Global Position System

Principle of Operation
GPS is a satellite based navigation system. It uses a digital signal at about 1.5 GHz
from each satellite to send data to the receiver. The receiver can then deduce its
exact range from the satellite, as well as the geographic position (GP) of the
satellite. The GP is the location on the Earth directly below the satellite. This
establishes a line of position (LOP) on the Earth, as illustrated in figure 1.
Figure 1. Line of position
on the surface of the Earth from a single satellite.
A second LOP will provide for two possible locations, as shown in figure 2., and a
third LOP will resolve that to a single position on the Earth.
Figure
2. Fix from two lines
of position on surface of Earth (2-D mode).
The range from the satellite is determined by the time the signal is received. The
satellite signal includes the time at which it was sent. By comparing that to the
receiver clock, the time delay and hence the range can be determined. The satellites
contain precise atomic clocks and are updated from the master station. On the other
hand, you typical inexpensive GPS receiver does not contain a precise atomic
clock. However, the signal from a fourth satellite can be used to solve for any error
in the receiver's clock. As a result, the receiver obtains an accurate navigational fix,
including altitude, as well as a precise clock update.

In order for the system to work, there must be at least four satellites visible to the
receiver at all times. In fact there are 21 operational satellites, and three spares, in
orbit at about 20,000 km, which circle the globe every twelve hours. A rough
calculation will show this to be sufficient.
Assume 21 satellites, evenly spaced over the 4t steradians of the Earth's sphere.
That gives about 4t/21 =0.6 steradians per satellite. If you can see about of the
sky at any one time, that would be tsteradians, which would involve t/0.6 5
satellites on average.
System Components
The basic system is divided into three segments:

Figure 3. Segments of
GPS.
Spaced-based segment
The space-based segment consists of the 24 satellites. They travel on polar orbits
around the Earth once every twelve hours at an altitude of about 20,000 km. The
position directly beneath the satellite is called its geographic position. For a polar
orbit the geographic position travels roughly along a particular meridian.

Figure 4. Polar orbit.


The orbits of the various satellites are spaced at 55
o
intervals. A typical satellite is
shown below.


Figure 5. GPS satellite.



Control segment
The master control station (MCS)is in Colorado Springs, and run by the Air Force.
There are also five unmanned stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein, Diego Garcia, and
Colorado, which track the satellites and relay information to the MCS. There are
three uplink antennas at Diego Gargcia, Kwajelein and Ascension.
The control segment tracks the satellites and updates their orbital parameters and
clocks.
User segments
These are the GPS receivers. They receive the satellite transmissions and perform
calculations to determine the position, altitude and time outputs. The antenna is
designed to receive the circularly polarized satellite signal at either 1575.42 (L1) or
1227.60 (L2) MHz. The difference between these signals will be discussed below.
The signal is basically comprised of a 50 bps bi-polar phase shift keyed (BPSK)
digital signal containing the navigation data, which is carried on a 1,023 MHz
spread spectrum signal which serves two purposes:
To encode the identity of the satellite.
To widen the signal bandwidth which reduces the threat of interference from
narrowband sources.
Performance
The GPS system is accurate to within of about 53 ft. in position, 0.3 fps in velocity
and 100 nsec in time. However, for the purpose of denying a precise navigational
system to possible hostile forces, a random error of anywhere between 130 and 330
feet is intentionally inserted. The degraded signal is used in the Standard
Postioning System (SPS). The unadulterated signal is known as the PPS (precise
positioning system) and is only available to government approved users. The PPS
requires decryption to be useable.
To compensate for the injected errors, a system has been developed, outside of the
government program, to measure and correct for the error. This is known as
Differential GPS or DGPS. The principle of operation is that a fixed site, with
well-known position, obtains a SPS fix, measures the error and broadcasts the
correction to other DGPS users.

Applications
For any extended range weapon system, precise and continuous positioning
information is invaluable. GPS using PPS can be expected to be used in all
platforms, missiles, guided projectiles, sonobouys, etc

Inertial Navigation Systems
Principle of Operation
Inertial navigation is based on the concept of calculating the difference in position
from some reference point based on the measured acceleration at frequent
intervals. For simplicity, consider a one-dimensional case like the distance a train
moves down the track. Suppose the train is initially moving with velocity, v
0
. If we
consider a short time interval, At, the train will move a distance of x = v
0
At during
that period. If there is no acceleration, the total distance covered could be found
similarly for any time interval.
If the train accelerates, perhaps by an increase in the throttle position, the velocity
will begin to change. An algorithm could be set up to compute the distance
traveled by iteration:

x = x
0
v = v
0

step 1: x = x + v At
step 2: measure a
step 3: v = v + a At
step 4: repeat step 1

Such a procedure could easily be carried out by a computer. All that is required is a
means to measure the acceleration at any time. A device that does this is called
an accelerometer. The simplest design is nothing more than a mass, m, on a spring,
oriented in the direction of motion, with a scale that measures the compression of
the spring.

Figure 6. Accelerometer.
The acceleration will cause the spring to compress until the force of the matches
the mass times the acceleration (recall that F = ma). The force of a spring is linear
with the change in the length of the spring, Ax, which can be written as F = kAx,
where k is the spring constant. Be measuring the change in length of the spring, the
acceleration can be calculated by:
a = kAx/m.
This design can be extended to more degrees of freedom. Ultimately we need three
degrees of freedom. We would need to have three accelerometers, one for each
direction. Unfortunately, when the object changes directions, the accelerometers
mounted on it, will change direction relative to an external frame of reference. In
fact the coordinate systems used should ideally be an inertial frame of reference,
meaning that it is not accelerating. For navigation, it is tempting to reference some
Earth-based coordinate system like latitude and longitude. However this system is
non-inertial, because of its rotation. In fact, any point on the surface of the Earth
must be accelerating inward at 0.03 m/s
2
to stay in position. Fortunately, this can
easily be accomplished by gravity. A proper reference system can be Earth-based,
with one of its axes aligned parallel to the axis of the Earth for example, but it
cannot rotate. For this reason, many inertial frames are chosen based on the stars,
called celestial frames.
Having chosen a proper inertial reference frame, we need to know the orientation
of our object relative to the inertial frame. Then the measurements from the
accelerometers can be transformed into the reference frame. After this, the
previous procedure may be carried out. Perhaps the simplest way to achieve this is
create a perfect gimbal system which keeps the accelerometers always oriented
with the reference frame and lets the object move around it. Of course, this isn't
possible with mechanical systems, due to friction. Early systems used a
complicated system of gyroscopes to maintain the orientation. This system is
known as the stable platform. It provides the proper orientation for the
accelerometers at all times, regardless of the motion of the object to which it is
mounted.

Figure 7. Inertial navigation
system (INS).
We will discuss ways to maintain or keep track of the orientation of the
accelerometers relative to the inertial reference frame, but for now, assume it can
be done. Consider the two-dimensional example: motion in the x-y plane. Suppose
our body is rotated counter-clockwise by angle u.

Figure 8. Rotation of
reference frame.


The measured accelerations in our body system, x'-y', are related to the reference
frame by:

a
x
= a
x'
cos u - a
y'
sin u
o

= o

oiv u + a
y'
cos u.

Ivotcoo o| oivtoiviv tqc o__ccoctco oicvtco to ov ivctio c|cc
v_c |oc, it io ou||i_icvt to kvoe tqc oicvtotiov coti=c to tqc ivcti
o |oc. Tqio _ov |c o__otioqco | o iv ooc o (PAI). A oiv
c PAI _ov coouc ototiov o|out o oivc oio. A tqcc PAI uvit ei
coouc o toooi|c ototiovo. Tqc PAI o_tuo coouco ototiov
otc.
Figure 9. Ring laser gyro.
The laser in the center provides the source for two beams, one clockwise and one
counter-clockwise. Each beam will set up a standing wave, where an integral
number of wavelengths will fit into the circumference, P. If the system is not
moving, both standing wave modes will be the same. The condition is satisfied
when

n = P, where n = 1,2,3,

The frequency will be f = c/ as usual. When the system is rotating, the standing
waves will change frequency corresponding to the Doppler shift. If the ring of
radius R is rotating with angular velocity, e, then the Doppler shift is

Af = eR/.

The positive sign is for the counter-clockwise (+) beam. Therefore the two modes
will differ by a total of

Af = 2eR/.

I| tqc Aottc oqi|t _ov |c coouco eitq cot o__uo_ (it _ov), tqcv
tqc ovuo ototiov otc _ov |c kvoev ot o tico, eqi_q iv tuv _ov
|c ivtcotco to |ivo tqc oicvtotiov ovc coti=c to tqc ivctio |o
c. Tqio o| _ouoc uot |c oovc |o co_q o| tqc tqcc occco o| |ccoo
|o ototiov. Tqc cuuotiovo oc:

(1) e = Af/2R
(2) u = edt



Here is a picture of a complete RLG inertial navigation system:

Figure 10. Typical RLG
INS.

How Does GPS Work?
The triangulation method
Now that you know the main principles of GPS, you may wish to learn more about
the fundamental physics and mathematics behind GPS. Although it is not possible
to go into great detail - the entire system is quite complex and many different
aspects must be taken into account - here are some of the underlying facts.
The basic principle inherent in GPS is to determine with the best possible accuracy
a point in space, as defined by three coordinates, here geographical latitude and
longitude, as well as elevation above sea level. For sailors, the elevation is not
relevant!
This is done by means of triangulation, that is measurement of triangles. In
practice, this involves determining the distances to at least three GPS satellites
from the user's GPS receiver. The positions of the satellites in space are known all
the time by means of various observational methods and orbital computational
methods.
When one distance is known, the user must be located on the surface of a sphere
with the satellite at the centre and with a radius equal to this distance. With two
distances, the location must be on a circle that represents the intersection betwen
the two spheres. With three distances known, two points are possible of which one
will be far out in space and can be eliminated. Thus, the point in space has been
determined.
Timing problems
However, there are timing problems to be overcome, before this method will work.
In particular, how is the distance to the satellite determined with the desirable
accuracy?
In theory, this is done by measuring the arrival time of the signal from the GPS
satellite. This signal carries timing information from the atomic clock on-board the
satellite and the measured time delay thus indicates the distance (multiplying the
time delay by the speed of light gives the distance).
For this, the GPS receiver must also have an internal clock. However, it is not
possible to install a high-precision atomic clock in a small hand-held GPS receiver!
It is unavoidable that the precision of the clock in the receiver is much less than
that of the atomic clocks in the satellites. The receiver clock may be some fractions
of a second off. But how can the time delays then be measured?
The trick lies in the fact that the time offset of the clock in the GPS receiver is
considered as the fourth unknown (the first three being the three space coordinates
of the receiver). In the first approximation, the offset is considered to be zero.
Then, if a fourth satellite signal is received and a fourth distance is measured, it
will also be possible to determine with high precision this time offset and then to
find the correct space coordinates. Said in other words, the four distances to the
four satellites will only fit and determine one particular point in space, if the time
offset has a certain value. This calculation is done automatically by the software in
the GPS receiver.
This is the reason that the acquisition of three GPS satellites does not give a very
high precision, and that at least four are needed for a satisfactory measurement.
The satellite signals
The digital signals from the GPS satellites are emitted at two frequencies (1228
and 1575 MHz). They are received by the GPS receiver and contain much detailed
information. In addition to the timing signal, there are also data for identification of
the satellite (by its number), about the status of the satellite clock, the satellite
orbit, the current status of the satellite (health) and various correction data. The
data is divided into frames of 1500 bits; one frame is transmitted in about 30
seconds.
These data are stored in the receiver and updated regularly. The approximate
directions and distances to individual GPS satellites that are momentarily above the
horizon are calculated from the orbital data.
Uncertainties
There are of course many other uncertainties involved in a GPS measurement. For
instance, the positions of the satellites are only known with a certain accuracy, the
signals from the satellites are delayed in the ionosphere, background noise is
introduced into the signal and may render part of it undecipherable, there may be
reflections from the surrounding elements (houses, trees), etc.
[GIF, 130k]
Where are we?
All of this means that a position measurement can only reach a certain maximal
accuracy. In practice, under the best of circumstances, this will be about +- 15
metres for civil - still not bad at all!
Exercises:
1. The GPS satellites move in near-circular circumterrestrial orbits with radii near
26,000 km. The period is around 12 hours. What is the speed in the orbit?
2. Assuming that the distance between a GPS satellite and the GPS receiver is
24,000 km. What is the time delay that would be measured? (The speed of light is
300,000 km/sec)
3. The best clocks on-board GPS satellites are accurate to about 1:10
-14
(short-term
stability). How long (in years) would it take for such a clock to be off by 1 second?
4. What kind of timing accuracy corresponds to a position uncertainty of 15
metres.
5. The circumference of the Earth is 40,000 km and corresponds to 360. Which
angle (in arcseconds) corresponds to 15 metres?
GPS units receive signals from United States Government satellites that they use to determine location.
Depending on the unit, a GPS can pinpoint your position in up to three dimensionslatitude, longitude
and altitude.
The remarkable thing about GPS is that the satellite navigational information is available to anyone,
anywhere, free of charge. Of course, you need to buy a GPS receiver to use the data, but its a pretty
small investment when you realize how much information you can get.
Lets talks about the typed of GPS units available.
ONE - A battery operated, hand-held GPS is ideal for small boats, because it doesnt need to be
mounted and wont take up valuable console space.
TWO-Mountable or portable GPS receivers have larger display screens, bigger buttons and more
features than hand-held units. Most GPS in this category operate on batteries or external 12-volt power.
They come with brackets to hold the GPS in place while youre underway and can be removed for
safekeeping when youre done cruising.
THREE - Fixed-mount GPS receivers offer the largest displays and the most features. Theyre meant
to be installed permanently.
FOUR -A stand-alone GPS is often referred to as a chart plotter. Many fixed-mount GPS units combine
satellite navigation with fish finding functions.
Most GPS units come with basic maps pre-installed. To expand your GPSs knowledge base or access
detailed regional data you can purchase and download maps from CD-ROMS or data cards.
GPS offers almost endless possibilities for high-tech boaters. In fact, the technology to network a GPS
with radar, sonar, VHF marine radio and a boats autopilot system is already available. GPS is a
wonderful tool. However, like any piece of equipment a GPS unit isnt perfectso my advice is to learn
how to navigate with a compass and chart, just in case. Itll give you more confidence to explore and
make the most of your time on the water.