jk) Closing of an image with a compact structuring element without holes (zeros), such as a square or circle, smooths contours of objects, eliminates small holes in objects and fuses short gaps between objects. B) Morphological algorithm operations on gray scale images: Morphological concepts can be extended to gray scale images, but the extension often leads to theoretical issues and to implementation complexities. When applied to a binary image, dilation and erosion operations cause an image to increase or decrease in spatial extent, respectively. To generalize these concepts to a gray scale image, it is assumed that the image contains visually distinct gray scale objects set against a gray background. Also, it is assumed that the objects and background are both relatively spatially smooth. 6.5.1 Gray Scale Image Dilation and Erosion Dilation or erosion of an image could, in principle, be accomplished by hit-or-miss transformations in which the quantized gray scale patterns are examined in a 3 * 3 window and an output pixel is generated for each pattern. This approach is, however, not computationally feasible. For example, if a look-up table implementation were to be used, the table would require 272entries for 256-level quantization of each pixel. The common alternative is to use gray scale extremum operations over a 3 * 3 pixel neighborhoods. Consider a gray scale image F(j,k) quantized to an arbitrary number of gray levels. According to the extremum method of gray scale image dilation, the dilation operation is defined as

where MAX{S1, ..., S9} generates the largest-amplitude pixel of the nine pixels in the neighborhood. By the extremum method, gray scale image erosion is defined as

where MIN {S1, ..., S9}generates the smallest-amplitude pixel of the nine pixels in the 3 * 3 pixel neighborhood. 5.Which are the two quantitative approaches used for the evaluation of image features? Explain

Answer: There are two quantitative approaches to the evaluation of image features: prototype performance and figure of merit. In the prototype performance approach for image classification, a prototype image with regions (segments) that have been independently categorized is classified by a classification procedure using various image features to be evaluated. The classification error is then measured for each feature set. The best set of features is, of course, that which results in the least classification error. The prototype performance approach for image segmentation is similar in nature. A prototype image with independently identified regions is segmented by a segmentation procedure using a test set of features. Then, the detected segments are compared to the known segments, and the segmentation error is evaluated. The problems associated with the prototype performance methods of feature evaluation are the integrity of the prototype data and the fact that the performance indication is dependent not only on the quality of the features but also on the classification or segmentation ability of the classifier or segmenter. The figure-of-merit approach to feature evaluation involves the establishment of some functional distance measurements between sets of image features such that a large distance implies a low classification error, and vice versa. Faugeras and Pratt have utilized the Bhattacharyya distance figure-of-merit for texture feature evaluation. The method should be extensible for other features as well. The Bhattacharyya distance (B-distance for simplicity) is a scalar function of the probability densities of features of a pair of classes defined as

where x denotes a vector containing individual image feature measurements with conditional density p ( x | S1). 6. Explain about the Region Splitting and merging with example. Answer: Region Splitting and Merging Sub-divide an image into a set of disjoint regions and then merge and/or split the regions in an attempt to satisfy the conditions stated in section 10.3.1. Let R represent the entire image and select predicate P. One approach for segmenting R is to subdivide it successively into smaller and smaller quadrant regions so that, for ant region, P() = TRUE. We start with the entire region. If then the image is divided into quadrants. If P is FALSE for any quadrant, we subdivide that quadrant into sub quadrants, and so on. This particular splitting technique has a convenient representation in the form of a so called quad tree (that is, a tree in which nodes have exactly four descendants), as shown in Fig. (10.3.3) 10.4. The root of the tree corresponds to the entire image and that each node corresponds to a subdivision. In this case, only was sub divided further.