Design of Box Girders

Identication of local stress parameters inuencing the optimum design
of box girders
Mirko Djelosevic
a,
, Vladeta Gajic
b
, Dragan Petrovic
a
, Milan Bizic
a
a
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Kraljevo, University of Kragujevac, Dositejeva 19, 36000 Kraljevo, Serbia
b
Faculty of Technical Sciences Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, Dositeja Obradovica 6, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 15 July 2011
Revised 29 December 2011
Accepted 5 February 2012
Available online 30 March 2012
Keywords:
Inuential zone
Girder segment
Local stress
Deformation
Optimum design
a b s t r a c t
Research into the effect of local stress on the carrying capacity and optimum design of box girders was
performed in this paper. A mathematical model of the girder was created for the purpose of dening
the stressstrain state of local character. Mathematical dependence which denes the length of the inu-
ential zone in box girders was established. The segment length relevant for the analysis of local stress is
functionally dependent on geometrical parameters of the girder cross section, area of action and size of
load. The methodology carried out in this paper showed that the identication of local stress can be per-
formed only on a segment of the girder. The procedure of calculation and experimental determination of
the local stress state in carrying structures was thus considerably simplied, without reducing accuracy.
The inuential parameters were identied and the guidelines for optimum design of quadrilateral shape
of the girder cross section were given from the aspect of local stress. The comparative analysis was used
to establish, under the same conditions of global carrying capacity, a more favourable stress state in trap-
ezoidal shape in comparison with the traditional rectangular cross section of the girder. Application of the
results of this paper is a contribution to the process of optimal design of supporting structures, especially
those that are used for construction of transport equipment and rack structures in storage systems, where
the effect of reducing the weight affects on the efciency of transport in supply chains.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Modern development of structural elements of carrying
structures based on the application of sophisticated technique
and experimental testing, with adequate support of manufacturing
technology, emphasizes the importance of box girders. The key
activity in design of structures, either box or lattice girders, is the
optimization of shape of the cross section. Therefore, it is necessary
to mathematically formulate the problem of optimization so that
inuential geometrical parameters of the cross section could
provide the minimum mass function.
Paper [1] considered the general approach to the cross section
optimization for equilateral polygons, from triangular to circular
ones. The optimization of box sections was extended to nonequi-
lateral proles in papers [2,3], where the pentagonal shape applied
in the telescopic boom of the autocrane was considered. In the
same paper, the researchers state that polygonal shapes provide
more rational use of inserted material and that they are particu-
larly important for reducing the effect of local stress.
The research in papers [4,5] performed the optimization of
dimensions and shapes of the cross section of lattice structures,
where the subject of analysis covered triangular, rectangular and
trapezoidal shapes.
Papers [6,7] treat the optimization of shapes of the cross section
of the rotating structural element subjected to load along the lon-
gitudinal axis, where inertial forces are also taken into account.
The previously cited papers show that the methodology of cross
section optimization depends on the type of structure as well as on
its functional characteristics.
Papers [15] focus on the cross section analysis based on global
carrying capacity, i.e. the mass function which is the subject of
analysis contains only stress components due to global stress,
while the phenomenon of local stress is marginalized. From the as-
pect of global carrying capacity, the optimization result gives such
a shape of cross section that provides maximum carrying capacity
for a certain type of stress with the minimum mass of the struc-
tural element. The optimization procedure based on the principle
of global carrying capacity was adequately performed only in cases
when local stress had a negligible inuence in relation to the over-
all stress state. Such a case is dominant in carrying structures of
lattice type, which was analyzed in [4,5]. The lattice girder ele-
ments are exclusively linear elements, and the potential points of
local stress occurrence are zones of mutual connection of elements,
0141-0296/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2012.02.040
Corresponding author. Tel.: +381 36 383 269; fax: +381 36 383 377.
E-mail addresses: djelosevic.m@mfkv.kg.ac.rs (M. Djelosevic), itil@uns.rs
(V. Gajic), petrovic.d@mfkv.kg.ac.rs (D. Petrovic), bizic.m@mfkv.kg.ac.rs (M. Bizic).
URL: http://www.mfkv.kg.ac.rs (M. Djelosevic).
Engineering Structures 40 (2012) 299316
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which can be avoided by a suitable design solution [8]. The struc-
tures made of box girders and designed according to the criterion
of global carrying capacity are subjected to local stress in experi-
mental testing or in the exploitation process. It results in consider-
ably larger deformations, i.e. stresses higher than the design ones.
Under such conditions, the stress state is is characterized by a sig-
nicant rise in stress in the zone of direct load [2,3], which fre-
quently leads to damage and even to the destruction of the
material. It indicates the additional stress component. That is
why local stress analysis is important.
The focal point of research in this paper is denition of the
length of the zone of inuence due to local stress so that local
stressstrain state analysis could be carried out on the relevant
segment of the box girder. The segment length corresponds to
the length of the inuential zone of local stress, and the cross sec-
tion is identical to the shape of the box girder considered. This is of
exclusively practical importance for experimental analysis in labo-
ratory conditions where, in order to measure local stresses, it is en-
ough to have a girder segment whose length is considerably
smaller than the length of the box girder. Mathematical interpreta-
tion of deformation and stress values from the aspect of local stress
gives guidelines for the optimum design of box girders.
2. Research into thin-walled welded girders
Numerous studies of girders made of plate elements have
recently been carried out and they have mostly been based on
experimental testing and the FEM analysis. Generally, all research
can be divided into two basic groups:
1. Research into steel girders in the domain of plasticity.
2. Research into steel girders in the elastic range behavior.
The phenomenon of plasticity and resistance of girders to buck-
ling is systematically described in [9,10], where the problems of
elastic stability and critical load are treated. Researchers [1114]
consider the problem of boundary carrying capacity of the thin-
walled welded I-girder for the case of centric and eccentric action
of moving load. The correlation between those two cases of load is
established, and experimental data are used for improving the
mathematical model which describes the mechanism of plastic
behavior of the material. The inuence of longitudinal stiffening
in complex girders of open type is considered in [15], where a
theoretical model for determination of boundary moving load is
proposed. Research [16,17] analyzes the boundary durability of
the longitudinally stiffened I-girder, where favourable shapes of
stiffeners are considered. Nonlinear nite elements are applied in
[1719] for the analysis of material behavior in the zone of plastic-
ity, where the obtained results are compared with the theoretical
ones. In addition, FEM is very important for dening measuring
points before carrying out experiments. A wide application of
box girders and open girders, especially in construction of bridge
structures, is the subject of analysis in [20], where the insertion
of web [21] has a signicant effect on the carrying capacity and
optimization of the girder.
The application of box girders, i.e. closed thin-walled welded
structures is accompanied by the problem of stability loss, which
draws special attention. The phenomenon of local instability, i.e.
buckling on a separated element or plate was analyzed in [22],
by the numerical procedure and FEM, where the obtained results
are in accordance with the existing models of stress distribution.
In [23], the problem of box telescopic boom of the autocrane was
analyzed with the application of ANSYS, where modes of buckling
were presented. These examples show a great inuence of local
stress due to an interactive contact of boom segments. The analysis
of elastic buckling of girder plates is linear and it is important for
denition of maximum loads that will not cause plastic deforma-
tions and thus reduce or completely endanger the functionality
of the structure [2428].
The application of composite materials [29,30] is of great signif-
icance. Hollow box girders are subject to local buckling of plates.
The use of lling (e.g. concrete) prevents displacements toward
the interior, while buckling toward the outside is enabled. The
application of composites allows the action of a greater critical
force that can be borne by the girder without a failure.
The idea of the paper is to numerically establish the behavior of
the girder with the box girder as an example by means of a
mathematical model and to check its validity by FEM, showing
the inuence of geometrical values and loads on the carrying
capacity in the domain of elasticity.
3. Analysis of the problem
The subject of research in this paper covers:
1. Analysis of deection of global stress and the stressstrain state
of the girder from the aspect of local stress.
2. Identication of the inuential zone due to local stress.
3. Determination of stress and strain values on a girder segment.
4. Denition of the local stress state parameters which inuence
the optimum design of the girder cross section shape.
In order to realize the mentioned research, it is necessary to car-
ry out certain analyses of model adequacy from the aspect of
determination of displacement and stress state of the girder.
Classication into models of local and global carrying capacity
was performed for the purpose of a simpler analysis of the values
inuencing the carrying capacity of the girder. In that sense, the
girder in (Figs. 13) will be considered. The physical model of the
girder from the aspect of global carrying capacity (Fig. 1) repre-
sents a line girder. The deection and the normal stress of the
girder are dened through the following familiar expressions:
f z
ql
4
24EI
z
l
_ _
2
u
l
_ _
l u
2l
_ _
4
l u
2l
_ _
4
_ _
2
u
l
_ _
z
l
_ _
3
_ _
1
f
max

Ql
3
48EI
quvl
3
48EI
; for u l 2
Fig. 1. Model for global deformation analysis.
300 M. Djelosevic et al. / Engineering Structures 40 (2012) 299316
r
x

M
I
y
max
3
The physical model of the girder from the aspect of local carrying
capacity (Fig. 2) is based on the principle of separation of cross sec-
tion elements (plates). The essential difference between these two
models that the line girder model does not take into account defor-
mation of the plates which constitute the girder. This explains the
existence of an additional stress component, which makes an
abrupt jump in the zone of load action [2,3], which is characteristic
of plate elements. Under the action of external load there is an
interaction between global and local stresses [31]. It creates a com-
plex stressstrain picture of the girder, which is unfavourable for
the analysis of inuential parameters of carrying capacity. By pre-
venting global displacement of the girder, it is possible to separate
their mutual inuence and perform an independent analysis of local
behavior. It can be illustrated by considering a part of the ange
plate around the zone of load action (Fig. 4). Under the action of
global stress, the plate moves vertically by the value of global
deection. It is equivalent to the existence of elastic supports with
the rigidity k
g
along the edges of the plate. Mathematical identica-
tion of the plate establishes that the values and distribution of
stress do not have signicant deviations compared to the freely sup-
ported plate with rigid supports. It conrms the fact that plate dis-
placement due to global load does not have any inuence on the
local stress state, and the resulting deection of the plate is equal
to the sum of local and global deections.
4. Mathematical model of local stress
The mathematical model for denition of the local stressstrain
state is based on the following assumptions:
1. Each plate of the girder is considered a freely supported plate
2. Displacements due to elastic deformations of the plate supports
in relation to the plate deection due to external load are
neglected
3. The inuence of transverse forces in relation to the action of
external load and internal reactive moments on plate deforma-
tion is neglected
4. The inuence of action of forces in the plane of the plate in rela-
tionto the other loads whichcause normal stresses is eliminated.
According to these assumptions, a physical model suitable for
mathematical description of the stressstrain state of local charac-
ter is developed (Fig. 5). From the aspect of adequacy of the math-
ematical model, justication of the introduced assumptions is
based on the following analysis:
The vertical plates (webs) of the girder represent elastic sup-
ports for the ange plates. In most design solutions (which is the
case in this example), these girder elements have sufcient rigidity
which does not contribute to signicant changes in the stress state
of the ange plates. A similar analysis is carried out on the vertical
plates of the girder, where the inuences of ange plates in the
transverse direction are manifested as supports. Thus, the girder
elements (plates) can be modelled as plates that are freely sup-
ported on rigid supports, which justies the rst two assumptions.
The third assumption is based on the fact that transverse forces
cause shear stresses whose size is small in relation to normal stres-
ses. The fourth assumption is that the values of normal stresses due
to the action of planar forces are, in transversely loaded girders,
negligible in relation to the identical stresses due to external load
and reactive elastic bending moment.
The deection of plate 2 (Fig. 4) due to the uniform continu-
ous load q(x, y), according to [32], is:
w
2
q
16 q
0
p
6
D
2

1
m1
1
n1
sin
mpn
a
sin
npg
b
2
sin
mpu
2a
sin
npv
2b
2
mn
m
2
a
2
n
2
b
2
2
_ _
2
sin
mpx
a
sin
npy
b
2
4
The inclination of plate 2 due to the load q(x, y) is given by the
expression:
@w
2
q
@y
2
_ _
16 q
0
p
5
D
22
b

1
m1
1
n1
sin
mpn
a
sin
npg
b
2
sin
mpu
2a
sin
npv
2b
2
m
m
2
a
2

n
2
b
2
2
_ _
2
sin
mpx
a
cos
npy
b
2
5
The deection of freely supported plate i due to the action of mo-
ments M
i
and M
i+1
, according to [32], is:
Fig. 2. Model for local deformation analysis.
Fig. 3. Box girder under uniform continuous load.
Fig. 4. Box girder plate directly subjected to the action of uniform continuous load.
M. Djelosevic et al. / Engineering Structures 40 (2012) 299316 301
w
i
M
i
; M
i1

a
2
i
4p
2
D
i

1
m1
sin
mpx
a
i
m
2
K
i;m
K
i1;m
cosha
i;m
a
i;m
tgha
i;m
cosh
mpy
a
i
mpy
a
i
sinh
mpy
a
i
_ _
K
i1;m
K
i;m
sinha
i;m
a
i;m
ctgha
i;m
sinh
mpy
a
i
mpy
a
i
cosh
mpy
a
i
_ _
_
_
_
_
6
The corresponding inclinations of plate i are determined from the
expressions:
@w
i
M
i
; M
i1
@y
i
_ _
y
2
b
2
2
a
i
4pD
i

1
m1
sin
mpx
a
i
m
K
i;m
K
i1;m
a
i;m
cosh
2
a
i;m
tgha
i;m
_ _
K
i;m
K
i1;m
ctgha
i;m
a
i;m
sinh
2
a
i;m
_ _
_
_
_
_
7
@w
i
M
i
; M
i1
@y
i
_ _
y
2
b
2
2

a
i
4pD
i

1
m1
sin
mpx
a
i
m
K
i;m
K
i1;m
a
i;m
cosh
2
a
i;m
tgha
i;m
_ _
K
i1;m
K
i;m
ctgha
i;m
a
i;m
sinh
2
a
i;m
_ _
_
_
_
_
8
The moments M
i
and M
i+1
are determined according to the follow-
ing series:
M
i

1
m1
K
i;m
sin
mpx
a
; M
i1

1
m1
K
i1;m
sin
mpx
a
9
K
i,m
and K
(i+1),m
are unknown coefcients as a function of m.
Unknown coefcients K
i,m
(i = 1, 2, 3, 4) are determined from sys-
tem of Eqs. (14)(17).
To ensure continuity of girder in lateral direction the following
conditions must be fullled:
Support No. 1:
@w
4
M
4
; M
1
@y
4
_ _
y
4
b
4
2
@w
1
M
1
; M
2
@y
1
_ _
y
1
b
1
2
10
Support No. 2:
@w
2
q
@y
2
_ _
y
2
b
2
2
@w
2
M
2
; M
3
@y
2
_ _
y
2
b
2
2
@w
1
M
1
; M
2
@y
2
_ _
y
1
b
1
2
11
Support No. 3:
@w
2
q
@y
2
_ _
y
2
b
2
2
@w
2
M
2
; M
3
@y
2
_ _
y
2
b
2
2
@w
3
M
3
; M
4
@y
3
_ _
y
3
b
3
2
12
Support No. 4:
@w
3
M
3
; M
4
@y
3
_ _
y
3
b
3
2
@w
4
M
4
; M
1
@y
4
_ _
y
4
b
4
2
13
Eqs. (10)(13) are equivalent with (14)(17).
K
m;1
1
D
1
B
m;1
C
m;1
1
D
4
B
m;2
C
m;2
_ _
K
m;2
1
D
1
B
m;1
C
m;1
_ _
K
m;3
0K
m;4
1
D
4
B
m;4
C
m;4
_ _
0 14
K
m;1
1
D
1
B
m;1
C
m;1
_ _
K
m;2
1
D
1
B
m;1
C
m;1
1
D
2
B
m;2
C
m;2
_ _
K
m;3
1
D
2
B
m;2
C
m;2
_ _
K
m;4
0
4p
a
1
m1
m
sin
mpx
a
@w
2
@y
_ _
y
2
0
15
K
m;1
0K
m;2
1
D
2
B
m;2
C
m;2
_ _
K
m;3
1
D
2
B
m;2
C
m;2
1
D
3
B
m;3
C
m;3
_ _
K
m;4
1
D
3
B
m;3
C
m;3
_ _
4p
a
1
m1
m
sin
mpx
a
@w
2
@y
_ _
y
2
b
2
16
Fig. 5. Physical model of the box girder (uniform continuous load).
K
m;1
1
D
4
B
m;4
C
m;4
_ _
K
m;2
0 K
m;3
1
D
3
B
m;3
C
m;3
_ _
K
m;4
1
D
3
B
m;3
C
m;3

1
D
4
B
m;4
C
m;4
_ _
0 17
The coefcients B
i,m
and C
i,m
are given through the following
expressions:
B
i;m

a
i;m
cosh
2
a
i;m
tgha
i;m
_ _
18
C
i;m

a
i;m
sinh
2
a
i;m
ctgha
i;m
_ _
19
Fig. 7. Diagram of the comparative stress r
u
of the girder.
Fig. 6. Diagram of the resulting deection of the girder.
The coefcient a
i,m
has the form:
a
i;m

mpb
i
2a
_ _
20
5. Analysis of global and local stresses by means of FEM
The nite element method (FEM) is used for verication of the
results obtained by the analytical procedure in Chapter 4. A proce-
dure of separation between global and local stresses by means of
FEM will be presented here by applying ANSYS 12 software
Fig. 8. Diagram of the local deection of the girder.
Fig. 9. Diagram of the local comparative stress r
l,u
of the girder.
package. For that purpose, the resulting deection of the girder will
rstly be considered (Fig. 6). Elimination of global deformation of
the girder results in local deection of the girder (Fig. 8). Distribu-
tion of global deection which is analytically determined through
(1), results from establishing the difference between total and local
deections for the top ange plate of the girder subjected to direct
load. Triangular nite elements of the shell with the size of 10 mm
are applied for generation of the FEM model. Girder dimensions,
size of loads and conditions of support at the ends are identical
as in the physical model of the analytical method. It is interesting
that the maximum Von-Mises stresses are identical on real girder
(Fig. 7) and also on girder where the global movement is prevented
(Fig. 9). This leads to the conclusion that in the considered case a
global strain has a negligible inuence in compared to the local
stress state.
5.1. Comparative analysis of deections of the girder plates
Using the results obtained by the analytical procedure and FEM,
a comparative analysis of deections of the girder plates for two
mutually perpendicular directions is carried out. The aim of the
comparative analysis is to conrm the correspondence between
the values and distribution of functions of deections obtained
theoretically and by means of FEM (see Figs. 1017).
The analysis of functions of deection distribution for the struc-
tural elements (plates) of the girder established that local stress
has effect only in a certain zone of load action. The diagram in
Fig. 18 can illustrate it. With the increase in the width of the girder
(B), other parameters being the same, the plate deection in-
creases, while the zone of inuence (L) is approximately constant,
for larger values of B, while for lower values of the deviation is
much more pronounced. Similarly, the same conclusion is also per-
formed for other plates of girders (plates 1, 3 and 4).
Fig. 10. Function of deection distribution in plate 1 of the girder (transverse
direction).
direction).
direction).
direction).
Fig. 14. Function of deection distribution in plate 1 of the girder (longitudinal
direction).
The model of local stress is applied for denition of the length of
the inuential zone (L) and the following expression is used:
w
2
x; y
16 q
0
p
6
D
2
1
m1
1
n1
sin
mpn
a
sin
npg
b
2
sin
mpu
2a
sin
npv
2b
2
mn
m
2
a
2

n
2
b
2
2
_ _
2
sin
mpx
a
sin
npy
b
2
a
2
4p
2
D
2
1
m1
sin
mpx
a
m
2
K
m;2
K
m;3
cosha
2;m
a
2;m
tgha
2;m
cosh
mpy
a

mpy
a
sinh
mpy
a
_ _
K
m;3
K
m;2
sinha
2;m
a
2;m
ctlgha
2;m
sinh
mpy
a

mpy
a
cos h
mpy
a
_ _
_
_
_
_
21
The length of the inuential zone of the local stress state is deter-
mined according to (17), so that the following condition is fullled:
Deection on the edge of the plate must be less than or equal to
3% of the maximum deection, i.e.
w
2
x; y
b
2
2
_ _
6 0; 03 w
2;max
22
The only unknown value in the inequality (18) is x, i.e. L.
At base (17) and (18) is developed software for determination of
the inuential zone of local stress (see Table 1).
6. Stressstrain analysis of the girder segment
Chapter 5 identies the inuential zone of local stress (L) for
the considered cross section and size of load. It is, before all, of
practical importance in calculation of structures by means of
FEM, especially in experimental testing. Besides, a modern ap-
proach to calculation of the stress state of the box girder is pre-
sented. The classical procedure of stress calculation in linear
structures in the domain of global stress does not provide valid
results. Deviations are particularly remarkable in box girders,
but also in other thin-walled structural elements, in which the
local stress state has a dominant effect. This chapter also shows
that the girder segment with the length L is quite sufcient for
the stress analysis of the girder for all methods of calculation
(theoretical, FEM and experimental).
Calculation conditions of the FEM model with respect to load,
geometry and constraints are identical to those for the theoretical
model. Triangular nite elements of the shell with the size of
10 mm were applied for generation of the FEM model. The values
of deection read from the FEM model are presented in compara-
tive diagrams (Figs. 2633), and it can be stated that there is high
correspondence of results with regard to the values and trends of
distribution.
direction).
direction).
Fig. 18. Change of the deection (w2) depending on the width of the girder (B).
direction).
Table 1
Input data of the program for determination of the length of the inuential zone (L).
Plate 1 2 3 4
Thickness d (mm) 5.2 6.4 5.2 6.4
Length a (mm) 4000 4000 4000 4000
Width b (mm) 300 200 300 200
Supercial load q (kN cm
2
) 0 0.300 0 0
Measures of the area of load u (mm) 0 100 0 0
v (mm) 0 50 0 0
Position of the load centre n (mm) 0 2000 0 0
g
1
(mm) 0 100 0 0
g
2
(mm) 0 0 0 0
According to Figs. 8 and 9 and Figs. 19 and 20 it can be concluded
that the distribution and the maximumvalues of the deection and
equivalent stress are identical, and this conclusion conrm the
validity of determining the length of the girder segment.
7. Experimental analysis
The experimental analysis was based on the settings of the pre-
vious sections. Its purpose was to verify the FEM model and
Fig. 19. Total deection of the girder segment of rectangular cross section.
Fig. 20. Equivalent stress of the girder segment of rectangular cross section.
developed analytical methodology for the calculation of box girders.
The primary parameters of the experiment were the dimensions of
girders cross-section and the type and intensity of the load. All
activities during the test should be in the eld of elastic material
behavior.
7.1. Object of testing
Object of testing was box girder with rectangular cross-sec-
tion, made of constructional steel S235JRG2 in accordance to
the EN10025. The dimensions of the girder, position of the load
Fig. 21. The layout of the measuring points on the girder (variant 1).
Fig. 22. The layout of the measuring points on the girder (variant 2).
Fig. 23. Box girder prepared for the experimental testing.
and measurement points on the girder are shown in
Fig. 21.
Performing the experiment according to the variant 1 corre-
sponds to the analytical and FEM models, but it is appropriate
only for measuring the sizes on the plates 1, 3 and 4. In order
to realize the testing in the zone of girder with extreme values
of displacements and stresses (plate 2) preparation for realiza-
tion of testing in accordance to the variant 2 was conducted
(Fig. 22).
7.2. Preparation of the object of testing
The object required special preparation before the experiment
conduction. Position of the load according to Fig. 21 allowed
measurements only on the vertical plates (plates 1 and 3) and
the bottom plate (plate 4). Due to the inability to measure dis-
placements and stresses in the points of upper plate (plate 2,
Fig. 21) it was necessary to drill the opening 30 on the
mentioned plate. This opening serves for placement of the head
Fig. 24. Test stand (left) and alpha numeric display (right).
Fig. 25. The process of measuring: (a) displacement, (b) equivalent stress.
Fig. 26. Transformation from rectangular into trapezoidal cross section.
for load application (Fig. 22). In this way the roles of the plates 2
and 4 were replaced, while the displacements and stresses of the
plates have the same intensity and opposite sign compared to
the case from Fig. 21. The inuence of the hole does not have
signicant effect on the measurement, which is consistent with
[33] (see Fig. 23).
The sides of the girder are closed with the detachable plates
which allows placement of the head for load application. The
Fig. 27. Total displacement of the girder segment with the trapezoidal cross section (variant 1).
Fig. 28. Comparative stress of the girder with the trapezoidal cross section (variant 1).
detachable plates are pressed in the girder which allows the freely
supporting of plates on their ends.
7.3. Preparation and organization of testing
The testing is realized on the multipurpose test stand with the
carrying capacity 110 kN. The girder is placed on the roller sup-
ports of the test stand, and then alignment and insurance of
unforeseen moving is performed. Thus supporting provides the
condition for freely supported girder. On the pedestal of the test
stand is mounted a frame with the carrier of comparators which
purpose is measurement of displacements of the plates. Setting
of force is provided using manual hydraulic jack whose carrying
capacity is 50 kN. Registration of force is provided using the force
Fig. 29. Total deection of the girder segment with the trapezoidal cross section (variant 2).
Fig. 30. Comparative stress of the girder with the trapezoidal cross section (variant 2).
converter (300 kN, sensitivity 2%) and alpha numeric display (see
Fig. 24).
The experimental testing was performed in two phases. In rst
phase were conducted measurements of displacements in two
orthogonal direction for every of four plates of whom is girder
composed. The second phase concerned the measurement of stres-
ses in characteristic points on the girder.
7.4. Testing procedure
Immediately before the experiment conduction, in order to ob-
tain accurate measurement results, the procedure of training mate-
rials in order to remove residual stresses is performed. The
procedure is repeated several times (at least 15 cycles), and is re-
ected in the load of girder to 75% of the nominal load, after which
the girder is completely unloaded.
The girder is exposed to the load of 15 kN (1500 kg), which is
entered manually by hydraulic jack. The same force acts on the
force converter, whose intensity in kilograms is read on the alpha
numeric display. Displacement of the plates of girder is registered
by the comparator, while the stresses are measured using the
strain gauges and HBM measuring device QUANTUM MX840A.
The values of the stresses are read in the software package
CatmanEasy (see Fig. 25).
7.5. Results of experimental testing
The testing procedure for each measuring point is repeated 5
times, whereas the repeatability of results for displacements is
0.01 mm. The nal value was obtained as the mean of the mea-
sured sizes. For measurement of displacement there were 110
measuring points, while for stresses there were 4 points with
repeatability of results 0.2 kN cm
2
. Overview of the measured
sizes is given in Tables 3 and 4.
8. Parameters which inuence the optimum shape of the cross
section according to the criterion of local stress state
Generally, for valid denition of the resulting stress state of the
box girder it is necessary to analyze both global and local stresses.
The presented optimization methodology given through research
Fig. 31. Diagram of comparative analysis of a deection plate 1 that has
rectangular and trapezoidal cross section (lateral direction).
Table 3
Comparative values of the extreme values of equivalent stress.
Plate
number
Measuring
point
(longitudinal/
transverse
direction)
Equivalent stress (kN cm
2
) Deviation (%)
Experimental ANSYS
12
Theoretical Exp/
ANSYS
Exp/
theoretical
1 19 8.75 9.08 9.52 8.0 8.1
2 101/87 29.50 31.25 32.15 5.6 8.3
3 26 8.90 9.08 9.52 6.5 6.5
4 37/51 1.17 1.33 1.28 12.00 8.6
Table 2
Comparative values of the extreme values of movement.
Plate
number
Measuring
point
(longitudinal/
transverse
direction)
Displacements of plate (mm) Deviation (%)
Experimental ANSYS
12
Theoretical Exp/
ANSYS
Exp/
theoretical
1 9/24 0.590 0.608 0.587 2.96 0.50
2 101/87 1.340 1.280 1.345 4.47 4.83
3 64/76 0.580 0.608 0.587 4.60 1.19
4 37/51 0.090 0.110 0.094 11.00 4.25
[14] represents the rst phase in the process of optimum design
where dimensions of the cross section of the box girder are prelim-
inarily dened. The second phase of optimum design covers the
local stress analysis based on the mathematical model formulated
in Chapter 4, the use of which complements the procedure of
optimum design of the girder. Hence, it is possible to identify
rectangular and trapezoidal cross section (longitudinal direction).
Table 4
Comparative table of rectangular and trapezoidal cross sections.
Denotation of value Shape of cross section
Rectangular Trapezoidal
Var. 1 Var. 2 Var. 3
d
1
(mm) 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2
d
2
(mm) 6.4 7.0 7.5 8.0
d
3
(mm) 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2
d
4
(mm) 6.4 5.0 5.5 4.0
B
1
(mm) 200 180 170 150
B
2
(mm) 200 250 230 300
H (mm) 313 313 313 313
w
1
(mm) 0.610 0.485 0.378 0.287
w
2
(mm) 1.279 0.868 0.653 0.441
w
3
(mm) 0.610 0.485 0.378 0.287
w
4
(mm) 0.067 0.105 0.085 0.078
ru (kN cm
2
) 31.25 25.87 21.74 18.07
geometrical parameters of the cross section which have dominant
inuence on the local stress state, under the same conditions of
global carrying capacity of the girder. Thus, the subject of analysis
is traditional rectangular and trapezoidal shapes as the most
general quadrilateral proles of girders. Table 2 presents the com-
parative analysis of geometrical characteristics and stressstrain
values of the trapezoidal cross section according to the adopted
rectangular prole of the girder. The inuential parameters of the
trapezoidal cross section are determined according to the condition
of constancy of global carrying capacity, i.e. the ratio between the
value of moment of resistance of the area (W
x
) and the cross section
area (A) of the girder must be constant (W
x
/A = const.). Since the
considered shapes are not optimized according to global carrying
capacity, it is necessary, while comparing proles, to keep the same
height of the girder (H) (see Figs. 3441).
Values for TCS (var.2) are not showninthe diagrams, andthey are
placed between the lines denoted by (TCS var.1) and TCS (var.3).
The equivalent stress in the case of global and local strain is:
r
e

r
x;g
r
x;l
2
r
2
y;l
r
x;g
r
x;l
r
y;l
3s
2
xy;l
_
31:79 kN cm
2
23
The corresponding component stresses are:
r
x;global

M
I
z
max

Q l
4I
z
max

15 400
4 9747:13
15:65
3:01 kN cm
2
24
r
x;local

6 M
x
d
2
2

6 1:61
0:64
2
23:58 kN cm
2
25
r
y;local

6 M
y
d
2
2

6 2:50
0:64
2
36:62 kN cm
2
26
s
xy;local

6 M
xy
d
2
2
_ _
x500
y100
0:28 kN cm
2
27
The equivalent stress in the case when we have only local strain is:
r
e

r
2
x;l
r
2
y;l
r
x;l
r
y;l
3s
2
xy;l
_
32:15 kN cm
2
28
The values given by (19) and (24) are very close, thus conrming
the attitude that in the considered case for calculation is sufcient
to analyze only the local strain.
The corresponding component deformations are:
Fig. 39. Distribution of normal stress due to global stress.
Fig. 40. Diagram of stresses and deformation of the top ange plate.
e
x;local

1
E
r
x;local
mr
y;local
0:00059 mm mm
1
29
e
y;local

1
E
r
y;local
mr
x;local
0:00140 mm mm
1
30
c
xy

1
G
s
xy
0:000035 mm mm
1
31
9. Conclusions
The research carried out and presented in this paper is the basis
for presenting the methodology of stressstrain identication of
local character in box girders with rectangular cross section.
According to the developed physical model for local deformation
analysis, its mathematical formulation is performed thus enabling
denition of the local stress state by the analytical procedure. Ver-
ication of the calculated values as well as of the applied method-
ology is carried out by means of FEM, using ANSYS 12 software
package. The comparative analysis of deections of the plates of
the girder with rectangular cross section establishes high corre-
spondence of results, both with regard to the distribution trend
and with regard to the values. Maximum deviations do not exceed
5%, which classies the analytical method as a reliable tool not
only in the analysis of the local stress state but also from the aspect
of denition of the geometrical parameters inuencing the in-
crease in carrying capacity of the girder. The analyses performed
show that the trapezoidal cross section, for the same global carry-
ing capacity (A/W = const.) and the same slenderness of vertical
plates (k = const.), as well as at the constant height of the girder
(H = const.), has a considerably more favourable stress state than
the rectangular shape. It is established that the width and thick-
ness of the top ange plate dominantly inuence the value of local
stresses and deformations, which is not the case with the bottom
ange plate of the girder. In the paper presented, certain weak-
nesses in the calculation of structures which is based only on the
aspect of global stress are also mentioned. It is stated that the
model of local stability (Chapter 4) is sufcient for the analysis of
the stressstrain state, without any pretensions to the analysis of
global stress by the traditional procedure.
Generally, the identication presented shows that the applica-
tion of polygonal shapes considerably contributes to the reduction
of local inuence by eliminating the abrupt jump in the critical
zone, which is important for further development in this eld.
A further aspect of the application of this analysis is reected in
the rationalization of weight of carrying elements of the transport
equipment, applied especially to serve in distribution supply
chains.
The purpose of this research is to create preconditions for
experimental testing and further investigations into the design of
box-type carrying structures.
Acknowledgements
This paper is made as a result of research on project of techno-
logical development TR36030, nancially supported by the Minis-
try of Science and Technological Development of Serbia.
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