Shear Strength of Soils Final (Complete)

Shear Strength of Soils
CE2112 Soil Mechanics

National University of Singapore Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Shear Strength of Soils : Introduction
What is Strength?
Power to Resist Force
Merriam-Webster Dictionary
Typical Material Strengths considered in Civil Engineering

Concrete Strength Steel Strength Soil Strength
Introduction - 1
Concrete Strength
Concrete Cubes Typically cured for 28 days Apply axial load until the cube crushes The maximum stress (l d/ (load/area) ) that th t the th concrete t cube can sustain before it crushes h is i known k as its it ___________________ compressive strength (e.g. ________________________ ) 28 d compressive day i strength t th).
Introduction - 2
Steel Strength
Steel bar specimen
Subject the steel bar specimen to tensile pulling at its two ends. Stress-strain curve looks like this:
yield strength
Introduction - 3

Loading Piston
Soil Strength
Triaxial Cell Equipment Cylindrical Soil Specimen, e.g. 76 mm (height) x 38 mm (diameter), typical 2:1 aspect ratio ___. Triaxial cell filled with controlled water pressurized _____. V Vertical ti l stress t is i applied li d to t the th soil il specimen by controlling the ___________________________. movement of the loading piston Force on the loading piston and the movement of the piston is measured and recorded. The data is processed to obtain the stress-strain curve.
Introduction - 4
Two Important p Aspects p of Geotechnical Problems (a) Deformation/Consolidation

Covered by y Prof Lee. This course provides you with some simple tools to make preliminary settlement / deformation calculations Difficult and challenging topic in practice Very experienced engineers may come up with different predictions for deformation / settlement Material effects : variability, complex stressstrain relationship, elastic elastic-plastic plastic response Dependent on modulus (gradient of stress-strain curve) For soft clays, clays Cc and Cs(are these related to modulus?) Geometrical effects : 2D and 3D
Introduction - 5
Two Important p Aspects p of Geotechnical Problems (b) Stability (or Failure)

Dependent on Soil Strength Soil strength is highly variable, even within it same site Collapse (may or may not happen) Loss of Stability Loss of Functionality Excessive deformation
Introduction - 6
Shear Strength of Soils : Response of Soils to Load Applications
Response of Soil to Load Applications

When the applied loads are small: Soil stresses are low, deformations are small Stability of the soil structure typically not a problem When the applied loads are large: Soil stresses are high, deformations are large Stability of the soil structure may become a problem Failure may occur
Introduction - 7
In geotechnical engineering, FAILURE can have different meanings: In extreme case, we have collapse. In more general cases, we have limiting conditions (not necessarily complete breakdown) beyond which the soil structure cannot be used.
Introduction - 8
In most I t geotechnical t h i l engineering i i problems, bl ground deformation is only considered after we have checked that the design is safe against failure. In some cases, where deformation is not an i important consideration, id i we may not have h to check for deformation/settlement, but we still have to check that the structure is safe against failure. To analyze or perform a failure check, we need to understand the material behavior of the soil.
Introduction - 9
If we look l k at t soil il as a material, t i l then th th there are invariably two major aspects that one often needs to be concerned with for any material:
A. Stiffness B. Strength
The stiffness _______ of a material defines how much deformation the material will undergo given a certain stress (or, more appropriately in soils, stress increment). e.g. Youngs modulus, shear modulus, etc
reciprocal of the Note: the compression index Cc is the _________ soil modulus in 1-D compression
Introduction - 10
Shear Strength of Soils : Hookes Law
Hookes Law
Hookes H k Law L i a simple is i l way of f idealizing id li i the behaviour of most materials, by simply assuming that the strain increment c e e tt that at t the e material ate a u undergoes de goes is s linearly related to the stress increment. This simple law has been found to work quite i well ll with i h most materials, i l up to a point.
Hookes Law - 1
Shear Strength of Soils : Hookes Law
Hookes Hooke s Law

fixed
Str ress = F/A (kN/m2)
200
linear
Force F (kN N)
150 100 50 1 E
crosssectional area A
Elongation (mm) Strain = /L
Hookes Law - 2
= E
where E is the Youngs modulus
Shear Strength of Soils : Laymans Definition
Th St The Strength th of f Materials M t i l

In reality, no material can be made to sustain stresses infinitely. Beyond a certain point (which varies depending upon the material), the structure of a material breaks down and no further increase in stress is then possible. At this point, we often say that the material has _____, failed and the stress level at which this strength of state is achieved is known as the ________ that material.
A General, G l Laymans L D Definition fi iti
Strength of Materials - 1
Shear Strength of Soils : Laymans Definition
strength stress
no further increase in stress perfectly plastic
onset of yielding linear obey b H Hookes k L Law strain
A General, Laymans Definition

Strength of Materials - 2
Shear Strength of Soils : Stress-Strain Response
Stress-Strain Curves - 1
Some Aspects of the Stress Stress-Strain Strain Response

The example stress-strain curves show that various definitions of strength g can be adopted. p Steel: Clearly y defined y yield p point, , or limit of proportionality. Beyond this, material suffers increasing deformation without breaking up. Can define ____________ yield strength y g as the stress level at which yielding occurs. (limit of proportionality exceeded) Can define ultimate _______________ strength as the stress level at which the material finally breaks up. up (maximum strength attainable)
E Example l Stress-Strain St St i Curve C of f _____ St l Steel
ultimate strength
yield strength
Example Stress-Strain Curve of Clay

no further increase in stress ultimate strength stress yield strength perfectly plastic
onset of yielding linear obey Hookes Law strain
Shear Strength of Soils : Stress-Strain Response of Soft Soils
Stress-Strain Stress Strain Response of Soft Soils

What if there is no perfectly plastic response observed?
triaxial compression
initial modulus Ei
approximately linear modulus at very small strains Stress-Strain Curves - 6
Stress-Strain Response of Soft Soils In such cases, it may be more relevant to define the strength as the stress level at which _________________________ a certain limiting strain level is reached. For o most ost so soft t so soils, s, t this s level e e is so often te set at ____ 20% strain.
Stress-Strain Response of Soft Soils

triaxial compression failure strength t th
initial modulus Ei 20% failure strain
approximately linear modulus at very small strains
Shear Strength of Soils : Different Modes of Loading Soils
I In practice, ti soil il can be b loaded l d d in i many different ways.

e g constr e.g. construct ct a new ne building b ilding the soil beneath the building b ilding experiences an ________ increase in load, which may cause parts of the soil to reach the yield strength in loading excavate for basement the soil beneath the excavation experiences a decrease ________ in load, which may y cause p parts of the soil to reach the yield strength in unloading
Different modes of loading give rise to _______ strengths! different

We will discuss this in greater detail later.
Types of Strength - 1
Shear Strength of Soils : Different Types of Strength
Th St The Strength th of f Soils S il

In textbooks, , soil reports, p , other literature, , y you may y encounter different types of soil strengths being discussed. Most commonly, you would see the term Shear _____________. Strength For rocks, rocks sometimes you may come across the terms Strength ___________________ ______________. Compressive Strength and Tensile F For soils, il such h as sands d or clays, l we focus f on the th _____________. Shear Strength As the name implies, the shear strength of a soil refers to the strength mobilized by the soil under shearing conditions. conditions
Shear Strength of Soils : Different Modes of Strength Testing
Different Modes of Strength Testing

a - a a
a Compressive Testing
- a Tensile Testing
a Isotropic Testing
Do these load conditions result in shearing?
Diff Different tM Modes d of fT Testing ti

a
a b Shear Loading

a
a b Shear Loading

a b n
a b Shear Loading
Shear Strength of Soils : Complex Stress
Complex p Stress
O
Consider a body that is acted upon by external forces Consider an arbitrary point O within the body.
General and Principal Stresses - 1
Shear Strength of Soils : Complex Stress
Complex p Stress
a
a c
b b c
Consider a body that is acted upon by external forces Consider an arbitrary point O within the body. Due to D t the th external t l forces, f th stress the t acting ti on any plane that passes through O is generally inclined to the normal to the plane. Such a stress has both a normal and a tangential component, and is known as a compound, or complex, stress.
Shear Strength of Soils : Principal Planes
Principal p Plane
a
b b n principal plane
At any point O within the body, a plane that is acted stress only is known as a principal upon by a normal ____________ plane. On a principal plane, plane there is no tangential, tangential or _____, shear stress present. three principal planes can For a general body, only _____ exist in a stressed mass.
Shear Strength of Soils : Principal Stress
Principal Stress
The normal stress acting on a principal plane is referred to as a principal stress. At every point in a soil mass, the applied stress system that exists can be resolved into three principal orthogonal stresses that are mutually __________________. These are the major _____ principal stress, 1 the intermediate ___________ principal stress, 2 the minor _____ principal stress, 3 Critical stress values and obliquities generally occur on the two planes normal to the intermediate plan, so th t the that th effects ff t of f 2 can be b ignored. i d Two dimensional solution is possible.
Shear Strength of Soils : General Stress State on Any Plane
General Stress State on Any Plane
Consider the major principal plane, acted upon by the major principal stress 1 , and the minor principal plane acted upon by the minor principal stress 3 . plane, 1 3 n
By considering B id i th equilibrium the ilib i of f the th element l t shown, h it can be shown that on any plane, inclined at an angle of j p principal p p plane, , there is a to the direction of the major shear stress and a normal stress n . The magnitudes of these stresses are :
n = 3 + (1 3 )cos
2
1 3 = sin i 2 2
Shear Strength of Soils : The Mohr Circle Method
The Mohr Circle Method
Mohr Circle
Mohr Circle
1 + 3 1 3 n = + cos 2 2 2
1 3 = sin 2 2
These equations, which provide a complete (in two dimensions) description for the state of stress, describe a circle. This graphical representation of the state of stress is known as the Mohr circle.
1 3 n
SIGN CONVENTION
S Stresses will be considered positive compressive when ___________. is positive when counterclockwise _______________. is measured counterclockwise _______________ from the direction of 1 .
Mohr Circle - 1
Mohr Circle General Plane

1 3 n
Y
D
2
A n
n
B X
1
Mohr Circle - 2
Mohr Circle Failure Plane

1 3 f nf
Y
f
nf
2f
n
B X
1
Mohr Circle - 3
Mohr Circle Maximum Shear Stress

1 3 45 n
Y
D
n 90
n
B X
1
Mohr Circle - 4
Strength Envelopes
Assume is constant.
Mohr strength envelope
n
X
Circle B : Circle A : Circle C :

Mohr Circle - 5
tangential g to the strength g envelope p condition of incipient failure completely within the strength envelope quite stable beyond the strength envelope cannot exist
Relationship p between and f

Y
f
nf f
2f
n
B X
1
A l DCO = 180 2f Angle Angle DOC = A l ODC = 90 Angle Sum of angles in ODC + 90 + 180 2f = 180
Mohr Circle - 6
Hence f = /2 + 45
Shear Strength of Soils : The Mohr Circle Method (Example 1)
Example 1 O a failure On f il plane l in i a purely l frictional f i ti l mass of f dry d sand d the th total t t l stresses at failure were: shear = 3.5 kN/m2 ; normal = 10.0 kN/m2 Determine the resultant stress on the plane of failure, the angle of shearing resistance of the soil, and the angle of inclination of the failure plane to the major principal plane plane. Y
3.5
2f
n
B X
10
Resultant stress = OD =
3.5 2 + 10 2 = 10.6 kN/m2
Angle of shearing resistance : tan = 3.5/10 = 0.35 = 19.3

Mohr Circle - 7
Angle of inclination of failure plane = /2 + 45 = 54.6
Example 2 Gi Given
20 kN/m2
40 kN/m2 B 30 20 kN/m2
3 1 n
B 40 kN/m2
Calculate the stresses on the plane B-B. Solution = 30 Y

10 60 n
10cos 60
2 = 60
n
40
20
Mohr Circle - 8
Normal stress on B-B n = 30 + 10 cos 60 = 35 kN/m2 Shear stress on B-B = 10 sin 60 = 8.7 kN/m2
Example 3 Given
40 kN/m kN/ 2
20 kN/m2 B 30 40 kN/m kN/ 2 - 60 B 20 kN/m2
Calculate the stresses on the plane B-B. Solution = -60 2 = -120 Y
10cos 60
n 20 10 120 40
n
X
Mohr Circle - 9
Normal stress on B-B n = 30 - 10 cos 60 = 25 kN/m2 Shear stress on B-B = -10 sin 60 = -8.7 kN/m2
Shear Strength of Soils : The Mohr Circle Method (Method of Poles)
The Method of Poles for Mohr Circle Solutions
Mohr Circle
Shear Strength of Soils : Method of Poles (Example 1)
Example 1 Given
20 kN/m2
40 kN/m2 B 30 20 kN/m2
B 40 kN/m2
a) Draw the Mohr circle b) Draw line A A-A -A through point (40,0) (40 0) and parallel to plane on which (40,0) acts. c) Intersection of A-A with Mohr circle at point (20,0) (20 0) is the origin of planes, planes OP. d) Draw line B-B through OP parallel to B-B. e) ) Read R d coordinates di t of f point i t X where h B-B B B intersects Mohr circle.
Mohr Circle - 10 Normal
Calculate the stresses on the plane B-B (using the origin of planes or the method of p pole). ) Solution (35, 8.7)
X B A 40
OP
A 20 B
30
60
10cos 60
stress on B-B n = 35 kN/m2
Shear stress = 8.7 kN/m2
Example 2 Given
40 kN/m2
20 kN/m2 B 30 40 kN/m2
B 20 kN/m2
Calculate the stresses on the plane B-B (using the origin of planes or the method of p pole). ) Solution
a) Draw the Mohr circle b) Draw line A A-A -A through point (20,0) (20 0) and parallel to plane on which (20,0) acts. c) Intersection of A-A with Mohr circle at point (40,0) (40 0) is the origin of planes, planes OP. d) Draw line B-B through OP parallel to B-B. e) ) Read R d coordinates di t of f point i t X where h B-B B B intersects Mohr circle.
Mohr Circle - 11
10cos 60
OP B
A 30 40
A 20
60
B B
X (25 -8.7) (25, 8 7)
Normal stress on B-B n = 25 kN/m2
Shear stress = -8.7 kN/m2
Example 3 Given
20 kN/m2
40 kN/m2
60
B 20 kN/m2
40 kN/m2
Calculate the stresses on the horizontal plane B-B (using the origin of planes or the method of pole).
Where is the pole (origin of planes)?
Example 3 Given
40 kN/m2 20 kN/m2
60
B 20 kN/m2
40 kN/m2
a) Draw the Mohr circle b) Draw line A A-A -A through point (40,0) (40 0) and parallel to plane on which (40,0) acts. c) Intersection of A-A with Mohr circle at point Op is the origin of planes. planes d) Draw line B-B through OP parallel to B-B. e) ) Read R d coordinates di t of f point i t X where h B-B B B intersects Mohr circle.
Mohr Circle - 12 Normal
Calculate the stresses on the horizontal plane B-B (using the origin of planes or the method of pole). Solution OP (35, 8.7)
A B X B
20
40
stress on B-B n = 35 kN/m2
Shear stress = 8.7 kN/m2
Example 4 Gi Given
30
40 kN/m kN/ 2 10 kN/m2 B 10 kN/m2 20 kN/m2
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses. Solution

OP
B A
a) Draw the Mohr circle (20 10) (20, b) Draw line A A-A -A through point (20,10) (20 10) and parallel to plane on which (20,10) acts. A 37.5 c) Intersection of A-A with Mohr circle 44.14 15.86 gives the origin of planes, planes OP. B d) Draw line B-B through OP so that it intersects the major principal stress (40, -10) at (44 (44.1, 1 0) 0). e) Measure the angle the line B-B makes with the horizontal = 37.5 52.5 to the horizontal. Mohr Circle - 13 f) The direction of the principal stress =
Shear Strength of Soils : Different Engineering Applications
In fact, fact the shear strength of soils come into play in almost all types of geotechnical loading conditions, even when the shearing mechanism is not obvious ____________________________________________.
slope
potential weak plane caused by soil shearing
mobilised shear strength
Basic Shear Strength - 1
retaining wall
steel struts
retained soil
mobilised shear strength
Load
Pile shaft Qs
Pile base, Qb
Shear Strength of Soils : Drained vs Undrained Strength
The shear strength is one of the key input parameters that the user has to specify p y in order to carry y out a realistic geotechnical analysis. When carrying out a geotechnical analysis, it is important to distinguish between two types of shear strengths for a given soil: _______________ _________________ Strength Drained Strength vs. Undrained
For the same soil, drained and undrained strengths can be significantly different
Shear Strength of Soils : Different Modes of Testing
Within each type of shear strength (either drained or undrained), d i d) there th are different diff t _________ f shear h measures of strength, depending on the strength _______________________ testing equipment _____________. and procedure
direct shear p shear simple triaxial shear
vane test, pocket others (lab penetrometer)
For the same soil tested under drained (or undrained) condition, the shear strengths obtained from direct shear h t t simple tests, i l shear h t t or triaxial tests t i i l tests t t would ld show some variation due to the ________________ different boundary _____________________________________________ and load conditions associated with different test ________. methods In this course, we would cover some of the more common laboratory test methods typically carried out on soils. You will also have some hands-on practice on how th these t t are carried tests i d out t in i the th Experiment E i t G2 lab l b session.
Shear Strength of Soils : Different Modes of Testing
In our lecture, lecture we will cover the following tests:

direct shear test simple shear test triaxial shear test lab vane test torvane test and pocket penetrometer
Experiment G2
Th The key k thing thi about b t these th diff different t methods th d of f shear h strength testing is that we apply an increasing shear continually deform it load to the soil specimen to __________________ until it fails _______________________________. in some predetermined manner There are different ways to apply the shearing load. The most direct method is the _______________. Direct Shear Test .
Shear Strength of Soils : Direct Shear Test
Direct Shear Test

Consider a soil mass
We can load the soil mass such that it deforms as follo s follows:
F F failure shear plane
The value of F required to cause the failure shear plane to develop is used to calculate the shear strength.
Direct Shear Test - 1
Schematic of the Shear Box Apparatus

N V
Oldest strength test? Coulomb probably used something similar Shear box has two halves fixed top half _________ moveable Bottom half _____, Apply normal ______ load N to soil specimen Apply constant rate of horizontal _________________ motion to upper half of shear box Measure T T, and V as the specimen is sheared = T/A, = N/A (where A is the nominal area of the specimen)

N V
Oldest strength test? Coulomb probably used something similar Shear box has two halves fixed top half _________ moveable Bottom half _____, Apply normal ______ load N to soil specimen Apply constant rate of horizontal _______________ motion to upper half of shear box Measure T T, and V as the specimen is sheared = T/A, = N/A (where A is the nominal area of the specimen)

N V

N V
Direct Shear Test

Examples of Laboratory Equipment for Direct Shear Test
square box circular ring box

T
Dense Sand Carry out C tt test tf for, say, th three different diff t values l of f N (N3 > N2 > N1) For each value of N, apply motion to the upper half of shear box and measure T and C l l t = T/A and Calculate d plot l t vs as follows: f ll = T/A
shear strength orresponding to n3 = N3/A shear strength orresponding to n2 = N2/A shear strength orresponding to n1 = N1/A Direct Shear Test - 4 e = constant (dense sand)
3f 2f 1f
n3 = N3/A n2 = N2/A n1 = N1/A
Shear Strength of Soils : Simple Shear Test
Simple Shear Test

Similar to Direct Shear, but instead of rigid box, it uses a series of reinforced membranes, or thin rings, stacked together so that the soil specimen deformed as shown.
multiple shear failure planes
Results in a more _________________ uniform distribution of shear stress throughout the specimen Interpretration of results similar to that of Direct Shear
Shear Strength of Soils : Triaxial Shear Test
Triaxial Shear Test

Three + Axis Triaxial = _________ Tri + Axial = ____________ Loading Applied in All Three Axis Triaxial Loading = _____________________________. Usually carried out on cylindrical soil specimens
y y
z z x
Why do we need x and z ?

In the field, a typical soil element (or particle) is acted upon by stresses from ___________ all directions For ________________ sandy or granular soils, the specimen cannot stand unsupported in the absence of x and z
Triaxial Shear Test - 1
In the field, field x and z are usually equal

v x z v x
Generally, Generally x = z = K _____ o y coefficient of lateral earth pressure (at rest) Ko is the _____________________________________ For normally consolidated clay or loose to medium sand Ko 0.4 ________ 0 4 to 0.6 06 For heavily consolidated clay or very dense sand 1 Ko > __
may be 2 ~ 5 or even higher
Example: p What are the stresses acting on a soil element located 8 m below the ground surface? Assume water table is at the ground surface. Take bulk = 18 kN/m3 and Ko = 0.5. At 8 m below ground, total vertical stress y = 8 m x 18 kN/m3 = 144 kN/m2 pore water pressure u = 8 m x 10 kN/m3 = 80 kN/m2 effective vertical stress y = 144 80 = 64 kN/m2 effective lateral stress x = z = Koy = 0.5 x 64 kN/m2
= 32 kN/m2
total lateral stress x = z = 32 + 80 = 112 kN/m2
Total Stresses 144 kN/m2 112 kN/m2 112 kN/m2 32 kN/m2 Effective Stresses 64 kN/m2 32 kN/m2
Consider two soil elements at different depths of 8m and 16m.
8m
v x v x
16 m
Triaxial Shear Test - 3a
Consider effective stresses from p previous example p

At 8 m depth 64 kN/m2 32 kN/m2 32 kN/m2 64 kN/m2 At 16 m depth (same soil) 128 kN/m2 64 kN/m2
Will the two soil elements (at 8 m depth and at 16 m d th) have depth) h th same shear the h strength? t th? No!! Everything being the same, the soil at the larger shear strength larger depth will have a _____ than the soil at the shallower depth. This is due to the larger stresses, in all three directions, acting on the soil element at larger depth. state of a soil element (due to the Hence, the stress __________ stresses t acting ti on the th element l t in i all ll 3 directions di ti x, y and z) has an important effect on the shear strength.
Consider the soil element subjected to the uniformly distributed load as shown below.
v x
Consider two situations: ( (i) ) the soil response p is undrained, (ii) the soil response is drained.
Triaxial Shear Test - 4a
It is important to incorporate the effect of x and z when carrying out tests to measure shear strength. triaxial shear test allows us to do this. The ___________ In conventional triaxial testing, the soil specimens are cylindrical _________. . The lateral stresses x and z are controlled by applying _____________ water pressure all round the specimen. This is called the ________ confining pressure, or the cell ___ pressure. Because water pressure is __________, hydrostatic the lateral stresses x = z in a triaxial test. Note, however, that, while x = z , the lateral stresses not necessarily equal to the confining x and z are _____________ pressure applied p pp by y the water. You will understand why a bit later!
Triaxial Shear Test
Triaxial Shear Test
water
B
Isotropic Compression Phase

Note the two valves present in the setup Bottom right: for controlling the cell water pressure (A) Bottom left: for controlling the inflow and outflow of water into the soil specimen (B) p is p placed in the cell and everything y g After the specimen is set up, water is allowed to flow into and completely fill the cell via the cell water pressure valve (A). The cell water pressure is adjusted to a value based on the test requirement. By y doing g this, , the soil specimen p is subjected j to an _________________________ all-round confining pressure equal to the cell water pressure. At this point, point the soil is not ______________ subjected to shear loading yet. It is experiencing ________ isotropic loading. If the soil specimen contains pore water, ___________ excess pore water pressure will be generated as a result of the _____________ hydrostatic loading.
Isotropic Compression Phase

By opening or closing the porewater valve B (bottom left side), you can choose whether to let the excess porewater pressure under hydrostatic loading dissipate:
If valve B is open, p water can flow out: excess porewater p pressure can dissipate, hence ____________ consolidation occurs. If valve B is closed, water cannot flow out: excess porewater p pressure cannot dissipate, no ____________ consolidation occurs. We call this an ______________ unconsolidated specimen.
Note that if your soil specimen is a fine-grained material longer for the consolidation to like clay, it may take ______ occur under the isotropic loading. (could be 24 hours
or longer)
Shear Loading Phase

To apply shear loading, you move the loading piston either down ( (or up) p) so that the soil specimen p is subjected to ______________________ an increase (or decrease) in axial load. It looks like you are introducing just a compressive or a tensile loading onto the soil specimen. However, it can be shown that, besides the compressive or tensile component, there is now a _____ component, t due d to t shear h
x = z y
This is how we subject the soil specimen to a shear g in a triaxial test. loading
Shear Loading Phase

Note that, during the shear loading, the pore-water valve B can be either open or closed. If the valve is open, then water can _______________ flow in or out of the specimen. The specimen response will be drained ______ . flow in or out If the valve is closed, then water cannot _________________ of the specimen. The specimen response will be undrained . _________ In this way, we can conduct triaxial tests to study both p of soils. the drained and undrained response Triaxial test is more involved and complicated than the direct shear shear, but also much more versatile
The Use of Back-Pressure in Triaxial Testing

backpressure helps to raise the saturation level to close to 100% _____ without backpressure, may be difficult to attain degree of saturation close to 100%, , as dissolved air may come out of solution
Example: p cell pressure cell = 100 kPa, backpressure u = 60 kPa, If sample allowed to consolidate under cell pressure, then effective stress after consolidation is: v = h = cell u = 10060 = 40 kPa If the required v = h value after consolidation is 80 kPa, and if we maintain the backpressure at u = 60 kPa, kPa then the required cell pressure is cell = v + u = 80 + 60 kPa = 140 kPa
cell pressure
pore pressure = backpressure u
cell pressure
cell
A B
water here is ___________ pressurized known as backpressure u hence the porewater pressure in the soil sample = backpressure u
Classification of Triaxial Tests according to Drainage Conditions

Before Shear
Due ue to isotropic sot op c cell pressure loading
Valve B
During Shear Valve B Symbol
Unconsolidated Closed Consolidated Consolidated

Open Open
Undrained Undrained Drained
Closed Closed Open
UU CU CD
In experiment G2, we will be doing the _______. UU test
In experiment G2:
F
Set the machine so that the piston moves down slowly and compresses the soil specimen at a constant rate. Measure the load F that the piston is applying on the soil specimen
A
cell
Measure the compression of the soil specimen Process the results following the method described in the manual to obtain the stressstrain curve of the form stress
Some further interpretation of the results to be carried out using Mohrs circle approach.
strain
Shear Strength of Soils : Other Shear Strength Tests
Other Shear Strength Tests Quite easy and quick to use Useful for providing quick (but rough) estimates of undrained shear strengths Not as Versatile or Accurate as the Triaxial Test
Other Shear Strength Tests - 1
Shear Strength of Soils : Lab Vane Shear Test
Lab Vane Shear Test
Shear Strength of Soils : Lab Vane Shear Test
Lab Vane Shear Test
Blade or Spindle
Shear Strength of Soils : Torvane
Torvane
Shear Strength of Soils : Miniature Cone Penetrometer
Miniature Cone Penetrometer
Shear Strength of Soils : Pocket Penetrometer
Pocket Penetrometer
Shear Strength of Soils : Stress Dependency
When Do We Mobilize the Strength g of a Material?
So far, we have looked at the stress-strain response of typical soils. The concept of strength has been discussed in relation to the stress-strain stress strain response. response We have looked at strength g in terms of the strain required to mobilize it. The stress-strain stress strain response, response however, however does not tell the complete picture of stresses that It does not tell us the combination _____________________ will result in the strength being mobilized.
Strength Concepts Overview - 1
Shear Strength of Soils : Stress Dependency
When Do We Mobilize the Strength g of a Material?

30 kPa kP
A B C
The stress-strain response, by itself, does not tell us which hi h of f the th three th points, i t A, A B or C, C is i likely lik l to t have h the strength of 30 kPa shown. To estimate the strength at a point, we need to know the stress combination acting at that point, and how it affects the shear strength. This is known as the ______________. failure criterion
Strength Concepts Overview - 2
Shear Strength of Soils : Shear Strength
SHEAR STRENGTH
The property that enables a material to remain in equilibrium when its not level is known as its surface is ________ shear strength.
Think of water _____, which cannot come to a state of equilibrium when its surface is not level. level It has no shear strength!
Shear Strength Concepts - 1
Shear Strength of Soils : Shear Strength
SHEAR STRENGTH
A soil mass derives a large part of its shear strength from frictional _________________: resistance :

relative sliding between particles _____________ interlocking between particles ___________
Shear Strength of Soils : Friction Concepts
F i ti Friction
W H W H H R W
R (b) Horizontal Force Applied block stationary W = R cos H = R sin = angle of obliquity
(a) No Horizontal Force Applied block stationary R=W

(b) Horizontal Force Applied sliding is imminent W = R cos H = R sin = angle of friction
when only achieves the value of __ sliding occurs. Frictional F i ti l resistance i t i not is t constant t t and d varies with the applied load until movement occurs. occurs The term tan is known as the coefficient _________ _________. of friction where N is the H' H' = normal l reaction ti due d Note that tan = W to the weight W N Hence the friction angle is related to the ratio of the normal force N to the horizontal force H. H
Let H = f A Let N = n A
where h f is i the th shear h stress t acting ti on the th contact surface when = and A is the area of contact where n is the normal stress and A is the area of contact
f f A = tan = n n A
Hence the tangent of the friction angle can also b thought be th ht of f as the th ratio ti of f the th shear h stress t t to the normal stress (when sliding is imminent). In soil mechanics, when the ratio of the shear stress to the normal stress reaches the value of tan , we say that the soil element has yielded. yielded
Shear Strength of Soils : The Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
The Mohr-Coulomb Mohr Coulomb Failure Criterion

Otto Mohr (1835 1918): German civil engineer
Mohr Circle (1882) Early theory of strength
Charles Augustin De Co Coulomb lomb (1736 1806) : French F h physicist h i i t

Coulombs law: Charge 1/r2
Military engineer
Friction Shear strength of soils
Mohr Coulomb - 1
The Mohr Mohr-Coulomb Coulomb Failure Criterion

Mohrs failure criterion Materials fail when the ___________ shear stress on the failure plane at failure reaches some unique function of the ____________ plane. normal stress on that p
ff = f(ff)
= shear h stress t = normal stress
1st subscript p f refers to the plane p on which the stress acts, i.e., the failure plane 2nd subscript f refers to at failure
ff = shear strength of the material
Note that Mohr does not explicitly p y say y anything y g about friction angle.
Mohr Coulomb - 2
The Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion

Mohrs failure criterion Materials fail when the shear stress on the failure plane at failure reaches some unique function of the normal stress on that plane.
A(ff , ff) B(ff , ff) 1f
1f 3f ff ff 1f 3f element A
ff = f(ff)
3f
ff ff 1f
3f element B
Mohr Coulomb - 3
How to Obtain the Mohr Failure Envelope

Say we carry out a test to fail a soil element
we know the principal stress or the stress state on specific planes at failure Plot the Mohr circle to represent the state of stress for this element
Repeat tests to obtain failure for other ___________. stress states Plot Mohr circles for these other stress states. Draw a line _______ tangent to the Mohr circles circles. This line is the Failure Envelope. ff = f(ff)
1f 3f ff ff 1f 3f
3f
Mohr Coulomb - 4
1f
The failure envelope expresses the functional relationship b t between the th shear h stress t ff and d the th normal l stress t ff at t failure. Failure occurs only when the combination of shear and tangent to the normal stress is such that the Mohr circle is _______ Mohr failure envelope. Circle A lies below the Mohr failure envelope element with such a stress state is stable _____. P Part t of f Ci Circle l B lies li above b the th Mohr M h failure f il envelope l such ha cannot exist Material would ___ fail before stress state ___________. reaching this stage of stress. ff = f(ff) B A
Mohr Coulomb - 5
Point _______________ of tangency of a circle with the failure envelope gives the stress conditions on the failure plane at failure. Using the pole method, we can determine the angle of the plane f associated with the point of tangency. tangency
Mohrs failure hypothesis The point of f tangency ( (of f the Mohr circle with the failure f envelope) defines the angle _____________________ of the failure plane in the element or the test specimen specimen.
ff = f(ff)
3f 1f ff ff 1f f
Op Mohr Coulomb - 6
f 3f
In soil mechanics, we commonly draw only the top half of th Mohr the M h circle. i l bottom half Hence, there is a __________ bottom half failure There is a __________. envelope envelope. According to Mohrs failure hypothesis, it is equally likely -f . that a failure plane will form at an angle of ___ ff = f(ff)
3f 1f
Op
1f
f 3f
f f
Mohr Coulomb - 7
The Coulombs Equation q

Involved in design of military works such as revetments and fortress walls. At that time, design mainly by rule of thumb hence, many structures failed. Coulomb carried out experiments to determine the shear _____ resistance of soils ________________. He observed that there was
a stress-independent _________________ component of shear strength a stress _______________ stress-dependent dependent component of shear strength
Stress-dependent _______________ component similar to sliding friction in solids. solids Coulomb called this the _________________ angle of internal friction () _________. _________________ component seemed to be related Stress-independent cohesion (c) of the material. to the intrinsic ___________
Mohr Coulomb - 8
Shear Strength of Soils : The Coulombs Equation
The Coulomb Coulombs s Equation

Coulombs equation is f = tan + c f is the shear strength g of the soil is the applied normal stress and c are the strength parameters of the soil. This relationship gives a straight line. line nor __ Neither __ soil. c are inherent properties of the soil They are dependent on the conditions operative in the test test.
Mohr Coulomb - 9
The Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion

Reasonable to combine the Coulomb equation with the Mohr failure criterion.
Approximate Mohr failure envelope by a ____________ straight line Equation for that line in terms of the Coulomb strength parameters ( and c) can be written
Mohr Mohr-Coulomb Coulomb Criterion
ff = ff tan + c
Mohr Coulomb - 10
Relationship between f and

From earlier slide
f = 45 + 2
where f is the failure angle measured relative to the plane of the major principal stress
Mohr Coulomb - 11
Shear Strength of Soils : Factor of Safety
Factor of Safety y( (F.S.) ) in the Shear Strength g

Consider a soil element subjected to principal stresses less than the stresses required to cause failure ________
ff = f(ff)
3 =3f
f
1 1f
ff
Note that, if we know , then we know the potential failure plane even if the soil element p has not failed yet. f = 45 + 2
f is the mobilized shear resistance on the potential failure plane ff is the shear strength available (shear stress on the failure plane at failure) ) when 3 is kept p constant.
Mohr Coulomb - 12
ff (available) Factor of Safety (F.S.) = f (applied )

Consider a soil element subjected to principal stresses less than the stresses required to cause failure ________
ff = f(ff)
3 =3f
f
1 1f
ff
Note that, if we know , then we know the potential failure plane even if the soil element p has not failed yet. f = 45 + 2
f is the mobilized shear resistance on the potential failure plane ff is the shear strength available (shear stress on the failure plane at failure) ) when 3 is kept p constant.
Mohr Coulomb - 12
3f > 3 If the minor principal stress changes, so that _______

ff = f(ff)
ff
3 f
f
1 3f
1f
f is the mobilized shear resistance on the potential failure plane ff is the shear strength available (shear stress on the failure plane at failure) ) when 3f > 3
Mohr Coulomb - 13
Shear Strength of Soils : Shear Strength Independent of Normal Stress
Shear Strength g Independent p of Normal Stress

Mohr failure envelope is _________ horizontal = __ 0
=0
f
45 f
purely p y cohesive Such materials sometimes described as ______________ Valid for special (laboratory testing) conditions 45 plane Failure theoretically theoretically occurs on the ___ (1f - 3f)/2 and the normal stress Shear strength is f = __________ (1f + 3f)/2 on the th theoretical th ti l failure f il plane l at t failure f il is i __________
Mohr Coulomb - 14
Shear Strength of Soils : Mohr Coulomb Criterion in Terms of Principal Stresses
Mohr-Coulomb Criterion in Terms of Principal Stress
ff
R c cot c 3f D ff 2f 1f f 3f 1f
1f 3f 2
1f
3f
1f 3f 2 sin = R/D sin = 1f + 3f + c cot 2 1f 3f 1f 1 + sin i or = If c = 0, then sin = 3f 1 sin 1f + 3f

Alternatively
Mohr Coulomb - 15
1f + 3f 2
1f 2 = tan 45 + and 3f 2
3f = tan 2 45 1f 2
Shear Strength of Soils : Mohr Coulomb Criterion in Terms of Principal Stresses
Mohr-Coulomb Criterion in Terms of Principal p Stress
ff
R c cot c 3f D ff 2f 1f 3f 1f f 3f
1f 3f 2
1f
1f + 3f 2
If c 0, 0 then
1 + sin 1f + c cot 2 = = tan + 1 - sin 2 3f + c cot 4
Mohr Coulomb - 16
Shear Strength of Soils : Mohr Circle Application to Soil Mechanics
How do concepts from Mohr Circle apply to Soil Mechanics?

In the field, a typical soil element (or particle) is acted upon by stresses from ___________ all directions
v x z v x
Generally, x = z = Ko y coefficient of lateral earth pressure (at rest) Ko is the _____________________________________ For normally consolidated clay or loose to medium sand Ko 0.4 to 0.6 For heavily consolidated clay or very dense sand
Mohr Coulomb - 17
Ko > 1
may be 2 ~ 5 or even higher
Example: What are the stresses acting on a soil element located 8 m below the ground surface? Assume water table is at the 3 ground surface. surface Take bulk 05 b lk = 18 kN/m and Ko = 0.5. At 8 m below ground, / 2 total vertical stress y = 8 m x 18 kN/m3 = 144 kN/m pore water pressure u = 8 m x 10 kN/m3 = 80 kN/m2 effective vertical stress y = 144 80 = 64 kN/m2 effective lateral stress x = z = Koy = 0.5 x 64 kN/m2
= 32 kN/m2
total lateral stress x = z = 32 + 80 = 112 kN/m2
Total Stresses 144 kN/m2 112 kN/m2 112 kN/m2 32 kN/m2 Effective Stresses 64 kN/m2 32 kN/m2
Mohr Coulomb - 18
Shear Strength of Soils : Mohr Circle Application to Soil Mechanics Total T t l Stresses St 144 kN/m2 112 kN/m2 112 kN/m2 32 kN/m2 Effective Eff i Stresses S 64 kN/m2 32 kN/m2
Can you plot the Mohr circles corresponding to the total and effective stresses? (kPa)
Effective Stresses
u = 80 kPa Total Stresses
32
Mohr Coulomb - 19
64
112
144
(kPa)
Consider the effective stress. If the failure envelope is as shown on the plot, what can you say about the soil state? Has it failed?
failure envelope
(kPa)
STABLE! Not failed yet!

32 effective stresses 64
(kPa)
Mohr Coulomb - 20
Assuming the lateral (or horizontal stress) remains constant, by how much should the vertical stress be increased to cause the soil element to fail?
(kPa)
failure envelope
Mohr circle at failure

32 known
Mohr Coulomb - 21
y
64 can calculate this?
(kPa)
Shear Strength of Soils : Mohr Coulomb Criterion in terms of Principal Stresses

1f 3f 1f
ff
R c cot c 3f D ff 2f
f 3f
1f 3f 2
1f
1f 3f 2 sin = R/D sin = 1f + 3f + c cot 2 1f 3f 1f 1 + sin i or = If c = 0, then sin = 3f 1 sin 1f + 3f

Alternatively
Mohr Coulomb - 15
1f + 3f 2
1f 2 = tan 45 + and 3f 2
3f = tan 2 45 1f 2
Shear Strength of Soils : Shear Strength Tests for Soil
Shear Strength Tests for Soil In trying to understand shear strength concepts for soil, it is important to note that
A typical soil element in the ground is subjected to stresses _______________________ from all directions , including shear stresses. When studying the shear strength of soil, we have to consider the stresses acting on the soil, that is the stress state of the soil. , at different depths p Different stress states, or different locations, can result in ________ shear strengths. different Shear strengths at A A, B B, C and D are likely to be ________. different v h v h
A B C D
Shear Strength Testing - 2
In trying y g to understand shear strength g concepts p for soil, it is important to note that
effect of water or pore We also have to consider the _____________, pressure. We have to consider if the soil behaviour is _______ drained or _________. undrained drained strength strength vs undrained undrained strength strength effective stress vs _____ total stress ________ v u h u h v u
v h u v h
Hence, shear strength tests for soils should incorporate, to some extent, , the stresses acting on the soil from different directions the effect of pore water and whether it leads to drained or undrained behaviour
Shear Strength Tests for Soil

Some of the more common tests for determining the shearing strength of soils: Direct Shear Test Triaxial Test Hollow Cylinder Test Plane Strain Test True Triaxial Test Vane Shear Test Cone C P Penetrometer t t T Test t Standard Penetration Test Pressuremeter Test
Laboratory Tests
In Situ Tests (in the natural or original position or place)
Shear Strength of Soils : The Direct Shear Test
Direct Shear Test

N V
soil T
Direct Shear Test

Examples of Laboratory Equipment for Direct Shear Test
Direct Shear Test on Dense Sand

N V
T
Dense Sand = T/A
e = constant (dense sand) 14 11 7
14 X X X
n3 > n2 > n1
- plot (test results)
n3 = N3/A n2 = N2/A n1 = N1/A
11 7
n1
n2
n3
Mohr diagram
Key Points of the Direct Shear Test

horizontal with this apparatus The failure p plane is forced to be _________ pp principal plane (no shear stress). Initially, before test, horizontal plane is a ________ After shearing stress is applied, the horizontal plane cannot ______ be a principal plane. At failure, the horizontal plane is not ___ a principal plane. Rotation of the principal planes must occur in the direct shear test. ________ test If we want to obtain the principal stresses at failure, we will have to Mohr Coulomb failure envelope infer from the ___________________________. slope p of the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope p affects the angle g of The _____ rotation of the principal planes.
Shear Strength of Soils : The Direct Shear Test Example Problem
Example
Th initial The i iti l and d failure f il conditions diti in i a direct di t shear h test t t are shown h below. b l n = 1o
principal planes at failure
ff h
h = Ko 1o = 3o (i) initial conditions (ii) at failure
Plot the Mohr circles for both initial conditions and at failure. Find the principal i i l stresses t at t failure f il and d their th i angles l of f rotation t ti at t failure. f il
Solution
i iti l initial
f il failure pole p
pole
ff 1o 3f 3f ff = n 1f
3o
1f
Example p
A direct shear test is run on a medium dense sandy silt, with the normal stress n = 65 kPa, Ko = 0.5. At failure, the normal stress is still 65 kPa and the shear stress is 41 kPa. Draw the Mohr circles for the initial conditions and at failure and determine: (a) The principal stresses at failure (b) The orientation of the failure plane (c) The orientation of the major principal plane at failure (d) ( ) The orientation of the p plane of maximum shear stress at failure.
n = 1o = 65 kPa h = Ko 1o = 0.5 x 65 = 32.5 32 5 kP kPa
n = 65 kPa ff = 41 kPa
h (ii) at failure
(i) initial conditions

(i) Draw the Mohr circle for initial condition with 1 = 65 __ kPa, and 3 = 0.5 x 65 __ = ____ 32.5 kPa (ii) Locate the failure point ff = 65 __ kPa, and ff = 41 __ kPa. In the absence of other information, the line drawn from this failure point to the origin represents the ______________. failure envelope (iii) The angle of friction is obtained as tan = _____, __. 41/65 hence = 32 (iv) From the failure point (65, 41), draw a line perpendicular to the failure envelope to meet the axis. The point of intersection is the ______ centre of the Mohr circle associated with that state of failure. (v) Draw the Mohr circle for the failure state. The principal stresses at failure are obtained as 1f = 139 ___ kPa, kPa and 3f = 43 __ kPa. kPa (vi) The failure plane is horizontal _________ (forced to be so in the direct shear test). (vii) Locate the pole P. ( iii) From (viii) F the th pole l P, P draw d a line li to t the th major j principal i i l stress. t Thi line This li represents t the th 60.5 to the orientation of the major __________________. principal plane Hence the orientation is about ____ horizontal. (ix) ( ) From the p pole P, , draw a line to the point p of maximum shear stress. Hence the orientation of the plane of max. shear stress is about 16 __ to the horizontal.
ff = 41
16
= 32
32.5
43
65
139 60.5
Shear Strength of Soils : Advantages / Disadvantages of The Direct Shear Test
Advantages of the Direct Shear Test

Inexpensive Fast Simple drained condition granular materials _______ Works well for g
Disadvantages of the Direct Shear Test

drainage very difficult to perform for ______ clayey soils Difficult to control ________ Failure F il plane l forced f d to t occur in i the th horizontal h i t l direction di ti may not tb be weakest direction, or the same critical direction as occurs in the the ________ field. concentrations at the sample boundaries, which may Serious stress _____________ non-uniform stress conditions within the test specimen. lead to highly ___________ Uncontrolled U t ll d rotation ___________ t ti of f the th principal i i l planes l and d stresses. t
Shear Strength of Soils : The Triaxial Test
Triaxial Test
Direct shear test popular in the early days of soil mechanics About 1930, Arthur Casagrande at M.I.T. began research on cylindrical compression tests in an attempt to overcome some of the serious disadvantages g of the direct shear test. Nowadays, such tests, called triaxial tests, are the more p popular p of the two. Based on the principle in which a cylindrical compressed p specimen p of soil is either ___________ or extended ________ Not immediately obvious, but compressing or shear stresses extending g a soil specimen p can lead to _____________ failure and shear ___________.
Triaxial Test - 1
Shear Strength of Soils : The Triaxial Test
Triaxial Test
cell pressure
cell pressure
Triaxial Test - 2
Shear Strength of Soils : Versatility of The Triaxial Test
Versatility y of the Triaxial Test

Much more complicated than the direct shear, but also much more versatile Drainage D i of f pore water t can b be controlled t ll d quite it well ll can turn off drainage to examine undrained _________ behaviour can allow drainage to study drained _______ behaviour The p pore pressure p u can also be controlled. The principal stresses 1 and 3 can be controlled usually y 1 is the vertical ______ stress and 3 is horizontal (or confining) stress the _________ in most triaxial tests, the orientations of the principal stresses do not change however, if required, triaxial testing allows us to rotate principal planes in a controlled manner, e.g. triaxial compression ___________ vs triaxial extension ________ Triaxial Test - 3
Shear Strength of Soils : Stresses in Triaxial Specimens
Stresses in triaxial specimens p

r
F = Deviator load
(due to piston moving up or down)
r = Radial stress (cell pressure) = c

deviator stress
a = Axial A i l stress t
From equilibrium we have axial stress
Triaxial Test - 3
a = r
F + A
area of cylindrical cross-section
Stresses in triaxial specimens

F/A is known as the deviator stress, and is given the symbol q
q = ( a r ) = (1 3 )
total stresses
The axial and radial stresses are principal stresses Note that a , r or 1 , 3 are total stresses In terms of effective stresses stresses,
q = ('a + u) ('r + u) = ('1 + u) ('3 + u)
= 'a 'r = '1 '3

Triaxial Test - 3
effective stresses
S Stresses in i triaxial i i l specimens i

Increasing cell pressure c while keeping q = 0 will result in volumetric compression p if the soil is free to drain. The effective stresses will increase and so will the strength. increasing pore water pressure if soil volume is constant (that is, undrained). As the effective stresses cannot change, it follows that u = c
___________ failure Increasing q is required to cause failure.
Triaxial Test - 3
Shear Strength of Soils : Triaxial Compression
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION
downward load applied to move ram downwards
During test
1 = axial
axial = q cell
cell is i maintained i t i d constant ________ t t if _______________, stress-controlled axial is increased at a certain rate and the downward movement of the piston is measured if strain-controlled ______________, the piston is programmed to move downward at a certain rate and axial is measured in either case,
cell = 2 = 3
axial = 1 - 3 = q
principal stress difference
axial + cell axial = 1 = = q + cell axial > cell

TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION compressed specimen is ___________
Triaxial Test - 4
Shear Strength of Soils : Triaxial Extension
TRIAXIAL EXTENSION
upward load applied to move ram upwards
During test cell is maintained constant

3 = axial
axial = q cell
if stress-controlled, axial due to upward ram load is increased at a certain rate and the upward movement of the piston is measured if strain-controlled, the piston is programmed to move upward at a certain rate and axial is measured in either case,
cell = 1
axial = 1 - 3 = q
axial = 3 = cell - axial = cell q axial < cell

TRIAXIAL EXTENSION specimen is ________ extended
Triaxial Test - 5
Shear Strength of Soils : Strains in Triaxial Specimens
Strains in triaxial specimens

From the measurements of change in height, dh, and change in volume dV we can determine Axial strain
a dh = h0 dV V0
a is +ve for shortening V is +ve for volume reduction
Volume strain V =
where h0 is the initial height and V0 is the initial volume It is assumed that the specimens deform as right circular cylinders. The cross-sectional area, A, can then be determined from
1 + A = Ao 1 + dV 1 - v V0 = Ao dh 1 a h0
Triaxial Test - 3
Shear Strength of Soils : Triaxial Compression vs Triaxial Extension
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION vs TRIAXIAL EXTENSION

Triaxial compression and extension tests typically yield ________ slightly ______________ different values of shear strengths. Example : Slip Plane associated with Bearing Capacity Failure
1 = v 3 = h slip or failure plane v > h triaxial compression direct shear 3 = v 1 = h
h > v triaxial extension
Shear strength applicable to different parts of the slip plane vary, vary depending on whether the dominant mode of failure deformation is (i) ___________, (ii) extension _________ or (iii) direct __________. shear compression
In practice, I ti engineers i usually ll use only l the th shear h strength t th obtained bt i d from f triaxial compression tests. __________________ Triaxial _______________ extension tests not commonly done. Triaxial Test - 6
Shear Strength of Soils : Classification of Triaxial Tests
Classification Cl ifi ti of fT Triaxial i i l Tests T t according to Drainage Conditions
Before Shear Unconsolidated Consolidated Consolidated
After Shear Undrained Undrained Drained
Symbol UU CU CD
Triaxial Test - 8
Shear Strength of Soils : Classification of Triaxial Tests
Types ypes o of t triaxial a a test

There are many test variations. Those used most in practice are: UU (unconsolidated undrained) test.
Cell pressure cell applied without allowing drainage. Hence, no consolidation of soil is p permitted. Then keeping p g cell p pressure constant, increase deviator load q to failure without drainage.
CIU (isotropically consolidated undrained) test test.

Drainage allowed during cell pressure application. Soil is given time to fully y consolidate under cell pressure. p After consolidation, , drainage valve is closed. Then without allowing further drainage, increase q keeping r or cell constant as for UU test.
CID (isotropically consolidated drained) test

Similar to CIU except that that, in the final shearing stage stage, as deviator stress q is increased, drainage is permitted.
Triaxial Test - 8
Shear Strength of Soils : Unconsolidated-Undrained (UU) Test
Unconsolidated-Undrained (UU) Test

l d throughout no flow fl of f water t closed Drainage D i valves l ______ th h t test t t ______________ in and out of the specimen. No backpressure applied. consolidation . Applied pp confining g pressure p does not cause any y ____________ Pore water pressure not measured. effective stresses in the soil.) Specimen sheared undrained _____ Quick test specimen sheared to failure in 10 to 20 mins
(no change to existing
Shear Strength of Soils : Unconsolidated-Undrained (UU) Test
Unconsolidated-Undrained (UU) Test

l d throughout no flow fl of f water t closed Drainage D i valves l ______ th h t test t t ______________ in and out of the specimen. No backpressure applied. consolidation . Applied pp confining g pressure p does not cause any y ____________ Pore water pressure not measured. effective stresses in the soil.) Specimen sheared undrained _____ Quick test specimen sheared to failure in 10 to 20 mins
Given two specimens of a certain Clay A Specimen 1 : confining (cell) pressure = 50 kPa principal stress difference at failure = 70 kPa Specimen 2 : confining (cell) pressure = 100 kPa principal stress difference at failure = 70 kPa
(no change to existing
Example :
f = 35 kPa kP
=0
50
100 120
170
Note : because no consolidation takes place, the confining pressure has no effect on the effective stresses; the undrained strength f is _________________ the same (in theory) for all Clay A specimens tested in UU. Triaxial Test - 9
Shear Strength of Soils : Consolidated-Undrained (CU) Test
Consolidated-Undrained Consolidated Undrained (CU) Test

Drainage g valves opened p initially y to allow the consolidate under the cell soil specimen to __________ pressure. p Backpressure may be used to help attain degree of saturation ~ 100% After specimen has consolidated, _____ close the drainage valve. Specimen sheared undrained undrained. pore water pressures developed Excess _________________________ p during shear are measured.
Triaxial Test - 10
Shear Strength of Soils : Consolidated-Undrained (CU) Test Example
Example
A series of undisturbed samples from a normally consolidated clay was subjected to consolidated undrained tests. Cell pressure (kPa) 200 400 600 Principal stress difference at failure (kPa) 118 240 352 Excess pore water pressure at failure (kPa) 110 220 320
Plot the strength envelope of the soil (a) with respect to total stresses, and (b) with respect to effective stresses.
Assume the given cell pressures are net or effective values, i.e., the back pressure u, if any any, has already been subtracted. subtracted
Triaxial Test - 11
Solution
given
cell pressure cell = 3 (kPa) 200 400 600
given
principal stress difference at failure , kPa 118 240 352
calculated
1 at failure = cell + , kPa 318 640 952
given
u at failure kPa 110 220 320
calculated
3' = 3 - u (kPa) 90 180 280
calculated
1' = 1 - u (kPa) 208 420 632
Triaxial Test - 12
Solution
given
cell pressure cell = 3 (kPa) 200 400 600
given
principal stress difference at failure , kPa 118 240 352
calculated
1 at failure = cell + , kPa 318 640 952
given
u at failure kPa 110 220 320
calculated
3' = 3 - u (kPa) 90 180 280
calculated
1' = 1 - u (kPa) 208 420 632
(kPa) (kP )
200
318 400
600 640
952
(kPa)
is the total stress friction angle. is the effective stress friction angle angle. The values of and can be obtained by direct measurement.
Triaxial Test - 12
1f 3f Alternatively, can use the formula sin = 1f + 3f

For the Mohr stress circles created when the cell pressure, cell = 3 = 200 kPa
1f 3f 318 200 = sin = = 0.228 = 13.2 1f + 3f 318 + 200

'1f '3f 208 90 = sin ' = = 0.396 = 23.3 208 + 90 '1f + '3f
Only valid when both failure envelopes pass through _________. the origin
Triaxial Test - 13
Shear Strength of Soils : Pore Pressure Parameters
Pore Pressure Parameters

In triaxial strength testing, there are two important pore pressure parameters t commonly l used: d th the ________________. A and d B parameters t The A parameter
u A= (1 3 )
change in pore water pressure applied deviator stress
Stress ratio Relates the increase ( (or decrease) ) in pore water pressure to the applied deviator stress 1 3 (shearing) The A-parameter varies with ____________, different soils as well as the ___________________________________. magnitude of the applied deviator stress At failure
Pore Pressure Parameters 1
u f Af = (1 3 )f
Shear Strength of Soils : Overconsolidation Ratio
OVERCONSOLIDATION RATIO
The overconsolidation ratio of a clay is computed as OCR =

maximum effective stress experienced by the soil in its history existing effective stress currently experienced by the soil
'max = ' v
p 'c = 'v
where p pc = preconsolidation pressure
A normally consolidated clay is one in which the existing ____________________ effective stress is the maximum that it has ever experienced in its history. 1 A normally consolidated clay is has OCR = __
Overconsolidation Ratio OCR - 1

A-parameter also varies with the stress history of the soil value can be positive or negative when shearing loose sand or normally consolidated clays clays, _______ positive pore pressures develop, hence A-parameter is _______. positive . when shearing dense sand or highly overconsolidated clays _____________________________ clays, smaller positive or even negative pore pressures develop, hence A-parameter ____________________ decreases to smaller or g even negative ____________ values. Empirical relation between Af (at failure) and OCR was presented by Bishop and Henkel in 1962 (see next slide) slide).
Empirical correlation of A-Parameter and OCR

The B parameter Stress ratio
u B= c
change in pore water pressure change in cell pressure
Relates the increase (or decrease) in pore water pressure to the change in applied cell pressure c (isotropic compression) If B = 1, soil is _____________. fully saturated If B = 0, 0 soil il i is ___. dry Used in the consolidation stage of CU test as an indicator of the degree of saturation. Difficult to obtain B = 1 during saturation stage of CU test; in most cases, we require B to be at least ____. 0.95
Recall Previous Example

A series of undisturbed samples from a normally consolidated clay was subjected to consolidated undrained tests. Cell pressure (kPa) 200 400 600
cell pressure cell = 3 (kPa) (kP ) 200 400 600 , kPa at t failure f il kP 118 240 352
Principal stress difference at failure (kPa) 118 240 352

principal stress difference 1 at failure , kPa = cell + kP 318 640 952
Excess pore water pressure at failure (kPa) 110 220 320

u at failure kP kPa 110 220 320 Af-parameter = uf / 1
Recall Previous Example

A series of undisturbed samples from a normally consolidated clay was subjected to consolidated undrained tests. Cell pressure (kPa) 200 400 600
cell pressure cell = 3 (kPa) (kP ) 200 400 600 , kPa at t failure f il kP 118 240 352
Principal stress difference at failure (kPa) 118 240 352

principal stress difference 1 at failure , kPa = cell + kP 318 640 952
Excess pore water pressure at failure (kPa) 110 220 320

u at failure kP kPa 110 220 320 Af-parameter = uf / 1 0.93 0.92 0.91
Shear Strength of Soils : Consolidated-Drained (CD) Test
Consolidated-Drained Consolidated Drained (CD) Test

Drainage valves opened initially to allow the soil specimen to consolidate __________ under the cell pressure. Backpressure may be used to help attain degree of saturation ~ 100% After specimen has consolidated, leave the drainage valve open ____. (water can freely flow in or out) Specimen sheared drained. excess pore water pressures develop during shear No ____________________________ shear. Typically carried out for granular ______________ (sandy) materials. If carried out on clays/silts, have to apply the load very slowly ______ (to allow drainage from the clay specimens) so as to minimize the excess pore pressures generated. Usually not carried out for clays/silts as it takes too long. CD - 1
What do we g get get g out of Consolidated-Drained ( (CD) ) Tests? Drained strength(s) Stress-strain curve(s) Drained or effective stress friction angle
(direct) (direct) (postprocess)
( (postprocess) t ) Drained D i d or effective ff ti stress t failure f il envelope l
Usually have to perform _____________ more than one test (at diff different t cell ll pressure) ) in i order d to t obtain bt i friction f i ti angle and failure envelope If only l one test t t is i performed, f d then th we have h to t assume
material has no cohesion failure envelope is a straight line
in order i d to t derive d i the th friction f i ti angle l and d the th failure envelope

CD - 2
Mohr Circle and Stress-Strain Curve for a CD Test

axial cell
At Start of Test
1 = axial
1 = 3 = cell
During Test
cell = 2 = 3
axial = 1 - 3
axial increases 1 increases cell remains constant Mohr circle expands with 3 fixed Note corresponding point on stress-strain curve
= (1 - 2)/2
strength
D C B A
final Mohr circle corresponding to failure

D C B A
major principal stress Start of test at failure CD - 3 Before applying axial load
If we carry out several CD tests at different confining pressures c =

(1 - 2)/2
strength for cell = c-C strength for cell = c-B strength for cell = c-A
c-A
c-B c-C c c-D D
CD - 4
We get three different strengths for three different cell Strength of the soil depends on the value of cell ll used in the test cell = confining stress Hence, when discussing the strength of sands (or materials that exhibit drained response) response), it is important to know the confining stress Say, if we have the three test results shown above, can we obtain the shear strength of the same soil for another cell , say, c-D ? The friction angle (associated with the drained failure envelope) allows us to relate shear strength to the confining stress The friction angle is an important STRENGTH parameter in soil mechanics
Shear Strength of Soils : Angle of Internal Friction
Friction Angle (Angle of Internal Friction)

Note that is not a strength it does not directly provide a strength value. is a drained strength parameter it controls the drained strength that can be mobilized at different confining pressures. When discussing shear strength of sands, we usually do so in terms of the friction angle . We can apply the use of to situations outside of the triaxial (and direct shear) tests.
One common application of

Estimate the shear strength (along a horizontal plane) of the dry sand at 5m and 10m depths in the ground. Take = 30 for the sand. ( ) Point (a) P i tA
Effective vertical stress v = d h = 18 x 5 = 90 kN/m2 dry y sand For a horizontal plane plane, v = n = 30 The shear strength along this horizontal plane is f = n tan = 90 tan 30 = 52 kN/m2 d = 18 kN/m3
5m
A B
10 m
(b) Point B
Repeat the calculations for depth of 10 m. The computed shear strength along the horizontal plane at this depth = ____ 104 kN/m2
CD - 5
More on Friction Angle

Using g the friction angle g , , the calculated shear strengths ________ increase with depth (for a soil that exhibits drained response). self-weight of the soil, which This is due to the __________ causes the confining stress to increase with depth. Hence, the drained strength of a soil generally increases with depth depth. Drained strength use with ________ effective stresses also known as effective stress friction angle
CD - 6
Typical Values of the Friction Angle

Gravel G Gravel (sandy) ( ) Sand Loose dry Loose saturated D Dense d dry Dense saturated Silt or silty sand Loose Dense Clay General Singapore marine clay
CD - 7
Friction Angle 40 55 35 50 28 34 28 34 36 45 36 45 27 30 30 35 19 27 ~22
Example p
A conventional consolidated-drained (CD) triaxial test is conducted on a sand. The cell pressure is 120 kPa, and the applied deviator stress t at tf failure il is i 220 kPa. kP (a) Plot the Mohr circles for both the initial and failure stress conditions. (b) Determine (assume c = 0). (c) Determine the shear stress on the failure plane at failure ff , and find the theoretical angle of the failure plane in the specimen. (d) Determine the maximum shear stress at failure max , and the angle of the plane on which it acts. Calculate the available shear strength on this plane and the factor of safety on this plane.
CD - 8
cell = 3o = 120 kPa cell = 3o = 120 kPa
1f
axial = 220 kPa = (1 3 )f cell = 3f = 120 cell = 3f = 120 kPa
1f = 340 kPa
Initial Conditions
At Failure = 29 sin ' =
(kPa)
avail = 230 tan ' = 125.4
ff 59.3 45
1f 3f 1f + 3f
220 460
' = arcsin i
ff =
1f 3f 2
P
100
1f + 3f 1f 3f sin 2 2 = 230 110 sin 28.6 = 177.4
ff
ff = ff tan ' = 177.4 tan 28.6 = 96.7

400 500
200 230
300
(kPa)
Initial I iti l Condition C diti (a single point)

CD - 9
3f = 120 kPa
1f = 340 kPa
1f + 3f 2
max = 110 kPa avail = 125.4 kPa F.S. = avail / max = 125.4 / 110 = 1.14
Shear Strength of Soils : Drained vs Undrained Strengths
Undrained Strength g from CU Test and Drained Strength g from CD Test Starting from the Same Confining Pressure
= (1 - 3)/2 Often Oft plotted as q= (1 - 3)
Drained stress-strain curve for cell = 600 kPa
Undrained stress-strain curve for cell = 600 kPa
Drained strength sd
Undrained strength su shear strain
Important: I t t Note that, for the same soil subjected to the same initial stresses the drained strength is higher than the undrained stresses, strength.
(kPa) (kP )
Undrained Strength from CU Test
Effective Stress Mohr Circles
uf
Total Stress Mohr Circles
Undrained strength su
200 400 600 800 1000
(kPa)
Drained vs Undrained - 1
(kPa)
Drained Strength from CD Test
Effective Stress Mohr Circles
Drained strength sd
200
400
600
800
1000
(kPa)
Drained vs Undrained Strength g

For engineering design purposes, whether we use the drained or undrained strength depends on the soil type present. If the problem involves mainly clays or silts (i.e., fine-grained materials), then for the short-term response, the undrained shear strength g su ( (also commonly y denoted as cu) should be considered. This type of analysis (using su or cu) implies that = 0. Total stresses (not effective stresses) are usually adopted for the stress calculations when the undrained strength su or cu is used. For the long-term response of clays and silts, the drained strength sd should be used. The drained strength sd of clays and silts should be calculated using the friction angle and the effective confining stresses to which hi h the th soil il will ill be b subjected bj t d to t in i the th long l term.. t For sands or gravels that can drain easily, there is little difference between the short-term short term and long-term long term strength for most geotechnical problems, hence only the drained strength is considered using and the confining stresses.

However, in some situations, even for a granular material like sand, we may still use the undrained strength su to characterize i behavior its b h i under d very rapid id loading l di like lik earthquake h k shaking, h ki when the time scale is too short to allow the excess pore pressures to dissipate. The difference between the drained and undrained condition is the generation of the excess pore pressure in the soils. Undrained strength is typically smaller than drained strength, due to the presence of excess pore water pressure, which tends to reduce the effective stresses. For design purposes, the undrained shear strengths are commonly obtained by UU tests (experiment G2) or vane-shear tests. These are direct measurements of the undrained shear strength. The undrained shear strength can also be obtained by doing CU tests. The undrained shear strengths may be obtained directly during the tests, by plotting the Mohr circles or stress strain curves.

However, when doing CU tests, the main purpose is to obtain the friction angle and c c. . Once, we have the and c from the CU tests, we can calculate the undrained shear strengths and the drained shear strengths. Hence, theoretically, we can calculate the undrained shear strengths from and c. However, this is not commonly done for hand calculations. Some computer software allows us to do undrained analysis using i and d c. For the most part, it is more common for undrained shear strengths t th to t be b obtained bt i d directly di tl via i UU tests t t or vane-shear h tests, or obtain from correlations, or past experience.
Shear Strength of Soils : Useful Correlations for Undrained Strength of Clays
Useful Correlations for the Undrained Strength of Clays

normally consolidated clay For a ___________________
su 0.25 2 ' vo
effective overburden stress at the Note that vo is the ________________________ depth of interest. This correlation implies that the undrained strength su increases with depth ___________________________. estimates Remember: it is a correlation. It provides useful _________ of the shear strength, but it is not exact! Other correlations: su 0.22 based on vane shear strengths (Bjerrum) ' vo su (Skempton) 0.11 + 0.37 I p ' vo
Shear Strength of Soils : Useful Correlations for Undrained Modulus
Correlation between su and Undrained Modulus Eu

For settlement or compressibility analyses, Eu = 200 su to 500 su Rough correlation : useful guide in the absence of other information. Depends p on the location and the kind of clay yp present Can take Eu = 300 su as a first approximation pp
Drained vs Undrained Strength If we want to obtain the undrained or drained shear strengths from the friction angle and cohesion c, we can use the following few slides to do so.
Shear Strength of Soils : Relationship between Drained Strength and
Relationship between drained strength sd and
max = sd
sd c = c = 3f c
sd
1f
sd
For a soil with c = 0

sd = sin ' ' c +s d sin ' s d = ' c 1 sin '
Relationship between sd and - 1
Shear Strength of Soils : Relationship between Drained Strength and - c
Relationship between drained strength sd and -c c
c c cot c
sd sd
sd
c = c = 3f sd
1f
For a soil with nonzero and c

sd = sin ' s d + ' c +c ' cot '
s d (1 sin ') = (' c +c ' cot ')sin ' sin ' ( ) s d = ' c +c' cot 1 sin ' Relationship between sd and - 2
Shear Strength of Soils : Relationship between Undrained Strength and
Relationship between undrained strength su and
effective stress M h circle Mohr i l for f undrained failure
Mohr circle at failure if drained test carried out uf su c = 3f su sd (if drained test)
su 3f
total stress Mohr circle for undrained failure
For a soil with c = 0, and noting 0 that A f = u f / q = u f / 2s u
sin ' =
su ' 3 f +su
= su ( 3 f u f + su )
= su ( 3 f 2As u + su ) = su (' c +su (1 2A f ))
su [1 (1 2A f )sin '] = ' c sin sin ' s u = ' c ( ) 1 1 2 A sin ' f Relationship between s and - 1
u
Shear Strength of Soils : Relationship between Undrained Strength and - c
Relationship between undrained strength su and
uf su 3f su c = 3f su sd (if drained test)
0 c For a soil with nonzero and
sin ' su = (' c +c ' cot ') 1 (1 2A f )sin '
Relationship between su and - 2

Shear Strength of Soils Final (Complete)

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Shear Strength of Soils Final (Complete)

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Shear Strength of Soils

CE2112 Soil Mechanics

Shear Strength of Soils : Introduction

Typical Material Strengths considered in Civil Engineering

Shear Strength of Soils : Introduction

Shear Strength of Soils : Introduction

Shear Strength of Soils : Introduction

Shear Strength of Soils : Introduction

Two Important p Aspects p of Geotechnical Problems (a) Deformation/Consolidation

Shear Strength of Soils : Introduction

Two Important p Aspects p of Geotechnical Problems (b) Stability (or Failure)

Shear Strength of Soils : Response of Soils to Load Applications

Response of Soil to Load Applications

Shear Strength of Soils : Response of Soils to Load Applications

Shear Strength of Soils : Response of Soils to Load Applications

Shear Strength of Soils : Response of Soils to Load Applications

Shear Strength of Soils : Hookes Law

Shear Strength of Soils : Hookes Law

Hookes Hooke s Law

Str ress = F/A (kN/m2)

Elongation (mm) Strain = /L

where E is the Youngs modulus

Shear Strength of Soils : Laymans Definition

Th St The Strength th of f Materials M t i l

Shear Strength of Soils : Laymans Definition

no further increase in stress perfectly plastic

onset of yielding linear obey b H Hookes k L Law strain

A General, Laymans Definition

Shear Strength of Soils : Stress-Strain Response

Shear Strength of Soils : Stress-Strain Response

Shear Strength of Soils : Stress-Strain Response

Some Aspects of the Stress Stress-Strain Strain Response

Shear Strength of Soils : Stress-Strain Response

E Example l Stress-Strain St St i Curve C of f _____ St l Steel

Shear Strength of Soils : Stress-Strain Response

Example Stress-Strain Curve of Clay

onset of yielding linear obey Hookes Law strain

Shear Strength of Soils : Stress-Strain Response of Soft Soils

Stress-Strain Stress Strain Response of Soft Soils

approximately linear modulus at very small strains Stress-Strain Curves - 6

Shear Strength of Soils : Stress-Strain Response of Soft Soils

Shear Strength of Soils : Stress-Strain Response of Soft Soils

Stress-Strain Response of Soft Soils

initial modulus Ei 20% failure strain

approximately linear modulus at very small strains

Shear Strength of Soils : Different Modes of Loading Soils

I In practice, ti soil il can be b loaded l d d in i many different ways.

Different modes of loading give rise to _______ strengths! different

Shear Strength of Soils : Different Types of Strength

Th St The Strength th of f Soils S il

Shear Strength of Soils : Different Modes of Strength Testing

Different Modes of Strength Testing

Do these load conditions result in shearing?

Shear Strength of Soils : Different Modes of Strength Testing

Diff Different tM Modes d of fT Testing ti

Shear Strength of Soils : Different Modes of Strength Testing

Diff Different tM Modes d of fT Testing ti

Shear Strength of Soils : Different Modes of Strength Testing

Diff Different tM Modes d of fT Testing ti

Shear Strength of Soils : Complex Stress

General and Principal Stresses - 1

Shear Strength of Soils : Complex Stress

General and Principal Stresses - 1