The Digestive System

Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption

Digestive Structure

Mucosa or the mucous membrane layer is the most innermost of the wall. It lines the lumen of
the tract. In certain regions the mucosa secretes mucus, digestive enzymes and hormones.
Submucosa- is a thick layer of loose connective tissue that surrounds the mucosa. This layer
also contains blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves and some glands.
Muscularis- consists of two layers of smooth muscle and is responsible for peristalsis in the
lower portion of the esophagus
Serosa- a squamous (dense connective tissue) epithelial layer that is the outermost covering of
the digestive tube that secretes a serous fluid for lubrication so that the abdominal organs move
smoothly against each other to prevent friction

I. Ingestion
The oral cavity is the first part of the digestive tract. It is adapted to receive food by ingestion,
which be broken down into small particles and mixed with saliva to forma bolus. The oral cavity
has salivary glands which secrete several things which help in digestion:
1. Amylase: this functions to start the digestion of carbohydrates in the mouth
2. Saline: moisten pharyngel tissue
3. Mucous: provide lubrication for food, helps form the bolus

II. Digestion

After the bolus has been formed, it travels down the esophagus, via peristalsis, into the stomach.
The stomach consists of four different sections:
1. Cardium
2. Fundus
3. Body
4. Pyloric
Each section contains a gastric pit which contains parietal cells, chief cells, and gastric glands
which secrete things which are needed for digestion. Parietal cells secrete HCl and intrinsic
factor, which is needed to absorb vitamin B12. Chief cells secrete pepsinogen, which will then be
transformed into pepsin, when pepsinogen combines with HCl.

When the food mixes with the HCl/pepsin, chyme is formed. The chyme is moved into the small
intestine. There, secretions from the pancreas, liver, and gall bladder enter the small intestine via
the pancreatic duct.

The pancreas is an accessory organ which secretes alpha (glucagon) and beta (insulin) cells. The
pancreas is responsible for controlling blood glucose levels; when levels are high, the pancreas
releases insulin, which takes glucose and converts it into glycogen, however when levels are low,
the pancreas releases glucagon which converts glucagon back into glucose which the body can
then use. The pancreas also releases bicarbonate, to neutralize the HCl, trypsin, and
chymotrypsin.

The liver and bile ducts release bile salts, which act like emulsifying agents that attach to fats and
make absorbing them easier.

The small intestine is made up of three parts;

The beginning or duodenum, the middle, jejunum, and the end portion, ileum.

Most digestion takes place in the duodenum, and absorption occurs throughout the rest of the
intestine. Specialized cells called villi are present, which increase the surface area for absorption.

Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides by amylase and through facilitated
transport are absorbed. Proteins are broken down into amino acids by trypsin and chymotrypsin
and through active transport are absorbed. Fats are broken down into monoglycerides with the
help of the bile salts and enter the lymphatic duct to be absorbed.
The large intestine is the final part of the digestive system in which water and some minerals are
absorbed. The first part of the colon, the cecum contains the largest number of bacteria and
therefore is responsible for the production of vitamins, such as B12 and K.

Control of Digestion

Essential Nutrients
Vitamins:

A (retinol)- used in making visual pigments; green vegetables, milk

B1- coenzyme during cell respiration
B2 (riboflavin)- part of coenzyme which play metabolic roles
B3 (niacin)- part of coenzymes NAD, NADP
B5 (pantothenic acid)
B6- metabolism
B12-metabolism
Biotin-metabolism
Folic acid- metabolism
C- collagen, important antioxidant
D- increases absorption of calcium
E- protects cell membranes from oxidation, antioxidant
K- essential to blood clotting