Co

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
ontents
Antennas
Fundamenta
RadiationInt
LinearWire
LoopAntenn
Arrays:Linea
AntennaSyn
IntegralEqu
MutualImpe
BroadbandD
. TravelingWa
. FrequencyIn
Miniaturizat
. ApertureAn
. HornAntenn
. MicrostripA
. ReflectorAn
. SmartAnten
. AntennaMe
alParameters
tegralsandAu
Antennas
nas
ar,Planar,and
nthesisandCo
ations,Mome
edances
DipolesandM
aveandBroad
ndependentA
tion,andFract
tennas
nas
Antennas
ntennas
nnas
easurements
ofAntennas
uxiliaryPotent
dCircular
ontinuousSou
entMethod,a
MatchingTechn
dbandAntenna
Antennas,Ante
talAntennas
tialFunctions
rces
ndSelfand
niques
as
enna

CHAPTER1 ANTENNAS

1.1INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3
Thvenin'stheorem...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................35
1.2TYPESOFANTENNAS..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................8
1.2.1WireAntennas.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................8
1.2.2ApertureAntennas..............................................................................................................................................................................................................9
1.2.3MicrostripAntennas..........................................................................................................................................................................................................10
1.2.4ArrayAntennas..................................................................................................................................................................................................................11
1.2.5ReflectorAntennas............................................................................................................................................................................................................12
1.2.6LensAntennas...................................................................................................................................................................................................................13
1.3RADIATIONMECHANISM..............................................................................................................................................................................................................14
1.3.1SingleWire........................................................................................................................................................................................................................14
1.3.2 TwoWires..................................................................................................................................................................................................................18
1.3.3Dipole................................................................................................................................................................................................................................20
1.4CURRENTDISTRIBUTIONONATHINWIREANTENNA.................................................................................................................................................................24
1.5HISTORICALADVANCEMENT........................................................................................................................................................................................................30
1.5.1AntennaElements.............................................................................................................................................................................................................30
1.5.2MethodsofAnalysis..........................................................................................................................................................................................................32

1. Defini
Anan
as "a
forrad
The I
Anten
mean
The
betwe
guidin
thefo
it is u
fromt
ition
ntennaisd
usually me
diatingorr
EEE Stand
nnas defin
sforradiat
antenna i
een freesp
ng device o
ormofaco
sed to tran
thetransm
efinedbyW
etallic devic
receivingra
dard Defin
nestheant
tingorrece
is the tra
pace and a
or transmi
oaxiallineo
nsport elec
mittingsour
1.1IN
Webster's
ce (as a ro
adiowaves
itions of T
tennaora
eivingradio
ansitional
guiding de
ission line
orahollow
ctromagne
rcetothea

NTRODUC
Dictionary
od or wire)
s."
Terms for
erialas"a
owaves."
structure
evice. The
may take
wpipe,and
tic energy
antennaor
CTION
fromtheantennatothereceive er.

A tran
equivale
system
transmitt
Figure1.
Theso
Thetr
The a
transm
R
L
: r
struct
R

:ref
X
A
: re
anten
nsmissionl
nt of t
of Figure
ting mode
2.
ourceisrep
ransmission
antenna is
missionline
represent
ture
ferredtoas
epresent th
na
line Theven
he anten
1.1 in t
e is shown
presented
nlineisrep
s represen
e.
the condu
stheradiat
he imagina
nin
nna
the
in
byanideal
presentedb
ted by a
uction and
tionresista
ary part of

lgenerator
byalinew
load Z
A
=
d dielectric
ance,isuse
f the impe
r
ithcharact
= (R
L
+
c losses a
edtorepres
dance asso
teristicimp
R

) + ]X
A
associated
sentradiat
ociated wit
edanceZ
c
A
connected
with the
ionbythe
th radiatio

d to the
antenna
antenna
on by the

2. Loss
Underidealconditions,energygeneratedbythesourceshouldbetotallytransferredto
theradiationresistance R

.However,inapracticalsystemthereareconductiondielectric
lossesduetothelossynatureofthetransmissionlineandtheantenna,aswellasthedue
toreflections(mismatch)lossesattheinterfacebetweenthelineandtheantenna.
3. Matching
Taking into account the internal impedance of the source and neglecting line and
reflectionlosses,maximumpowerisdeliveredtotheantennaunderconjugatematching.
Thereflectedwavesfromtheinterfacecreate,alongwiththetravelingwavesfromthe
sourcetowardtheantenna,standingwaves,insidethetransmission.
AtypicalstandingwavepatternisshowndashedinFigure1.2.Iftheantennasystemis
not properly designed, the transmission line could act to a large degree as an energy
storageelementinsteadofasawaveguidingandenergytransportingdevice.

The lo
Thelo
Thest
charac
An eq
the rece
transmis
represen
osses due to
ossesduet
tandingwa
cteristicim
quivalent si
eiving mod
sionline e
ntenergyfr
o the line, a
othelinec
avescanbe
mpedanceo
imilar to th
e where t
equivalent
romthefre
antenna, an
canbemin
ereduced
oftheline.
hat of Figu
the source
remain th
eespacewa

nd the stand
imizedbys
bymatchin
ure 1.2 is u
is replace
he same. T
avetothe
ding waves
selectinglo
ngtheimp
sed to rep
ed by a re
The radiati
antenna.
s are undesi
owlossline
edanceof
present the
ceiver. All
ion resista
irable.

es.
theanten
e antenna s
other part
ance R

is
natothe
system in
ts of the
used to

4. Directivity
In addition to receiving or transmitting energy, an antenna in a wireless system is
usually required to optimize the radiation energy in some directions and suppress it in
others.Thustheantennamustalsoserveasadirectionaldevice.Itmustthentakevarious
formstomeettheparticularneedathand.
For wireless communication systems, the antenna is one of the most critical
components. A good design of the antenna can relax system requirements and improve
overallsystemperformance.

1.2TYP
1.2.1Wi
The
helix. Lo
square,e
ofitssim
PESOFAN
reAntenna
erearevar
op antenn
ellipse,ora
mplicityinc
NTENNA
as
riousshape
nas need n
anyotherc
constructio
AS
esofwirea
ot only be
configuratio
n.

antennass
e circular. T
on.TheCir
uchasast
They may t
rcularloop
raightwire
take the fo
isthemos

e(dipole),l
orm of a r
stcommon
loop,and
rectangle,
nbecause

1.2.2ApertureAntennas
Aperture antennas may be more familiar today. Some forms of aperture antennas
are shown in Figure 1.4. Antennas of this type are very useful for aircraft and spacecraft
applications, because they can be very conveniently flushmounted on the skin of the
aircraftorspacecraft.Inaddition,theycanbecoveredwithadielectricmaterialtoprotect
themfromhazardousconditionsoftheenvironment.
Figure 1.4 Aperture antenna configurations.

1.2.3MicrostripAntennas
Microstripantennasbecamepopularinthe1970s.Theseantennasconsistofametallic
patchonagroundedsubstrate.
The metallic patch can take many different
configurations.
Therectangularandcircularpatchesarethe
mostpopular.

Figure 1.5 Rectangular and circular microstrip

(patch) antennas.
Themicrostripantennasarelowprofile,conformabletoplanarandnonplanarsurfaces,
simpleandinexpensivetofabricate,compatiblewith MMICdesigns, andveryversatilein
termsofresonantfrequency,polarization,pattern,andimpedance.
These antennas can be mounted on the surface of highperformance aircraft,
spacecraft,satellites,missiles,cars,andevenhandheldmobiletelephones.

1.2.4ArrayAntennas
Many applications require radiation characteristics that may not be achievable by a
singleelement.Itmaybepossiblethatanaggregateofradiatingelementsinanelectrical
and geometrical arrangement will result in the desired radiation characteristics. The
arrangement of the array may be such that the radiation from the elements adds up to
givearadiationmaximuminaparticulardirectionordirections,minimuminothers.
TypicalexamplesofarraysareshowninFigure1.6.

Figure 1.6 Typical wire, aperture, and microstrip array configurations

1.2.5R
Becau
sophistic
thathad
Avery
of this ty
needed t
milesoft
eflectorA
use of the
cated form
totravelm
ycommon
ype have b
to achieve
travel..
Antenna
need to co
s of anten
millionsofm
antennafo
been built w
the high g
Fi
as
ommunicat
nas had to
miles.
ormforsu
with diame
gain requir
igure 1.7 Typ

te over gre
o be used
chanappl
eters as lar
red to tran
pical reflector
eat distanc
in order to
icationisa
rge as 305
nsmit or re
r configuratio
ces, especi
o transmit
aparabolic
m. Such la
eceive signa
ons
ally in out
and receiv
reflector.A
arge dimen
als after m
er space,
ve signals
Antennas
sions are
millions of

1.2.6Le
Lens
spreadin
choosing
divergen
They
applicati
especiall
Their
exceedin
Somefor
ensAnte
ses are pri
g in undes
g the appr
tenergyin
y can be u
ons as are
yathigher
r dimensio
ngly large
rmsaresho
ennas
imarily use
sired direct
ropriate m
ntoplanew
sed in mo
e the parab
rfrequenci
ons and w
at lowe
owninFigu
ed to collim
tions. By p
aterial of
waves.
ost of the s
bolic reflec
es.
weight bec
er frequen
ure1.8.

mate incide
roperly sha
the lenses
same
ctors,
come
ncies.
ent diverge
aping the g
s, they can
Figure1
ent energy
geometrica
n transform
1.8Typical
configura
y to preven
al configura
m various
lensanten
tions
nt it from
ation and
forms of

nna

1.3RAD
One
isradiatio
1.3.1Sin
Con
characte
creation
Ass
(coulomb
crosssec
within v
uniform
[
z
(amper
DIATION
e of the fi
onaccomp
ngleWire
nducting w
ristics are
ofcurrent
sume that
bs/m
3
), is d
ctional are
volume I
velocity
res/m
2
)ove
[
MECHAN
rst questio
lished?"
wires are
the motio
flow.
an electr
distributed
a A and v
is movin
I
z
(mete
erthecros
[
z
= q

I
z
NISM
ons that m
material
on of elect
ric volume
uniformly
volume I.
g in the
rs/sec). T
ssectiono

ay be aske
whose p
tric charge
e charge d
y in a circul
The total
z directio
he curren
ofthewire

ed concern
prominent
s and the
density q

lar wire of
charge
on with a
nt density
is
(11a)
ning antenn
Fig 1.9
distribut
secti
nas would
9 Charge unif
ted ina circul
ioncylinder w
be "how

formly
ar cross
wire

Assuming the wire is made of an ideal electric conductor, the current density [
s

(amperes/m)residesonthesurfaceofthewireanditisgivenby
[
S
= q
S
I
z
(11b)
Ifthewireisverythin(radius=0),thenthecurrentinthewirecanberepresentedby
I
Z
= q
I
v
z
(11c)
Where q
I
(coulombs/m)isthechargeperunitlength.
Ifthecurrentistimevarying,thenthecurrentof(11c)canbewrittenas

dI
Z
dt
=
q
I
dv
z
dt
= q
I
a
z
(12)
whereuv
Z
ut = a
z
(m/s
2
).Ifthewireisoflength l,then(12)canbewrittenas
l
dI
Z
dt
= lq
I
d
z
dt
= lq
I
o
z
(13)
Equation (13) is the basic relation between current and charge, and it also serves as
thefundamentalrelationofelectromagneticradiation.

It states that to create radiation, there must be a timevarying current or an

acceleration (or deceleration) of charge. To create charge acceleration the wire must be
curved,bent,discontinuousorterminated.Therefore:
1. Ifachargeisnotmoving,currentisnotcreatedandthereisnoradiation.
2. Ifchargeismovingwithauniformvelocity:
a. Thereisnoradiationifthewireisstraight,andinfiniteinextent.
b. Thereisradiationifthewireiscurved,bent,discontinuous,terminated,ortruncated,
asshowninFigure1.10.
3. Ifchargeisoscillatinginatimemotion,itradiatesevenifthewireisstraight.

For ex
whichm
inFigure
The a
theassoc
Thed
The dece
forcesdu
xample, co
aybeconn
1.10(d).
cceleration
ciatedfield
eceleration
eleration o
uetotheb
Figur
onsidering
nectedtot
n of the ch
dradiated.
nofthech
of the char
uildupofc
re1.10Wire
a pulse so
theground
harges is ac
hargesatth
rges at the
hargeconc

econfiguratio
urce attach
througha
ccomplishe
heendoft
e end of th
centration
onsforradia
hed to an
discretelo
ed by the e
thewireis
he wire is
attheends
ation.
openende
oadatitso

external so
accomplish
accomplish
softhewir
ed conduct
openend,a
ource and
hedbythe
hed by the
re.
ting wire,
asshown
produces
internal.
e internal

1.3.2TwoWires
Consider a voltage source connected to a twoconductor transmission line which is
connectedtoanantennaandcreatesanelectricfieldbetweentheconductors.
The electric force lets the free electrons to be displaced. The movement of the
chargescreatesacurrentthatinturncreatesmagneticfield.

If th
sinusoida
between
sinusoida
The re
direction
intensity
density o
thearrow
Thecr
electrom
he voltag
al, the
n the
al with th
elative m
n of the
y is indi
of the fine
ws.
reationoft
magneticwa
ge sourc
electric
conductors
e same p
magnitude
electric
cated by
es of force
timevaryin
avestravel
e is
field
s is
eriod.
and
field
the
e with
ngelectric
ingalongt

andmagne
hetransmi
eticfieldsb
ssionline.
betweenthheconducto

orsforms

Thee
antenna
electric
currents.
Remo
structure
freespac
"connect
electricl

1.3.3Dip
Nowe
lectromagn
andhave
charges
.
ove part
e; as show
ce waves
ting" the
ines.
pole
explainthe
neticwave
associated
and cor
of the
wn in Figu
can be f
open en
emechanis
senterthe
withthem
responding
antenna
re 1.11(b)
formed by
ds of the
smbywhic

e
m
g
a
,
y
e

chtheelect triclinesofforcearedetached

fromthe

antenna
Fig. 1
dipole in
maximum
During
and the
toformth
.14(a) disp
n the first
mvaluean
g the next
charge de
efreespac
plays the lin
quarter of
dthelines
quarter of
nsity on th
cewaves.
nes of forc
f the perio
havetrave
f the perio
he conduct

e created
od during
eledoutwa
od, the orig
tors begins
between t
which tim
rdlyaradia
ginal three
s to dimini
he arms of
e the char
aldistance

fines trave
sh. This ca
f a small ce
rge has rea
/4
el an addit
an be thou
enterfed
ached its
ional /4
ght of as

being ac
the perio
theoppo
firsthalf,
The e
distance
complished
od have ne
ositecharg
,andtheya
end result
andthesa
d by introd
eutralized t
esarethre
areshown
is that the
amenumb
ducing opp
the charge
eeandtrav
dashedin
ere are thr
eroflines

posite charg
s on the co
veladistan
Figure1.10
ree lines o
directedd
ges which
onductors.
ce/4dur
0(b).
f force po
ownwardi
at the end
The lines
ringthesec

inted upwa
intheseco
d of the fir
of force cr
condquart
ard in the
ond/4.Sin
rst half of
reated by
terofthe
first /4
ncethere

isnonet
themselv
inFigure
In the
opposite
tchargeon
vesfromth
1.10(c).
e remaining
e direction
ntheanten
heconduct
g second h
. After tha
nna,thent
torsandto
half of the
at, the pro

thelinesof
unitetoge
period, the
ocess is re
fforcemus
ethertofor
e same pro
epeated an
sthavebee
rmclosedl
ocedure is
nd continu
enforcedt
oops.This

followed b
es indefin
todetach
isshown
but in the
itely and

electricfieldpatterns,similartothoseofFigure1.12,areformed

1.4CURRENTDISTRIBUTIONONATHINWIREANTENNA
Considerofalosslesstwowiretransmissionline,asshowninFigure1.15(a).
Themovementofthechargescreatesatravelingwavecurrent,ofmagnitude I
0
2,

alongea
Wh
reflection
The
undergoe
between
by the r
Radiation
occurs
nature
terminat
For
of one w
between
chofthew
hen the cu
n.Formsa
e curren
es a 18
n adjoining
eversal of
n from ea
because o
of the
tionofthe
rthetwow
wire is of th
nthetwow
wires.
rrent arriv
purestand
nt in ea
8u
0
phase
half cycles
the arrow
ach wire i
of the tim
current
wire.
wirebalanc
he same m
wiresisvery
es at the e
dingwavep
ach wire
e reversa
s indicated
w direction.
ndividually
mevarying
and the
ced(symme
magnitude
ysmall(s<

end of eac
pattern.
e
l
d
.
y
g
e
etrical)tran
but 18u
o
<<),thefie
h of the w
nsmissionl
outofpha
eldsradiate
wires, it und
line,thecu
ase. If in a
edbythec
dergoes a c
urrentinah
ddition the
currentofe
complete
halfcycle
e spacing
eachwire

areessen
As
assumed
is essent
twowire
close to
radiated
cancel th
there is
transmis

Ult
transmis
ofthecu
ntiallycanc
thesection
d that the c
tially unalt
esofthefla
o each
by one d
hose of th
s a net
sionlinesy
timately t
sion line ta
urrentstand
celled.
nofthetra
current dis
tered. Beca
aredsectio
other, th
do not ne
he other. T
radiation
ystem.
the flare
akes the fo
dingwave
ansmission
stribution
ause the
narenot
e fields
ecessarily
Therefore
by the
d section
orm. If l<,
patternin

nlinebetwe
n of the
, the phase
eacharmi
een u z
e
e
s
2 beginnstoflare, itcanbe

thesame.Inaddition,spatiallyitisorientedinthesamedirection.Thusthefieldsradiated
bythetwoarmsofthedipolewillreinforceeachother.
Ifthediameterofeachwireisverysmall(J ),theidealstandingwavepatternof
the current along the arms is sinusoidal with a null at the end. However, its overall form
dependsonthelengthofeacharm.
For centerfed dipoles with l , l = 2, 2 < l < and < l < S2 , the
currentpatternsareillustratedinFigures1.16(ad).
The current pattern of a very small dipole (usually Su < l 1u) can be
approximatedbyatriangulardistributionsince sin( kl 2 ) kl 2 when kl 2 isvery
small.ThisisillustratedinFigure1.16(a).

Figure 1.16 Current distributions on linear dipoles

Becauseofitscyclicalspatialvariations,thecurrentstandingwavepatternofadipole
longer than (l > ) undergoes 180
o
phase reversals between adjoining halfcycles.
Therefore the current in all parts of the dipole does not have the same phase. This is
demonstrated graphically in Figure 1.16(d) for < l < S2. In turn, the fields radiated
bysomepartsofthedipolewillnotreinforcethoseoftheothers.

Fora
wave pat
current v
1.17for
thecurre
atimeharm
tterns of F
variations,
0tT/2
entstandin
Figu
monicvary
igure 1.16
as a funct
2whereTis
ngwavepat
ure 1.17 Cur
yingsystem
represent
tion of tim
stheperio
tternofFig
rrent distribu

mofradian
the maxim
e, on a /2
od.Thesev
gure1.16(b

ution on a /
frequency
mum curren
2 centerfe
ariationsc
b)bycos(t
/2 wire anten
y=2f,t
nt excitatio
ed dipole a
anbeobta
t).
nna for differ
hecurrent
on for any
are shown
ainedbym

rent times
standing
time The
in Figure
ultiplying

1.5HISTORICALADVANCEMENT
1.5.1AntennaElements
PriortoWorldWarIImostantennaelementswereofthewiretype(longwires,dipoles,
helices,rhombuses,fans,etc.),andtheywereusedeitherassingleelementsorinarrays.
DuringandafterWorldWarII,manyoftheseantennaswereoftheaperturetype(such
asopenended waveguides, slots, horns, reflectors, lenses), and they have been used
forcommunication, radar, remote sensing, and deep space applications both on
airborneandearthbasedplatforms.
Priortothe1950s,antennaswithbroadbandpatternandimpedancecharacteristicshad
bandwidths not much greater than about 2:1. In the 1950s, a breakthrough inantenna
evolution was created which extended the maximum bandwidth to as greatas 40:1 or
more. Therefore, theyare referred toas frequency independent. These antennas are
primarily used in a variety of applications including TV, pointtopoint communications,
feedsforreflectorsandlenses,andmanyothers.

Itwasnotuntilalmost20yearslaterthatafundamentalnewradiatingelement,which
hasreceivedalotofattentionandmanyapplicationssinceitsinception,wasintroduced.
This occurred in the early 1970s when the microstrip or patch antennas were reported.
Thiselementissimple,lightweight,inexpensive,lowprofile,andconformaltothesurface.
Majoradvancesinmillimeterwaveantennashavebeenmadeinrecentyears,including
integrated antennas where active and passive circuits are combined with the radiating
elementsinonecompactunit(monolithicform).
Specific radiation pattern requirements usually cannot be achieved by single antenna
elements,becausesingleelementsusuallyhaverelativelywideradiationpatternsandlow
valuesofdirectivity.Todesignantennaswithverylargedirectivities,itisusuallynecessary
to increase the electrical size of the antenna. This can be accomplished by enlarging the
electrical dimensions of the chosen single element. An alternative way to achieve large
directivities, without increasing the size of the individual elements, is to use multiple
singleelementstoformanarray.

Anewantennaarraydesignreferredtoassmartantenna,basedonbasictechnologyof
the1970sand1980s,issparkinginterestespeciallyforwirelessapplications.Thisantenna
design,whichcombinesantennatechnologywiththatofdigitalsignalprocessing(DSP).
1.5.2MethodsofAnalysis
Toanalyzeeachasaboundaryvalueproblemandobtainsolutionsinclosedform,the
antennastructuremustbedescribedbyanorthogonalcurvilinearcoordinatesystem.This
places severe restrictions on the type and number of antenna systems that can be
analyzed using such a procedure. Therefore, other exact or approximate methods are
oftenpursued.Twomethodsthatinthelastthreedecadeshavebeenpreeminentinthe
analysis of many previously intractable antenna problems are the Integral Equation (IE)
methodandtheGeometricalTheoryofDiffraction(GTD).
1. TheIntegralEquationmethod
TheIntegralEquationmethodcaststhesolutiontotheantennaproblemintheformof
an integral (hence its name) where the unknown, usually the induced current density,is

partoftheintegrand.Numericaltechniques,suchastheMomentMethod(MM),arethen
used to solve for the unknown. Once the current density is found, the radiationintegrals
are used to find the fields radiated and other systems parameters.This method is most
convenient for wiretype antennas and more efficient for structuresthat are small
electrically.
In general, there are two type of IEs. One is the ElectricField Integral Equation (EFIE),
anditisbasedontheboundaryconditionofthetotaltangentialelectricfield.Theotheris
theMagneticFieldIntegralEquation(MFIE),anditisbasedontheboundaryconditionthat
expressesthetotalelectriccurrentdensityinducedonthesurfaceintermsoftheincident
magneticfield.TheMFIEisonlyvalidforclosedsurfaces.
When the dimensions of the radiating system are many wavelengths,
lowfrequencymethods are not as computationally efficient. One such method that has
received considerable attention and applicationover the years is the GTD, which is an
extension of geometrical optics (GO), and itovercomes some of the limitations of GO by

introducingadiffractionmechanism.
For structures that are not convenient to analyze by either of the two methods,
acombinationofthetwoisoftenused.Suchatechniqueisreferredtoasahybridmethod.
Another method, which has received a lot of attentionin scattering, is the
FiniteDifference TimeDomain (FDTD). This method has also beenapplied to antenna
radiation problems. A method that is beginning to gainmomentum in its application to
antennaproblemsistheFiniteElementMethod.

Thvenin's theorem
In electrical circuit theory, Thvenin's theorem for
linear electrical networks states that any combination of
voltage sources, current sources and resistors with two
terminals is electrically equivalent to a single voltage
source V and a single series resistor R. For single
frequency AC systems the theorem can also be applied to
general impedances, not just resistors.
Anyblackboxcontainingonlyvoltagesources,current
sources,andotherresistorscanbeconvertedtoa
Theninequivalentcircuit,comprisedofexactlyone
voltagesourceandoneresistor

1. In the
2. Then,
3. Finally
Step0:T
example, fir
calculating e
y, obtain the
TheOrigincirc
rst, calculatin
equivalent re
equivalent c
uit
Ste
equi
ng equivalen
esistance:
circuit

ep1Calculat
ivalentoutput
nt voltage:
ingthe
tvoltage

Step2:Calc
equivalent
culatingthe
resistance

A Norton



equivalent ccircuit is rela



ated to the T

Thvenin equ uivalent by thhe followingg equations: