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LECTOCOMPRENSIN

INGLES

CUADERNILLO Este cuadernillo es una compilacin de algunos temas para gua ayuda en el aprendizaje de la lecto comprensin en ingls. Se lo actualiza continuamente y se irn agregando otros temas de inters.

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INDICE
N 1 Contenidos Estrategias de lectura Anticipacin Prediccin (hiptesis) Adivinanza inteligente - Intelligent guessing Skimming Scanning Metodologa de la lectocomprensin vs. La traduccin Definiciones Estrategias de traduccin El calco, el prstamo y otras. Conexiones lgicas de oraciones- Conectores (linkers) Cohesin y coherencia (Cohesion and coherence) Referencias: personal demostrativa y comparativa Pronombres subjetivos, objetivos, posesivos, adjetivos posesivos. Formacin de palabras (Word formation) Afijacin (affixation): prefijos (prefixes) y sufijos (suffixes) Glosario (Glossary) Definicin. Finalidad. Ejemplos Uso del diccionario Tcnicas para una mejor interpretacin Pre modificadores El orden en la oracin inglesa Comparaciones Grados comparativo, superlativos y de igualdad y desigualdad Verbos Principales tiempos verbales Presente Simple, Continuo, Perfecto - Pasado Simple (verbos regulares e irregulares) Pasado Perfecto Pasado Continuo Los verbos modales Can-could-may-might- must-will-would-shall-should Voz activa y Pasiva Uso del Gerundio Preposiciones (de lugar, de tiempo, de movimiento, otras expresiones en las que se usan preposiciones) Pgina n

3 4

5 6

8 9

10

11 12 13 14

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1. ESTRATEGIAS DE LECTURA
Antes de leer: ANTICIPACION-PREDICCION
a) Observe el texto. b) A partir del ttulo, foto, dibujo o grfico, el epgrafe y del paratexto en general prediga cul ser el tpico.

PRIMERA LECTURA: Cuatro claves para la comprensin general de un texto. Cuando leemos un texto de manera global podemos hacer uso de las cuatro claves: - Primera clave: Palabras que se repiten - Segunda clave: Palabras que se parecen en ambos idiomas (palabras trasparentes) - Tercera clave: Indicacin tipogrfica El ttulo cifras en el texto: 1995, $10.000, etc. Y a qu se refieren letras maysculas, nombres propios uso de tipo especial: negrita o cursiva divisin en prrafos - Cuarta clave: Selectividad Al leer un texto, es muy importante saber lo que significa el ttulo con exactitud ya que este nos va a dar el anclaje del mismo. El orden de las palabras suele dificultar la comprensin del ttulo. Si hacemos una traduccin literal del ttulo de este texto leeramos lo siguiente: Personal Piano Lessons at the PC Personal piano lecciones en la personal computadora Sin embargo, en castellano se expresara de la siguiente manera: Lecciones de piano individuales en la computadora personal (PC)

Dicho ejemplo refleja la idea que sustenta nuestro enfoque, que para lograr una buena comprensin de un texto es necesario lograr una buena interpretacin y NO una traduccin literal.

PREDICCION A) Realice una prediccin (hiptesis) acerca del contenido del texto utilizando las claves anteriores y las tcnicas de skimming (lectura rpida) e intelligent guessing (adivinanza inteligente).

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SKIMMING (LECTURA RAPIDA)

1) Leer las primeras oraciones o el primer prrafo cuidadosamente. 2) Si el texto es largo, lea el 2 prrafo porque a veces el 1 prrafo es meramente una introduccin y el 2 contiene ms informacin sobre el tema. 3) Luego, dar un vistazo al comienzo de cada prrafo. 4) Seleccione algunas palabras claves. 5) Generalmente la oracin tpico se encuentra al comienzo, pero a veces puede estar al final. 6) Saltee las partes que no le brinden informacin esencial. 7) Lea el ltimo prrafo con mayor detenimiento. El autor suele incluir la conclusin en esta parte

SCANNING (BUSQUEDA INFORMACION ESPECIFICA)

Ej. : en una biografa, buscar fecha de nacimiento, nacionalidad, estudios, segn el ejercicio a realizar.

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2. METODOLOGA DE LA LECTOCOMPRENSIN VS. LA TRADUCCIN

La metodologa de la lectocomprensin apunta a guiar a los lectores en forma gradual y progresivamente ms compleja, en el reconocimiento de los ndices iconogrficos, formales, enunciativos y temticos necesarios para construir el sentido del texto, internalizando las estrategias de lectura para aplicarlas en lecturas futuras a partir de una reflexin metacognitiva. A su vez, se incentiva al alumno a activar sus conocimientos enciclopdicos y discursivos (deduccin, induccin, comparacin, etc.), integrndolos a su interpretacin del plano lingstico. En este contexto, la gramtica textual estar al servicio de la actividad de lectura, como una herramienta ms para que los alumnos puedan resolver los problemas sintcticos particulares que dificultan el proceso de construccin de sentido. Mediante actividades de pre-lectura (anticipacin, hipotetizacin), lectura (confirmacin/ rectificacin) y elaboracin (conclusiones), las consignas de lectocomprensin apuntarn en general al: Relevamiento de ndices portadores de sentido Reconocimiento del tipo de texto, sus funciones, posicionamiento del autor y el destinatario Anlisis y progresin de los recursos argumentativos: de las hiptesis a las conclusiones Produccin de cuadros sinpticos, sntesis de idea(s) principal(es), resmenes y crtica Reconocimiento de estrategias discursivas La enseanza de lectocomprensin en lengua extranjera o Ingls para fines especficos no debe confundirse con la tcnica de la traduccin, que por otra parte requiere de un exhaustivo conocimiento de ambas lenguas y culturas. Por ello las guas de lectura (actividades) estarn diseadas para que los alumnos sean capaces de interpretar (y eventualmente criticar) el texto analizado, respondiendo conceptualmente y en espaol. As se relativiza y economiza el uso del diccionario bilinge , que debe ser tan slo una herramienta de ayuda para reconocer el lxico acadmico y decodificar el lxico especfico , que gradualmente pasar a enriquecer las redes semnticas del lector en la lectura comprensiva de textos futuros.

La traduccin (del latn traducto, -nis: hacer pasar de un lugar a otro) es una actividad que consiste en comprender el significado de un texto en un idioma, llamado texto origen, para producir un texto con significado equivalente, en otro idioma, llamado texto traducido. El resultado de esta actividad, el texto traducido, tambin se denomina traduccin. El objetivo de la traduccin es crear una relacin de equivalencia entre el texto origen y el texto traducido, es decir, la seguridad de que ambos textos comunican el mismo mensaje, a la vez que se tienen en cuenta aspectos como el gnero textual, el contexto, las reglas de la gramtica de cada uno de los idiomas, las convenciones estilsticas, la fraseologa, etc. El proceso de traduccin es, al decir de Jiri Levy, es un proceso de toma de decisiones. Estas decisiones son de dos tipos: entre las diversas interpretaciones del texto de partida y entre las diversas posibilidades para su expresin en el texto de llegada. Tales decisiones no tienen por qu ser forzosamente correctas o incorrectas, sino que abren y cierran posibilidades, crean y eliminan

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relaciones, hacen y deshacen equilibrios. La traduccin, considerada de este modo, es una actividad que conjuga interpretacin y creacin. De all, en primer lugar, la responsabilidad de la que est cargada la labor del traductor, ya que, en tanto que eslabn intermedio entre la obra de partida y los lectores de llegada, se ve obligado a realizar una lectura, a fijar una lectura, que tiene el poder de condicionar todas las posteriores. Acta ante el texto como un lector normal, pero al mismo tiempo, debe esforzarse por comportarse como un lector ideal, capaz de descubrir lo que el texto dice, implica o presupone. Wolfgan Iser ha hablado, en este sentido, de lector real y lector implcito (aquel que el texto crea para s mismo), y Umberto Ecco, de lector emprico y lector modelo. El traductor no slo tiene que averiguar el sentido de un texto; tambin tiene que identificar sus intersticios, sus espacios en blanco, unos huecos que como lector actualiza y que como traductor algunasveces rellenar y otras (la mayora) no. Lo que permite el acceso a la fidelidad al pensamiento del autor es una especie de sntesis de las diversas fidelidades al sentido. Una traduccin tiene que ser fiel, o mejor dicho, coherente en relacin con los objetivos que pretende alcanzar, implcita o explcitamente. Lo que est conectado con la posibilidad de que una traduccin pueda ser hermosa y fiel al mismo tiempo. Esta fidelidad est ligada con los objetivos, por lo cual podemos hablar de fidelidad al sentido, fidelidad semntica, sentido de las palabras, de las frases, a los segundos sentidos, sentidos ocultos, a las alusiones, que a menudo contienen lo esencial del texto. La calidad de una traduccin depender con frecuencia de la eleccin realizada entre estas fidelidades opuestas. Y tambin esta eleccin viene en gran medida determinada por el siglo del traductor, por su pblico. Tradicionalmente, la traduccin ha sido una actividad desarrollada por humanos, aunque hay numerosos intentos de automatizar la tarea de traducir textos naturales (traduccin automtica) o de utilizar ordenadores para ayudar a esta tarea (traduccin asistida por ordenador, o computadora). Un ejemplo de traduccin asistida sera el uso de una memoria de traduccin. Definiciones de traduccin Existen variadas formas de definir la traduccin segn los distintos tipos de escuelas que han abordado su estudio. De este modo, Garca Yebra dice sobre la traduccin: Traducir es enunciar en otra lengua lo que ha sido enunciado en una lengua fuente, conservando las equivalencias semnticas y estilsticas.1 A su vez, E. A. Nida dice la traduccin consiste en: [] reproducir en la lengua terminal el mensaje de la lengua original por medio del equivalente ms prximo y ms natural, primero en lo que se refiere al sentido, y luego en lo que atae al estilo.2 El proceso traductolgico En su obra, Teora y prctica de la traduccin, Valentn Garca Yebra reconoce dos fases en el proceso traductolgico: "La fase de la comprensin del texto original, y la fase de la expresin de su mensaje, de su contenido, en la lengua receptora o terminal". En la etapa de comprensin, se decodifica el sentido del texto origen en una actividad denominada semasiolgica (del griego sema, sentido o significado). En la etapa de expresin, se recodifica este sentido en la lengua traducida; etapa tambin llamada onomasiolgica (del griego onoma, nombre). En la etapa de decodificacin del sentido del texto, el traductor debe identificar en primer lugar los segmentos que componen el texto original; es decir, debe establecer las unidades mnimas con

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sentido. El segmento puede ser una palabra, frase o incluso una o ms oraciones (por ejemplo, un texto completo). En la etapa de recodificacin en la lengua traducida, el traductor debe mantener el sentido del segmento original en un segmento de la lengua traducida respetando el genio de esta ltima. La reunin del segmento origen con el segmento traducido es lo que se denomina unidad de traduccin. Ambas etapas son de ndole recursiva y no necesariamente sucesivas, es decir, el traductor puede volver a desentraar el sentido del texto origen, una vez que ha recodificado el sentido en la lengua traducida. Tras este procedimiento, sencillo a primera vista, se esconde una operacin cognitiva compleja. Para decodificar el sentido completo del texto origen, el traductor tiene que interpretar y analizar todas sus caractersticas de forma consciente y metdica. Este proceso requiere un conocimiento profundo de la gramtica, semntica, sintaxis y frases hechas o similares de la lengua origen, as como de la cultura de sus hablantes. El traductor debe contar tambin con estos conocimientos para recodificar el sentido en la lengua traducida. De hecho, estos suelen ser ms importantes y, por tanto, ms profundos que los de la lengua origen. De ah que la mayora de los traductores traduzcan a su lengua materna. Adems, es esencial que los traductores conozcan el rea que se est tratando. Los estudios realizados en los ltimos aos en lingstica cognitiva nos han permitido comprender mejor el proceso cognitivo de la traduccin. Estrategias de traduccin No siempre es posible traducir los enunciados con estructuras equivalentes, por lo que el traductor debe recurrir a varias estrategias a fin de asegurar la traduccin de un texto determinado. Adaptacin Adaptacin, conocida tambin como traduccin libre, es un procedimiento de traduccin en el que el traductor reemplaza una realidad cultural o social en el texto original con la correspondiente realidad en el texto traducido. Esta nueva realidad resulta ms comn para la audiencia del texto traducido. La adaptacin a menudo resulta til para la traduccin de poesa, obras de teatro y publicidad. Prstamo El prstamo consiste en utilizar una palabra o expresin del texto original en el texto traducido. Segn Vinay y Darbelnet es una palabra que se toma de una lengua sin traducirla. El prstamo da fe de un vaco lxico en la lengua de llegada. La palabra extranjera tiende, en un primer momento, a permanecer inalterada y puede sufrir luego una adaptacin fontica y morfolgica. Respecto al prstamo naturalizado, cuando dicha naturalizacin se produce ante una laguna lingstica en la lengua receptora, no cabe duda que constituye una forma de enriquecimiento del idioma, por lo que debe hacerse tambin la distincin entre prstamo necesario y prstamo innecesario. En el mbito de la terminologa informtica abundan los ejemplos de anglicismos puros y anglicismos adaptados. Por ej. bit, byte, chip, pasaron claramente al castellano sin que hayan arraigado alternativas; en cambio diskette o los verbos format, initialize y reset, se han asimilado en disquete, formatear, inicializar y resetear. Tambin hay situaciones intermedias. Con interface, se

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oscila entre interface e interfaz; con sort, entre ordenar, clasificar, hacer un sort y sortear, etc. Los prstamos suelen notarse en cursiva y consisten en escribir la palabra en la lengua de origen; en otras palabras, es la no traduccin del vocablo. Un ejemplo de prstamo es blue jeans del ingls. Otro ejemplo puede ser la palabra sndwich. Calco El calco lxico es un procedimiento de traduccin que consiste en la creacin de neologismos siguiendo la estructura de la lengua de origen. Un ejemplo claro de esta es la palabra ftbol, originada de la palabra football en ingls. Modulacin Consiste en variar la forma del mensaje mediante un cambio semntico o de perspectiva. La traduccin del mensaje se realiza bajo un nuevo punto de vista:

Original en ingls: It is not difficult to show. Traduccin literal en espaol: No es difcil de demostrar. Traduccin modulada en espaol: Es fcil de demostrar.

En el ejemplo, la expresin de la oracin con una cpula verbal con un adverbio negativo ("it is not difficult") se tradujo en espaol con una cpula verbal en afirmativo ("es fcil") por medio del cambio del adjetivo (no difcil = 'fcil'). La modulacin se realiza especialmente cuando la traduccin literal no se ajusta al genio o particularidad de la lengua traducida, es decir, la modulacin produce una oracin que suena mejor. Transposicin Consiste en el cambio de una categora gramatical por otra sin que cambie el sentido del mensaje. En este procedimiento, se produce un cambio de una estructura gramatical por otra.

Original en ingls: After he comes back. Traduccin literal en espaol: Despus de que l regrese. Traduccin transpuesta en espaol: Despus de su regreso.

La clusula dependiente (he comes back) se traduce con una frase nominal ("su regreso"). Equivalencia Equivalencia quiere decir la correspondencia en significado de una palabra en un idioma frente a otro idioma. Dos palabras son equivalentes si tienen el mismo significado. Traduccin literal Se refiere al paso de la lengua de origen a la lengua traducida donde este paso da un resultado correcto. El traductor slo tiene que preocuparse de la servitudes linguistiques (colocaciones) que son propias de una lengua y no pueden cambiarse. Por ejemplo:

"Mon Dieu pardonnez-moi cette mprisable prire, mais je ne puis carter son nom de mes lvres, ni oublier la peine de mon coeur."

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"Que Dios me perdone esta despreciable oracin, pero no puedo apartar su nombre de mis labios, ni olvidar la pena de mi corazn."

Segn Vinay y Dalbernet, la traduccin literal es lcita sobre todo entre lenguas que comparten una misma cultura. Esto revela coexistencia fsica, que existe un acercamiento geogrfico o bien ha habido periodos de bilingismo en que se produce una influencia mutua, imitacin consciente o inconsciente debido al vestigio intelectual y poltico. ISO 2384:1977 Norma ISO, publicada en 1977, que establece las normas para asegurar que las traducciones se presenten en un formato normalizado que simplifique su uso por parte de diferentes categoras de usuarios. Se aplica a la traduccin de todos los documentos, ya sean completos, parciales o resumidos. Se distinguen cuatro tipos de documentos libros, publicaciones peridicas, artculos y patentes. Referencias 1. Yebra, G., Teora y prctica de la traduccin, p. 30. 2. Nida, E. A., La traduccin: teora y prctica, p. 29. Errores en la traduccin Al hacer un anlisis de los errores que cometen los traductores, podemos comprobar que la mayora de ellos, sin incluir los debidos al conocimiento insuficiente del idioma o del tema traducido, se deben principalmente a tres causas: 1) 2) Una lectura muy rpida o superficial del material a ser traducido. Una falla al elegir el equivalente correcto al traducir una palabra en un determinado contexto. 3) Una construccin confusa o poco natural al idioma de la traduccin.

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3. COHESIN Y COHERENCIA Un texto no es una mera suma de oraciones. Para que un texto sea considerado tal, debe contar con dos componentes esenciales, cohesin y coherencia, que si bien se encuentran estrechamente relacionados, son diferentes. La coherencia puede ser pensada en trminos de relacin entre los significados y las secuencias de ideas en un texto o en la organizacin correcta de la informacin de temas de un texto. Ejemplos tpicos seran: problema, solucin; pregunta, respuesta. La cohesin consiste en las conexiones gramaticales y lxicas que conectan una parte de un texto con otro para conformar un todo. Esto incluye el uso de sinnimos, pronombres, tiempos verbales, referencias de tiemp o, gramaticales, etc. Por ej., it y this refieren a una idea mencionada anteriormente. First of all, theny after that ayudan a indicar una secuencia en un texto. However, in addition and for instance conectan ideas y argumentos en un texto. La cohesin es el pegamento que mantiene un texto unido entre sus oraciones y prrafos. Uno de los mecanismos de cohesin a nivel gramatical es la referencia. Encontramos los siguientes tipos de referencia en ingls: Referencia personal: representada por los pronombres personales y posesivos y por los adjetivos posesivos. Referencia demostrativa: que incluye a los trminos this, these, that, those, el artculo the y vocablos tales como such a. Referencia comparativa: expresada por verbos y adjetivos comparativos.

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4. CONEXIN LGICA DE ORACIONES: CONECTORES (LINKERS) Siempre hay una conexin lgica entre las oraciones que conforman un texto. Estas relaciones se expresan a travs del uso de conectores. La funcin de los mismos es conectar palabras, oraciones o prrafos y mostrar la relacin lgica que existe entre estos componentes. Los ejemplos que figuran a continuacin ilustran las relaciones lgicas bsicas. Ver listas ms completas de conectores. 1. Video produces relatively unprocessed data. (El video produce informacin sin procesar en forma relativa) ADICIN In addition, it makes flexible use of time dimension. (Adems, hace flexible el uso de la dimensin del tiempo) (Primero, guard tu trabajo terminado. ) Then, close the file. (Luego, cerr el archivo) (Me olvid mi trabajo.)

2. First, save your finished work. SECUENCIA 3. I forgot my paper, CONSECUENCIA

so, I will have to hand it in tomorrow. (As que/Por lo tanto/, tendr que entregarlo maana

4. From 1824 to 1826, Dickens again attended school. (Desde 1824 a 1826 Dickens volvi a asistir a la escuela) CONTRASTE For the most part, however, he was self-educated. (Sin embargo, en general, fue autodidacta) Lista de los conectores ms comunes. Algunas de estas palabras tienen otros significados. El
significado que se transcribe es el que corresponde a su uso como conector.

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Connectors
Summary
Reason - Causa
because (conj) Porque It is easier to raise money to support athletes because large countries have so many. (no comma) Since (conj) Desde que/puesto que for this reason Por esta razn Large countries have more financial resources. For this reason, it's easier to raise money to support athletes. Since large countries have more financial resources, it is easier to raise money to support the athletes. Because large countries have more financial resources, (comma) it is easier to raise money to support athletes.

Purpose Propsito
so that Para/a fin de que/de modo de The baby reached up so that he could get some candy.

in order to = fml

He has to pull down on the lever in order to get some candy to come out.

Result - Resultado
so (conj) para /de modo que/resultado Therefore (adv) as a result Como resultado Consequently (adv) Por consiguiente Thus (adv) De este modo Por consiguiente Accordingly (adv) Como corresponde/por consiguiente as a consequence en consecuencia/como consecuencia hence de ah/por lo tanto so . . . (that) The U.S.S.R. supported its athletes while they trained, so they could keep their non-professional status. The members of the track team were given scholarships, therefore, they could spend their spare time training rather than holding jobs. Canada wouldn't give the skaters a place on their team, as a result the pair skaters moved to France to join the French team. The American skater worked as a waiter in the evenings, consequently, he had less time to train. The cyclist tested positive for drugs; thus, he was suspended from the team. The Italian downhill skier had the fastest time; accordingly, he won the gold medal. The best trainers left the East Bloc for the West; as a consequence, the West benefited from East Bloc "know how". The African country of Senegal has no snow; hence, very few competitors come to the Winter Olympics. The skaters did so well that they won the competition.

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tan.. que

Addition - Adicin
and y and also y tambin/adems Also Tambin/Adems as well as y besides . . . (verb)ing Adems de ser in addition Adems Moreover Adems Furthermore adems The skater was strong and graceful. The skater was strong and also graceful. The skater was strong. Also, he was graceful. The skater was strong as well as graceful. Besides being strong, the skater was graceful. The skater was strong, graceful and expressive. In addition, he was creative. The skater was able to do a triple axle jump. Moreover, he could land perfectly. The skater could do a triple axle jump. Furthermore, he could land it perfectly.

Emphasis - Enfasis
Indeed De hecho (se usa para dar nfasis) in fact De hecho The skater could do a triple jump and land perfectly, Indeed, it was amazing. The skater could spin and make it look effortless. In fact, he was turning at speeds in excess of 90 miles per hour!

Contrast - Contraste
But Pero However Sin embargo Nonetheless Sin embargo Nevertheless Sin embargo The skier wanted to compete in the Olympics, but he broke his leg. The skier had intended to compete in the Olympics; however, he broke his leg.

Contrast unexpected outcome Contraste Resultado inesperado

Although Aunque Though Aunque even though aunque In spite of (noun/ noun
phrase) A pesar de

Although he fell, he got back up. Though he fell, he got back up. Even though there was little financial help, they made it to the Olympics. In spite of the snowstorm, they held the downhill race. In spite of having no snow in Africa, the skiers managed to train. Despite the warm weather, there was enough snow to ski on.

despite (n.)
a pesar de

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Contrast - the other side Contraste Por otro lado

on the other hand
(It is, however, also true that . . .) ("Looking at both sides of the coin.") On the one hand/por un lado/ On the other hand: por otro lado

The Jamaican Bobsled didn't do too well in the competition. On the other hand, they were very popular with the media. On the one hand, the Jamaican Bobsled didn't do too well in the competition. On the other hand, they were very popular with the media. Some people say that it was hard for the Jamaican bobsled team to find financial resources. On the contrary, several organizations gave them financial support.

on the contrary
(The opposite is true.)

Por el contrario

Condition - Condicin
if : si only if: slo si if only: si slo Unless: a menos que in the event: en caso que in case: en caso whether or not (ver traduccin-uso) regardless of* a pesar de If an athlete tests drug-free, then he can compete. Only if an athlete tests drug-free, can he compete. If only we could stop this abuse of drugs. (a strong wish or regret) Unless an athlete tests drug-free, then he cannot compete. In the event a track meet is cancelled, everyone is notified. In case an athlete gets hurt, paramedics are nearby. An athlete can be disqualified whether or not he knowingly took drugs. Se puede descalificar a un atleta en caso que haya tomado drogas lo supiera o no/a sabiendas o no. An athlete can be disqualified regardless of his knowledge of taking drugs.

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5. FORMACION DE PALABRAS (WORD FORMATION) AFIJACIN: SUFIJOS Y PREFIJOS (Affixation: suffixes and prefixes)1 Afijacin s. f. Formacin de palabras nuevas aadiendo un prefijo o un sufijo a una palabra ya existente o a su raz: mediante la afijacin se modifica el sentido y la forma de las palabras.
Diccionario Manual de la Lengua Espaola Vox. 2007 Larousse Editorial, S.L.

SUFIJOS:

Las listas de afijos y sufijos son slo parte de los numerosos ejemplos que se irn agregando.

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PREFIJOS y FLEXIONES

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6. DEFINICIN DE GLOSARIO Y EJEMPLOS

Segn el Diccionario Manual de la Lengua Espaola Vox. 2007 Larousse Editorial, S.L., un Glosario s. m. es un catlogo alfabetizado de las palabras y expresiones de un texto que son difciles de comprender, junto con su significado o con una explicacin o comentario: el libro habra resultado ms til si se hubiera incluido un glosario de trminos tcnicos y abreviaturas. A continuacin encontrarn ejemplos para su glosario, desde la bsqueda ms sencilla que contiene: palabra, categora, gnero y nmero y significado hasta incluir otras entradas, explicaciones, ejemplos, fuentes e hilos del foro de discusin. Dichos ejemplos estn extrados del diccionario on-line www.wordreference.com, que, en realidad, es un buscador de diccionarios. Podrn observar que cita la fuente de donde se extrae la definicin, luego indica la transcripcin fontica, la categora gramatical, gnero y nmero, las formas compuestas y ejemplos de la palabra (y cada significado) con el contexto. Como es tambin un diccionario colaborativo, cita las discusiones en el foro respecto a los significados de la palabra o sus formas compuestas segn diferentes contextos.

Glassware: Diccionario Espasa Concise 2000 Espasa Calpe:

['gl:swe] nombre (sust) cristalera

Textiles: (sust. Pl.) tejidos-. (adj.) textile Furnishings:(sust. pl.) muebles, mobiliario, accesorios Furniture: Pocket Oxford Spanish Dictionary 2005 Oxford University Press: uncountable (in home, office) muebles mpl, mobiliario m; a piece of ~ un mueble; (before n) ~ mover o (BrE) remover empresa f de mudanzas; ~ polish cera f para muebles
Diccionario Espasa Concise 2000 Espasa Calpe:

furniture ['f:nt] nombre muebles a piece of furniture, un mueble antique furniture, muebles antiguos furniture: WordReference English-Spanish Dictionary 2010

Compound Forms:
door furniture accesorios para puertas n furniture designer n (sb who designs furniture) diseador de mobiliario nm Mies van der Rohe , a pioneer of modern architecture, was also a philosopher, teacher and furniture designer. furniture maker n (sb who makes furniture) ebanista nm furniture mover n US (sb who transports furniture) servicio de mudanzas nm transportista nm furniture remover nm empleado de una empresa de mudanzas furniture polish n(product used to shine wooden furniture) lustramuebles nm Modern furniture polishes contain silicon, and should not be used on antique furniture. cera para madera nf furniture store n (shop that sells furnishings) mueblera nf I went to the furniture store to look for a new sofa. Fui a la mueblera a ver sofs para las sala. tienda de muebles nf furniture van n camin de mudanzas nm kit furniture n muebles en kit nmpl office furniture: n (desks, chairs, etc. used in an office) mobiliario de oficina nm
He ensured that his new office furniture would be hard-wearing. Consiguieron mobiliario de oficina de segunda mano, en muy buenas condiciones y muy barato.

muebles de oficina nmpl

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Ingls Lecto comprensin - Ingls I y II Es necesario renovar los muebles de oficina. patio furniture npl muebles para el jardn nmpl patio furniture npl muebles para el patio nmpl reproduction furniture n mobiliario antiguo de imitacin Forum discussions with the word(s) "furniture" in the title: a vanity (furniture) wide, deep, low about in and on furniture - grammar and inlay of husks, halved lunettes and... (furniture) break the furniture burned the furniture for heat - financial contract (furniture) cracker boxes were made to serve as furniture custom built furniture o made to measure deck furniture disgorging heaps of furniture etc. stained glass Pocket Oxford Spanish Dictionary 2005 Oxford University Press: /stend/ n uncountable vidrio m or cristal m de colores; (before n) ~ ~ window vitral m, vidriera f (de colores) stained glass: WordReference English-Spanish Dictionary 2010 stained glass vidrio de color nm

Compound Forms:
stained glass window n stained glass window n vidriera nf vitral nm

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Ejercicio : uso del diccionario

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7. TECNICAS PARA UNA MEJOR INTERPRETACION

PRE-MODIFICADORES

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8. EL ORDEN DE LAS PALABRAS EN LA ORACION INGLESA

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9. COMPARACIONES

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10. VERBOS. Los verbos en ingls tienen 4 partes bsicas: Base form -ing form Past tense Past participle work working worked worked play playing played played listen listening listened listened En la mayora de los verbos el pasado y el participio pasado terminan en ed (worked, played, listened). Pero muchos de los verbos ms utilizados son irregulares. Hacemos preguntas del siguiente modo: 1: Se coloca un auxiliar al comienzo de la oracin: Everybody is watching >> Is everybody watching? They had worked hard >> Had they worked hard? He's finished work >> Has he finished work? Everybody had been working hard >> Had everybody been working hard? He has been singing >> Has he been singing? English is spoken all over the world >> Is English spoken all over the world? The windows have been cleaned >> Have the windows been cleaned? 2: or colocando el verbo modal al principio de la oracin: They will come He might come They will have arrived by now She would have been listening The work will be finished soon They might have been invited to the party >> Will they come? >> Might he come? >> Will they have arrived by now? >> Would she have been listening? >> Will the work be finished soon? Might they have been invited to the >> party?

3: El presente simple y el pasado simple no llevan auxiliar. Hacemos oraciones interrogativas agregando el auxiliar do/does en el presente simple o did en el pasado simple: They live here John lives here Everybody laughed >> >> >> Do they live here? Does John live here? Did everybody laugh?

Hay dos tiempos verbales(two tenses) en ingls past (pasado) y present (presente). The present tenses in English are used:

to talk about the present to talk about the future to talk about the past when we are telling a story in spoken English or when we are summarising a book, film, play etc.

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Hay cuatro formas de tiempo presente en ingls: Present simple: Present continuous: Present perfect: Present perfect continuous: We use these forms:

I work I am working I have worked I have been working

to talk about the present: He works at McDonalds. He has worked there for three months now. He is working at McDonalds. He has been working there for three months now. London is the capital of Britain.

to talk about the future: The next train leaves this evening at 1700 hours. Ill phone you when I get home. Hes meeting Peter in town this afternoon. Ill come home as soon as I have finished work. You will be tired out after you have been working all night.

We can use the present tenses to talk about the past...

The present tense is the base form of the verb: I work in London. But the third person (she/he/it) adds an -s: She works in London. Use We use the present tense to talk about:

something that is true in the present: Im nineteen years old. He lives in London. Im a student.

something that happens again and again in the present: I play football every weekend. We use words like sometimes, often. always, and never (adverbs of frequency) with the present tense: I sometimes go to the cinema. She never plays football.

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The human body contains 206 bones. Light travels at almost 300,000 kilometres per second.

something that is fixed in the future. The school terms starts next week. The train leaves at 1945 this evening. We fly to Paris next week.

Questions and negatives Look at these questions: Do you play the piano? Where do you live? Does Jack play football? Where does he come from? Do Rita and Angela live in Manchester? Where do they work?

With the present tense, we use do and does to make questions. We use does for the third person (she/he/it) and we use do for the others.

We use do and does with question words like where, what and why: But look at these questions with who: Who lives in London? Who plays football at the weekend? Who works at Liverpool City Hospital? Look at these sentences: I like tennis, but I dont like football. (dont = do not) I dont live in London now. I dont play the piano, but I play the guitar. They dont work at the weekend. John doesnt live in Manchester. (doesnt = does not) Angela doesnt drive to work. She goes by bus.

With the present tense we use do and does to make negatives. We use does not (doesnt) for the third person (she/he/it) and we use do not (dont) for the others

El presente continuo The present continuous tense is formed from the present tense of the verb be and the present participle (-ing form) of a verb: Use 1. We use the present continuous tense to talk about the present: 25

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for something that is happening at the moment of speaking: Im just leaving work. Ill be home in an hour. Please be quiet. The children are sleeping.

for something which is happening before and after a given time: At eight oclock we are usually having breakfast. When I get home the children are doing their homework.

for something which we think is temporary: Michael is at university. Hes studying history. Im working in London for the next two weeks.

for something which is new and contrasts with a previous state: These days most people are using email instead of writing letters. What sort of clothes are teenagers wearing nowadays? What sort of music are they listening to?

to show that something is changing, growing or developing: The children are growing quickly. The climate is changing rapidly. Your English is improving.

for something which happens again and again: Its always raining in London. They are always arguing. George is great. Hes always laughing. Note: We normally use always with this use.

2. We use the present continuous tense to talk about the future:

for something which has been arranged or planned: Mary is going to a new school next term. What are you doing next week?

3. We can use the present continuous to talk about the past:

When we are telling a story: When we are summarising the story from a book, film or play etc.

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El presente perfecto The present perfect is formed from the present tense of the verb have and the past participle of a verb: The present perfect continuous is formed with have/has been and the -ing form of the verb: Use We use the present perfect tense:

for something that started in the past and continues in the present: Theyve been married for nearly fifty years. She has lived in Liverpool all her life. Note: We normally use the present perfect continuous for this: She has been living in Liverpool all her life. Its been raining for hours.

for something we have done several times in the past and continue to do: Ive played the guitar ever since I was a teenager. He has written three books and he is working on another one. Ive been watching that programme every week.

We often use a clause with since to show when something started in the past: Theyve been staying with us since last week. I have worked here since I left school. Ive been watching that programme every week since it started.

when we are talking about our experience up to the present:

Note: We often use the adverb ever to talk about experience up to the present: My last birthday was the worst day I have ever had. Note: and we use never for the negative form: Have you ever met George? Yes, but Ive never met his wife.

for something that happened in the past but is important at the time of speaking: I cant get in the house. Ive lost my keys. Teresa isnt at home. I think she has gone shopping. Im tired out. Ive been working all day.

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A: Where have you been? B: Ive just been out to the supermarket. A: Have you ever been to San Francisco? B: No, but Ive been to Los Angeles. But when someone has not returned we use have/has gone: A: Where is Maria? I havent seen her for weeks. B: She's gone to Paris for a week. Shell be back tomorrow. We often use the present perfect with time adverbials which refer to the recent past: just; only just; recently; Scientists have recently discovered a new breed of monkey. We have just got back from our holidays. or adverbials which include the present: ever (in questions); so far; until now; up to now; yet (in questions and negatives) Have you ever seen a ghost? Where have you been up to now? Have you finished your homework yet? No, so far Ive only done my history. WARNING: We do not use the present perfect with an adverbial which refers to past time which is finished: I have seen that film yesterday. We have just bought a new car last week. When we were children we have been to California. But we can use it to refer to a time which is not yet finished: Have you seen Helen today? We have bought a new car this week. The past tense in English is used:

to talk about the past to talk about hypotheses things that are imagined rather than true. for politeness.

Tiempo Pasado Hay cuatro formas para el pasado en ingls:

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Past simple: Past continuous: Past perfect: Past perfect continuous: We use these forms:

I worked I was working I had worked I had been working

to talk about the past: He worked at McDonalds. He had worked there since July.. He was working at McDonalds. He had been working since July.

to refer to the present or future in conditions: He could get a new job if he really tried. If Jack was playing they would probably win. and hypotheses: It might be dangerous. Suppose they got lost. I would always help someone who really needed help. and wishes: I wish it wasnt so cold.

In conditions, hypotheses and wishes, if we want to talk about the past, we always use the past perfect: I would have helped him if he had asked. It was very dangerous, What if you had got lost? I wish I hadnt spent so much money last month.

We can use the past forms to talk about the present in a few polite expressions: Excuse me, I was wondering if this was the train for York. I just hoped you would be able to help me.

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PASADO SIMPLE (VERBOS REGULARES e IRREGULARES)- PASADO CONTINUO

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El pasado continuo The past continuous is formed from the past tense of be with the -ing form of the verb: We use the past continuous to talk about the past:

for something which continued before and after another action: The children were doing their homework when I got home. Compare: I got home. The children did their homework. and The children did their homework when I got home. As I was watching television the telephone rang. This use of the past continuous is very common at the beginning of a story: The other day I was waiting for a bus when Last week as I was driving to work

for something that happened before and after a particular time: It was eight oclock. I was writing a letter. Compare: At eight oclock I wrote some letters. In July she was working in McDonalds.

.to show that something continued for some time: My head was aching. Everyone was shouting.

for something that was happening again and again: I was practising every day, three times a day. They were meeting secretly after school. They were always quarrelling.

with verbs which show change or growth: The children were growing up quickly. Her English was improving. My hair was going grey. The town was changing quickly.

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El pasado perfecto We use the verb had and the past participle for the past perfect: I had finished the work. She had gone . The past perfect continuous is formed with had been and the -ing form of the verb: I had been finishing the work She had been going. The past perfect is used in the same way as the present perfect, but it refers to a time in the past, not the present. We use the past perfect tense:

for something that started in the past and continued up to a given time in the past: When George died he and Anne had been married for nearly fifty years. She didnt want to move. She had lived in Liverpool all her life.

We normally use the past perfect continuous for this: She didnt want to move. She had been living in Liverpool all her life. Everything was wet. It had been raining for hours.

for something we had done several times up to a point in the past and continued to do after that point: He was a wonderful guitarist. He had been playing ever since he was a teenager. He had written three books and he was working on another one. I had been watching the programme every week, but I missed the last episode.

We often use a clause with since to show when something started in the past: They had been staying with us since the previous week. I was sorry when the factory closed. I had worked there since I left school. I had been watching that programme every week since it started, but I missed the last episode.

when we are reporting our experience and including up to the (then) present: My eighteenth birthday was the worst day I had ever had. I was pleased to meet George. I hadnt met him before, even though I had met his wife several times.

for something that happened in the past but is important at the time of reporting: I couldnt get into the house. I had lost my keys. Teresa wasnt at home. She had gone shopping. 33

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We use the past perfect to talk about the past in conditions, hypotheses and wishes: I would have helped him if he had asked. It was very dangerous. What if you had got lost? I wish I hadnt spent so much money last month. 11. VERBOS MODALES

12. VOZ ACTIVA Y PASIVA Transitive verbs have both active and passive forms: active The hunter killed the lion. Someone has cleaned the windows passive >> The lion was killed by the hunter. >> The windows have been cleaned

The passive forms are made up of the verb be with a past participle: be is have been was being will be might have been past participle spoken cleaned served finished invited

English The windows Lunch The work They

all over the world

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We sometimes use the verb get to form the passive: Be careful with the glass. It might get broken. Peter got hurt in a crash. If we want to show the person or thing doing the action we use by: She was attacked by a dangerous dog. The money was stolen by her husband. We can use the indirect object as the subject of a passive verb: active I gave him a book for his birthday Someone sent her a cheque for a thousand euros passive He was given a book for his >> birthday. She was sent a cheque for a >> thousand euros.

We can use phrasal verbs in the passive: active They called off the meeting. His grandmother looked after him. They will send him away to school. passive >> The meeting was called off. He was looked after by his >> grandmother. >> He will be sent away to school.

Some verbs very frequently used in the passive are followed by the to-infinitive: be supposed to be scheduled to be expected to be allowed to be asked to be told to

John has been asked to make a speech at the meeting. You are supposed to wear a uniform. The meeting is scheduled to start at seven.

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13. RECONOCIMIENTO TEXTUAL E INTERPRETACIN DE LA "ING"

1. cabeza o ncleo de frase nominal / sujeto de la oracin Traduccin: infinitivo o sustantivo

Printing is quick. (La impresin es rpida) This processing of information is easy. (Este procesamiento de informacin es sencillo) Fishing is his favourite sport. (La pesca es su deporte preferido) 2. premodificador (adjetivo) Iteration is a programming technique. (La iteracin es una tcnica de programacin.) They are solving some computing problems. (Estn resolviendo algunos problemas de computacin.) These are supporting devices.(Estos son dispositivos de apoyo.) 3. postmodificador (sustantivo+ -ing) Traduccin: ...que+verbo conjugado In most machines the smallest unit that can be addressed with one instruction is a character, consisting of a group of 6 or 8 bits. (En la mayora de las mquinas la unidad ms pequea a la que uno se puede dirigir con una sola instruccion es un caracter que consiste de un grupo de 6 u 8 bits.) 4. preposicin + ing Traduccin: infinitivo o sustantivo The importance of using anti-virus programmes is vital. (La importancia de usar programas antivirus es vital.) After cleaning his teeth he went to bed. (Despus de lavarse los dientes se fue a dormir.) by + ing (traduccin 0 de la preposicin o "al"+ infinitivo) You switch the radio on by pressing this button. (Encienda la radio presionando este botn.) 5. be + verb + ing (frase verbal) Traduccin verbo + ando / endo We are working hard. (Estamos trabajando duro.) When I entered the room he was talking with his son. (Cuando entr a la habitacin l estaba conversando con su hijo.) 6. combinacin de oraciones con clusula "ing" expresando causa, modo o medio. (Traduccin: -ando/-endo) Each block will contain an arbitrary number of records depending on the core store available. (Cada bloque contendr un nmero arbitrario de registros dependiendo de la memoria de ncleos disponibles.) 7. despus de ciertos verbos Traduccin: infinitivo He loves playing the piano. (A l le encanta tocar el piano.) Have you finished talking? (Terminaste de hablar?)

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14. PREPOSITIONS (PREPOSICIONES) Numerar la oracin con el dibujo correspondiente:

PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE (lugar) in / inside dentro de /dentro 1. There is a pink elephant in the box. out of / outside fuera de / fuera 2. The elephant is out of the box. on sobre, encima (tocando elobjeto) 3. There is a lamp on the table under debajo 4. There is a cat under the table. above directamente encima sin tocarlo 5. Write your name above the line. around alrededor 6. Write a circle around the answer. below por debajo de 7. Write your name below the line. within dentro de 8. Write within the circle. near, by cerca de 9. There are some trees near the house. with con 10.Tom is with Peter. next to al lado de 11. There is a leaf next to the snail. between entre dos cosas u objetos 12. The monkey is between the palms. opposite de frente a 13. The elephant is opposite the horse. behind detrs 14. The elephant is behind the wall. in front of en frente de 15. There is a bird in front of the house.

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on the left a la izquierda

Turn on the left

on the right a la derecha

Turn on the right

Prepositions of movement Preposiciones de movimiento A, en direccin hacia To Hacia arriba Up Hacia abajo Down Hacia Towards Backwards Hacia atrs De, desde from
PREPOSITIONS OF TIME (Tiempo) ( AT / ON / IN)
At The time (hora) Night Vacations of more than a day Days (das) At one oclock At night/at midnight (medianoche) At Christmas / Easter (Navidades-Pascua) On Sunday /On Monday morning On 25th April On New Years Day In 1996 In April In Spring In the morning/in the afternoon/in the evening

On

In

Years (aos) Months (meses) Seasons (estaciones del ao) Parts of the day

IN

In a room In a shop In a box At the door

PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE (Lugar) (IN /AT) In a garden In Spain / In Rome in a park In the city centre in a town At the traffic lights At the bus stop

In the water In the sea In my coffee At the top (of the page) At the bottom

AT

OTHER EXPRESSIONS At home / at work / at school / at university At the station / at the airport At the doctors / at the dentists At Janes (house) / at my sisters house At a concert / at a conference / at a party / at a football match By train en tren / by car en auto / by plane en avin / on foot a pi

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