Chapter 4

Local Area Networks and MAC Protocols

4.0 Introduction 4.1 LAN Architecture 4.2 LAN Topologies 4.2.1 Bus and Tree Topologies 4.2.2 Ring Topology 4.2.3 Star Topology 4.3 ediu! Access "ontrol 4.3.1 Round Ro#in 4.3.2 Reser$ation 4.3.3 "ontention 4.4 A" %ra!e %or!at 4.& Logical Lin' "ontrol 4.( LAN Syste!s 4.(.1 )thernet and %ast )thernet *"S A+",4.(.2 To'en Ring 4.(.2.1 I))) .02.& ediu! Access "ontrol 4.(.2.2 %,,I 4./ Interconnection o0 LANs 1 Bridges

4.0 Introduction
Basically there are t2o types o0 Net2or's Technology3 Switched Networks and Broadcast Networks. In S2itched Net2or's4 syste!s are interconnected #y !eans o0 point1to1point trans!ission lines4 !ultiple5ers and s2itches4 2hich are co$ered in "hapter 2. In S2itched Net2or's4 the trans0er o0 pac'et across net2or's re6uires routing, to direct pac'ets 0ro! source to destination4 as the source and destination stations 2ill not #e connected #y a single trans!ission lin' !ost o0 the cases. But in Broadcast Net2or's4 all the syste!s are connected to co!!on trans!ission !ediu!4 2hich acts as a #roadcast !ediu! !a'ing routing unnecessary. In its si!plest 0or!4 a trans!ission 0ro! any one syste! is #roadcast to and recei$ed #y all other syste!s and i0 the recei$ed pac'et is !eant 0or the syste!4 it 2ill process it4 other2ise Data Communication 73

discards. Since the trans!ission !ediu! is shared #y all the connected syste!s4 there is a need 0or additional layer4 consisting o0 Medium Access Control (MAC) Protocol to orchestrate the trans!issions 0ro! $arious syste!s. The role o0 the trans!itted 0ro! the syste!s do not inter0ere 2ith other pac'ets. There are t2o net2or's based on broadcast medium. Local Area Net2or's *LANs- and de0initions o0 LANs and are as 0ollo2s. The LANs are distinguished 0ro! other types o0 data net2or's in that they are opti!i8ed 0or a !oderate si8e geographic area such as a single o00ice #uilding or a ca!pus. The LAN is a shared !ediu! peer1to1peer co!!unications net2or' that #roadcasts in0or!ation 0or all stations to recei$e. As a conse6uence4 it does not inherently pro$ide pri$acy. The LAN ena#les stations to co!!unicate directly using a co!!on physical !ediu! on a point1to1point #asis 2ithout any inter!ediate s2itching node #eing re6uired. There is al2ays need 0or an access su#1layer in order to ar#itrate the access to the shared !ediu!. The net2or' is generally o2ned4 used4 and operated #y a single organi8ation. A MAN is opti!i8ed 0or a larger geographical area than a LAN4 ranging 0ro! se$eral #loc's o0 #uildings to entire city. As 2ith local net2or's4 ANs can also depend on co!!unications channels o0 !oderate1to1high data rates. )rror rates and delay !ay #e slightly higher than !ight #e o#tained on a LAN. A AN !ight #e o2ned and operated #y a single organi8ation4 #ut usually 2ill #e used #y !any indi$iduals and organi8ations. They 2ill o0ten pro$ide !eans 0or internet2or'ing o0 local area net2or's. The 'ey technology ingredients that deter!ine the nature o0 a LAN or Topology 9 Trans!ission !ediu! 9 ediu! Access "ontrol techni6ue :arious topologies and trans!ission !ediu! that are !ost co!!only used 0or LANs Chapter 4: LANs and MAC Protocols 74 AN are etropolitan Area Net2or's * ANs-. The ANs4 ta'en 0ro! one o0 the I))) .02 standards docu!ents A" protocol is to co-ordinate the access to the transmission medium so that pac'ets

and

ANs4 $arious

ediu! Access "ontrol ;rotocols and the concept o0 a #ridge4

2hich play a critical role in e5tending LAN co$erage4 are discussed in this "hapter. <o2e$er LAN is the !ost 2idely i!ple!ented net2or' a!ongst the t2o and 2ith the usage o0 #ridges they co$er 2ider area also and underlying technologies used in LAN and AN #earing !any si!ilarities 2e concentrate here on LAN.

4.! LAN Architecture

The architecture o0 a LAN is #est descri#ed in ter!s o0 a layering o0 protocols that organi8e the #asic 0unctions o0 a LAN. This section opens 2ith a description o0 the standardi8ed protocol architecture 0or LANs4 2hich enco!passes physical4 !ediu! access control4 and logical lin' control layers. )ach o0 these layers is then e5a!ined in turn.

LAN Protocol Architecture

;rotocols de0ined speci0ically 0or LAN and AN trans!ission address issues relating to the trans!ission o0 #loc's o0 data o$er the net2or'. In =SI ter!s4 higher layer protocols *layer 3 or 4 and a#o$e- are independent o0 net2or' architecture and are applica#le to LANs4 ANs4 and >ANs. Thus4 a discussion o0 LAN protocols is concerned principally 2ith lo2er layers o0 the =SI !odel. %igure 4.1 relates the LAN protocols to the =SI architecture. This LAN architecture 2as de$eloped #y the I))) .02 co!!ittee and has #een adopted #y all organi8ations 2or'ing on the speci0ication o0 LAN standards. It is generally re0erred to as the I))) .02 re0erence !odel. >or'ing 0ro! the #otto! up4 the lo2est layer o0 the I))) .02 re0erence !odel corresponds to the physical layer o0 the =SI !odel4 and includes such 0unctions as 9 )ncoding + decoding o0 signals 9 ;rea!#le generation + re!o$al *0or synchroni8ation9 Bit trans!ission + reception In addition4 the physical layer o0 the .02 !odels includes a speci0ication o0 the trans!ission !ediu! and the topology. ?enerally4 this is considered below the lo2est layer o0 the =SI !odel. <o2e$er4 the choice o0 trans!ission !ediu! and topology

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igure 4!" #$$$ %&' protocol layers compared to ()# mode

is critical in LAN design4 and so a speci0ication o0 the !ediu! is included. A#o$e the physical layer are the 0unctions associated 2ith pro$iding ser$ice to LAN users. These include 9 =n trans!ission4 asse!#le data into a 0ra!e 2ith address and error1detection 0ields. 9 =n reception4 disasse!#le 0ra!e4 per0or! address recognition and error detection. 9 ?o$ern access to the LAN trans!ission !ediu!. 9 ;ro$ide an inter0ace to higher layers and per0or! 0lo2 and error control. These are 0unctions typically associated 2ith =SI layer 2 and are grouped into a logical lin* control *LL"- layer. The 0unctions in the 0irst three ite!s are treated as a separate layer4 called medium access control * A"-. The separation is done 0or the 0ollo2ing reasons3 9 The logic re6uired to !anage access to a shared1access !ediu! is not 0ound in traditional layer12 data lin' control.

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9 %or the sa!e LL"4 se$eral Standard I))) .02.3 CSMA&C' I))) .02.4 "oken Bus I))) .02.& "oken (in$ )''I "oken (in$ I))) .02.( '*'B I))) .02.11 CSMA Pollin$

A" options !ay #e pro$ided. Network LAN LAN LAN LAN Medium "o1a5ial ca#le4 T2isted ;air ca#le4 =ptical %i#er "o1a5ial ca#le4 =ptical %i#er T2isted ;air ca#le =ptical %i#er4 @nshielded T2isted ;air

So!e o0 the standards that ha$e #een issued #y I))) are listed #elo2 "o#olo$% Bus + Tree + Star Bus + Tree + Star Ring topology Ring topology

,ual Bus AN =ptical %i#er topology >ireless LAN Spread Spectru! In0rared #$$$ %&' LAN + MAN )tandards

ost o0 the standards 2ere de$eloped #y a co!!ittee I))) .024 sponsored #y the Institute +or ,lectrical and ,lectronics ,n$ineers . All o0 these standards ha$e su#se6uently #een adopted as international standards #y the International =rgani8ation 0or Standardi8ation *IS=-.

igure 4!' LAN protocols in conte,t

%igure 4.2 illustrates the relationship #et2een the le$els o0 the architecture. @ser Data Communication 7/

data are passed do2n to LL"4 2hich appends control in0or!ation as a header4 creating an LL" protocol data unit *;,@-. This control in0or!ation is used in the operation o0 the LL" protocol. The entire LL" ;,@ is then passed do2n to the A" layer4 2hich appends control in0or!ation header and trailer at the 0ront and #ac' o0 the pac'et4 0or!ing a MAC -rame! Again4 the control in0or!ation in the 0ra!e is needed 0or the operation o0 the A" protocol. %or conte5t4 the 0igure also sho2s the use o0 T";+I; and an application layer a#o$e the LAN protocols.

4.- LAN "o#olo$ies

The co!!on topologies 0or LANs are .us/ tree/ rin$/ and star *%igure 4.3-. The #us is a special case o0 the tree4 2ith only one trun' and no #ranches.

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igure 4!. LAN+MAN topologies

4.-.! Bus and "ree "o#olo$ies

Both #us and tree topologies are characteri8ed #y the use o0 a !ultipoint !ediu!. %or the #us4 all stations attach4 through appropriate hard2are inter0acing 'no2n as a tap4 directly to a linear trans!ission !ediu!4 or #us. %ull1duple5 operation #et2een the station and the tap allo2s data to #e trans!itted onto the #us and recei$ed 0ro! the #us. A trans!ission 0ro! any station propagates the length o0 the !ediu! in #oth

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directions and can #e recei$ed #y all other stations. At each end o0 the #us is a ter!inator4 2hich a#sor#s any signal4 re!o$ing it 0ro! the #us. The tree topology is a generali8ation o0 the #us topology. The trans!ission !ediu! is a #ranching ca#le 2ith no closed loops. The tree layout #egins at a point 'no2n as the headend , 2here one or !ore ca#les start4 and each o0 these !ay ha$e #ranches. The #ranches in turn !ay ha$e additional #ranches to allo2 6uite co!ple5 layouts. Again4 a trans!ission 0ro! any station propagates throughout the !ediu! and can #e recei$ed #y all other stations.

igure 4!4 rame transmission on a bus LAN!

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T2o pro#le!s present the!sel$es in this arrange!ent. %irst4 #ecause a trans!ission 0ro! any one station can #e recei$ed #y all other stations4 there needs to #e so!e 2ay o0 indicating 0or 2ho! the trans!ission is intended. Second4 a !echanis! is needed to regulate trans!ission. To see the reason 0or this4 consider that i0 t2o stations on the #us atte!pt to trans!it at the sa!e ti!e4 their signals 2ill o$erlap and #eco!e gar#led. =r4 consider that one station decides to trans!it continuously 0or a long period o0 ti!e. To sol$e these pro#le!s4 stations trans!it data in s!all #loc's4 'no2n as 0ra!es. )ach 0ra!e consists o0 a portion o0 the data that a station 2ishes to transit4 plus a 0ra!e header that contains control in0or!ation. )ach station on the #us is assigned a uni6ue address4 or identi0ier4 and the destination address 0or a 0ra!e is included in its header. %igure 4.4 illustrates the sche!e. In this e5a!ple4 station " 2ishes to trans!it a 0ra!e o0 data to A. The 0ra!e header includes AAs address. As the 0ra!e propagates along the #us4 it passes B4 2hich o#ser$es the address and ignores the 0ra!e. A4 on the other hand4 sees that the 0ra!e is addressed to itsel0 and there0ore copies the data 0ro! the 0ra!e as it goes #y. So the 0ra!e structure sol$es the 0irst pro#le! !entioned a#o$e3 It pro$ides a !echanis! 0or indicating the intended recipient o0 data. It also pro$ides the #asic tool 0or sol$ing the second pro#le!4 the regulation o0 access. In particular4 the stations ta'e turns sending 0ra!es in so!e cooperati$e 0ashionB this in$ol$es putting additional control in0or!ation into the 0ra!e header. >ith the #us or tree4 no special action needs to #e ta'en to re!o$e 0ra!es 0ro! the !ediu!. >hen a signal reaches the end o0 the !ediu!4 it is a#sor#ed #y the ter!inator.

4.-.- (in$ "o#olo$%

In the ring topology4 the net2or' consists o0 a set o0 repeaters Coined #y point1to1 point lin's to 0or! a closed loop. The repeater is a co!parati$ely si!ple de$ice4 capa#le o0 recei$ing data on one lin' and trans!itting the!4 #it #y #it4 on the other lin' as 0ast as they are recei$ed4 2ith no #u00ering at the repeater. The lin's are unidirectionalB that is4 data are trans!itted in one direction only and all are oriented in

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the sa!e 2ay. Thus4 data circulate around the ring in one direction *cloc'2ise or countercloc'2ise-. )ach station attaches to the net2or' at a repeater and can trans!it data onto the net2or' through that repeater.

igure 4!/ rame transmission on a ring LAN!

As 2ith the #us and tree4 data are trans!itted in 0ra!es. As a 0ra!e circulates past all the other stations4 the destination station recogni8es its address and copies the 0ra!e

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into a local #u00er as it goes #y. The 0ra!e continues to circulate until it returns to the source station4 2here it is re!o$ed *%igure 4.&-. Because !ultiple stations share the ring4 !ediu! access control is needed to deter!ine at 2hat ti!e each station !ay insert 0ra!es.

4.-.0 Star "o#olo$%

In the star LAN topology4 each station is directl y connected to a co!!on central node. Typically4 each station attaches to a central node4 re0erred to as the star coupler4 $ia t2o point1to1point lin's4 one 0or trans!ission in each direction. In general4 there are t2o alternati$es 0or the operation o0 the central node. =ne approach is 0or the central node to operate in a #roadcast 0ashion. A trans!ission o0 a 0ra!e 0ro! one station to the node is retrans!itted on all o0 the outgoing lin's. In this case4 although the arrange!ent is physically a star4 it is logically a #usB a trans!ission 0ro! any station is recei$ed #y all other stations4 and only one station at a ti!e !ay success0ully trans!it. Another approach is 0or the central node to act as a 0ra!e1s2itching de$ice. An inco!ing 0ra!e is #u00ered in the node and then retrans!itted on an outgoing lin' to the destination station.

4.0 Medium Access Control

All LANs and ANs consist o0 collections o0 de$ices that !ust share the net2or'As trans!ission capacity. So!e !eans o0 controlling access to the trans!ission !ediu! is needed to pro$ide 0or an orderly and e00icient use o0 that capacity. This is the 0unction o0 a Medium Access Control * A"- protocol. The 'ey para!eters in any !ediu! access control techni6ue are 2here and ho2. 0here re0ers to 2hether control is e5ercised in a centrali8ed or distri#uted 0ashion. In a centrali8ed sche!e4 a controller is designated that has the authority to grant access to the net2or'. A station 2ishing to trans!it !ust 2ait until it recei$es per!ission 0ro! the controller. In a decentrali8ed net2or'4 the stations collecti$ely per0or! a !ediu! access control 0unction to dyna!ically deter!ine the order in 2hich stations trans!it. A centrali8ed sche!e has certain ad$antages4 such as the 0ollo2ing3 9 It !ay a00ord greater control o$er access 0or pro$iding such things as priorities4 Data Communication 103

o$errides4 and guaranteed capacity. 9 It ena#les the use o0 relati$ely si!ple access logic at each station. 9 It a$oids pro#le!s o0 distri#uted coordination a!ong peer entities. The principal disad$antages o0 centrali8ed sche!es are 9 It creates a single point o0 0ailureB that is4 there is a point in the net2or' that4 i0 it 0ails4 causes the entire net2or' to 0ail. 9 It !ay act as a #ottlenec'4 reducing per0or!ance. The second para!eter4 how, is constrained #y the topology and is a trade1o00 #et2een co!peting 0actors4 including cost4 per0or!ance4 and co!ple5ity. In general4 2e can categori8e access control techni6ues as #eing either synchronous or asynchronous. >ith synchronous techni6ues4 a speci0ic capacity is dedicated to a connectionB this is the sa!e approach used in circuit s2itching4 0re6uency1di$ision !ultiple5ing *%, -4 and synchronous ti!e1di$ision !ultiple5ing *T, -. Such techni6ues are generally not opti!al in LANs and ANs #ecause the needs o0 the stations are unpredicta#le. It is pre0era#le to #e a#le to allocate capacity in an asynchronous *dyna!ic- 0ashion4 !ore or less in response to i!!ediate de!and. The asynchronous approach can #e 0urther su#di$ided into three categories3 round robin, reser1ation, and contention! 4.0.! (ound (o.in >ith round ro#in4 each station in turn is gi$en the opportunity to trans!it. ,uring that opportunity4 the station !ay decline to trans!it or !ay trans!it su#Cect to a speci0ied upper #ound4 usually e5pressed as a !a5i!u! a!ount o0 data trans!itted or ti!e 0or this opportunity. In any case4 the station4 2hen it is 0inished4 relin6uishes its turn4 and the right to trans!it passes to the ne5t station in logical se6uence. "ontrol o0 se6uence !ay #e centrali8ed or distri#uted. ;olling is an e5a!ple o0 a centrali8ed techni6ue. >hen !any stations ha$e data to trans!it o$er an e5tended period o0 ti!e4 round ro#in techni6ues can #e $ery e00icient. I0 only a 0e2 stations ha$e data to trans!it o$er an e5tended period o0 ti!e4 then there is a considera#le o$erhead in passing the turn 0ro! station to station4 as !ost o0 the stations 2ill not trans!it #ut si!ply pass their turns. @nder such circu!stances4 other techni6ues !ay #e pre0era#le4 largely depending on 2hether the data tra00ic has a strea! or #ursty characteristic. Strea! tra00ic is characteri8ed #y lengthy and 0airly continuous trans!issionsB e5a!ples are Chapter 4: LANs and MAC Protocols 104

$oice co!!unication4 tele!etry4 and #ul' 0ile trans0er. Bursty tra00ic is characteri8ed #y short4 sporadic trans!issionsB interacti$e ter!inal1host tra00ic 0its this description.

4.0.- (eser1ation
%or strea! tra00ic4 reser$ation techni6ues are 2ell suited. In general4 0or these techni6ues4 ti!e on the !ediu! is di$ided into slots4 !uch as 2ith synchronous T, . A station 2ishing to trans!it reser$es 0uture slots 0or an e5tended or e$en an inde0inite period. Again4 reser$ations !ay #e !ade in a centrali8ed or distri#uted 0ashion.

4.0.0 Contention
%or #ursty tra00ic4 contention techni6ues are usually appropriate. >ith these techni6ues4 no control is e5ercised to deter!ine 2hose turn it isB all stations contend 0or ti!e in a 2ay that can #e4 as 2e shall see4 rather rough and tu!#le. These techni6ues are4 o0 necessity4 distri#uted #y nature. Their principal ad$antage is that they are si!ple to i!ple!ent and4 under light to moderate load o- data tra--ic, they are e--icient. %or so!e o0 these techni6ues4 ho2e$er4 per0or!ance tends to collapse under hea$y load. Although #oth centrali8ed and distri#uted reser$ation techni6ues ha$e #een i!ple!ented in so!e LAN products4 round ro#in and contention techni6ues are the !ost co!!on. The discussion a#o$e has #een so!e2hat a#stract and should #eco!e clearer as speci0ic techni6ues are discussed in later sections. The 0ollo2ing Ta#le lists the standards.
(ound (o.in (eser1ation Contention Bus "o#olo$% To'en Bus *I))) .02.4,D,B *I))) .02.("S A+", *I))) .02.3"S A *I))) .02.11(in$ "o#olo$% To'en Ring *I))) .02.&Switched "o#olo$% Re6uest+;riority *I))) .02.12"S A+", *I))) .02.3-

A" protocols that are de0ined in LAN and

AN

4.4 MAC )rame )ormat

The A" layer recei$es a #loc' o0 data 0ro! the LL" layer and is responsi#le 0or

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per0or!ing 0unctions related to !ediu! access and 0or trans!itting the data. As 2ith other protocol layers4 The e5act 0or!at o0 the A" i!ple!ents these 0unctions4 !a'ing use o0 a protocol A" 0ra!e. A" protocols A" 0ra!e di00ers so!e2hat 0or the $arious data unit at its layerB in this case4 the ;,@ is re0erred to as a in use. In general4 all o0 the

A" 0ra!es ha$e a 0or!at si!ilar to that o0 %igure 4.(

igure 4!2 LLC PD3 with generic MAC -rame -ormat

The 0ields o0 this 0ra!e are 9 MAC control. This 0ield contains any protocol control in0or!ation needed 0or the 0unctioning o0 the here. 'estination MAC address. The address o0 the destination de$ice on the LAN 0or this 0ra!e. Source MAC address. The address o0 the source de$ice on the LAN 0ro! 2hich this 0ra!e is #eing trans!itted. LLC. The LL" data 0ro! the ne5t higher layer. C(C. The cyclic redundancy chec' 0ield *also 'no2n as the 0ra!e chec' se6uence4 %"S4 0ield-. This is an error1detecting code as 2e ha$e seen in pre$ious chapter. In !ost data lin' control protocols4 the data lin' protocol entity is responsi#le not only 0or detecting errors using the "R"4 #ut 0or reco$ering 0ro! those errors #y retrans!itting da!aged 0ra!es. In the LAN protocol architecture4 these t2o 0unctions are split #et2een the A" and LL" layers. The A" layer is responsi#le 0or A" protocol. %or e5a!ple4 a priority le$el could #e indicated

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detecting errors and discarding any 0ra!es that are in error. The LL" layer optionally 'eeps trac' o0 2hich 0ra!es ha$e #een success0ully recei$ed and retrans!its unsuccess0ul 0ra!es.

4.2 Lo$ical Link Control

The LL" layer 0or LANs is si!ilar in !any respects to other lin' layers in co!!on use. Li'e all lin' layers4 LL" is concerned 2ith the trans!ission o0 a lin'1le$el protocol data unit *;,@- #et2een t2o stations4 2ithout the necessity o0 an inter!ediate s2itching node. LL" has t2o characteristics not shared #y !ost other lin' control protocols3 1. It !ust support the !ulti1access4 shared1!ediu! nature o0 the lin'. 2. It is relie$ed o0 so!e details o0 lin' access #y the A" layer. Addressing in LL" in$ol$es speci0ying the source and destination LL" users. Typically4 a user is a higher1layer protocol or a net2or' !anage!ent 0unction in the station. These LL" user addresses are re0erred to as ser1ice access points *SA;s-4 in 'eeping 2ith =SI ter!inology 0or the user o0 a protocol layer. >e loo' 0irst at the ser$ices that LL" pro$ides to a higher1le$el user4 then at the LL" protocol. LLC Ser1ices LL" speci0ies the !echanis!s 0or addressing stations across the !ediu! and 0or controlling the e5change o0 data #et2een t2o users. The operation and 0or!at o0 this standard is #ased on <,L". Three ser$ices are pro$ided as alternati$es 0or attached de$ices using LL"3 3nacknowled$ed connectionless ser1ice. This ser$ice is a datagra! style ser$ice. It is a $ery si!ple ser$ice that does not in$ol$e any o0 the 0lo2 and error1control !echanis!s. Thus4 the deli$ery o0 data is not guaranteed. <o2e$er4 in !ost de$ices4 there 2ill #e so!e higher layer o0 so0t2are that deals 2ith relia#ility issues. Connection4mode ser1ice. This ser$ice is si!ilar to that o00ered #y <,L". A logical connection is set up #et2een t2o users e5changing data4 and 0lo2 control and error control are pro$ided Acknowled$ed connectionless ser1ice. This is a cross #et2een the pre$ious t2o ser$ices. It pro$ides that datagra!s are to #e ac'no2ledged4 #ut no prior logical

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connection is set up. Typically4 a $endor 2ill pro$ide these ser$ices as options that the custo!er can select 2hen purchasing the e6uip!ent. Alternati$ely4 the custo!er can purchase e6uip!ent that pro$ides t2o or all three ser$ices and select a speci0ic ser$ice #ased on application. The unac*nowledged connectionless ser1ice re6uires !ini!u! logic and is use0ul in t2o conte5ts. %irst4 it 2ill o0ten #e the case that higher layers o0 so0t2are 2ill pro$ide the necessary relia#ility and 0lo21control !echanis!4 and it is e00icient to a$oid duplicating the!. %or e5a!ple4 either T"; or the IS= transport protocol standard 2ould pro$ide the !echanis!s needed to ensure that data are deli$ered relia#ly. In a !onitoring application4 the loss o0 an occasional data unit 2ould not cause distress4 as the ne5t report should arri$e shortly. Thus4 in !ost cases4 the unac'no2ledged connectionless ser$ice is the pre0erred option. The connection-mode ser1ice could #e used in $ery si!ple de$ices4 such as ter!inal controllers4 that ha$e little so0t2are operating a#o$e this le$el. In these cases4 it 2ould pro$ide the 0lo2 control and relia#ility !echanis!s nor!ally i!ple!ented at higher layers o0 the co!!unications so0t2are. The ac*nowledged connectionless ser1ice is use0ul in se$eral conte5ts. >ith the connection1!ode ser$ice4 the logical lin' control so0t2are !ust !aintain so!e sort o0 ta#le 0or each acti$e connection4 so as to 'eep trac' o0 the status o0 that connection. I0 the user needs guaranteed deli$ery4 #ut there are a large nu!#er o0 destinations 0or data4 then the connection1!ode ser$ice !ay #e i!practical #ecause o0 the large nu!#er o0 ta#les re6uired. Another use is the handling o0 i!portant and ti!e1critical alar! or e!ergency control signals in a 0actory. Because o0 their i!portance4 an ac'no2ledg!ent is needed so that the sender can #e assured that the signal got through. Because o0 the urgency o0 the signal4 the user !ight not 2ant to ta'e the ti!e to 0irst esta#lish a logical connection and then send the data.

4.5 LAN S%stems

>e no2 consider speci0ic LAN syste!s. As 2as !entioned earlier4 the !ediu! access control techni6ue and topology are 'ey characteristics used in the classi0ication o0 LANs and in the de$elop!ent o0 standards. %ollo2ing syste!s are discussed here3

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9 )thernet and %ast )thernet *"S A+",9 To'en Ring 9 %,,I

4.5.! ,thernet and )ast ,thernet (CSMA&C')

4he most commonly used medium access control techni5ue -or bus+tree and star topologies is Carrier Sense Multi#le Access with Collision 'etection (CSMA&C') . The original #ase#and $ersion o0 this techni6ue 2as de$eloped #y Eero5 as part o0 the )thernet LAN. The original #road#and $ersion 2as de$eloped #y its ITR) as part o0 ITR)net LAN. All o0 this 2or' 0or!ed the #asis 0or the I))) .02.3 standard.

This ,thernet syste! deri$ed its na!e 0ro! the lumini-erous ether4 through 2hich electro!agnetic radiations 2ere once thought to propagate. *>hen British physicist Fa!es "ler' a52ell disco$ered in nineteenth century that electro!agnetic radiation could #e descri#ed #y the 2a$e e6uation4 scientists assu!ed that space !ust #e 0illed 2ith so!e ethereal medium in 2hich !ediu! the radiation 2as propagating. =nly later they 0ound that electro!agnetic radiation could propagate in a $acuu!.-

Precursors 6 7istor% o+ CSMA&C'

The .02.3 has an interesting history. The real #eginning 2as the AL=<A syste! de$eloped to allo2 radio co!!unication #et2een !achines scattered o$er <a2aiian Islands. "S A+", and its precursors can #e ter!ed rando! access4 or contention4 techni6ues. They are rando! access in the sense that there is no predicta#le or scheduled ti!e 0or any station to trans!itB station trans!issions are ordered rando!ly. They e5hi#it contention in the sense that stations contend 0or ti!e on the !ediu!. The earliest o0 these techni6ues4 'no2n as AL=<A4 2as de$eloped 0or pac'et radio net2or's. <o2e$er4 it is applica#le to any shared trans!ission !ediu!. AL=<A4 or pure AL=<A as it is so!eti!es called4 is a true 0ree10or1all. >hene$er a station has a 0ra!e to send4 it does so. The station then listens 0or an a!ount o0 ti!e e6ual to the !a5i!u! possi#le round1trip propagation delay on the net2or' *t2ice the ti!e it ta'es to send a 0ra!e #et2een the t2o !ost 2idely separated stations- plus a s!all 0i5ed ti!e incre!ent. I0 the station hears an ac'no2ledg!ent during that ti!e4 0ineB other2ise4 it resends the 0ra!e. I0 the station Data Communication 107

0ails to recei$e an ac'no2ledg!ent a0ter repeated trans!issions4 it gi$es up. A recei$ing station deter!ines the correctness o0 an inco!ing 0ra!e #y e5a!ining a 0ra!e1chec'1se6uence 0ield4 as in <,L". I0 the 0ra!e is $alid and i0 the destination address in the 0ra!e header !atches the recei$erAs address4 the station i!!ediately sends an ac'no2ledg!ent. The 0ra!e !ay #e in$alid due to noise on the channel or #ecause another station trans!itted a 0ra!e at a#out the sa!e ti!e. In the latter case4 the t2o 0ra!es !ay inter0ere 2ith each other at the recei$er so that neither gets throughB this is 'no2n as a collision! I0 a recei$ed 0ra!e is deter!ined to #e in$alid4 the recei$ing station si!ply ignores the 0ra!e. AL=<A is as si!ple as can #e4 and pays a penalty 0or it. Because the nu!#er o0 collisions rise rapidly 2ith increased load4 the ma,imum utili6ation o- the channel is only about "%7. To i!pro$e e00iciency4 a !odi0ication o0 AL=<A4 'no2n as slotted AL=<A4 2as de$eloped. In this sche!e4 ti!e on the channel is organi8ed into uni0or! slots 2hose si8e e6uals the 0ra!e trans!ission ti!e. So!e central cloc' or other techni6ue is needed to synchroni8e all stations. Trans!ission is per!itted to #egin only at a slot #oundary. Thus4 0ra!es that do o$erlap 2ill do so totally. This increases the !a5i!u! utili8ation o0 the syste! to a#out 3/G. Both AL=<A and slotted AL=<A e5hi#it poor utili8ation. Both 0ail to ta'e ad$antage o0 one o0 the 'ey properties o0 #oth pac'et radio and LANs4 2hich is that propagation delay #et2een stations is usually $ery s!all co!pared to 0ra!e trans!ission ti!e. "onsider the 0ollo2ing o#ser$ations. I0 the station1to1station propagation ti!e is large co!pared to the 0ra!e trans!ission ti!e4 then4 a0ter a station launches a 0ra!e4 it 2ill #e a long ti!e #e0ore other stations 'no2 a#out it. ,uring that ti!e4 one o0 the other stations !ay trans!it a 0ra!eB the t2o 0ra!es !ay inter0ere 2ith each other and neither gets through. Indeed4 i0 the distances are great enough4 !any stations !ay #egin trans!itting4 one a0ter the other4 and none o0 their 0ra!es get through unscathed. Suppose4 ho2e$er4 that the propagation ti!e is s!all co!pared to 0ra!e trans!ission ti!e. In that case4 2hen a station launches a 0ra!e4 all the other stations 'no2 it al!ost i!!ediately. So4 i0 they had any sense4 they 2ould not try trans!itting until the 0irst station 2as done. "ollisions 2ould #e rare #ecause they 2ould occur only 2hen t2o stations #egan to trans!it al!ost si!ultaneously. Another 2ay to loo' at it is that a short delay ti!e pro$ides the Chapter 4: LANs and MAC Protocols 110

stations 2ith #etter 0eed#ac' a#out the state o0 the net2or'B this in0or!ation can #e used to i!pro$e e00iciency. The 0oregoing o#ser$ations led to the de$elop!ent o0 carrier-sense multiple access 8C)MA9. >ith "S A4 a station 2ishing to trans!it 0irst listens to the !ediu! to deter!ine i0 another trans!ission is in progress *carrier sense-. I0 the !ediu! is in use4 the station !ust 2ait. I0 the !ediu! is idle4 the station !ay trans!it. It !ay happen that t2o or !ore stations atte!pt to trans!it at a#out the sa!e ti!e. I0 this happens4 there 2ill #e a collisionB the data 0ro! #oth trans!issions 2ill #e gar#led and not recei$ed success0ully. To account 0or this4 a station 2aits a reasona#le a!ount o0 ti!e4 a0ter trans!itting4 0or an ac'no2ledg!ent4 ta'ing into account the !a5i!u! round1trip propagation delay4 and the 0act that the ac'no2ledging station !ust also contend 0or the channel in order to respond. I0 there is no ac'no2ledg!ent4 the station assu!es that a collision has occurred and retrans!its. =ne can see ho2 this strategy 2ould #e e00ecti$e 0or net2or's in 2hich the a$erage 0ra!e trans!ission ti!e is !uch longer than the propagation ti!e. "ollisions can occur only 2hen !ore than one user #egins trans!itting 2ithin a short ti!e *the period o0 the propagation delay-. I0 a station #egins to trans!it a 0ra!e4 and there are no collisions during the ti!e it ta'es 0or the leading edge o0 the pac'et to propagate to the 0arthest station4 then there 2ill #e no collision 0or this 0ra!e #ecause all other stations are no2 a2are o0 the trans!ission. The !a5i!u! utili8ation achie$a#le using "S A can 0ar e5ceed that o0 AL=<A or slotted AL=<A. The !a5i!u! utili8ation depends on the length o0 the 0ra!e and on the propagation ti!eB the longer the 0ra!es or the shorter the propagation ti!e4 the higher the utili8ation. >ith "S A4 an algorith! is needed to speci0y 2hat a station should do i0 the !ediu! is 0ound #usy. The !ost co!!on approach4 and the one used in I))) .02.34 is the "-persistent techni5ue! A station 2ishing to trans!it listens to the !ediu! and o#eys the 0ollo2ing rules3 1. I0 the !ediu! is idle4 trans!itB other2ise4 go to step 2. 2. I0 the !ediu! is #usy4 continue to listen until the channel is sensed idleB then trans!it i!!ediately. I0 t2o or !ore stations are 2aiting to trans!it4 a collision is guaranteed. Things get Data Communication 111

sorted out only a0ter the collision.

'escri#tion o+ CSMA&C'
"S A4 although !ore e00icient than AL=<A or slotted AL=<A4 still has one glaring ine00iciency3 >hen t2o 0ra!es collide4 the !ediu! re!ains unusa#le 0or the duration o0 trans!ission o0 #oth da!aged 0ra!es. %or long 0ra!es4 co!pared to propagation ti!e4 the a!ount o0 2asted capacity can #e considera#le. This 2aste can #e reduced i0 a station continues to listen to the !ediu! 2hile trans!itting. This leads to the 0ollo2ing rules 0or "S A+",3 !. I0 the !ediu! is idle4 trans!itB other2ise4 go to step 2. 2. I0 the !ediu! is #usy4 continue to listen until the channel is idle4 then trans!it i!!ediately. 3. I0 a collision is detected during trans!ission4 trans!it a #rie0 Fa!!ing signal to assure that all stations 'no2 that there has #een a collision and then cease trans!ission. 4. A0ter trans!itting the Ca!!ing signal4 2ait a random amount o- time4 and then atte!pt to trans!it again. *Repeat 0ro! step 1.%igure 4./ illustrates the techni6ue 0or a #ase#and #us. At ti!e to, station A #egins trans!itting a pac'et addressed to ,. At t", #oth B and " are ready to trans!it. B senses a trans!ission and so de0ers. "4 ho2e$er4 is still una2are o0 AAs trans!ission and #egins its o2n trans!ission. >hen AAs trans!ission reaches "4 at t', " detects the collision and ceases trans!ission. The e00ect o0 the collision propagates #ac' to A4 2here it is detected so!e ti!e later4 t., at 2hich ti!e A ceases trans!ission. >ith "S A+",4 the a!ount o0 2asted capacity is reduced to the ti!e it ta'es to detect a collision. Duestion3 ho2 long does that ta'eH Let us consider 0irst the case o0 a #ase#and #us and consider t2o stations as 0ar apart as possi#le. %or e5a!ple4 in %igure 4./4 suppose that station A #egins a trans!ission and that Cust #e0ore that trans!ission reaches ,4 , is ready to trans!it. Because , is not yet a2are o0 AAs trans!ission4 it #egins to trans!it. A collision occurs al!ost i!!ediately and is recogni8ed #y ,. <o2e$er4 the collision !ust propagate all the 2ay #ac' to A #e0ore A is a2are o0 the collision. By this line o0 reasoning4 2e conclude that the a!ount o0

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ti!e that it ta'es to detect a collision is no greater than t2ice the end1to1end propagation delay.

igure 4!: C)MA+CD operation!

An i!portant rule 0ollo2ed in !ost "S A+", syste!s4 including the I))) standard4 is that 0ra!es should #e long enough to allo2 collision detection prior to the end o0 trans!ission. I0 shorter 0ra!es are used4 then collision detection does not occur4 and "S A+", e5hi#its the sa!e per0or!ance as the less e00icient "S A protocol. Although the i!ple!entation o0 "S A+", is su#stantially the sa!e 0or #ase#and and #road#and4 there are di00erences. =ne is the !eans 0or per0or!ing carrier senseB 0or #ase#and syste!s4 this is done #y detecting a $oltage pulse train and 0or #road#and4 the R% carrier is detected.

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CSMA&C' MAC )rame

%igure 4.. depicts the 0ra!e 0or!at 0or the .02.3 protocolB it consists o0 the 0ollo2ing 0ields3 Pream.le. A /1octet pattern o0 alternating 0s and 1s used #y the recei$er to esta#lish #it synchroni8ation. 9 Start +rame delimiter. The se6uence 101010114 2hich indicates the actual start o0 the 0ra!e and ena#les the recei$er to locate the 0irst #it o0 the rest o0 the 0ra!e. 'estination address *,A-. Speci0ies the station*s- 0or 2hich the 0ra!e is intended. It !ay #e a uni6ue physical address4 a group address4 or a glo#al address. The choice o0 a 1( or 4.1#it address length is an i!ple!entation decision4 and !ust #e the sa!e 0or all stations on a particular LAN. Source address *SA-. Speci0ies the station that sent the 0ra!e. Len$th. Length o0 the LL" data 0ield. LLC data. ,ata unit supplied #y LL". Pad. =ctets added to ensure that the 0ra!e is long enough 0or proper ", operation.
=ctets / ;rea!#le 1 S%, 2 or ( ,A 2 or ( SA 2 Length IJ 0 LL" ,ata IJ 0 ;ad 4 %"S

igure 4!% #$$$ %&'!. -rame -ormat! Legend S%, J Start10ra!e deli!iter ,A J ,estination address SA J Source address %"S ; %ra!e1chec' se6uence

4.5.- "oken (in$

4o*en ring is the most commonly used MAC protocol -or ring-topology LANs . In this section4 2e e5a!ine t2o standard LANs that use to'en ring3 I))) .02.& and %,,I.

4.5.-.! I,,, 80-.2 Medium Access Control

MAC Protocol The to'en ring techni6ue is #ased on the use o0 a s!all 0ra!e4 called a to*en, 2hich circulates 2hen all stations are idle. A station 2ishing to trans!it !ust 2ait until it

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detects a to'en passing #y. It then sei8es the to'en #y changing one #it in the to'en4 2hich trans0or!s it 0ro! a to'en into a start1o010ra!e se6uence 0or a data 0ra!e. The station then appends and trans!its the re!ainder o0 the 0ields needed to construct a data 0ra!e. >hen a station sei8es a to'en and #egins to trans!it a data 0ra!e4 there is no to'en on the ring4 so other stations 2ishing to trans!it !ust 2ait. The 0ra!e on the ring 2ill !a'e a round trip and #e a#sor#ed #y the trans!itting station. The trans!itting station 2ill insert a ne2 to'en on the ring 2hen #oth o0 the 0ollo2ing conditions ha$e #een !et3 9 The station has co!pleted trans!ission o0 its 0ra!e. 9 The leading edge o0 the trans!itted 0ra!e has returned *a0ter a co!plete circulation o0 the ring- to the station. I0 the #it length o0 the ring is less than the 0ra!e length4 the 0irst condition i!plies the secondB i0 not4 a station could release a 0ree to'en a0ter it has 0inished trans!itting #ut #e0ore it #egins to recei$e its o2n trans!ission. The second condition is not strictly necessary4 and is rela5ed under certain circu!stances. The ad$antage o0 i!posing the second condition is that it ensures that only one data 0ra!e at a ti!e !ay #e on the ring and that only one station at a ti!e !ay #e trans!itting4 there#y si!pli0ying error1 reco$ery procedures. =nce the ne2 to'en has #een inserted on the ring4 the ne5t station do2nstrea! 2ith data to send 2ill #e a#le to sei8e the to'en and trans!it. %igure 4.7 illustrates the techni6ue. In the e5a!ple4 A sends a pac'et to "4 2hich recei$es it and then sends its o2n pac'ets to A and ,. Note that under lightly loaded conditions4 there is so!e ine00iciency 2ith to'en ring #ecause a station !ust 2ait 0or the to'en to co!e around #e0ore trans!itting. <o2e$er4 under hea$y loads4 2hich is 2hen it !atters4 the ring 0unctions in a round1 ro#in 0ashion4 2hich is #oth e00icient and 0air. To see this4 consider the con0iguration in %igure 4.7. A0ter station A trans!its4 it releases a to'en. The 0irst station 2ith an opportunity to trans!it is ,. I0 , trans!its4 it then releases a to'en and " has the ne5t opportunity4 and so on. The principal ad$antage o0 to'en ring is the 0le5i#le control o$er access that it pro$ides. In the si!ple sche!e Cust descri#ed4 the access i0 0air. As 2e shall see Data Communication 11&

sche!es can #e used to regulate access to pro$ide 0or priority and 0or guaranteed #and2idth ser$ices.

igure 4!< 4o*en ring operation

The principal disad$antage o0 to'en ring is the re6uire!ent 0or to'en !aintenance. Loss o0 the to'en pre$ents 0urther utili8ation o0 the ring. ,uplication o0 the to'en can also disrupt ring operation. =ne station !ust #e selected as a !onitor to ensure that

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11(

e5actly one to'en is on the ring and to ensure that a 0ree to'en is reinserted4 i0 necessary.

"oken rin$ MAC +rame +ormat

%igure 4.10 depicts the 0ra!e 0or!at 0or the .02.& protocol. It consists o0 the 0ollo2ing 0ields3 Startin$ delimiter *S,-. Indicates start o0 0ra!e. The S, consists o0 signaling patterns that are distinguisha#le 0ro! data. It is coded as 0ollo2s3 FK0FK0004 2here F and K are nondata sy!#ols. The actual 0or! o0 a nondata sy!#ol depends on the signal encoding on the !ediu!. 9 Access control *A"-. <as the 0or!at ;;;T RRR4 2here ;;; and RRR are 31#it priority and reser$ation $aria#les4 and M is the !onitor #itB their use is e5plained #elo2. 4 bit indicates whether this is a to*en or data -rame. In the case o0 a to'en 0ra!e4 the only re!aining 0ield is ),. )rame control *%"-. Indicates 2hether this is an LL" data 0ra!e. I0 not4 #its in this 0ield control operation o0 the to'en ring A" protocol.

igure 4!"& #$$$ %&'!/ -rame -ormat!

'estination address ('A). As 2ith .02.3 "S A+",.

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Source address *SA-. As 2ith .02.3 "S A+",. 'ata unit. "ontains LL" data unit. )rame check se9uence ()CS). As 2ith .02.3 "S A+",. 9 ,nd delimiter *),-. "ontains the error1detection #it *)-4 2hich is set i0 any repeater detects an error4 and the inter!ediate #it *I -4 2hich is used to indicate that this is a 0ra!e other than the 0inal one o0 a !ultiple10ra!e trans!ission. )rame status *%S-. "ontains the address recogni8ed *A- and 0ra!e1copied *"#its4 2hose use is e5plained #elo2. Because the A and " #its are outside the scope o0 the %"S4 they are duplicated to pro$ide a redundancy chec' to detect erroneous settings. >e can no2 restate the to'en ring algorith! 0or the case 2hen a single priority is used. In this case4 the priority and reser$ation #its are set to 0. A station 2ishing to trans!it 2aits until a to'en goes #y4 as indicated #y a to'en #it o0 0 in the A" 0ield. The station sei8es the to'en #y setting the to'en #it to 1. The S, and A" 0ields o0 the recei$ed to'en no2 0unction as the 0irst t2o 0ields o0 the outgoing 0ra!e. The station trans!its one or !ore 0ra!es4 continuing until either its supply o0 0ra!es is e5hausted or a to'en1holding ti!er e5pires. >hen the A" 0ield o0 the last trans!itted 0ra!e returns4 the station sets the to'en #it to 0 and appends an ), 0ield4 resulting in the insertion o0 a ne2 to'en on the ring. Stations in the recei$e !ode listen to the ring. )ach station can chec' passing 0ra!es 0or errors and can set the $ #it to 1 i0 an error is detected. I0 a station detects its o2n A" address4 it sets the A #it to 1B it !ay also copy the 0ra!e4 setting the C #it to 1. This allo2s the originating station to di00erentiate three results o0 a 0ra!e trans!ission3 9 ,estination station none5istent or not acti$e 8A J 04 C ; 09 ,estination station e5ists #ut 0ra!e not copied 8A JJ I4 " J 0%ra!e recei$ed 8A ; I4 C J 1-

4.5.-.- )''I
The )i.er 'istri.uted 'ata Inter+ace ()''I) is a to'en1#ased LAN standard de$eloped #y the A!erican National Standards Institute. %,,I uses a ring topology net2or' in 2hich station inter0aces are interconnected #y optical -iber transmission lin*s operating at 100 #ps in a ring that spans up to 200 'ilo!eters and

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acco!!odates up to &00 stations. %,,I can also operate o$er t2isted1pair ca#le at lengths o0 less than 100 !eters.

igure 4!"" DD# 4o*en-ring networ*

igure 4-"' An DD# =ing being used as a bac*bone to connect LANs and computers

%,,I can #e used in the sa!e 2ay as any o0 the .02 LANs4 as sho2n in %igure4.114 #ut 2ith its high #and2idth it is !ore o0ten used as a #ac'#one net2or' to interconnect $arious )thernet LAN su#1net2or's as sho2n in %igure 4.12.

:#tical +i.er "a#s

>ith an optical 0i#er net2or'4 either an acti$e or passi$e tap can #e used. In the case o0 an acti$e tap *%igure 4.13a-4 the 0ollo2ing steps occur3

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1. =ptical signal energy enters the tap 0ro! the #us. 2. "loc'ing in0or!ation is reco$ered 0ro! the signal4 and the signal is con$erted to an electrical signal. 3. The con$erted signal is presented to the node and perhaps !odi0ied #y the latter. 4. The optical output *a light #ea!- is !odulated according to the electrical signal and launched into the #us. In e00ect4 the ring consists o0 a chain o0 point1to1point lin's4 and each node acts as a repeater. )ach tap actually consists o0 t2o o0 these acti$e couplers and re6uires t2o 0i#ersB this is #ecause o0 the inherently unidirectional nature o0 the de$ice o0 %igure4.13a.

igure 4!". (ptical iber >us taps

In the case o0 a passi$e tap *%igure 4.13#- the tap e5tracts a portion o0 the optical energy 0ro! the #us 0or reception and it inCects optical energy directly into the !ediu! 0or trans!ission. Thus4 there is a single run o0 ca#le rather than a chain point1 to1point lin'. The electronic co!ple5ity and inter0ace cost are dra2#ac's 0or the Chapter 4: LANs and MAC Protocols 120

i!ple!entation o0 the acti$e tap. Also4 each tap 2ill add so!e incre!ent o0 delay. %or passi$e taps the lossy nature o0 pure optical taps li!its the nu!#er o0 de$ices and the length o0 the !ediu!. <o2e$er4 the per0or!ance o0 such taps has i!pro$ed su00iciently in recent years so to !a'e 0i#er #us net2or's practical.

igure 4!"4 8a9 DD# =ing be-ore a brea* in lin*! 8b9 a-ter brea*age o- lin*!

To pro$ide relia#ility 2ith respect to lin' #rea'ages and inter0ace 0ailure4 a dual1ring arrange!ent is used4 as sho2n in %igure 4.14. The trans!ission on one ring 2ill #e cloc'2ise 2hile on the other ring it 2ill #e anti1cloc'2ise. A #rea' in the ring is handled #y redirecting the 0lo2 in the opposite direction at the last station #e0ore the #rea'. This action has the e00ect o0 con$erting the dual ring into a single ring. %igure 4.14*a- illustrates a nor!al %,,I ring 2hile %igure 4.14*#- illustrate the arrange!ent in the case o0 #rea'age o0 lin's at a point. %ro! %igure 4.1& 2e can see that the %,,I 0ra!e structure is $ery si!ilar to that o0 I))) .02.& To'en Ring 0ra!e structure. The 0ra!e #egins 2ith 1( or !ore idle control signals that generate a s6uare 2a$e signal that ser$es to synchroni8e the recei$er. The S, and ), 0ields contain distinct signal $iolations that help identi0y the!. The %,,I 0ra!e does not contain an A" 0ield or a to'en #it. Instead the %" 0ield is used to indicate the presence o0 a to'en and to pro$ide in0or!ation a#out the type o0 0ra!e. A to'en 0ra!e is indicated #y either 10000000 or 11000000 in the %" 0ield. The capture o0 the to'en is done4 not #y 0lipping a #it4 #ut #y re!o$ing the to'en trans!ission 0ro! the ring and replacing it 2ith a data 0ra!e. The other re!aining 0ields 0unction as in I))) .02.&.

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igure 4!"/

DD# -rame structure

4.; Interconnection o+ LANs 4 Brid$es

There are se$eral 2ays o0 interconnecting net2or's. >hen t2o or !ore net2or's interconnected at the physical layer4 the type o0 de$ice is called a re#eater. >hen t2o or !ore net2or's are interconnected at the A" or data lin' layer4 the de$ice is called a .rid$e. >hen t2o or !ore net2or's are interconnected at the net2or' layer4 the de$ice is called a router. Interconnection at higher layers is done less 0re6uently. The de$ice that interconnects net2or's at higher le$el is usually called a $atewa%. ?ate2ays usually per0or! so!e protocol con$ersion and security 0unctions. In this section 2e 2ill 0ocus on #ridges as they are used to interconnect LANs at A" layer.

Brid$es
>hen range e5tension is the only pro#le!4 repeaters !ay sol$e the pro#le! as long as the !a5i!u! distance #et2een t2o stations is not e5ceeded. Local area net2or's *LANs- that in$ol$e sharing o0 !edia4 such as )thernet and To'en ring4 can only handle up to so!e !a5i!u! le$el o0 tra00ic. As the nu!#er o0 stations in the LAN increases4 or as the tra00ic generated per station increases4 a!ount o0 acti$ity in the LAN !ediu! increases until it reaches a saturation point. A typical approach is to seg!ent the user group into t2o or4 !ore LANs and to use #ridges to interconnect the LANs to 0or! a .rid$ed LAN or an e<tended LAN. At ti!es it #eco!es essential to ha$e !ultiple LANs. There are se$eral reasons 0or Chapter 4: LANs and MAC Protocols 122

the use o0 !ultiple LANs interconnected3 =eo$ra#h%. "learly4 t2o separate LANs are needed to support de$ices clustered in t2o geographically distant locations. )$en in the case o0 t2o #uildings separated #y a high2ay4 it !ay #e 0ar easier to use a !icro2a$e #ridge lin' than to atte!pt to string coa5ial ca#le #et2een the t2o #uildings. Per+ormance. >hen range e5tension is the only pro#le!4 repeaters !ay sol$e the pro#le! as long as the !a5i!u! distance #et2een t2o stations is not e5ceeded. Local area net2or's *LANs- that in$ol$e sharing o0 !edia4 such as )thernet and To'en ring4 can only handle up to so!e !a5i!u! le$el o0 tra00ic. As the nu!#er o0 stations in the LAN increases4 or as the tra00ic generated per station increases4 a!ount o0 acti$ity in the LAN !ediu! increases until it reaches a saturation point. In general4 per0or!ance on a LAN or AN declines 2ith an increase in the nu!#er o0 de$ices or 2ith the length o0 the !ediu!. A typical approach is to seg!ent the user group into t2o or4 !ore LANs and to use #ridges to interconnect the LANs. LANs 2ill o0ten gi$e i!pro$ed per0or!ance i0 de$ices can #e clustered so that intra1net2or' tra00ic signi0icantly e5ceeds inter1net2or' tra00ic. (elia.ilit%. The danger in connecting all data processing de$ices in an organi8ation to one net2or' is that a 0ault on the net2or' or e$en a 0ault in a single de$ice !ay disa#le co!!unication 0or all de$ices in the net2or'. The net2or' !ay #e re6uired to #e partitioned into sel01contained units. Securit%. LANs originally assu!e an ele!ent o0 trust #et2een the users in the LAN. As LAN gro2s4 this assu!ption #rea's do2n4 and security concerns #eco!e pro!inent. The 0act that !ost LANs are #roadcast in nature i!plies that ea$esdropping can #e done easily. This #eha$ior opens the door 0or the $arious security threats. Also it is desira#le to 'eep di00erent types o0 tra00ic *e.g.4 accounting4 personnel4 strategic planning- that ha$e di00erent security needs on physically separate !edia. At the sa!e ti!e4 the di00erent types o0 users 2ith di00erent le$els o0 security need to co!!unicate through controlled and !onitored !echanis!s. The esta#lish!ent o0 !ultiple LANs and the 0iltering !echanis! at the #ridges 2ill i!pro$e security o0 co!!unications.

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igure 4!"2 >ridge interconnecting two LANs

)unctions o+ a Brid$e
%igure 4.1( illustrates the operation o0 a #ridge #et2een t2o LANs4 A and B. The #ridge per0or!s the 0ollo2ing 0unctions3 9 Reads all 0ra!es trans!itted on A4 and accepts those addressed to stations on B. 9 @sing the !ediu! access control protocol 0or B4 retrans!its the 0ra!es onto B. 9 ,oes the sa!e 0or B1to1A tra00ic.

Se$eral design aspects o0 a #ridge are 2orth highlighting3 1. The #ridge !a'es no !odi0ication to the content o0 the 0ra!es it recei$es. 2. The #ridge should contain enough #u00er space to !eet pea' de!ands. =$er a short period o0 ti!e4 0ra!es !ay arri$e 0aster than they can #e retrans!itted. 3. The #ridge !ust contain addressing and routing intelligence. At a !ini!u!4 the #ridge !ust 'no2 2hich addresses are on each net2or' in order to 'no2 2hich 0ra!es to pass. %urther4 there !ay #e !ore than t2o LANs interconnected #y a nu!#er o0 #ridges. In that case4 a 0ra!e !ay ha$e to #e routed through se$eral #ridges in its Courney 0ro! source to destination.

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4. A #ridge !ay connect !ore than t2o LANs. The #ridge pro$ides an e5tension to the LAN that re6uires no !odi0ication to the co!!unications so0t2are in the stations attached to the LANs. It appears to all stations on the t2o *or !ore- LANs that there is a single LAN on 2hich each station has a uni6ue address. The station uses that uni6ue address and need not e5plicitly discri!inate #et2een stations on the sa!e LAN and stations on other LANsB the #ridge ta'es care o0 that. The description a#o$e has applied to the si!plest sort o0 #ridge. include additional 0unctions4 such as4 9 )ach #ridge can !aintain status in0or!ation on other #ridges4 together 2ith the cost and nu!#er o0 #ridge1to1#ridge hops re6uired to reach each net2or'. This in0or!ation !ay #e updated #y periodic e5changes o0 in0or!ation a!ong #ridgesB this allo2s the #ridges to per0or! a dyna!ic routing 0unction. 9 A control !echanis! can !anage 0ra!e #u00ers in each #ridge to o$erco!e congestion. @nder saturation conditions4 the #ridge can gi$e precedence to en route pac'ets o$er ne2 pac'ets Cust entering the internet 0ro! an attached LAN4 thus preser$ing the in$est!ent in line #and2idth and processing ti!e already !ade in the en route 0ra!e. ore sophisticated #ridges can #e used in !ore co!ple5 collections o0 LANs. These constructions 2ould

Brid$e Protocol Architecture

The I))) .02.1, speci0ication de0ines the protocol architecture 0or A" #ridges. In A" station

addition4 the standard suggests 0or!ats 0or a glo#ally ad!inistered set o0 protocol architecture o0 these #ridges.

addresses across !ultiple ho!ogeneous LANs. In this su#section4 2e e5a!ine the >ithin the .02 architecture4 the endpoint or station address is designated at the le$el. Thus4 it is at the si!plest case4 2hich consists o0 t2o LANs connected #y a single #ridge. A"

A" le$el that a #ridge can 0unction. %igure 4.1/ sho2s the

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igure 4!": (peration o- a LAN >ridge -rom %&'!. to %&'!4

The LANs e!ploy the sa!e pre$iously descri#ed. A

A" and LL" protocols. The #ridge operates as

A" 0ra!e 2hose destination is not on the i!!ediate LAN

is captured #y the #ridge4 #u00ered #rie0ly4 and then trans!itted on the other LAN. As 0ar as the LL" layer is concerned4 there is a dialogue #et2een peer LL" entities in the t2o endpoint stations. The #ridge need not contain an LL" layer4 as it is !erely ser$ing to relay the A" 0ra!es.

,<ercise
1- ,iscuss S2itched Net2or's and Broadcast Net2or's. 2- >hat is a LANH nature o0 a LAN. 3- >hat are the 0unctions o0 A" layer in a LANH AN. Also 4- List the standards issued #y I))) .02 co!!ittee 0or LAN and &- List the $arious net2or' topologies. ,iscuss one o0 the! (- >hat protocol controls access to the trans!ission !edia in a LANH ,iscuss 'ey para!eters in !ediu! access control !echanis!s. /- ,iscuss di00erent asynchronous !ediu! access control !echanis!s. .- ,iscuss A" 0ra!e 0or!at. 7- >hat are the types o0 ser$ices pro$ided #y LL" layerH ,iscuss the!. ention the 'ey technology ingredients that deter!ine the

!ention 2hat topology and trans!ission !ediu! each o0 the! relies on.

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10- ,iscuss the de$elop!ent o0 "S A+", technology. 11- ,escri#e ho2 0ra!es are trans!itted in "S A+", LAN. 12- ,iscuss $arious 0ields in the "S A+", 13- ,iscuss To'en ring to'en ring. 14- ,iscuss $arious 0ields in To'en ring taps. 1(- >hat are the de$ices a$aila#le to interconnect LANsH <o2 do they di00erH 1/- ,iscuss the reasons 0or ha$ing interconnected !ultiple LANs instead o0 one single LAN. 1.- List the design aspects o0 a #ridge. A" 0ra!e 0or!at. 1&- >hat is %,,I4 in practice ho2 it is usedH ,iscuss di00erent types o0 optical A" 0ra!e 0or!at. A" protocol. >hat is the principal disad$antage o0 the

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