Nanoscale Transport Phenomena for Manufacturing Nanodevices

Review of Some Concepts in Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer

Fluid Mechanics
Continuity equation
NavierSto!es equation
"oundary conditions for solving flow pro#lems
$nalytical solutions of simple flow pro#lems
Steadystate mechanical energy #alance
Fanning friction factor
Hydraulic circuit analysis
Macro versus micro fluid mechanics
Heat Transfer
Forced convection heat transfer in conduits
Nusselt num#er relationships
Macro versus micro heat transfer
Fluid Mechanics
The %quations of Change for &sothermal Systems
The continuity equation
The linear momentum equation (equation of motion)
The Navier-Stokes equation for an incompressible Newtonian fluid
What is an incompressible fluid and incompressible flow?
What is a Newtonian fluid?
The Continuity %quation (onservation of !ass)
The continuity equation is the "eneral differential form of the overall mass
balance#
$

,
_

,
_

,
_

%olume ontrol
of &ut 'ate
(low !ass
%olume ontrol
)nto 'ate
(low !ass
%olume ontrol
)n on *ccumulati
!ass of 'ate
( ) v

t
Ta#le '
Continuity %quation in Two (ifferent Coordinate Systems
'ectan"ular coordinates (+, y, -).
/ ) v (
-
) v (
y
) v (
+ t
- y +

ylindrical coordinates (r, 0, -).

/ ) v (
-
) v (
r
$
) rv (
r r
$
t
- r

The )inear Momentum %quation (onservation of linear momentum)

The equation of motion is the "eneral form of the linear momentum balance#
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

%olume ontrol
)n 2eneration
!omentum of 'ate
%olume ontrol
of &ut 'ate
(low !omentum
%olume ontrol
)nto 'ate
(low !omentum
%olume ontrol
)n on *ccumulati
!omentum of 'ate
( )
[ ] [ ] g * vv
v

3
t
Ta#le +
)inear Momentum %quation in Two (ifferent Coordinate Systems
Rectangular coordinates ,-. y. /0
+-component.
+
-+
y+
++ +
-
+
y
+
+
+
"
- y + +
p
-
v
v
y
v
v
+
v
v
t
v

,
_

,
_

y-component.
y
-y yy +y y
-
y
y
y
+
y
"
- y + y
p
-
v
v
y
v
v
+
v
v
t
v

,
_

,
_

4
--component.
-
--
y-
+- -
-
-
y
-
+
-
"
- y + -
p
-
v
v
y
v
v
+
v
v
t
v

,
_

,
_

Cylindrical coordinates ,r. 1. /0

r-component.
r
r- r
rr
r
-
1
r r
r
r
"
- r r
$
) r (
r r
$
r
p
-
v
v
r
v v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v

+
,
_

,
_

0-component.

"
- r
$
) r (
r
r
$ p
r
$
-
v
v
r
v v v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
-
r
1
1
-
r
r
+

,
_

,
_

+ +

--component.
-
-- -
r-
-
-
- -
r
-
"
- r
$
) r (
r r
$
-
p
-
v
v
v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v

,
_

,
_

(or an incompressible Newtonian fluid, the linear momentum equation

becomes the Navier-Stokes equation#
( )
[ ] g v vv
v

+ + +

1
3
t
Ta#le 2
NavierSto!es %quation in Two (ifferent Coordinate Systems
Rectangular coordinates ,-. y. /0
+-component.
+
1
+
1
1
+
1
1
+
1
+
-
+
y
+
+
+
"
-
v
y
v
+
v
+
p
-
v
v
y
v
v
+
v
v
t
v
+

,
_

,
_

y-component.
y
1
y
1
1
y
1
1
y
1
y
-
y
y
y
+
y
"
-
v
y
v
+
v
y
p
-
v
v
y
v
v
+
v
v
t
v
+

,
_

,
_

--component.
-
1
-
1
1
-
1
1
-
1
-
-
-
y
-
+
-
"
-
v
y
v
+
v
-
p
-
v
v
y
v
v
+
v
v
t
v
+

,
_

,
_

5
Cylindrical coordinates ,r. 1. /0
r-component.
r
1
r
1
1 1
r
1
1
r
r
-
1
r r
r
r
"
-
v v
r
1 v
r
$
) rv (
r r
$
r r
p
-
v
v
r
v v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
+
1
1
]
1

+
,
_

,
_

0-component.

+
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+ +

"
-
v v
r
1 v
r
$
) rv (
r r
$
r
p
r
$
-
v
v
r
v v v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
1
1
r
1 1
1
1
-
r
r
--component.
-
1
-
1
1
-
1
1
- -
-
- -
r
-
"
-
v v
r
$
r
v
r
r r
$
-
p
-
v
v
v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
+
1
1
]
1

+
,
_

,
_

Ta#le 3
Components of the Momentum Flu- ,Stress0 Tensor for Newtonian Fluids
'ectan"ular coordinates.
1
]
1

) (
4
1
+
v
1
+
++
v
, 1
]
1

) (
4
1
y
v
1
y
yy
v
,
1
]
1

) (
4
1
-
v
1
-
--
v
1
]
1

+
v
y
v
y
+
y+ +y , 1
]
1

y
v
-
v
-
y
-y y- ,
1
]
1

-
v
+
v
+ -
+- -+
-
v
y
v
+
v
-
y
+

v0 ,
ylindrical coordinates.
1
]
1

) (
4
1
r
v
1
r
rr
v
, 1
]
1

,
_

) (
4
1
r
v v
r
$
1
r
v

,
1
]
1

) (
4
1
-
v
1
-
--
v
1
]
1

+
,
_

r
r r
v
r
$
r
v
r
r
,
1
]
1

-
- -
v
r
$
-
v
,
1
]
1

-
v
r
v
r -
r- -r

-
v v
r
$
) rv (
r r
$
-
r

v0 ,
"oundary Conditions for Solving Flow Pro#lems
Two types of boundary conditions
%elocity conditions
(lu+ (stress) conditions
6
Solid-fluid interface
No-slip condition
Navier slip condition
Liquid-liquid interface
2as-liquid interface
Flow symmetry
Solution Procedure
!ake reasonable simplifyin" assumptions
Write and simplify continuity equation
Write and simplify Navier-Stokes equation
)nte"rate to obtain velocity profile
7valuate constants of inte"ration
%elocity profile can be used to obtain volumetric and mass flow rates and
dra" forces at surfaces
$nalytical Solutions of Simple Flow Pro#lems
Two Common Types of Flow Pro#lems
ouette flow (What is ouette flow?)
3oiseuille flow (What is 3oiseuille flow?)
4se of the %quations of Change for Solving )aminar Flow Pro#lems
Couette flow e-ample5 onsider a fluid contained between two infinitely
wide and lon" parallel plates# The plates are separated by a distance 1h#
The top plate is movin" hori-ontally to the ri"ht at a speed % while the
bottom plate is stationary# The pressure field is uniform for this case#
*ssume steady-state laminar flow of an incompressible Newtonian liquid
between the two plates# Solve for the velocity profile, volumetric and mass
flow rates, and the force e+erted by the top plate on the fluid#
8

Solution5 9se artesian coordinate system# The density is constant for an
incompressible fluid# *ssume
($) Width W :: 1h;
(1) <en"th < :: 1h;
(4) (low is steady and fully developed; time derivatives are -ero, v
y
= /, v
-
= /
and all derivatives with respect to v
y
and v
-
are -ero#
>ow will the velocity vary between the two surfaces?
ontinuity equation simplified.
( )
/
+
v
+

#
(or constant density, /
+
v
+

; v
+
v
+
(+)#
Navier-Stokes equation simplified
+-component.
1
+
1
d-
v d
/
y-component.
y
3
/

--component.
-
"
-
3
/ +

)nte"rate +-component to determine velocity profile.
$
+

d-
dv

1 $ +
- v +
?oundary conditions.
$#
1#
%elocity profile.

,
_

+
h
-
$
1
%
v
+
-
+
1h
<
%
@
%olumetric flow rate.
W%h d-dy v d* v A
W
/
h
h
+
*
-

!ass flow rate.

W%h A m
(orce e+erted by fluid on top surface.
) W< ( (
h -
-+
h -
+


h 1
%W<
(
h -
+

(orce e+erted by top plate on fluid.

h 1
%W<
( (
h -
+
h -



Poiseuille flow e-ample5 onsider the steady-state laminar flow of an
incompressible Newtonian liquid in a very lon" hori-ontal tube of radius '
and len"th <# * pressure "radient is imposed on the fluid in the direction of
flow# Ne"lect end effects and assume the flow is fully developed# Solve for
the velocity profile, the volumetric and mass flow rates, and the dra" force
e+erted by the tube wall on the fluid#
Solution# 9se a cylindrical coordinate system# The density is constant for an
incompressible liquid# *ssume.
($) (low is steady and fully developed; time derivatives are -ero, v
r
= /, v

= /
and all derivatives with respect to v
r
and v

are -ero#
>ow will the velocity vary in the pipe?
ontinuity equation simplified.
( )
/
-
v
-

#
(or constant density, /
-
v
-

; v
-
v
-
(-)#
'
-
r
<
B
?ecause of symmetry, v
-
v
-
(); therefore, v
-
= v
-
(r)#
Navier-Stokes equation simplified
r-component.
r
"
r
3
/ +

0-component.

"
3
r
$
/
--component.
1
]
1

,
_

dr
dv
r
dr
d
r
$
-
3
/
-
)nte"rate --component to determine velocity profile#
$
1 -
r
1
- C 3
dr
dv
r +

1 $
1
-
r ln r
5
- C 3
v + +

?oundary conditions.
$#
1#
%elocity profile.
( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
-
'
r
$
5
' - C 3
v
%olumetric flow rate.
( )

1
/
'
/
5
- * -
B
' - C 3
rdrd v d* v A
!ass flow rate.
( )

B
' - C 3
w
5
*vera"e velocity.
( )

B
' - C 3
v
1
(orce e+erted by fluid on tube surface.
) '< 1 ( (
' r
r-
' r
-


( )( )
1
' r
' 3 (

(orce e+erted by tube surface on fluid.

( )( )
1
' r
-
' r
' 3 ( (

Solution is applicable for laminar flow, 'e D 14//
Steady State Macroscopic Mechanical %nergy "alance
The mechanical ener"y balance can be used to analy-e laminar and turbulent
flow problems from a macroscopic viewpoint#
v m
1
7
E
W
E
3
h "
v
1
$

+ +

,
_

w
W
W
E
m
m

is work per unit mass done on the system by movin" surfaces#
F
(or laminar flow, = /#6, while for turbulent flow, /#BB G G /#F8 So, is
usually set equal to one when the flow is turbulent#
v
7
E
is the friction loss and for strai"ht len"ths of conduits it is equal to.
f
r
<
v
1
$
7
E
h
1
v

,
_

,
_

where < is the len"th, r

h
is the hydraulic radius, and f is the fannin" friction
factor#
Fanning Friction Factor
onsider steady-state flow of an incompressible Newtonian fluid in a
hori-ontal conduit of uniform cross-section#
The steady-state mechanical ener"y balance simplifies to.
( ) f
r
<
v
1
$
3
h
1

,
_

,
_

>ydraulic diameter. H
h
= 5r
h
(annin" friction factor.

,
_

,
_

1 C v
3
<
H
5
$
f
1
h
(annin" (riction (actor for (ully Heveloped
<aminar (low in 'ectan"ular onduits
*spect 'atioI f'e
h
II
$ $5#1
1 $6#6
4 $@#$
5 $B#1
6 $F#$
8 $F#@
@ 1/#1
B 1/#8
$/
F 1/#F
$/ 1$#1
$6 11#/
1/ 11#6
16 11#B
4/ 14#/
46 14#$
5/ 14#1
56 14#4
6/ 14#5
8/ 14#6
B/ 14#8
$// 14#@
15#/
I *spect ratio is the ratio of rectan"ular conduit width to depth#
II f is the (annin" friction factor and 'e
h
is the 'eynolds number based on the
hydraulic diameter#
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
f
R
e
h
Aspect Ratio
Fanning Friction Factor for Fully Developed Laminar Flow in Rectangular Conduits
$$
Hydraulic Circuit $nalysis
'ecall steady-state laminar tube flow.
( ) ( )
< $1B
H 3
< B
' 3
A
5 5

where H is the tube diameter# <et
( )
< 41
* H 3
A
1

where * is the cross-

sectional flow area#
>ydraulic resistance.
* H
< 41
'
1
h

%olumetric flow rate.

( )
h
'
3
A

where JK3 = 3
o
L3
<
onduits of different si-es in series.
A
$
= A
1
= A
4
= M# = A where
( )

h
overall
'
3
A
onduits in parallel with the same len"th.
( )
h
4 1 $
'
3
### A A A A

+ + +

where JK3 = 3
o
L3
<
and
###
'
$
'
$
'
$
'
$
4 1 $
h h h h
+ + +
Non-circular conduits.
* H
< 41
'
1
h
h

# H
h
is the hydraulic diameter;
3
*
5 H
h


where * is the cross-sectional flow area and 3 is the wetted perimeter#
Macro versus Micro Fluid Mechanics
!icroscale flows are typically laminar due to the small len"th scales#
?oundary conditions are more of an issue in microsystems because of the
hi"h surface area to volume ratio#
The no-slip condition may not always apply#
hemical issues at the surfaces can affect microscale fluid mechanics#
$1
Heat Transfer
Forced convection heat transfer in conduits
!omentum and heat transfer for internal flow situations
onduction is the primary mechanism of heat transfer between the enclosure
surface and the movin" fluid
)n principle, the continuity equation, the Navier-Stokes equation and the
ener"y equation can be solved to obtain the followin" results.
%elocity and temperature profiles
>eat transfer rate at surface
Theoretical estimate of the convection heat transfer coefficient
Two physical situations that have been studied e+tensively.
>eat transfer with a uniform ener"y flu+ at the enclosure surface
>eat transfer with a uniform enclosure surface temperature
7ner"y equation for fluid with constant density and no viscous heatin"
( )
( ) ( ) q v +

T N
t
T
p
p

where
T k q
or
( )
( ) ( ) T k T N
t
T
p
p
+

v
7ner"y equation for incompressible flow and constant fluid properties
$4
( ) T k T
t
T

1
p p
+

v
Ta#le 6
%nergy %quation for &ncompressi#le Flow and Constant Fluid Properties
in Terms of Conductive Flu- in Two (ifferent Coordinate Systems
'ectan"ular coordinates (+, y, -).

,
_

,
_

-
q
y
q
+
q
-
T
v
y
T
v
+
T
v
t
T

-
y
+
- y + p
ylindrical coordinates (r, 0, -).
( )
1
]
1

,
_

-
q q
r
$
rq
r r
$
-
T
v
r
T
r
v
r
T
v
t
T

-
r - r p
Ta#le 7
%nergy %quation for &ncompressi#le Flow and Constant Fluid Properties
in Terms of Temperature in Two (ifferent Coordinate Systems
'ectan"ular coordinates (+, y, -).

,
_

,
_

1
1
1
1
1
1
- y + p
-
T
y
T
+
T
k
-
T
v
y
T
v
+
T
v
t
T

ylindrical coordinates (r, 0, -).

1
]
1

,
_

,
_

1
1
1
1
1
- r p
-
T T
r
$
r
T
r
r r
$
k
-
T
v
r
T
r
v
r
T
v
t
T

(luid is in laminar flow for microscale flow and heat transfer

>ydrodynamic entrance re"ion.
ircular tube.
'e /6 # /
H
<
e

Non-circular conduits. h
h
e
'e /6 # /
H
<

where H
h
is the hydraulic diameter and 'e
h
is based on the
hydraulic diameter
Thermal entrance re"ion (T7').
ircular tube.
3r 'e /6 # /
H
<
t

$5
Non-circular conduits.
3r 'e /6 # /
H
<
h
h
t

where 3r is the 3randtl number
The convection heat transfer coefficient (h) varies in the thermal entrance
re"ion but is constant in the thermally fully developed re"ion (T(H)#
2eneral steady-state thermal analysis for internal flow
( )
mo m< p
T T m A
where T
m
is the avera"e bulk temperature
Hefinition of T
m
.
p
*
p
m
m
vTd*
T

(or constant properties.

* v
vTd*
T
*
m

Two types of heatin" (or coolin") that have been studied e+tensively.
>eat transfer with a uniform ener"y flu+ at surface
>eat transfer with a uniform surface temperature
9niform ener"y flu+ q
o
'esult of ener"y balance on conduit with a perimeter 3.
p
o m
m
3 q
d-
dT

*vera"e bulk temperature profile.

-
m
3 q
T ) - ( T
p
o
mo m

,
_

Surface temperature variation.

h
q
-
m
3 q
T ) - ( T
o
p
o
mo s
+

,
_

9niform surface temperature T

s
'esult of ener"y balance on conduit with a perimeter 3.
$6
( )
s m
p
m
T T
m
h3
d-
dT

*vera"e bulk temperature profile.

( )

,
_

+
-
/ p
s mo s m
hd-
m
3
e+p T T T ) - ( T

*vera"e bulk temperature at e+it.

( )

,
_

+
p
s mo s m<
m
h 3<
e+p T T T T

Nusselt Num#er Relationships

Theoretical results for the convection heat transfer coefficient can be
obtained by solvin" the ener"y equation either analytically or numerically
ommon solutions assume a fully developed velocity profile as fluid enters
the heatin" section
Steady-state ener"y equation for tube flow for 3e : $//.
1
]
1

,
_

r
T
r
r r
$
k
-
T
v
- p
where
1
1
]
1

,
_

1
ma+ - -
'
r
$ v v
and
v 1 v
ma+ -

?oundary conditions
$# *t - = /, T = T
o
1# *t r = /, T is finite or
/
r
T

4# (a) (or uniform surface ener"y flu+

*t r = ',
' r
o r
r
T
k q q

,
_

t
(b) (or uniform surface temperature
*t r = ', T = T
s
Steady-state ener"y equation for flow in rectan"ular conduit for 3e : $//.

,
_

1
1
1
1
- p
y
T
+
T
k
-
T
v
?oundary conditions
$# *t - = /, T = T
o
$8
1# *t + = / and y = /,
/
+
T

,
/
y
T

4# (a) (or uniform surface ener"y flu+

*t + = O ?,
? +
o +
+
T
k q q
t

,
_

t
*t y = O W,
W y
o y
y
T
k q q
t

,
_

t
(b) (or uniform surface temperature
*t + = O? and y = O?, T = T
s
Nusselt number for circular tube in T(H re"ion
9niform ener"y flu+.
48 # 5
k
hH
Nu
9niform surface temperature.
88 # 4
k
hH
Nu
Nusselt number for rectan"ular conduits;
k
hH
Nu
h

where H
h
is the hydraulic diameter
*spect Nu for 9niform Nu for 9niform
'atio 7ner"y (lu+ Surface Temperature
$#/ 4#8$ 1#FB
$#54 4#@4 4#/B
1#/ 5#$1 4#4F
4#/ 5#@F 4#F8
5#/ 6#44 5#55
B#/ 8#5F 6#8/
P B#14 @#65
PI 6#4F 5#B8
I&ne surface is perfectly insulated the other surface is heated#
Macro versus Micro Heat Transfer
!acroscale results should be used with caution for liquids when H
h
G $/ Qm
!acroscale results are not e+pected to apply for "ases when H
h
C
mfp
G $// Qm
*s H
h
R /#$ Qm = $// nm, molecular interactions must be accounted for in
the fluid and in the solid wall#
$@
Heat Transfer from %-tended Surfaces
7+tended surfaces are commonly used to increase heat transfer rates between a
solid surface and a fluid#
7+tended surface are often used when the fluid in contact with the surface has
poor thermal properties#
>eat transfer can be e+pressed by NewtonSs <aw of oolin"#
Several fin confi"urations are possible#
%-ample. onsider a pin fin with a len"th < in contact with a fluid at
temperature T
a
# The fin is attached to a surface at a temperature T
s
# The
convection heat transfer coefficient between the fin and fluid is h#
Hetermine the followin" at steady-state.
(a) Temperature profile alon" the len"th of the fin
(b) >eat transfer rate
(c) (in efficiency
(d) (in effectiveness
7ner"y balance for fin.
( ) / T T h3
d+
dT
k*
d+
d
a

,
_

onsider a pin fin with constant cross-sectional area. ( ) / T T

k*
h3
d+
T d
a
1
1

<et = T J T
a
and
k*
h3
m
1

; / m
d+
d
1
1
1

The solution to the ener"y balance depends upon the boundary condition at
the fin tip#
ase *. onvective heat transfer at the tip#
ase ?. *diabatic tip#
ase . 3rescribed tip temperature#
$B
ase H. )nfinite len"th with tip temperature approachin" ambient temperature#
(a) Temperature profile.
ase *.
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ]
) m< sinh(
mk
h
) m< cosh(
+ < m sinh
mk
h
+ < m cosh
o

,
_

,
_

ase ?.
( ) [ ]
) m< cosh(
+ < m cosh
o

where = T J T
a
,
o
= T
s
J T
a
,
1 C $
k*
h3
m
,
_

(b) 'ate of heat transfer.
ase *.
) m< sinh(
mk
h
) m< cosh(
) m< cosh(
mk
h
) m< sinh(
! A

,
_

,
_

ase ?.
) m< tanh( ! A
where ( )
o
1 C $
h3k* !
(c) (in efficiency.
o f ma+
h*
A
A
A

ase ?.
m<
) m< tanh(

(d) (in effectiveness.

*
*
A
A
f
fin no


(in array systems are used in many practical situations# The performance of
a fin array is characteri-ed by (a) overall surface efficiency and (b) overall
surface effectiveness#
(a) &verall surface efficiency.
) $ (
*
N*
$
A
A
t
f
t
t
o
ma+

(b) &verall surface effectiveness.
$
*
* * N
A
A
fins no fins no
b
b f
t
t
o
>
+

'ecall heat transfer in a conduit of len"th <.

) T T ( m A
mo m< p

$F
(or a conduit with a constant surface temperature T
s
.
p s mo
s m<
m
3< h
T T
T T
ln

,
_

lm
T * h A
where
( )
< o
< o
lm
T C T ln
T T
T

(or a conduit with fins on the interior surface.

lm t o
T * h A
where T
o
is the
overall surface efficiency and *
t
is the total heat transfer surface area#
*lso, the bulk temperature can be evaluated from
p
t o
s mo
s m<
m
* h
T T
T T
ln

,
_

5
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