UNIT-I ASIAN CUISINE Asia Asian cuisine differs from the rest of the world in that this region

more than any other developed with minimal influence from outside. With this said it is also important to note that when cultural exchange did occur, inhabitants embraced ingredients from the world and assimilated them into their cuisine. This cuisine also has a greater diversity of ingredients and techniques than any other. CHINA Chinese cuisine is characterized by four distinctive cooking styles: northern (Beijing/Peking style), southern (Cantonese style), and eastern/coastal (Shanghai style), and western/inland (Szechwan style)with numerous variations of each style within each region. Situated in the eastern part of Asia, China encompasses an area larger than 3 million square miles(8 million square kilometers).With miles of mountainous terrain, the spacious territory is home to many rivers, thousands of lakes, and a long coastline on the pacific ocean. China is one of the largest countries in the world, with population of more than one billion people. Only 10 % of chinas land is used for cultivation purposes. At times, dramatic shifts in temperature and climate wreak havoc on its generally abundant agriculture. The ever-growing population and expanding cities threaten to inhabit even more of the already inadequate space. Raising animals such as cattle and sheep is made difficult due to insufficient pastureland. Considering that China is roughly the size of the United States, it isnt hard to imagine its diversity. Each of its regions-northern, southern, eastern (coastal), and western-have different climatic and geographical characteristics, and as with any territory, changes in terrain and weather conditions determine the crops that inspire each regions culinary development and preferences. Regional cuisines Northern china In the north, China is relatively cold and arid, with a typically dry, level terrain. The Beijing/Peking province sees frigid winter weather, leading to a growing season that is much shorter than that of other regions. Having been the site of the Imperial Court, the northern cuisine exemplifies creativity, ingenuity, and sophistication. The lavish and traditional three course Peking duck, served with spring onions and hoisin sauce is an example of the areas culinary refinement. This region makes use of intense seasonings in a simple, delicate manner, but is also well known for its pungent, sweet-and-sour dishes. Typical crops include wheat, corn, soybean, bokchoy, napa cabbage, root vegetables, egg plants, persimons, pomegranates, peaches, pears, apples, grapes and jujube dates. Chestnuts, walnuts, and peanuts are also grown in this area. These ingredients, along with garlic, green onions, and dark soya

sauce lend distinct flavor principles to the area. Wheat items such as noodles, breads , dumplings, and pancakes are common. Mongolian influences are also still apparent in the regions dishes, specially the use of lamb and mutton, the commonality of barbecued meat dishes, and fire pot specialties (one- dish meals reminiscent of Fondue).Hot-pot meals include custom-blended condiments for each diner and platters of meat and vegetables. Diners use chopsticks to dip the food items into simmering liquid (broth, oil, etc.) and then place the food into their bowls, to which they can add flavorings and/ or condiments. Mongolian barbecue is similar, except the ingredients are grilled and placed in buns for eating. Southern China The hills and low mountains of the southern regions are scattered with a number of rivers, lakes, and streams. With a small portion of the land flat enough for row cropping, the heavy rainfall and abundant sunshine in and around the Cantonese province welcomes a long growing season, including two rice harvests per year. The southern Cantonese style of cooking is a display of succulence with its masterly blend of different flavors. It is the most known style of Chinese cooking among westerners. Cantonese dishes use little seasonings; they are flavored in a simple manner featuring a minimal level of spiciness. The principal crops of this region are rice, sugarcane, mulberries, and freshwater fish. A variety of exotic fruits, including lychee, longan, loquats, citrus, olives, guava, bananas, papayas, pineapples, and coconuts, are also produced in this area. Vegetables such as snow peas, Chinese broccoli, taro, tiger lily, bamboo shoots, lotus roots, lotus seeds, water chestnuts, squash, pumpkins, mushrooms, and beans are grown throughout the region. Hoisin, plum, oyster, and light soy sauces are typical cooking condiments, along with garlic. Seafood is commonly used, as well as blanched vegetables, and whole suckling pigs. The Cantonese prefer quick cooking styles such as stir-frying and steaming to highlight the natural flavor, color, and texture of fresh ingredients. Additional cooking techniques used in the Cantonese region are barbecuing, roasting, and simmering. Foods are oftentimes undercooked to bring out the natural flavors. Dim sum and lacquered meats are popular preparations in the area. Eastern China The mild climate of the eastern/coastal region results from hot, humid summers and short, moderate winters. The low, flat terrain in the Shanghai province provides for productive agriculture and ample fishing. In the eastern region along the coast, Shanghai and its neighbour, Fukien, rely heavily on soy sauce, sugar, and ginger for flavoring agents. Fukien is known for producing the most highly regarded soy sauce in China. Natural flavors are accentuated by keeping dishes light and delicate. To emphasize the fresh ingredients , eastern chefs prefer stir-frying, steaming, red cooking and blanching. Pickling and curing are often used to preserve meat and vegetables.

This land of fish and rice is abundant in fresh water and saltwater fish and seafood, specifically carp and crabs. Livestock is also commonly raised here, including chickens, ducks, pigs, and cattle. The primary food crops include rice and wheat. Barley, corn (maize), and sweet potatoes are the regionss secondary crops . Additionally, a variety of bamboo shoots, beans, melons, gourds, squashes, and leafy vegetables, as well as peaches plums , and grapes are cultivated in eastern China.Shaoxing wine (yellow grain wine), Chinkiang vinegar(Chinese black vinegar used as a dipping sauce and condiment), and Jinhua ham (smoky cured ham) also commonly contribute to the cuisines flavor profile. Western China The western region of China sees very little rainfall, while the inland areas of this region experience monsoon conditions. Depending on the location , agriculture can be very productive, with a growing season lasting nearly all year. In the western parts, the landscape mainly consists of mountainous ground or enclosed desert basins. With extremely dry conditions, little farming is achieved.irrigation is essential to successfully make use of the land. The western/inland region of Szechwan is revered for its highly seasoned dishes. The most prominent dishes are Hot and Sour and are often oily, a possible influence of neighbouring India and pakistan. The area encompassing the szechwan province raises a significant amount of poultry, as well as the largest number of cattle and pigs in China. Rice, corn, and sweet potatoes are produced here,along with wheat, rapeseed, sorghum, barley, soyabeans, millet, sugarcane, citrus fruits, tung nuts, and tea. The areas condiments and spices are quite strong. The chile, for examples, appears in several forms: roasted with salt and ground, fresh, in pastes, and infused in oil. Onions, garlic, dried black mushrooms, and fungus ( cloud ear or wood ear), as well as sesame oil and fermented broad bean paste, contribute to the cuisines characteristic flavors. Beef, lamb, chicken,a nd fish are prepared throughout the region. Although the Szechwan cooking style makes use of all techniques, stir-frying and steaming are most popular. Cooking Techniques Red stewing/red cooking( hung-shu)--This technique is unique to Chinese cooking. The process involves cooking the food (usually pork, beef, ham, chicken, duck, or carp) in large quantities of soy sauce and water. It is similar to stewing. The soy sauce contributes to rich taste and reddish brown color created by using this technique. VelvettingA process in which meat, fish, or seafood is coated with cornstarch, egg whites, rice wine, and salt. This is done to retain moisture, producing a succulent dish. The coating also allows for the sauce to adhere better to the finished dish. Lacquer roasting--- A technique performed in the Cantonese region. The food item, such as poultry, ribs, pieces of beef, or back bacon, receives several coats of a high-sugar mixture (honey, corn syrup, maltose, or sugar with an oil or soy sauce). After roasting, the meat has a glossy, crispy finish with a subtle sweetness.

Japan Consisting of over 3,000 islands, and home to nearly 127 million people, japan is positioned within the east coast of mianland Asia 500 miles(805 kilometers) from China and 100 miles (161 kilometers from Korea. The East China sea, the Japan sea, and the Pacific Ocean surrounds it. Active volcanoes, high mountains, hills, forests, short river valleys, and small lowland plains make up japans diverse landmass. The four main islands of japan stretch over 1,200 miles(1931 kilometers) and are, from north to south:Hokkaido, Honshu, Sikoku, and Kyushu. Honshu, the largest of the four and the most heavily populated, is home to the major cities of Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka, and Kobe. Within the main islands, there are seven regions. With the exception of northern Hokkaido and the northern and eastern portions of Honshu, the islands hosts four distinctly regular seasons, each fairy mild.Winters are cold, summers are hot and humid, and precipitation is heavy. Monsoon rains in the summer are essential for the cultivation of rice, Japans staple crop. Regional cuisines The long, cold winters found on the northern islands of Hokkaido bring heavy snowfall that lasts nearly half the year. Mountain ranges in the center of the island do not allow for extensive arable land , although rice, potatoes, corn, onions, squash, asparagus, and melons are cultivated. The rice grown in Hokkaido is mainly used for production of sake (rice wine). Salmon, crab, clams, squid, scallops, and shrimp flourish along the beds of Kombu that line the coastal ocean floor. Shifts in terrain, weather, and climate are seen throughout the vast island of Honshu. In the northern section, the harsh winters are long and the mountain ranges are massive. Despite the cold climate, fruits and vegetables are not in short supply. The area is famous for its Fuji apple and Japans top brand of rice, known as Sasanishiki. The mountains provide sansai (wild mountain vegetables) and mushrooms. Beef, Pork, and an assortment of seafood are widely available. Tokyo, the capital city, and its surrounding areas have exceptional weather conditions. The mountains in the north protect the large, lowland area from the cold while the warm current maintains a fairly mild and comfortable environment. This southeastern portion of Honshu has access to countless seafood items, such as katsuo (bonito or skipjack tuna), sardines, nori (sea-weed), and various other fish and shell fish. A generous amount of local produce is grown in the west, including daikon, taro, burdock, and nashi pear. The area is known for its numerous soybean products: natto (fermented soybeans), shoyu (soy sauce), and miso (fermented soybean paste). The central region of Honshu is home to the highest mountains in Japan. It is an area that fluctuates greatly in geography, climate, and produce. In the north, rice, taro, and squash are abundant. Strawberries and tea production flourish in the south, along with cattle rearing. The coast offers several unique varieties of seafood, as well as the infamous fugu ( puffer fish). Crab, katsuo, abalone, trout, lobster, mackerel, and eel are a sample of the regions rich supply of sea product.

Flat terrain and a warm climate supply the cities of Osaka and Kyoto with generous amounts of produce. This portion of Honshu shares many similarities with the far western region and the island of Shikoku. Beef, sea products, rice, vegetables (kabura-large turnip, matsutake and shiitake mushrooms), and fruits ( plums, persimmons, nashi pears, and citrus) provide an assortment of diverse ingredients for this area. The subtropical island of Kyushu, located in the southern portion of Japan, offers citrus fruits, strawberries, grapes, pineapples, papaya, passion fruit, and mangos. Vegetables include onions, shiitake mushrooms, and lotus root. There is sufficient access to seafood such as mackerel, squid, and Fugu. Beef, pork, and wild boar make up the livestock. Raw Fish The Japanese believe that fish is best served fresh and eaten raw, ensuring the most premium taste and texture. The roots of this theory can be traced back before the modern era of refrigeration, when residents living close to shore would ingest raw fish and seafood to guarantee freshness. For those living farther away, products needed to be preserved. The process involved fermenting fresh fish is boiled rice. Once sufficiently preserved, the decomposed rice was discarded, leaving behind a mildly soured fish. In the fifteenth century, both the fish and rice became edible when the fermentation period was condensed, making sushi a popular snack food. Several hundred years later, sushi was prepared without the use of fermentation, and soon afterwards, it was presented with sashimi in the hand-rolled formed nigiri-sushi (oblong fingers of rice topped with various ingredients). Nigiri-sushi is perhaps the most famous Japanese food. Sushi chefs (itamae) devote ten to fifteen years to the art of preparing this type of sushi, from mastering rice cooking and intricate cutting techniques, to forming sushi and learning all there is to know about fish. The difference between sushi and sashimi is the presence, or presentation, of rice. Sashimi is most often served by itself, highlighting delicately sliced fresh seafood presented with shiso leaves, flowers, or sprouts and shoyu flavored with a small amount of wasabi. Sushi, on the other hand, involves countless variations, each generally consisting of vinegar-flavored rice and raw fish wrapped in rolls(maki) and cones (temaki), or formed in a wooden box as pressed sushi (oshizushi). Seasame seeds, tobiko (flying fish roe), and shiso leaves often provide additional flavor, texture, and color. Condiments served with sushi include soy sauce, pickled ginger (gari), and wasabi. Norimaki (rice and seasoned vegetables rolled in sheets of nori) and inari-sushi (a sweet type of sushi consisting of rice balls soaked in a light syrup and rolled in fried sheets yuba tofu---a soybean product made from simmered soybean milk) are just a couple of many sushi variations.

Common cooking equipments used in Japanese cooking Bamboo skewers (kushi) Cooking chopsticks Earthenware casseroles and iron pots Graters Japanese knives ( hocho) Mortar and pestle ( suribachi and surikogi) Omelet pan (tamagoyaki-ki) Portable gas stove ( takujo konro ) Rice cooker ( sokuseki tsukemono-ki) Rice spatula( shamoji) Steamers ( mushiki) Sushi mat ( makisu) Sushi mold ( oshizushi no kata) Sushi tub (hangiri) Wok

Southeast Asia Southeast Asia includes Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar (formerly Burma), the Philippines , Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Food is such a socially important part of Southeast Asian daily life that many people in these countries greet each with a version of, Have you eaten yet? The Thai actually say, have you eaten rice and, while eating, it is common to discuss what the next meal will bring. With its many miles of coastline, Southeast Asia has served as a point of entry to the Asian world and thus felt the influence of many cultures, all leaving a trace of their distinct cuisines to form a unique variety of fusion cooking across Southeast Asia. Indigenous spices have helped to create vibrant flavors that help shape a unique cuisine. More than twenty distinctly different languages are spoken in these ten countries, and there are in exess of twelve major religions practiced. Southeast asia includes the mountain regions of northeast Thailand, the expansive coastline of Vietnam, and Indonesias volcanic belt of nearly 17,000 islands that stretch from west of the Malaysian peninsula across to the north of Australia. Tropical rain forests, mountains, islands, coastal stretches, flat plains, and highlands create a landscape that is diverse as it cuisines. However, recent in dustrialisation is transforming much of this land to high-rises, grated communities, industrial parks, and business centres. The expensive network of fresh waterways and expansive coastlines throughout Southeast Asia has created cuisines that are heavily reliant on seafood.Southeast Asians consumes twice as much freshwater fish and seafood than any other animal protein source.The mekong, salween, Chao phraya, and red rivers feed the streams and lakes that supply freshfish and allow for large scale aquaculture; most of the worlds farmed shrimp come from southeast Asia.The prolific Mekong begins in tibet, meanders through southeastern china, divides Laos and Myanmar, continues to flow south between Thailand and Myanmar, and ends by spreading out into a massive delta in the southern Vietnam. The abundance of seafood has also led to the development of a wide variety of condiments to go with it. Fish sauce is used heavily in Thai, Vietnamese, Cambodian, Filipino, and Laotian cuisines, while fermented shrimp paste is used more frequently in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. There is a remarkably diverse climate across the region, beginning at sea level in the tropical rain forests and climbing up to Myanmars Hkakabo Razi on the Chinese border, which towers to just below 20,000 feet above sea level. Rice is cultivated on terraces in the mountains and hill areas and in rice paddy fields in the low-lying areas and plains. Temperatures range from a scalding 1000 f/380C or more to 50o f/100C in the mountains. A majority of southeast Asia has long, hot, and humid days that are peppered with heavy down-pours of welcome rain. Monsoon seasons, with floods and stroms, are part of daily life and most would say that there is not a bad time to visit the area; when one region is wet, anotheris dry and sunny. The southern area of Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines were once referred to as the Spice Islands since they possessed many indigenous spices, primarily pepper, cloves, cinnamon, and nutmeg.

Looking to control the spice trade, the first Portuguese voyage reached the small Malaysian port of Malacca in 1509, although it took until 1511 until the Portuguese finally took control of the bustling trading port. Until then, black pepper was the only heat in Thai cuisine. The Portuguese introduced chiles from South America and now chiles have become an essential part of Malaysian, Thai, and other Southeast Asian cuisines. The berries of the indigenous peppercorn plant are used primarily in two formsblack and white peppercorns. The black peppercorns are riper and the white peppercorns have the outer husk removed. Indonesian cloves, the dried bud of an evergreen bush, are used throughout the region in savory dishes. Many other native agricultural resources have become integral components of the cuisine. The large family of palms native to the area is relied upon to produce palm sugar, palm oil, coconuts, and palm vinegar. Coconut milk is a staple across Southeast Asia, especially in the southern areas of Thailand, all of Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. Most cooks in America turn to canned coconut milk in Southeast Asia---they do, however, often go to a local vendor who shreds fresh coconut for them. One can make coconut milk by grating the white coconut flesh, adding some warm water, giving this mixture a quick massage, and then squeezing out the coconut milk. This first liquid would be referred to as thick coconut milk. Add some more water and squeeze again to obtain thin coconut milk. Do not confuse it with coconut water in the middle of the coconut; this is often used as a chilled beverage or as a simmering liquid for meats and seafood. Indigenous bamboo is made into cages for small farm animals, woven into baskets for field fresh produce, crafted into steamers for the kitchen, and split into shards for chopsticks. A specific bamboo species is harvested early for its young, edible shoots. Dried bamboo leaves are commonly used to wrap dumplings. In Malaysia, one might even have the chance to taste rice that has been wrapped in banana leaves, stuffed into a hollow piece of bamboo, and grilled over charcoal. The myraid unique fruits found in the region could fill a book of its own, since many that are indigenous to the area are still readily available in other parts of the world. Travelers and the like quickly adapt to many of the fruits, such as lychee, star fruit, rambutan, mangosteen, and numerous varieties of bananas. The banana tree yields leaves, blossoms, hearts, and fruit-all used in popular dishes. Banana leaves are used as a plate, to wrap items before they are steamed, grilled, and pan fried, or simply as an ornate garnish. If using fresh banana leaves, pour hot water over them to make them pliable before trying to fold them. The banana blossom is used for its astringent flavor, most often in salads. The blossom can be cut into large chunks and cooked in a curry. In Burma, they have devised a fish stew that uses the core of the main trunk,although botonically, the banana plant is an enormous herb, not a tree. Then there are those fruits that take a bit more adventure to appreciate. Durian, known as the king of Fruits throughout Southeast Asia, has hard thorns outside and creamy, sweet flesh that is reminiscent of pineapple and fermented sweet onionsone of those delicacies you must taste to understand! This stinky fruit is actually banned from rental cars, hotels, and buses because of the strong scent that some find offensive, but tigers are said to love. Cuisine The pantry of ingredients used in Southeast Asian cooking are almost identical in each country, yet the way in which they are combined and the regional cooking techniques create a distinctive cuisine.The

Vietnamese are known for their copious use of fresh herbs and hoe guests assemble many of their foods tableside, layering textures and flavors. The Thais are famous for coconut laden sauces, hot and sour soup, and crispy green papaya salad. Indonesian inspired satay with peanut sauce could be considered an icon of Southeast Asian cuisine. However, in many instances, regional foods are becoming blurred, as modernization has all but eliminated strictly regional traditional cuisines in most developed countries. Curries Curries can be found on dining tables in every country of this region. Curry is an oft-misunderstood term; the term curry was derived from the Indian term Kari, which simply means sauce or indicates any dish simmered in sauce. The Thais utilize the word kaeng(sometimes spelled king) to designate a spice paste-seasoned liquid. They further categorise this into thickened (such as a red curry) and thin liquids(as in broth-based soups). Thai curry pastes are based on the same fundamental ingredients: lemongrass, galangal, shallots, garlic, peppercorns, kaffir lime rind, fermented shrimp paste, and salt. Then each variety may have an ingredient that makes it unique: green curry contains the addition of the coriander roots and green chiles, and yellow curry incorporates turmeric. The curries of Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia are based on a reampah.literally translated as spice, the term is popularly used to describe a pounded paste of aromatic ingredients. Many rempahs contain garlic and shallots, and also lemongrass, galangal, chiles, and shrimp paste, and are often the primary thickener for stews and soups. Sambal is another sauce or sauce that is found in several countries---primarily in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. A sambal is broadly defined as a chile-based condiment. The most common ingredient list for a sambal would contain chiles, garlic, shallots, and sugar, and may contain vinegar, shrimp paste, salt, and tamarind. Sambal can be served cooked or uncooked, depending on the cook and region. Philippines People from the Philippines had contact with other groups perhaps as early as 5000BCE when people from what is now Vietnam arrived by sea. Arrivals from the Malay Peninsula as early as 300 BCE added to the mix of people living on some of the islands in the Philippines. Trade with Arabia, India, and China clearly flourished by the 7th century CE. Islam arrived with some of the Arab, Islamic, Malaysian, and Sumatran traders in the southern islands of the Philippines during the 15th century, but the situation changed when Europeans began to arrive in 1521. Ferdinand Magellan, the Portuguese explorer, was the first European in the Philippines, an honor that led to the loss of his life at the hands of some natives less than two months after his first landfall. However, Magellans ship finally returned to Europe in 1522. Information about the Philippines and other islands motivated the Spanish to send more ships there. The purposes of these expeditions were twofold: to convert the natives to Catholicism and to gain wealth through trade. The Spanish influence served to halt the spread of Islam. Plans for development of the Philippines as a Spanish possession included creating Manila as the capital. Over the centuries, Spain did little to develop the Philippines after it accomplished the Catholic conversion in the north. However, the Islamic regions in the south generally did not convert to Catholicism.

Spains dominance of the Philippines was not accepted without protest from other European powers, for the Portuguese, Dutch, and British attacked at various times. In fact, the British actually were in charge of the Philippines for a little less than two years in the 18th century. The Spanish- American War that was fought halfway around the world from the Philippines caused the United States to send the Admiral Dewey and his ships to attack the Spanish fleet at Manila. As a result, the United States, showing little respect for the local people, took over the Philippines. A strong desire for independence eventually led to an agreement that would have resulted in the independence in 1945, which was delayed by the Japanese invasion and occupation during World War II, but the Philippines became independent in 1946. Since that time, efforts to establish a truly effective government have tended to veer in various directions but finally seem to be coalescing to begin to meet the needs of the citizens despite Muslim unrest on the southern islands (Mindanao and some neighboring smaller islands).

Mexico Mexico is the giant northern neighbor of Central America. From north to South, Mexico stretches more than 2,000 miles, and its shared border with the United States is almost 2,200 miles long. Mountains in the vicinity of Mexico City include Popocatepetl (a volcano 17,288 feet high). The Gulf of Mexico extends along the eastern edge of Mexico until the Caribbean commences on the eastern side of the Yucatan Peninsula. Baja, California ( largely dessert), reaches more than 800 miles southward from the northern border, forming a western peninsula separated by the Sea of Cortez and the Pacific on its western edge. Between arid conditions (only 12 percent of the country gets enough rain for crops) and challenging terrain, Mexico has had limited agricultural productivity. Many of the farmers operate at a subsistence level, with corn, beans, and some rice or wheat being their common crops. The high elevation (7500 feet) around Mexico City is suited for growing a variety of vegetables (such as tomatoes, potatoes, squash, and chilies) and wheat. Some livestock are raised in the north, and sugarcane is grown successfully in low areas along the Gulf of Mexico. Chocolate, vanilla, avocados, papayas, and guavas are available from the tropical lowlands. Religion The major religion throughout Central America and Mexico is Catholic, the result of the extensive conversion efforts initiated by the Spanish friars of the colonial are. The Catholic Church has a powerful economic base throughout the region and is the center of many festivals and celebrations. The strong emphasis on the importance of the family and extended family found throughout these countries has been fostered over the centuries by the teachings of the Catholic friars. Machismo and male authority within the family and the role of women as mothers and caretakers of the home are a firmly established pattern. Morality among women is expected and carefully guarded. Despite the dominance of the Catholic Church, religious freedom is respected. Food Patterns

The foods commonly eaten in Mexico and Central America are a flavorful blend of the native plants and Fish eaten by the Indians mingled with pork, spices, and other European ingredients brought by the Spanish invaders. Although there are some differences in various regions of Mexico and its neighbors to the south, most people today a diet that strongly reflects the heritage of the Indian ancestors. Corn, the hardy cereal crop that formed the foundation of the diet prior to the arrival of the Spanish, still is the dominant staple, augmented by wheat and rice brought by the Spaniards. Beans of various types, chilies, and tomatoes eaten early Indians are today likely to be flavored with lard, onions, and garlic, the contributions of their conquerors. Some famous food items: Tortillas Corn is featured on the menu all day long throughout this entire region. Tortillas appear at all meals. Their preparation often is done in factories today, but they frequently are made at home. Preparation of tortillas requires masa harina, the flour made in earlier days by grinding hull-less, limesoaked corn (nixtamal) with a hand-shaped stone (mano) on a flat stone (metate). After masa harina is worked into dough with added water, balls of dough are patted or pressed into flat circles about oneeighth inch thick and usually 6 to 8 inches in diameter. These flat disks of dough are baked on a flat, cast iron griddle (Comal) and served immediately, or the baked tortillas may be reheated (often by frying) when used later. Wheat is used to make flour tortilla; its gluten particularly makes the tortilla dough easier to manipulate than the dough made with corn. This characteristic is evident in the large disks commonly made when preparing flour tortillas. The sturdy, rather flexible texture of flour tortillas is illustrated effectively in burritos, the Mexican- American dish featuring a hearty filling such as beans or meat(or both) and other ingredients wrapped in a large flour tortilla and often garnished with salsa (sauce of chopped tomatoes or other ingredients and seasoned with chilies and various spices). Several recipes use corn tortillas as their base. Corn tortillas are thicker and less malleable than flour tortillas because of the lack of gluten. However, they can be folded or rolled to make various popular dishes. Tacos are made with corn tortillas (either fried to make a crisp shell or left soft) folded in half to hold the desired filling made with any combination of beans, silvered meats, chopped tomatoes and lettuce, salsa, grated cheese, and sour cream. Enchiladas are also made with corn tortillas, but they are rolled with a filling and covered with a sauce and grated cheese and then baked. Quesadillas are made by placing grated cheese alone or with other fillings over half of a flour tortilla and then folding the other half over before it is heated in the oven or sometimes fried. Often a tostada is made by frying a corn tortilla to make a crisp and then generously topping it with layers of refried beans, silvered. Another tostada version is made with flour tortilla fried in the shape of a bowl; this crisp, edible bowl is filled with layers of refried beans and the other ingredients used in making a tostada with a corn tortilla. Flautas are made by putting a small amount of filling very tightly into a corn tortilla, rolling it into a pencil shape and then frying it until crisp. Guacamole (a favorite accompaniment of mashed avocado accented with chilies, chopped tomatoes, cilantro, and lemon juice) is often served as a dip with flautas, tortilla chips, or other finger foods, in salads, and as a topping with many other dishes. Other dishes featuring corn tortillas are chalupas (fried tortillas topped with ingredients similar to those used in a tostada), chilaquiles (shredded tortillas, fried before baking with chili sauce), and

gorditas (thick, small tortillas fried and slit to form a pocket, and then stuffed with meats or seafood, beans, lettuce, and cheese). Tamales Tamales with a variety of fillings are popular throughout this region. Their place in the menu may be as the main part of the meal, or as a dessert if sweet. Basically, tamales are made from masa harina and water and mixed into a dough (masa). Masa is spread on dried connhusks and a filling is added before the fillled tamale is wrapped snuly in its cornhusk wrapper( or banana leaves, in tropical rigions), placed in a large steamer, and steamed until the dough is done and the filling is cooked. The wrapping is then discarded, and the tamales are devoured with enthusiasm. Mexican chilies Many different types of chilies are grown in Mexico and Central America and are used as flavoring or even as a main ingredient, as in chilies rellenos. Anaheim(or California) long green chilies are used in making chiles rellenos, and various other dishes utilize them or other chilies. Poblano is another variety that commonly is stuffed or used in recipes needing a comparatively mild chili. Considerable care is required when working with chilies to avoid burning hands, mouth, and eyes with the juices and fumes that come from them while removing the seeds and interior veins, which are the extremely hot parts of the chilies. Chilies for chiles rellenos are singed over a gas flame or in the oven to blacken and crisp the skin for easy removal; the cleaned chile is filled with grated cheese and dipped in a frothy egg batter and then deep-fried in lard or oil.

Middle Eastern : Family Values The customs of the middle East often reflect its religious heritage. For Muslims, women are important within their families and maybe quite protected from the rest of the world, which is evidenced in their wearing of the chador(or similar enveloping outer garment). The family and its honor are at the center of values; males are clearly recognized as the leaders of their families, and male children are specially cherished. Interactions Men may embrace each other in greeting, may touch, and may stand quite close to others while talking. Punctuality is not a value in this part of the world, but warm hospitality is important. Expressing interest in the familyswell being precedes any business. Generosity often is so great that Middle esterners may give you an item that you admired. Friday is the Islamic religious day, and no business is to be conducted. Eating Traditions Women and children may eat separately, after the men, but the foods served both sexes usually follow Muslim laws: no alcohol or pork, goat, dog, crabs, lobsters, or products containing them. Fasting is required during Ramadan. Cultural Influences on Middle Eastern Cuisine Islam, the spice trade, and a procession of vast regional empires all have played a unifying culinary role in developing similar flavors and eating customs throughout the region, much of which wasnt divided into separate countries until the twentieth century. Islam Today, more than 90 percent of the middle East is Muslim, and since Islams birth, in the 600 A.D., Islamic powers have bound the regions culinary culture. Islams prophet, Mohammed, stressed that

food was a divine blessing that should be appreciated, but also initiated strict culinary taboos. Islamic dietary rules forbid ingesting alcohol (even in cooking), pork, and blood. Although there are levels of compliance, Middle Easterners generally cook meat thoroughly in favour of lamb or goat, and do not drink. In Muslim culture, the mixing of the sexes is generally discouraged, and this carries over to its foodways. Tradionally, except in wealthy homes, where a male cook may be hired, women prepare the food. In observant homes, or when guests are invited, men and women may dine separately; males may eat before women and children. Muslims fast from dawn until dusk during the month of Ramadan, a time of self-discipline, meditation, and prayers, thought to revitalize many of the teachings of the Quran, the holy book of Islam. Ramadan meals are eaten after sunset (iftar). Each country, and often each family, has their own culinary traditions that determines how the fast is broken at sunset. Many do so with dates, followed by prayer and a meal, in the manner of Mohammed. With the arrival of the new moon to signal the end of Ramadan, there is a final prolonged feast, Eid Ul Fitr. The Spice Trade The seasoning in Middle Eastern food has its roots in ancient times, when Arabs were the middlemen in the caravan spice trade. Through the great east-west Silk Road, they brought spices from India across the Middle East to the Mediterranean and Europe. Middle Eastern cooking, greatly enhanced by the spice trade, became a model for both civilized eating and unusual ingredients in medieval Europe. Valuable spices were also a way to show off wealth, and Europeans paid atleast ten times and often forty times what they cost at their source. This system of trade not only spread foodways throughout the known world, but also assisted the growth of modern capitalism, as Arab traders enriched both themselves and the city states of Italy, such as Venice and Florence. Cooking Techniques Middle Eastern cooking techniques are simple, as many of them are rooted in nomadic tribal traditions and a lack of kitchens. The common threads that run throughout Middle Eastern cuisine are best exemplified by how ingredients are used. Grains- Rice is commonly steamed with other ingredients. Wheat is steam dried and cracked to make bulgar wheat, which is prepared by soaking in hot water. Beans-The chickpeas is probably most commonly used. It is soaked and ground to make preparations such as falafel, or cooked and pureed into a paste-like sauce, known as hummus. Meat- Commonly cooked on kebabs or roasted in large pieces on a spit. Stews are also common. Dairy- yoghurt is used often and by a number of different preparation methods. Draining yoghurt for an hour or so is common because it is often not thick enough to use food preparation. It may also be drained for 12 hours or more with light seasoning to make yoghurt cheese (labni). Cooked yoghurt (laban matboukh) is also common. Grape leaves- Commonly stuffed, rolled, and braised or grilled with any number of fillings, including meats, grains, or even sardines or smelts.

Spain The food in Spain tends to be more adventuresome and somewhat fancier than the dishes commonly served in Portugal. For example, Spaniards may choose to start the day with a delectable churro accompanied by a strong cup of coffee or hot chocolate. This fluted, straight version of a doughnut is a traditional food that was introduced into the Spanish colonies in the Caribbean and Latin America and is popular there. Probably the most familiar dish served in Spain is paella, rice and meat concoction that is prepared in a wide, shallow pan with sloping sides. The meat is first browned in the paelle pan and then set aside while the vegetable ingredients are sauteed. Rice and liquid are added before the meat is arranged on top. The assembled dish is baked on the floor of the oven for 30 mins so the rice absorbs the water and the flavours blend. Saffron is always an ingredient in paella. The orange to yellow colour of the rice in paella is the result of using saffron ( the orange to yellow stigmas of purple crocus). This also adds to the flavour of the dish. Another national tradition is cocido, which varies greatly from place to place but consists of three courses: clear soup, a platter of cooked vegetables, and an array of boiled meats. This is often consumed for the midday meal around 2;30p.m. Appetites for this meal generally are quite large, for the breakfast eaten around 7 a.m. probably is a cup of coffee with milk and a churro. Spaniards typically have a long rest period for much of the hot afternoon. This siesta is followed with more work before stopping to enjoy drinks and tapas (little plates of food served at bars) to help control appetited until dinner is served, usually at 10p.m. or later. The Spanish people thrive on their late dining hours and sociable evenings. Life is not meant to be rushed in this warm climate. Spanish wines usually are served at meals. Flan is a favourite dessert that has been transplanted to countries in the western hemisphere by Spain. Sopa de ajo (garlic soup) is a specialty in the central part of Spain. Another traditional soup is Gazpacho, a chilled mix of chopped tomatoes, peppers, onions, cilantro, basil, cucumber, and avocado with chicken or beef stock, red wine vinegar, and olive oil. Sangria ( a wine- fruit punch) is a favourite beverage; wines from various parts of the country are a part of all meals except breakfast in Spain. The Basques in the northeast corner of Spain have created a cuisine over many centuries that clearly reflects their geography. The rugged terrain of the pyrenees mountains and the proximity of the atlantic have fostered sheep herding and a bit of cattle and hog production as well as considerable fishing. The result is a cuisine that focuses on the natural flavours of their ingredients. Lamb,pork, some beef, cheeses(often made from ewes milk), and a wide variety of local seafoods provide the protein in Bsque meals. Local vegetables include haricot (dry) beans of varying colours, green beans, peas, broad beans, cabbage, cardoons, potatoes, and mushrooms. Apples, cherries, and walnuts are other foods produced in the region that appear frequently in various dishes. A typical basque dish is marmitako, a stew featuring potatoes and tuna; a potato and leek soup (porrusalda) is also popular. Salt cod appears in several basque dishes, such as Bacaoa al Pil-Pil in which the salt cod is served in a garlic sauce.

Lebanese and Greece

The overarching Mediterranean climate characterized by limited rainfall, high temperatures, and the generally rocky terrain results in an abundance of such foods as olives, eggplant, onions, other vegetables, legumes, wheat, lamb, and mutton. The ways in which these and other ingredients are used may vary a bit among countries, but commonalities label the food patterns throughout the region as Mediterranean. Perhaps the major cause of the differences is the particular religion(s) practiced in a country; Muslim and Jewish dietary laws play an important role, and this is especially evident in Israel because of the predominantly Jewish population. In the other countries except Greece, Muslim dietary laws are the foundation of the diet. Greece does have some followers of each of these religions, but the major religious group is Greek orthodox, which allows more freedom in food preparation. Pattern is a light breakfast fairly early in the morning( often just tea or coffee and a baked bread or other baked item), a rather hearty lunch(which seems to beg for subsequent nap on hot afternoons),and a late supper. Snacking is an acceptable means of stretching the time between the days three meals. Particularly in Greece, a very late dinner with considerable revelry before retiring is the preferred schedule for those who have enough energy. Pita,or pocket bread, is quite universal throughout the region, but the character of the bread may vary from fairly thick and hearty to quite thin and rather crisp. Lavosh, or Armenian cracker bread, is a very thin, crisp, breadlike variation of pita that is available. These breads are commonly purchased from a local baker, or the home made dough is carried to a special shop where it is baked for the customer. In Syria, it is not unusual to see freshly baked, unwrapped rounds of pita cooling on staircases or even on the hoods of parked cars. The basic ingredient of these breads is refined wheat flour. Phyllo (also called as filo) is a very thin pastry from this region. The thin sheets of dough usually are brushed with oil or melted butter and then stacked to the desired depth. Chopped nuts, sweetened rosewater, and honey are interspersed with the sheets of dough before baking to make the ubiquitous dessert called baklava. There are many different but quite similar versions of this popular dessert. In fact, some bakeries have as many as 10 or more variations, some of which resemble shredded wheat in appearance and others that are twisted or cut to add variety to the choices available. Phyllo also is the basis of some appetizers or main dishes, such as spanakopite, a pastry that contains spinach. Legumes are found in many Middle eastern dishes. The chickpea, or garbanzo, is particularly popular. Falafel is a favourite dish made with chickpeas that are soaked and ground into a paste, seasoned, and then formed into balls or other shapes before being fried. Another use for garbanzos is hummus,a dip made by diluting a puree of cooked garbanzos with tahini, lemon juice, and garlic, and finally pouring a bit of olive oil on top before dipping bits of pita into it. Tahini is a rather simple blend of ground sesame seeds, lemon juice, and sesame oil. It is a very common ingredient in Middle Eastern cuisine that can be made at home or purchased in finished form to save some time in preparing the array of foods that often is expected, particularly at the midday meal. Black or broad beans often are soaked with chickpeas for several days before being cooked until tender. Then garlic, olive oil, lemon, tomato, and cilantro are added; the finished dish is called Foul. Cracked wheat may be used in such dishes as kibbeh and tabouli or even as the basis of pilaf. Partially cooked and dried cracked wheat is called bulgur(sometimes burghel). Kibbeh can be made by

grinding lamb and finely ground cracked wheat together to make a thick paste that can be pressed into the shape of an egg shell, which then is stuffed with a filling, pressed closed, and deep-fat fried. Tabouli (a salad) is quite a different dish, although it too is made with bulgur. The bulgurin tabouli is saoked with water and then combined with minced mint and parsley, diced tomatoes, olive oil, and lemon juice. Whether they are called dolmas or dolmades , stuffed grape leaves are treasured as a dish throughout this region. Their origin is not certain; some attribute them to the Greeks, and others the Persians. Rice usually is at least part of the stuffing; it is often combined with lamb or other ground meat and various spices. Dolmas may be served either hot or cold, frequently with yoghurt. Shawarma, which is prepared by closely packing layers of chicken and fat into a solid that can be grilled vertically on a rotisserie, is available from street vendors in Greece and many other locations in the Middle East. Another popular way of preparing meat is the kabob, or kebab (marinated lamb or chicken and sometimes vegetables grilled on skewers). Turkey is thought to be the origin of this dish. Eggplant, a very common vegetable in the region, has been elevated to prominence by the Greeks. They are credited with creating moussaka, a casserole featuring eggplant slices, ground or small pieces of lamb, onions, and tomato sauce. Many kinds of fruits and vegetables are important components of the diet throughout Greece and the Levant. This is evident in the markets throughout the region. Olive also find their way onto the table, either as ingredients or as side dishes. They may be processed in various ways to alter their texture and flavor. Greek olives often are treated to develop a rather soft and somewhat wizened texture. Feta is a soft, crumbly cheese made from ewes milk that is used frequently by the Greeks. Yoghurt (fermented cows milk) is another dairy food that may be eaten or used in cooking in the region. Lebneh is a soft cheese that is made by draining yoghurt to reduce the whey content. After draining for about half a day or longer, the desired firmness can be achieved. Tea is a ubiquitous beverage throughout the Middle East. Turkey is a convenient source of tea, which is grown near its coast along Black sea. Often the tea is flavored with mint leaves and sweetened with a generous amount of sugar. Traditionally, it is served in rather short glasses without handles, even though the beverage is extremely hot. A spoon in the glass helps to absorb part of the heat and prevent the glass from breaking when extremely hot tea is poured with a flourish into the glass. Turkish coffee is quite unlike the brew in the United States. The beans intended for preparing Turkish coffee are roasted very dark and ground to an extremely fine, pulverized powder. Cold water and the desired amount of sugar are heated to a boiling in a long-handled, narrow-necked coffee maker called an ibrik, which is removed from the heat long enough to pour in the pulverized coffee. This mixture is then heated again until the brewing beverage foams up toward the top of the ibrik, at which time it is removed from the heat to reduce the foaming. After reheating briefly once or twice, the foaming beverage is poured into demitasse cups. Ideally, a foamy layer tops each cup. The coffee grounds settle a bit in the cup, but they seem to make the beverage almost chewy. The coffee usually is sweet and often flavored with cardamom. Although many people in the Middle East, particularly Muslims, do not drink alcoholic beverages, other people do. Raki is a particularly popular alcoholic beverage in turkey. This unique beverage is distilled ( not fermented) from grape residue and flavored with anise. If water is added to raki, it turns

milky. A similar alcoholic beverage in Greece is ouzo; its flavor depends on the herbs included during the cooking period. Retsina is a rose or white wine flavored with pine resin that is made only in Greece and is considered by many to be the perfect wine drink with Greek food. Various other wines may be available, particularly in Greece.

UNIT-2 EUROPEAN CUISINE Europe Europeans have influenced cuisine around the world. They were the travelers- the explorers and conquerors. They brought with them the seeds of cuisine and culture from home and around the globe and planted them wherever they traveled. They brought rice to the New World and brought the tomato back to European soil. Who among us today could imagine Mexican food without rice or Italian food without tomatoes? France France can be divided into four culinary regions: the northwest, the southeast, and the southwest. Within each region, there are provinces, twenty-two in all, which are comprised of cities, towns, and villages. Though culinary parallels can be drawn between the provinces in each region, each province has its own culinary specialties, impacted by history, terrain, and climate. The hexagon-shaped mainland of France is located in Western Europe, with other French territories spanning the globe. France is bordered by the Engand the English channel on the northwest; Belgium and Luxembourg on the northeast; Germany,Switzerland, and Italy on the east; the Mediterranean sea on the southeast; spain and Andorra on the southwest; and bay of Biscay and the atlantic Ocean on the west. The independent state of Monaco is located in the southeast, completely surrounded by french territory, and the island of Corsica lies in the mediterranean sea, off the coast of italy. France encompasses an area larger than 211,209 square miles ( 547,000 square kilometers).Generally speaking, the terrain of the north and west is flat, with rolling hills, while the south and east are quite rugged and mountainous. The climate of the country is also rather diverse, with mild winters and

summers in the west, cool winters and hot summers inland, tough winters and high levels of precipitation in the mountains, and mild winters and hot summers along mediterranean in the south. About 57 percent of the land in France is dedicated to agriculture, including viticulture. The diversity of climate and topography throughout the country gives way to an array of cultivated crops. The population of france, around 60.6 million people, is amply nourished with local produce, nuts, grains, cheese, wine, livestock, game, seafood, and freshwater fish, varieties depending on each specific region.

Italy For culinary purposes, the country of italy can be loosely divided into the south, central, and north. Northern italy is bordered by France, Switzerland, Australia, and Slovenia. Central and Southern italy are bordered by the mediterranean Sea, a position that holds great historical importance in terms of exploration and trade. Though only four countries border italy by land , culinary and cultural influences are evident from numerous other countries throughout the world, including places such as Spain, Greece, North Africa, the eastern Mediterranean, and even the Americas. Located in southern Europe, the country of Italy covers an area of 187,176 square miles ( 301,230 square kilometers) and extends into the central Mediterranean Sea . The islands of Sicily and Sardinia, as well many smaller islands, are also part of the Italy territory. The generally rugged and mountainous terran of italty is home to a population of 58 million people. Politically,Italy is divided into twenty regions: Abruzzi, Basilicata, Clabria, Campania, Emilia-Romagna, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Latium, liguria, Lombardy, Le marche, Molise, Piemonte,Apulia, Sardinia, Sicily, Toscana, Trentino-Alto Adige, Umbria, Valle d Aosta, and Veneto. Considering that Italy is slightly larger than the state of Arizona, the culinary diversity, specialities, and pride of each region are quite remarkable. Regional Cuisines Northern Italian Meals that might be served elegantly in northern Italy in such cities as Milan and Vinice traditionally feature generous servings of meat (e.g., veal, pork, game, or lamb). Rich sauces often accompany them. Meat plays a less prominent role in households with limited income. Butter, lard, and Olive oil are used generously in cooking. Risotto, prepared with Arborio or other speciality short-grain rice, and polenta, a simple dish made with cornmeal, are traditional cereal dishes that feature crops grown in the region. Gnocchi, small potato and flour dumplings, make up another popular form of starch. Fresh vegetables and fruits appear in a variety of dishes on the menu. Wine is an essential accompaniment to meals except breakfast. Central Italian Meals in central Italy( frommm Tucsany and Umbria south to Rome) include pasta, vegetables, meat (often veal, pork, or seafood if the area is close to the ocean), bread, cheese, and wine. Olive oil is an essential in a Tuscan kitchen. Generally, the food in this region is light and seldom includes the richer sauces of the Northern Italian cuisine. Beans frequently occur in menus, and favored cooking herbs include sage, rosemary, thyme, and marjoram. Chianti, an inexpensive red wine, once marketed in a unique basket-encased bottle, is a product of central Italy.

Porchetta, whole suckling pig stuffed with fennel, peppercorns, garlic, and rock salt for flavor and then roasted tenderly over a wood fire, is a particularly spectacular dish from this part of italy. Pecorino cheeses,made in central italyfrom sheeps milk, range in texture from soft to hard enough to grate;in contrast, ricotta is a soft cheese made from whey of cows milk and is often used in Tuscany. Southern Italian Southern Italy, including the islands of Sardinia and Sicily, is noted particularly for its Mediterranean diet that features olive oil,pasta, breads, some meat and cheese, vegetables(particularly tomatoes and eggplant), and wine. Pork is the usual meat; the craggy, rocky terrain of the region is more compatible with raising pigs than cows. The food in southern Italy reflects the rural sceneand availability of seafood, vegetables, and cheeses. Pizza, breads, and pastas play a very significant role in the diet. The dishes reflect the waves of greeks, Arabs, and other groups who traded with and/ or conquered Sicily and southern italy many centuries ago. Specialities The food choices available throughout Italy are truly amazing. Creative ways of using the various flavorful ingredients from the local farms have fostered this broad menu. Underlying much of the diet is wheat, the basic ingredient for the breads and pastas featured in Italian meals. Pastas pastas may be made at home and used fresh, or they may be purchased from local shbops, which feature a dazzling array of shapes, dimensions, and even a choice of color ( for example, spinach may be added to the make it green). Fresh pasta is often the choice in the northern part of the country while dried pasta is used more often in the south. Ribbon shaped pastas are used frequently in the regions north of Rome, while tubular pastas may be the popular choice south of the city. The names of some of the pastas are spaghetti, ziti, penne, capellini, fusilli, lasagne, tortellini, cannelloni, ravioli, lumache, manicotti, tagliatelle, and macaroni. However, there really is not a strong regional preference; The choice depends on the chef and the dish being prepared. Cheeses Cheeses are mianstay of Italian menus and cooking. Hundreds of small cheese-making operations lovingly produce a vast array of cheeses, ranging from soft, fresh cheeses to very hard ones requiring considerable aging. Italian cooks are careful to select just right cheese for the dishes they are making. Parmigiano (parmesan) doubtless is the best-known of Italian cheese, but others are noteworthy and used widely.Romano, a sharp cheese made with sheeps milk, is very hard cheese for grating. Fontina is a popular for use in fondue, and provolone and gorgonzola(a blue-veined, sharp flavor) are considered table cheeses. Pizza seems to call for mozzarella, while ricotta(unsalted cottage cheese) is used in preparing blintzes and in recipes as a substitute for cottage cheese. Mozzarella originally was made with water buffalo milk, but the scarcity of this milk has caused most of this type of cheese to be made using cows milk. Mascarpone is an unripened cheese that can be blended readily with liqueurs or a bit of honey and served along with fresh or candied fruit. Oil and Vinegar Olive oils of excellent quality come from Tuscany, the south, the piedmont and EmiliaRomagna near the coast, and the northern Apennine Mountains. Although cooking in the south uses

olive oil extensively, butter is the more common fat in northern italy. Nevertheless, northernars also use plenty of olive oil. Extra virgin olive oil produced from the first cold pressing is the highest quality and has low acidity. Olive oil sometimes is made at the farm where the olives are grown, and its colour may vary from shady olive green to a rather golden colour. These olive oils should be used before they are a year old. Northern Italy also contributes balsamic vinegar, a special vinegar that has been adopted by gourmets in other countries as well. This vinegar is made by boiling special sweet white grapes in a copper pot to eliminate more than half of the water and make a thick syrup. In preparation for aging, the syrup is transferred to woden barrels and some aged balsamic vinegar is added. Aging may range from period of only 3 years to more than 150; longer aging continuesto enhance the flavour, but also raises the price. The prized balsamic vinegars are from the area of Modena and Reggio Emilia in northern italy. Like most foods,some balsamic vinegars are much more flavorful than others; the fact that a vinegar is made in Modena or reggio emilla does not guarantee the exciting flavors possible in a truly fine balsamic vinegar. If the vinegarfrom these areas has been aged at least 12 years, it is labeled tradizionale.Vinegars from either area may be labeled condimento balsamic vinegar, a designation that connotes a shorter aging period or other variance from the standards required for the more expensive tradizionale balsamic vinegars. Condimento grade balsamic vinegar is well suited to use in cooking. It is wise to read the ingredient label before buying balsamic vinegar. Some commercial balsamic vinegar has red wine vinegar, caramel coloring, or other ingredients added to achieve the dark colour. Unfortunately, this impacts the flavour characteristics of these less expensive versions of balsamic vinegar. Important Dishes Part of the love of the good life for Italians seems to include romance. For example, Baci candy boxes in Perugia reportedly began to include romantic expressions when a girl working in candy kitchen wrapped love notes to the stores owner in candies. He responded to this novel idea by ultimately marrying her and carrying on this romantic tradition of wrapping his candies with these notes. Pesto Flavorful thick sauce made by pulverizing fresh basil and adding such ingredients as pinon nuts, parmesan cheese, garlic, and olive oil. Gelato- Italian ice cream Risotto-Rice dish from northern Italy made by sauteing Aborio or other short-grain rice before slowly adding a bit of white wine and other liquid as needed(2 tablespoons at a time) while cooking and stirring until grains are tender and the texture is creamy. Polenta Traditional northern Italian dish; cornmeal cooked in milk or other liquid with frequent stirring until it forms a mushy, soft paste, at which time butter and sometimes other ingredients are added. Gnocchi- Miniature dumplings made by adding just enough flour to riced boiled patatoes to make a soft dough that is rolled and cut into pieces and then boiled. Germany

Frederick the Great is credited with establishing the potato as a central part of the German diet when he required all peasants to grow potatoes in 1744. This ubiquitous vegetable ha sfound its way into all parts of German menu, even as an ingredient in schnapps, a distilled liquor. Cabbage is another cornerstone of German food, most commonly in the form of sauerkraut, which is shredded cabbage with salt that is fermented. This tasty means of extending the useful food life of cabbage has been incorporated in a wide range of recipes; it is often served with plump sausages or a healthy toast. Pork, beef, and veal are served in generous portions and in various preparations throughout the day. Thin cutlets (often veal) are termed Schnitzel. Schnitzel may be prepared breaded or plain, stuffed, in sauces, or even topped with an item such as a fried egg. Hearty stews of vegetables and meat plus barley or other cereal or dumplings are popularly called eintopf. The practice of mixing a sour taste with somewhat sweet flavours is represented by sauerbraten, which is a roast that has been marinated in a seasoned vinegar and wine with bay leaves and other herbs, and boiled red cabbage with tart apples. Baked favourites include springerle (popular picture cookies with anise flavoring), lebkuchen( gingerbread cookies baked in picture molds), stollen( christmas bread), and hearty dark breads such as pumpernickel and rye. Beers and Rhine wines are dear to the hearts of most Germans ( and many other people as well). Spices:The addiction that changed the world The age when spices filled the vaults, catacombs and storerooms of Hamburgs warehouse quar ter with their costly aroma is slowly drawing to a close. The massive brick walls of the old wafrehouses breathe, and provide excellent storage conditions of sacks of pepper, thyme, allspice, curry, cardamom, and other flavourings from distant lands; however , all the work of stacking and transportation has to be done by hand here, because of lack space. Capacity is frequently inadequate. Storage in modern corrugted iron and cinderblock-constructed warehouses is therefore much more economical, despite the occasional damp, and less than ideal preservation of flavor. Most of the 30000 tons (27,000 tonnes) of spices imported into Germany each year still pass through the port of Hamburg.The majority of these sacks, chiefly from Brazil, Indonesia, China, India, and Turkey, now go to large scale centers within the region of the city for storage, instead of warehouse quarter.The spices are sometimes transported onward immediately to customers in the east and south of the country. The first spice to create history was pepper.Mention of it dates back to the early period of migration of people across Europe and Asia.In 410 B.C.,Alaric, King of the western Goths demanded not only 5000 pounds of Gold, 30000 pounds of silver, 4000 silk garments and 3000 purple carpets from captitulating Romans, but also 3000 pounds of Black pepper. Spices, then, were a sought-after commodity, brought from India to Constantinople by long and arduous trade routes. There, they fetched accordingly high prices. It was following the Crusades that the real hunger for spices in the Christian West began. As a result ,the Orient became a palable presence in Europe,as Wolfgang Schivelbusch put in his das Paradises,der Gesshmach und die vernunft(paradise,

taste and reason).silk, velvet,damsak , carpets, and spices were among the oriental luxury goods with which the upper strata of european society surrounded themselves at that time.spices became the status symbol.The whole of the high middle age is characterised by the unrestrained use of spices in food.Some historians explains this phenomenon by pointing out that with the lack of refrigeration, meat easily became spoiled.Pepper was used to improve its keeping qualities, or, alternatively, hot spices were added to mask the tainted flavor.This theory falls down when we remember that pepper was too expensive ti be used as a presrevative.Further, overseasoning came to an end in the 17th century, yet no other methods of preservation had been found.The theory put forward by Schivelbusch sounds more likely: he believes that intensely fragrant spices, especially pepper, symbolized the advance of Central European culture, beginning with the Crusades. Until that time, it had been something of blackwoods culture. It received a boost from the high culture of the Orient; people who were able to enjoy the consumption of pepper acquired, we might say,good taste. Spices became practically an addiction. In the days before tea, coffee, chocolate, and sugar existed, pepper fulfilled many roles: stimulant, status symbol, official state gift, and currency. Todays centers of the international spice trade are Singapore, New york, Rotterdam, and Hamburg.The united States and Germany lead the world as importers of spices. Despite the significant growth in interest in foreign foods and dishes over recent decades, the Germans loyalty has stayed with their three favorite herbs and spices: pepper, paprika, and parsley. When vanilla flavor is called for, they still content themselves with the powedered, synthetic variety, rather than the intensely fragrant pulp of black vanilla beans from central America; when they want cinnamon, most still opt for the ocher colored powder. They little imagine how much richer flavor of the cinnamon would be if they were to use the dried bark of the Ceylon cinnamon bush instead.

Unit-3 Charcutierie Forcemeats In the making of forcemeats it is very important that only the best of fish or meat and other materials are used. All forcemeats should have a good binding but at the same time should be light and not too dry. To get a good binding, bread crumbs are used for the simpler forcemeats and so-called panadas for the finer ones. To make them smooth, light and white, water, milk, or cream is used according to the forcemeat made. There are numerous forcemeats, from the simple sausage meat to the finer forcemeats used for the making of hot mousses and souffls. They are usually made from fish and shellfish, the white meats, like

veal and pork, as well as from poultry, game, fish and certain vegetables and bread. To call the later forcemeats would, in English, not be quite correct; those made of vegetables and bread is usually called stuffing, whereas, in French, all of these are known as farces. A very wide variety of dishes for our menus can be prepared from the various forcemeats. Although they differ in method, there are three basic types: (1) Forcemeats made of raw fish or meats (2) Forcemeats made of cooked fish or meats (3) Cooked forcemeats-stuffings.

RAW FISH FORCEMEATS In the preparation for the cooking of fish, we often use fish forcemeat in the form of quenelles or as filling/stuffing to both enhance its appearance or flavour. In many cases, we use the various forcemeats to contrast flavours and colours, that is to say, we stuff a portion of white fish such as a paupiette of sole with a pink salmon farce or a salmon portion trout with a white fish farce to which we may have added some blanched chopped spinach to make it green. Occasionally we add to the farces other ingredients such a diced smoked salmon, asparagus tips, chopped mushrooms and dice or julienne of red or green peppers etc. to further improve appearance and flavour. Some of the better farces allow us to make fish farce dishes in their own right, in the form of fish dumplings or quenelles as they are called in French, as well as mousselines and mousses. When we make fish farces in small amounts and using fresh fish we can know that the farce recipes given below have been well tried and are reliable. However, when fresh fish or the right fish is not available, or we are making a large amount of the farce, it is best to use a panada (french panade) or binding to make sure the fish farce will hold its shape during cooking. Bindings or panadas are very important to make a good forcemeat. First in use are breadcrumbs soaked in water, milk or cream, which are used in the making of sausage meats, veal loaf or pojarski. Secondly come the panadas of which five in everyday use are given below. Some recipes name mashed potatoes, bechamel or veloute for the binding of certain forcemeats, and although these are widely in use they are in fact only a simplification of the better panadas used in the first-class cooking.

Quenelles de Brochette Sauce Homard The most famous fish quenelles main course dish is the one made from pike, set and served on a lobster sauce-Quenelles de Brochette Sc. Homard. The white of the pike quenelles on a rich red lobster sauce is indeed a striking, attractive and very tasty dish, but quenelles served with a rich

white wine, creamy mushroom, asparagus or prawn sauce are equally delicious and attractive dishes of this type. RAW MEAT FORCEMEATS However carefully we buy or prepare our various meats, in the average kitchen any butcher will always have some meat trimmings. The larger pieces may be cut into braising steaks or stews. But the smallest, near bone trimmings can be used in no other way than in the form of minced meats, which for a good result should be minced fine and maybe twice with a sharpmincer blade. These entrees allow us an excellent outlet for the minced meat trimmings, in the form of many tasty and attractive dishes. It is true that these types of minced meat dishes do not have the very best reputation and are considered by many to be dishes best suited to the lower end of catering. It is an interesting fact that most Continental countries accept these types of minced meat dishes much more readily than the British. Again, however, this is not always true, for when it comes to the British sausage (very much a minced meat dish) it is one of the most popular British dishes, eaten in its various ways, at breakfast, lunch, dinner and suppers. With the increase in all food costs, particularly meats, we should look again at the uses of forcemeat dishes of all types. With careful initial preparation, not too much fat, good seasoning with fresh herbs and spices and the correct method of cooking, with the right garnishes, sauces and other suitable accompaniments, these simple entrees can be very tasty, attractive and indeed profitable dishes. We differentiate between two types of forcemeats: The simple forcemeats, making preparations such as sausage meats of various types, hamburger mixture and its variation. The finer forcemeats, making preparations such as mousses, mousselines, quenelles, terrines, fillings, stuffings etc. Sausages The famous British sausage naturally belongs in the group of simple forcemeats.

Did you know!!! THE SCANDINAVIAN BUFFET OR SMORGASBORD The Smorgasbord serves both cold and hot dishes. The practice can be observed today in many British larger hotels, where, at least at lunch time, alongside the cold dishes hot dishes are proferred from chafing dishes. OPEN SANDWICHES (SMORREBROD)

This type of sandwich has gained great popularity in Great Britain in the past few years. They are most useful for several types of catering. Most of the open sandwiches originate from old Russia where, when nobility met for important and not so important dinners and dances, these sandwiches were served with drinks, especially vodka. However, it was the Scandinavian countries that adopted the open sandwich to such an extent that it became a real national food in countries like Finland, Norway, Sweden, Northern Germany and especially in Denmark, where it is known as smorrebrod. In Denmark there are shops selling smorrebrod in more than a hundred varieties and it is not uncommon for a boxful to be bought to provide an easy family supper, in the same way as one might buy cakes or buns to take home for tea. These shops are open from early morning until late at night and smorrebrods can be eaten on the premises at breakfast with a cup of coffee, at lunch time with a glass of ice cool lager, or one can pop in for snack before going out at night. Some first class hotels serve these sandwiches in their bars, only smaller, more like canaps, as a sort of hors doeuvre with a guests drink. In Denmark we find restaurants serving nothing but open sandwiches as a specialty. When customers have been seated they are given the Smorrebrod Seddel or Open Sandwich Menu together with a pencil. Customers fill in the menu according to their choices, enumerating the required ingredients, garnishes and breads. This menu then goes into the kitchen. Here staff specially trained for this work Freshly make the sandwiches. Here freshly is the important word. This needs a very good mis en place in the kitchen. The lettuce and other salad ingredients are ready washed, the butter soft, the bread sliced and possibly buttered, the fish and meats prepared, and the fresh assembly of the chosen sandwich can begin. When the sandwiches are made, the preparer puts the menu on the edge of the plate or flat, tucked under a doily, arranging the smorrebrod on top. The waiter takes this to the guest, which allows the guest to check that the order has been correctly prepared. The menu also serves as the bill, to which the waiter only has to add any drinks the guest may have. Sausages A sausage is a mixture of ground meat, usually pork, and seasonings stuffed into a casing. The term sausage may also be used for the meat mixture itself, without the casing. Reduced to its simplest form, sausage meat may be nothing more than ground pork seasoned with salt. Although there are hundreds or even thousands of kinds of sausages, the majority are based on the same few basic principles. These principles are simple enough that we can make a wide variety of sausages in the kitchen and not have to rely entirely on commercially made ones. Furthermore, it is not necessary to restrict ourselves to traditional sausage recipes. Many chefs are experimenting with ingredients and seasonings to add variety to the menu. BASIC SAUSAGE INGREDIENTS The basic ingredients of sausage meat are the following: Lean pork

Pork fat, preferably hard fatback, ground with the meat Salt Spices, Herbs, and other seasonings and flavorings In the case of cured sausage, curing mixes containing nitrites or nitrates are added to the above list. The Meat Pork is the most commonly used meat in the sausage making, but other meats or mixtures of meat may be used. Beef, veal, lamb, chicken, turkey, duck, liver, rabbit, and venison all find their way into sausages. Mixtures of pork plus one or more of these meats are often used. More exotic sausages may include such ingredients as sweetbreads and brains. Certified pork, that is, pork that is certified to be free of trichinosis, is used for sausages that are to be air-dried and eaten uncooked. The Fat Pork fat or other fat , such as the beef fat used in all- beef sausages, is an important ingredient. Because our impression of juiciness in any cooked meat is largely due to the meats fat content, some fat is included in sausage mixtures. Without it, the texture of the cooked sausage would be very dry. In most traditional sausages, fat makes up 25 to 50 percent of the total weight, with 33 percent fat being the norm. in other words, proportions of fat to lean range from 3 parts lean plus 1 part fat (the leanest sausage) to 1 part lean plus 1 part fat(rich, fatty sausages). Varying the proportions changes the character of the sausage. Hard fatback is preferred over other fats for pork sausage. Softer fats are more likely to melt out of the sausage during cooking. A quick and easy way to make pork sausages without worrying about the ratio of fat to lean is to use whole pork butt. The ratio of fat to lean in this cut is very good for sausages. In todays diet-conscious atmosphere, it may make sense to try to create low-fat sausages. But be advised that extra care is required when making sausages with less than 25 percent fat. Lean sausages should never be overcooked, as overcooking makes them dry. Keep the meat mixture cold to avoid damage to the texture of the meat and fat. With care, it is possible to make tasty sausages with a fat content as low as 10 or 15 percent. One should not except, however, that the eating qualities of lean sausages be the same as those fattier sausages. Cereal ingredients and fillers (rice, barley, bread crumbs, and so on) can be used to help reduce fat content. Because these starches absorb and retain moisture, they enhance the total moisture content of low- fat sausages. Seasonings Herbs, spices, and other flavorings account for the primary differences among sausages. Many, if not most, of the worlds fresh sausages are made of nothing more than ground

pork and seasonings. It is the seasonings that give them their characteristics flavor. A glance at the recipes in this section will confirm this. Some of the major spices and herbs used in sausage making are 1) Allspice 2) Caraway seeds 3) Cayenne or hot red pepper 4) Cinnamon 5) Coriander 6) Cumin 7) Fennel seeds 8) Ginger 9) Mace 10) Marjoram 11) Mustard 12) Nutmeg 13) Paprika 14) Parsley 15) Pepper, black and white 16) Sage 17) Tarragon 18) Thyme Other important ingredients include Garlic Onion Shallots Standardized spice mixtures are often used to season sausages, pates, and similar items. One of the most common is quatre epics ( French for four spices), a mixture that exits in many versions. It can usually be obtained commercially, or it can be homemade, using recipes. Cure Mixes Sausages that are to be air-dried are cured with both nitrate and nitrite. For other cured sausages, only nitrite, usually in the form of Prague Powder #1, is used. Other ingredients, such as dextrose and additional salt, may be combined with Prague Powder to make the cure mix. The cure mix may be incorporated into the sausage in one of two ways: 1. It may be mixed with the meat after it is diced. The diced meat is then chilled thoroughly before being ground. Chives Wine, white and red Vinegar Eggs

2. It may be combined with the remaining spices and seasonings and mixed into the ground meat. Other ingredients A number of sausages are characterized by unusual or exotic ingredients. Some of these are traditional and time-honored, such as the black truffles included in some regional French sausages and the chestnuts or raisins in other specialty sausages. Other unusual sausages are modern innovations by creative chefs. It is no longer uncommon, when reading todays restaurant menus, to come across sausages with such ingredients as sun-dried tomatoes or fresh vegetables like sweet bell peppers and spinach. In theory, there is no limit to what can be stuffed into sausage casings. The main requirement is that the ingredients complement or enhance one another, just as the meat, seasonings, and vegetable garnish on a dinner plate should complement one another. Casings Natural casings are made from intestines of meat animals. Sheep casings are the smallest, ranging from inch (18 mm) to more than 1 inch (25 mm) in diameter. They are used for breakfast links, frankfurters, and similar sausages. Hog casings are medium sized, about 1 to inches (23 to 4 cm) in diameter, depending on what part of the intestines they are taken from. They are used for many popular fresh sausages, such as Italian sausages and fresh bratwurst. Beef casings range in size from the so called beef round, about 1 inches (45 mm) in diameter, through beef middles, 21/2 inches (63 mm), to the large beef bung, more than 4 inches (I100 mm) in diameter. Natural casings are often sold packed in salt. Because of the preservative effect of the salt, the casings keep indefinitely as long as they are refrigerated. Natural casings are easy to use if they are handled correctly. Before being stuffed, they must be untangled, rinsed, and flushed, and examined for the holes according to the following procedure. Because the supply of natural casings is not large enough to accommodate all the sausages produced, other types of casings have come into wide use. Collagen casings are molded from animal materials and are completely edible, like natural casings. Unlike natural casings, they are uniform in size, making portion control easier. Various types are manufactured for different uses. Some are used only for fresh sausages, as they are not strong enough to hold the weight of the sausages if they are hung for smoking. Other types are stronger and intended to be used for smoked sausages. Most collagen casings must be refrigerated to keep them from becoming dry and brittle. To use, dip them in water for few seconds to soften them if they are dry, then put them on the sausage stuffing nozzle. Synthetic fibrous casings are made from a plastic material and are not edible. They are widely used for salamis and luncheon meats, and the casing is peeled off before or after slicing. These casings are nonperishable and need no refrigeration. They must be soaked in water before using to make them flexible. Soaking time varies, and the manufacturer should specify the recommended time.

EQUIPMENT Most fresh sausages can be made with no special equipment other than a meat grinder and a device for getting the meat into the casings. The working parts of a meat grinder are a rotating blade and selection of dies in various sizes. The size of the die determines the fineness of the grind. A screw forces the meat from the feed tube to the blade, and the blade chops the meat as it is forced through the holes of the die. Before grinding meat, it is important to be sure of the following two points: 1. The equipment must be clean and sanitary. Make sure that there is no trace of food from previous jobs hiding in the many nooks and crannies of the grinder, blades, and dies. 2. The equipment must be cold in order to avoid warming the meat. Refrigerate the grinder parts or set them in ice water before use. The sausage stuffer is the second piece of equipment necessary for making sausages. The simplest stuffer resembles a funnel. The casings are pushed over the narrow end and the meat is pushed through the wide end by hand or with a wooden plunger. These are adequate for making a few pounds of sausage but are not suitable for larger batches. Larger stuffers have detachable nozzles or horns of various sizes for different sizes of casings. The nozzle is attached to a cylindrical reservoir that holds the meat, which is pushed through by a piston. On smaller machines, the piston is simply pushed through by hand. These machines are suitable for small-scale production such as might be done in a small to medium-size restaurant. For large-scale commercial production, larger machines are used. The piston in a large machine is operated by means of a crank and a sequence of gears. THE GRIND The grind of the meat determines the texture of the sausage. We can divide sausage meat into two categories based on grind. Most common sausages are made simply of the meat and fat ground to varying degrees of fineness or coarseness, mixed with seasonings, and stuffed into casings. We refer to these as basic grind sausages. Some sausages, on the other hand, including familiar ones like frankfurters, mortadella, and bologna, are made with meat and fat ground to a smooth puree and blended with a little liquid, such as water or milk, we refer to these as emulsified or emulsion grind sausages because of the added liquid content and the emulsion of the fat with the meat and liquid. SPECIAL FORCEMEAT DISHES This section is concerned with classic meat and poultry dishes called pates, terrines, and galantines. Some terrines are based on vegetables and other items rather than meats, but these are the subject of a later section. The main ingredients of the items discussed here are a forcemeat and, usually but not always, a garnish.

Forcemeat may be defined as a mixture of seasoned, ground meats used as a stuffing or filling. The name comes from the French word farce, which means stuffing. The garnish in a pate or terrine is not just a decoration but a major ingredient that adds body, flavor, and nutritional value as well as appearance. Garnish usually consists of meats or other foods cut in dice, strips, or other shapes, or left whole if they are small. Classic pate garnishes include: Ham Foie gras Pistachios Veal Game Truffles Chicken, duck, or turkey breast Fresh pork fatback Chicken, duck, or goose livers Tongue TYPES OF FORCEMEATS The following are the three basic types of forcemeats: 1. Straight forcemeats (including country-style forcemeats). This is a mixture of seasoned ground meats. As such, it is basically a form of sausage meat, except that the grind is generally, but not always, finer. Consequently, many of the guidelines for making and handling sausage meat. Straight forcemeats are the basic of the most traditional pates and terrines. Country- style forcemeat is made the same way except that the grind is coarser. Most country-style forcemeats are made from pork and pork fat and contain some liver. 2. Gratin Forcemeat. This type of forcemeat differs from straight forcemeat in that a portion of the meat is seared, and thus partially cooked, and cooled before it is ground. Because the partial cooking eliminates some of the binding power of the meat protein, gratin forcemeats usually contain a starch binder called a panada (also called panade). This type of forcemeat is not used as often as straight or mousseline forcemeats. 3. Mousseline Forcemeats This type of forcemeat consists of white meat (usually poultry or veal) or seafood processed to a puree and combined with heavy cream and egg. TERRINES AND PATES Terrines and pates are baked forcemeats, often but not always containing one or more types of garnish. Strictly speaking, the difference between the two lies in how they are baked in an earthenware dish. The dish itself is also called a terrine, a word derived from the French terre, meaning earth. Today other materials besides earthenware, such as

glass or metal, may be used for terrines. Terrines may be presented in their baking dish, or they may be unmolded. A pate is, by definition, baked in a crust. The word pate (with an accent on the e) is derived from the word pate (without the accent), meaning pastry. Today, however, the word pate is often used for various terrines baked without a pastry crust. Preparing Pates The essential difference between a pate and a terrine is the crust. Although a heavy pastry crust may not be suitable for all kinds of terrine mixtures, the typical baked forcemeat- type terrine under consideration here can be made with or without a crust. Pastries used to enclose pates are of various types, but the most commonly used are similar to pie pastries, but sturdier. A recipe for this type of pate a pate, or pate pastry, is included here. Its advantage over many other types of pate pastry is that it is relatively good to eat. Some authorities argue about whether the dough around a pate is meant to be eaten. But because customers are not necessarily aware of this Argument, it is best to use a pastry that is reasonably pleasant to eat. Preparing Forcemeat Terrines Terrines, like pates, may be baked in molds of various shapes and sizes. Traditional oval molds, for example, have long been popular. For ease of portion control, however, rectangular molds are the most appropriate. A terrine may be lined with thin sheets of fatback, although this is optional. The layer of fat does not contribute significantly, as is widely believed, to keeping the meat moist during baking; after all, the terrine mold itself is more moisture proof than the layer of fat. Although such a fat lining is traditional, todays diners are more likely to find a rim of fat unappetizing. Of course, the fat layer can be removed before serving. Procedure for Preparing Forcemeat Terrines 1. Prepare the desired forcemeat 2. Prepare the selected garnish. Meat garnishes are usually cut into strips, which are laid lengthwise in the mold. 3. Marinate the garnish as desired. This step is optional but adds to the flavor. 4. Prepare the mold. Do not use a hinged or collapsible mold, which cannot be placed in a water bath. If desired, line the mold with thin sheets of fatback (sliced on a slicing machine) or with a sheet of caul fat, letting the excess hang over the sides. Make the sheets of fat sufficiently large so that the amount of fat hanging over the sides can be folded over to cover the top completely. If the mold is not lined with fat, grease it well. 5. Place a layer of forcemeat in the bottom of the mold. If no garnish is used, simply fill the mold. Spread the forcemeat evenly and rap the mold sharply on the workbench to dislodge any air bubbles. 6. Arrange a layer of garnish on the top of the forcemeat.

7. 8. 9. 10.

11.

12. 13.

Continue adding forcemeat and garnish until they are all used. End with a layer of forcemeat on top. Two or three layers of garnish are usually sufficient. If a fat lining has been used, fold the excess fat over the top of the forcemeat to cover it. Cover the top with a sheet of aluminum foil. Cut a few holes in the foil to allow steam to escape. Place the mold in a water bath for baking. Make sure the bath is deep enough to allow the hot water to come halfway up the sides of the mold. Bake at 350 deg F (175 deg C) until the internal temperature registers 165 deg F (74 deg C). Remove the terrine from the water bath and place it on a rack to cool. When it has cooled somewhat but is still warm, finish cooling the pate with a weight. It should not be weighted when it is still hot because it is too fragile when hot and may spilt or fracture, and the weight may force out too much juice. If a looser texture is desired, cool the terrine without weighing it. When the terrine is completely cool, cover and refrigerates it. The terrine may be sealed with a layer of fat or aspic. These protect the terrine from air and help preserve it. To add a layer of fat, melt lard (or rendered duck fat or other fat appropriate to the terrine), then let stand until cool but still liquid. The terrine should be cool, about 50 0 F (10 deg0 C). Pour in enough fat to cover the meat completely. Let stand until the fat has congealed, then cover and refrigerate. The purpose of this fat is only to extend the keeping qualities of the terrine. It should be removed before serving. Add aspic to a terrine in the same in the same way as adding a layer of fat; Unlike melted fat, aspic extends the storage life of a terrine only a few days because the aspic itself dries out. On the other hand, aspic contributes to both flavor and appearance. If desired, apply decorations to the top of the terrine and add another layer of aspic to glaze.

Galantine Galantine is a ground meat mixture that is, a forcemeat- that is wrapped in the skin of the product it is made from, such as chicken or duck. Galantine is almost always poached although, in some instances, it is roasted. A galantine is made by rolling up a forcemeat in a large piece of skin, giving it a cylindrical or sausage shape that yields round slices. Consequently, the name galantine is also given to forcemeats or other mixtures ( such as mousselines) that are rolled into a sausage shape in z piece of parchment, plastic film, or other material. A finished galantine is often displayed whole, decorated and glazed with aspic, with a few slices removed to show a cut cross section. For a la carte service, slices of galantine are served the same way as slices of pate and terrine.

Terrines based on mousselines The body of most fish terrines, as well as some vegetable terrines and other speciality items, consists of a mousseline forcemeat. They are made like traditional terrines, except that a mousseline forcemeat takes the place of the straight forcemeat. A mousseline forcemeat consists of raw, pureed fish, poultry, or meat combined with heavy cream and, usually but not always, eggs or egg whites. Because they contain no starch or binder, and because of the large quantity of cream they contain, mousselines are the most delicate of forcemeats. Ingredients proportions in mousseline forcemeat depend on the qualities of the meat or fish being used. The albumin content of the egg white makes the mousseline firm when it is cooked. If the meat or fish you are using has a high albumin content, however, you may be able to reduce the quantity of egg white or, in some cases, you may not need any egg. Similarly, the amount of cream depends on the firmness of the fish and on the intented use of forcemeat. If it is to be the base of a terrine that will be sliced, too much cream will make it too delicate. On the other hand , for small timbale molds and similar items that dont need to be as firm, the quantity of cream can be increased beyond the amount indicated if reciepe permits. As for straight forcemeats, it is important to keep the ingredients cold at all times. The procedure for assembling and cooking a mousseline terrine is the same as for making a regular forcement terrine, except that the internal temperature, when done, is slightly , about 158 degree to 160 degree F (70 degree C) Cooked vegetables, fish fillets, and otherb appropriate items are used as garnish. Two or more mousselines can be layered in the mold to make multicolored terrines . Alternatively, a mousseline forcemeat can be spread on the bottom and sides of the mold, which is then filled with a different mousseline plus garnish and topped with a layer of the first mousseline. MOUSSES A savory cold mousse, as used for the base of a terrine, is a preparation of pureed meat, poultry, fish, vegetable, or other food, bound with gelatin and usually lightened with the addition of partially whipped heavy cream.(it is true that the terms mousse and mousseline are often used more or less interchangeably, but we use them here in two distinct senses in order to avoid confusion.) The gelatin used to bind or set the mousse may be added in the form of an aspic jelly or as powdered gelatin softened and dissolved in another liquid ingredient. Because mousses, like aspics, are not cooked after assembly but merely chilled, they are often prepared not only in the terrines but in various decorative, irregularly shaped molds. The production of mousses is relatively simple. The procedure consists of four main steps:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Puree the main ingredient. Add the aspic jelly or dissolved gelatin. Fold in the lightly whipped cream and season to taste. Pour into the prepared mold.

Molds are usually lined with aspic jelly and decorated according to the procedure. As with other kinds of terrines, garnish, if any, is either mixed with the mousse or arranged in the mold as the mousse is added. Although this method is really little more than mixing together the ingredients in a given order, two precautions must be taken: 1. Carry out the entire procedure, including the pouring of the mixture into the mold, quickly and in one continuous process. If you are stop partway through the procedure, the gelatin is likely to set, and you will have a lumpy, poorly mixed product. 2. Do not over whip the cream. Whip it only until it forms soft mounds. When cream is over whipped , it breaks and becomes grainy. This same effect can be caused by the extra beating the cream gets when it is being folded into the mousse mixture. A mousse made with overwhipped cream tastes dry and grainy, not smooth and creamy. Mousses can be made without gelatin or other binders. A soft mousse is simply a pureed or ground food with the addition of lightly whipped cream. Although these soft mousses are too soft to be used in terrines, they can be spooned into neat, quenelle shapes onto salad plates, garnished attractively, and served as elegant first courses.

Unit-IV Use of wine & Herbs in Cooking How to Use Herbs and Spices in Cooking We all know just how important condiments, seasoning, herbs and spices are when it comes to preparing and cooking food. In fact, our overall culinary experience might even completely depend on the judicious use of herbs and spices.

But which herbs and spices go with which food? And how much should we use? And when do we use them? It's easy to get it all wrong and completely butcher what could have been something delectable. You see, bringing with you into the kitchen a little prior knowledge of herbs and spices could be the thing that defines you once and for all as a cook par excellence. So, now's your chance to look and learn. Herbs and Spices

Basil

Actually, basil in just about everything with tomato is a good idea, especially if it is fresh basil. Dried basil is OK, but fresh is better. Most supermarkets sell little pots these days, which if watered properly, and if you take the tips of the leaves rather than whole stems, can last for months or even years. Fresh basil has a wonderful aroma, quite different from the dried stuff, and a little can go a long way. It is especially good in Italian dishes.

Some people say that when using basil, you should tear it, rather than chopping with a knife because when you chop, you may notice the basil starts to go dark. The end result is that the oil stays in the leaf and doesn't permeate into your food.

Tearing is definitely the way to go as it coats your fingers in the most amazingly fragrant oil, which can't be a bad thing.

If you are feeling adventurous, try having a go at purple basil. It has a much stronger flavour, and is great in Thai food.

Cardamon
Cardamon has a very fruity, warm flavour and works very well with eggs, especially in sandwiches. It is also good with sweet dishes such as caramel.

Caraway Seeds
Caraway seeds work well in the famous caraway seed cake, and they also add a little tang to stir-fries.

Coriander Seeds
Coriander seeds work very well with poultry and fish. You can buy them ground or whole; if you are using them whole, gently crushing them with a pestle and mortar (or put them in a tea-towel, and crush with a rolling pin) helps to release their flavour.

Chilli
In spicy dishes, chilli is an obvious candidate and it comes in three forms: fresh, powdered, or flaked. If using fresh chillis, be careful how you handle them - wash your hands extremely well after touching them. You may like to wear rubber or plastic gloves when handling them.

Chives
Chives go well with boiled potatoes, especially when cold and mixed with copious amounts of mayonnaise for a top potato salad!

Chocolate
This recipe dates back to when chocolate first appeared in Europe and used as a savoury 'spice' for want of a better word. Basically, you cook a jointed hare in about 3oz unsalted butter with carrots, several crushed juniper berries (the stuff gin is made of) and two glasses of good claret and herbs of your choice. Cover the hare with water and cook for two - two and a half hours. Hare is tough, really tough, so the longer you cook it the better it will be. Grate 2 - 3oz of bitter chocolate. Once the hare is cooked, strain the juices and stir in the chocolate until melts. Serve with spuds or whatever. A little chocolate in a chilli con carne also improves the flavour. And it's supposed to be authentic too!

Cloves
Cloves are most obviously used with baked hams, mulled wine and fruit salads but this is truly limiting their full potential. If you finely grind two cloves and add this to an Oriental chicken dish, you'll amaze your guests with a wonderful taste and promising aroma. Don't add too much clove powder as this can turn any meal antiseptic and bring back horrid memories of dentists. Cloves are an essential ingredient in mulled drinks. Here's a recipe for the perfect hot whisky or rum: Hot Toddy 1. Half fill a small glass with boiling water and let it stand for a couple of minutes for the glass to warm. 2. Stud cloves into the skin of a lemon wedge (this releases the oil in the lemon skin). 3. Tip out the warming water from the glass. 4. Add a teaspoon and a half of demerera (or other dark sugar). 5. Add the lemon wedge (with cloves). 6. Top up with boiling water until the glass is half-full. 7. Then fill to 3/4 full with the spirit of your choice (usually whisky or rum) and stir.

Dried Herbs
Try using dried herbs in the oil when pan-frying. You have to work fast to avoid burning them, but this gets the flavour into the meat. The herbs can begin to stick to the pan, but if you then add a sauce to the same pan, this will lift the herbs into the sauce. Alternatively, rub the herbs into the meat along with salt and pepper before cooking. As a general point, if in doubt, err on the side of caution and taste; you can always add more, but you can't take it out.

Dill
For fish, dill works extremely well. If you're lucky enough to have a whole fish, place a couple of knobs of butter into the body cavity with a small handful of fresh dill. Also add a little salt and pepper. You can replace the dill for tarragon which gives an equally scrummy recipe.

Ginger
Ginger gives a warming flavour, and can be used to spice up most dishes. Use root ginger (peeled) for savoury dishes (great in Chinese style food) and stem ginger for sweet dishes. Ginger goes very well with plain ice cream.

Lemon Grass
Lemon grass has an aromatic citrus flavour. To use, discard the outer one or two layers, and chop finely. Alternatively, a stalk of lemon grass in the water of a fish kettle gives the fish flesh a lovely lemony hint.

Mint
There's a herb called chocolate mint that actually tastes a bit like mint chocolate. If it's dried, the chocolate mint aroma is especially strong. It can be chopped up fresh and sprinkled over ice cream, cake or anything that could use a mint chocolate flavour. It might sound a bit strange, but mint is good in drinks in the summer. When you make your ice cubes, just put a leaf or two of mint in the water before you freeze it. If you wait until the mint leaves dry out (or dry them in a food dryer), you can make tea from them: Ingredients Method 1. 2. 3. 4. Bring the water to the boil. Put the leaves in a tea strainer and hang the strainer over a cup. Pour the boiling water into the cup. Leave for about 15 minutes then stir hot chocolate or instant coffee mix into tea 1 or 2 tablespoons dried chocolate mint leaves (these should be slightly crumbled but not powdered) A packet of hot chocolate mix or some instant coffee mix (optional but recommended)

Mustard Seeds
Mustard seeds ground and added to beef, pork or chicken give heat to any meal without burning the palette.

Paprika
Coming from Hungarian meaning 'pepper', paprika has a deep, earthy flavour. It is great for a 'background' flavour if your dishes seem a little bland. It gives a warm red colour too.

Parsley
Parsley has odour-eating properties - if you want to get rid of onion breath, chew a sprig of parsley. Also, if your hand smell of onions, rub them with parsley.

English (curly) parsley has a slightly harsher flavour than continental (flat-leaf) parsley.

Rosemary
Rosemary is great in roast lamb. Cut the rosemary up into small lengths about an inch long, then push the tip of a knife into the lamb to make a small slit and insert the rosemary. Repeat loads of times and then roast as normal. Mmmmmmmm. Rosemary is also great finely chopped and sprinkled on potatoes before roasting.

Salt and Pepper

Salt and black pepper are also a must in most savoury recipes, but it is a matter of taste so always under use if you're not sure, and supply these two condiments on the table. Also be wary of sea salt, as it can be much stronger than the usual table salt. Some declare that pepper is the king of spices. It should be applied liberally (nay, even with abandon) to just about any dish in existence. Very aromatic, full of flavour. It is fabulous with a proper Irish Stew, pasta dishes,and is just plain sublime with beef, but it also has a couple of more unusual uses. For instance, it's the best thing on strawberries. Don't put sugar on them. Only philistines do that. Just the tiniest amount of black pepper really brings out the strawberry flavour, without making them sickly. Pepper is also good on chocolate (yes, really), but it has to be good quality plain chocolate, and again, only a tiny amount.

Tarragon
Tarragon is ideally suited to lamb or chicken. With chicken, take one bunch and crush it into an ounce of salted butter, then spread it under the chicken skin. Once cooked, make a gravy from all the juices your arteries will groan but it is a one-off and lovely. When using tarragon in dishes cooked in the stove (rather than in the oven or grill), don't add tarragon until the last minute. It has a tendency to lose it's flavour quickly - especially dried tarragon.

Canny Ideas Herb Oils

These are absolutely great to use for salad dressings. You can make your own by one of the two following methods: Method One Take a handful of whichever herb you wish to use (basil and coriander work particularly well). Put into a small food processor with 50ml olive oil (not extra virgin - the flavour would 'drown out' the herb flavour). Whiz until the whole thing turns green! Use as a sauce or dressing. Method Two

Place into a small bottle (one that has previously had oil in it is best) a few stalks of whichever herb you desire. Fill bottle with olive oil. Leave in a warmish place to infuse for as long as you like - at least a couple of weeks. This also works well with chilli, garlic, peppercorns, or any combination of the aforementioned ingredients. You can also use sunflower oil, rape seed oil, etc - anything which hasn't got a strong flavour of its own.

Herb Salad
Mix together a handful of each of the following: basil leaves, coriander leaves, rocket, spinach.

Tomato Sauces
Blend together one tin (454g) tomatoes (or an equivalent amount os passata), a handful of fresh basil, and a handful of fresh oregano. Because you're flavouring the sauce, the flavours run right through whatever you're cooking. For a slight variation, try fennel seeds in a tomato sauce for pasta or pizza - fantastic!

Rice
Just before you dish up your boiled rice, add a dash of one or more of the following for flavour and colour: Tumeric Saffron Cloves Cardamon Paprika

When cooking rice, try adding a little chilli or mustard powder. You shouldn't be able to taste the spice, but your body will recognise it - so you'll salivate more. This helps you to taste the food, so it should taste better than ever before!

Use of wine in Cooking Cooking with wine can be a pleasure and an enhancement to good food and a fine meal!

When wine is heated, the alcoholic content as well as sulfites disappears, leaving only the essence imparting a subtle flavor. Wine Selection:

The first and most important rule: Use only wines in your cooking that you would drink. Never, never use any wine that you WOULD NOT DRINK! If your do not like the taste of a wine, you will not like the dish you choose to use it in.

Do not use the so-called "cooking wines!" These wine are typically salty and include other additives that my affect the taste of your chosen dish and menu. The process of cooking/reducing will bring out the worst in an inferior wine. Please promise yourself never, never to stoop to such a product! Linda's rule of thumb is: I do not cook with something I will not drink.

An expensive wine is not necessary, although a cheap wine will not bring out the best characteristics of your dish. A good quality wine, that you enjoy, will provide the same flavor to a dish as a premium wine. Save the premium wine to serve with the meal.

How to cook with wine:

Wine has three main uses in the kitchen - as a marinade ingredient, as a cooking liquid, and as a flavoring in a finished dish. The function of wine in cooking is to intensify, enhance and accent the flavor and aroma of food - not to mask the flavor of what you are cooking but rather to fortify it. As with any seasoning used in cooking, care should be taken in the amount of wine used - too little is inconsequential and too much will be overpowering. Neither extreme is desirable. A small quantity of wine will enhance the flavor of the dish. The alcohol in the wine evaporates while the food is cooking, and only the flavor remains. Boiling down wine concentrates the flavor, including acidity and sweetness. Be careful not to use too much wine as the flavor could overpower your dish. For best results, wine should not be added to a dish just before serving. The wine should simmer with the food, or sauce, to enhance the flavor of the dish. If added late in the preparation, it could impart a harsh quality. It should simmer with the food or in the sauce while it is being cooked; as the wine cooks, it reduces and becomes an extract which flavors. Wine added too late in the preparation will give a harsh quality to the dish. A wine needs time to impart its flavor in your dish. Wait 10 minutes or more to taste before adding more wine. Remember that wine does not belong in every dish. More than one wine-based sauce in a single meal can be monotonous. Use wine is cooking only when it has something to contribute to the finished dish. Sulfites in Wine - All wines contain at least some small amount of sulfites. They are a natural result of the same fermentation process that turns grape juice into alcohol. Even wines that have not had any sulfites added during the winemaking process contain some amount of sulfites. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is used by winemakers to keep freshly pressed must from spoiling. It keeps down the activities of native yeast and bacteria and preserves the freshness of the wine.

When cooking with wine containing sulfites, you do not concentrate them as you would flavor, but rather they evaporate like alcohol. The sulfite goes through a conversion in the liquid of the wine to produce sulfur dioxide. This is actually the compound that prevents the oxidation. It also is a gas, and when subjected to heat, it dissipates into the air. All that remains is some salts, but they are so minute in quantity that they have no affect on flavor. Storage of Leftover Wine - Leftover table wine can be refrigerated and used for cooking if held for only one or two weeks. If you have at least a half bottle on wine left over, pour it off into a clean half bottle, cork it, and store in the refrigerator. without air space at the top, the rebottled wine will keep for up to one month.

Wine Reduction for Pan Sauces: 1/2 to 3/4 cup raw wine = 2 tablespoons of wine reduction For ultimate flavor, wine should be reduced slowly over low heat. This method takes more time and effort, but will achieve a superior sauce because the flavor compounds present in the wine are better preserved.

Traditional formula for pairing wine with cooking:

Young, full bodied red wine Young, full bodied, robust red wine Earthy red, full bodied red wine Dry white wine or dry fortified wine Dry white wine or dry fortified wine Crisp, dry white wine Sweet white wine or sweet fortified wine Dry, fortified wine (i.e.: sherry) Regional cuisine Red meat, red meat dishes Red sauces Soups with root vegetables and/or beef stock Fish/shellfish/seafood, poultry, pork, veal Light/cream sauces Seafood soups, bouillabaisse Sweet desserts Consomm, poultry, vegetable soups Regional wine

Actual Consumption of Alcohol:

The amount of alcohol that remains in your dish is dependent on the manner and length of preparation. Typically, the alcohol in the wine evaporates while cooking and only the flavor remains. The following table of alcohol remaining after food preparation is from the Agricultural Research Services of the USDA (1989): 100% 70% 85% 75% Immediate Consumption Overnight Storage Boiling liquid, remove from heat Flamed

Dishes that have been baked or simmered: 40% 35% 25% 20% 10% 5% After 15 minutes After 30 minutes After 1 hour After 1.5 hours After 2 hours After 2.5 hours

Unit V Product Research & Development How to Develop a New Recipe

It's an important milestone in every cook's life when you close the cookbook and begin to create your own dishes. It can be scary to jump off the page, but also provides a major sense of accomplishment. Here's how to make that leap and really see what you can do. Instructions 1 Pair familiar ingredients that you don't usually eat together. For example, flavor a chicken salad with red bell pepper, capers and olive oil, instead of mayonnaise and celery. 2 Borrow the key flavors of one dish and incorporate them into a different form. For instance, potato leek soup could be reinterpreted as potato leek quiche. Spinach artichoke dip becomes a creamy spinach artichoke soup.

3 Go to the grocery store and wander through sections that you don't usually visit. Look on the top and bottom shelves for unusual or imported items. These can launch you in a new culinary direction. 4 Take inspiration from your favorite restaurant. As you eat, think about the flavors in the dish and how you could duplicate them at home. Write down a few notes to help you remember. 5 Study recipes that are similar to what you want to create. If you want to make a different type of muffin, there's no need to reinvent the wheel. Baking is chemistry, and there are a finite number of flour, leavening and liquid combinations that will work. Find one or two reliable models and study them to determine how they could be tweaked. 6 Before you begin cooking, write down a rough version of the recipe. As you prepare it and as you taste it, keep your pen handy. Make notes and alter proportions as necessary. 7 Test the recipe multiple times. Occasionally, you'll get lucky and score perfection on the first try, but more often you'll want another pass at it. 8 Try to judge the dish objectively. Ask yourself questions as you eat it. Is it too spicy? Too heavy? Need more salt or sugar? Ask other people to taste it and solicit their feedback.

ORGANOLEPTIC AND SENSORY EVALUATION OF FOOD The most important thing to remember is applying chemistry to food as the food must give pleasure to the consumer. This depends on flavor, appearance, smell and texture of food. All these are assessed by our scientists. Many scientists use complex method and determine the taste, aroma and tenderness of food. The process is based on objective assessment and it gives vital information about product development. When referring to our senses, we are concerned with vision, hearing, smell, touch and taste. Some scientists add three more to these - temperature, pain and balance. The most important are food taste and smell. Chemical reactors are often used with the most expensive equipments found in food laboratory for the same. Vision and smell have a distance, meaning that the individual doesnt have a contact with the food to use these senses. Example of messages that the sense tells us about food are as follows: 1. Vision : - color, size, shape, freshness, maturity and quality, 2. Smell : - freshness, rightness, 3. Hearing : - sizzling, crunchiness, crispiness 4. Touch : - texture, consistency, rightness and mouth feel

5. Taste : - salt, sweet, bitter, sour. 6. Temperature : - hot, cold and chilled. 7. Pain : - chilly or pepper When we eat food we enjoy the message we receive by our senses. Harmonious flavours are a combination of smell, taste and mouth-feel. If any one of these components is missing the overall impact is changed. Example - when we have cold we cannot smell a product properly. Chemical technology is used in cooking and processing food to create a harmonious product using colour, taste, smell, and mouthfeel. Knowledge of basic food ingredients and their chemistry helps a chef to develop new recipes and gives him knowledge of how to correct a dish when it goes wrong. VISION Colour has an effect on eye appeal, having an overall effect on presentation of food. People are sensitive to colour of the food they eat. They reject if the colour is not acceptable. Hence sometimes artificial food colour is added to the food product to enhance the attractiveness and colour of food. Colour and flavour of food is interconnected, if colour is unusual the sense of taste is confused. Example if food jelly is red in colour it is likely that the flavour detected will be of a red colour fruit such as strawberry, if it is yellow in colour the flavour detected will be lemon or bananas. The colour of food also affects sense of taste as we associate strong colour with strong flavour. SMELL Smell is a chemical sense that acts over a distance as chemicals are detected by their volatile compound that evaporates and becomes airborne easily. Smell receptors are located at the back of the nasal cavity known as olfactory area. The air is able to reach all areas through nose and mouth, where many of the characteristics are associated as flavours. The sense of smell is very sensitive and it can be divided into many basic type of smell like pungent, floral, peppermint, musk, camphor etcetera. TASTE Taste is another sense, but unlike smell it does not work on a distance. The message we receive from taste is simpler than that of smell. There are 6 basic tastes salty, sugary, sour, bitter, metallic, and soapy. Taste buds are located on the bridge of the tongue. Babies and children have more taste buds than adults and the number decreases with age. For any substance to give a sensation of taste it must be soluble in water as the food we eat dissolves in our saliva which in turn contributes to the taste. Many of our taste preferences are learnt in childhood. Generally our sensation to bitter taste is stronger as compared to other tastes. Taste is affected by several factors eg. MSG (Mono Sodium Glutamate) increases the intensity of both salt and bitter tastes. The temperature of food also affects the way we perceive taste. We are more sensitive to taste when the food is between 22 C to 41 C. Temperatures above

and below this range decrease the sensation of taste buds. The following are the different tastes that we come across 1. Sweet Sugar or saccharine. 2. Salt Sodium Chloride (NaCl) and other salts. 3. Bitter- Alkaloids like caffeine in coffee. 4. Sour-Acids like vinegar and lemon juice. 5. Metallic- Potassium chloride found in some salts. 6. Soapy- After taste in baking powder goods. (Bakery Products) TOUCH Touch or mouth-feel refers to sensory evaluation through, mouth feel that means the way we feel a particular food product in the mouth. Texture of a product is the message which we receive from our mouth feel besides our hands. This includes consistency by roughness, brittleness, sogginess, crunchiness, etceteras. All these sensations add greatly to the enjoyment of food.

Unit VI-Chocolate Making COCOA POWDER

Coca seed in the fruit

coca plantation

Cacao flowers

Ripe Cacao fruit pods, ready for processing or consumption

Introduction

Cocoa solids are the low-fat component of chocolate. When sold as an end product, it may also be called cocoa powder, cocoa, and cacao.

Cocoa liquor is the combination of cocoa butter and cocoa powder or cocoa solids.

In contrast, the fatty component of chocolate is cocoa butter. The separation of the two components may be accomplished by a press, or by the Broma process. The resulting powder, sold as natural cocoa powder, is more reddish than the traditional "chocolate" color, and relatively low in pH, causing a sour or acidic taste. Dutch process chocolate has been treated so as to neutralize the acidity and has a milder flavor; it is also the traditional chocolate brown in color. Recipes where there is a lot of fat and/or sugar, such as chocolate brownies, benefit from the more intense flavor of natural cocoa, but some prefer the milder taste of Dutch process cocoa in applications such as chocolate milk or hot chocolate.

Cocoa solids are what lends a chocolate bar its characteristic flavor and color, while cocoa butter is what provides smoothness and a low melting point. Also, cocoa solids are what contain most of the antioxidants associated with chocolate. Accordingly, health professionals recommend consuming chocolate in forms that are high in cocoa solids while low in cocoa butter, such as hot cocoa. Cocoa solids also contain the greatest concentration of the psychoactive chemicals caffeine and the bromine, which are mostly absent in the other half of chocolate, cocoa butter.

Cocoa powder is a powder which is obtained from cocoa solids, one of the two components of chocolate liquor. Chocolate liquor is a substance which is obtained during the manufacturing process which turns cacao beans into chocolate products. Cocoa powder can be added to baked goods for a chocolaty flavor, whisked with hot milk or water for hot chocolate, and used in a variety of other ways, depending on the taste of the cook. Most markets carry cocoa powder, often with several options available.

Before delving into the specifics of cocoa powder, it may help to explain the process through which cacao beans are turned into chocolate. These beans are harvested in large pods which are split open and then allowed to ferment, mellowing the natural bitterness of the beans. After fermentation, cacao beans are roasted and then hulled to expose the cacao nibs, which are then ground to produce chocolate liquor, a gritty, runny paste which is the first step in creating a dizzying array of chocolate products.

Once cacao nibs have been ground into chocolate liquor, the chocolate liquor is pressed to squeeze out the rich cocoa butter. Without pressing, the chocolate liquor would be greasy, fatty, and very unpleasant, even with the addition of sugar and spices. The pressing separates the chocolate liquor into two components: cocoa butter, and cocoa solids. To produce cocoa powder, the cocoa solids are pressed again, ensuring that around 75% of the original cocoa butter has been removed, and creating a substance called press cake. The press cake is dried, and then ground into cocoa powder.

There are two main types of cocoa powder. Natural cocoa powder is produced using the process detailed above, and it is naturally very strong, slightly acidic, and very dark. Dutched cocoa powder or Dutch cocoa is produced by adding an alkali to the press cake to mellow the flavor and make the color

less intense. Because Dutch cocoa is alkalized to remove the natural acidity, it is important to read baking recipes which call for cocoa carefully, as replacing natural with Dutch cocoa can cause a baked good to rise poorly or unevenly.

Pure cocoa powder is very intense and bitter. To make it usable, most people add sugar to temper the chocolate flavor, and other spices such as vanilla may be added as well. There are all sorts of ways to use cocoa powder, ranging from cold drinks to icing, and many people find it handy to have a tin of cocoa around the house.

History of Chocolate

The word "chocolate" entered the English language from Spanish. How the word came into Spanish is less certain, and there are multiple competing explanations. Perhaps the most cited explanation is that "chocolate" comes from Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, from the word "chocolatl", which many sources derived from the Nahuatl word "xocolatl" (pronounced made up from the words "xococ" meaning sour or bitter, and "atl" meaning water or drink. However, as William Bright noted the word "chocolatl" doesn't occur in central Mexican colonial sources making this an unlikely derivation. Santamaria gives a derivation from the Yucatec Maya word "chokol" meaning hot, and the Nahuatl "atl" meaning water. More recently Dakin and Wichman derive it from another Nahuatl term, "chicolatl" from Eastern Nahuatl meaning "beaten drink". They derive this term from the word for the frothing stick, "chicoli". The word xocoatl means beverage of maize. The words "cacaua atl" mean drink of cacao. The word "xocolatl" does not appear in Molina's dictionary. Chocolate Chocolate comes from the fermented, roasted, and ground beans of the cacao or cocoa tree. The word "Chocolate" comes from the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs. The Nawhalt word xocolatl means bitter water. The pre-Columbian peoples of the Americans drank chocolate mixed with vanilla, chile pepper, and achiote. Europeans sweetened it by adding sugar and milk and removing the chile pepper. They

later created a process to make solid chocolate creating the modern chocolate bar. Although cocoa is originally from the Americas, today Western Africa produces almost two-thirds of the worlds cocoa, with Cte dIvoire growing almost half of it. Today, it is one of the most popular and recognizable flavors in the world. There are many foods that contain chocolate such as chocolate bars, candy, ice cream, cookies, cakes, pies, chocolate mousse, and other desserts.

Terminology The cacao bean products from which chocolate is made are known under different names in different parts of the world. In the American chocolate industry: chocolate liquor is the ground or melted state of the nib of the cacao bean cocoa butter is the fat component cocoa powder is the nonfat part of the cacao bean which is ground into a powder.

Classification Dark chocolate is the same thing as semisweet chocolate. Extra dark chocolate is the same thing as bittersweet chocolate. They can substitute each other. Chocolate is a popular ingredient and available in many types. Different forms and flavors of chocolate are produced by varying the quantities of the different ingredients. Other flavors can be obtained by varying the time and temperature when roasting the beans. Unsweetened chocolate is pure chocolate liquor, also known as bitter, baking chocolate or cooking chocolate, mixed with some form of fat to produce a solid substance. It is unadulterated chocolate: the pure, ground, roasted chocolate beans impart a strong, deep chocolate flavor. With the addition of sugar, however, it is used as the base for cakes, brownies, confections, and cookies.

Dark chocolate, also called "plain chocolate" or "black chocolate", is produced by adding fat and sugar to cacao. It is chocolate with no milk, or with much less milk than milk chocolate. The US has no official definition for dark chocolate, only "sweet chocolate", which requires a 15% concentration of chocolate liquor. European rules specify a minimum of 35% cocoa solids. Dark chocolate may be eaten as it is, or used in cooking. Bars with up to 85%, or sometimes 99%, cocoa are sold. Chocolate with higher cocoa percentages is more expensive. Semisweet chocolate is frequently used for cooking purposes. It is a dark chocolate with a low (typically half) sugar content. Bittersweet chocolate is chocolate liquor (or unsweetened chocolate) to which some sugar (typically a third), more cocoa butter, vanilla and sometimes lecithin has been added. It has less sugar and more liquor than semisweet chocolate, but the two are interchangeable in baking. Bittersweet and semisweet chocolates are sometimes referred to as 'couverture' (chocolate that contains at least 32 percent cocoa butter); many brands now print on the package the percentage of cocoa (as chocolate liquor and added cocoa butter) contained.

The higher the percentage of cocoa, the less sweet the chocolate is. The American FDA classifies chocolate that contains at least 35% cacao (either cacao solids or butter from the cacao beans) as either "bittersweet" or "semisweet". Couverture is a term used for chocolates rich in cocoa butter. Popular brands of couverture used by professional pastry chefs and often sold in gourmet and specialty food stores include: Valrhona, Felchlin, Lindt & Sprngli, Scharffen Berger, Cacao Barry, Callebaut, and Guittard. These chocolates contain a high percentage of cocoa (sometimes 85% or more) and a total fat content of 30 to 40%.

Milk chocolate is solid chocolate made with milk in the form of milk powder, liquid milk, or condensed milk (invented by Henri Nestle in the 1800s) added. In the 1870s Swiss confectioner Daniel Peter had developed solid milk chocolate using condensed milk; hitherto it had only been available as a drink. The U.S. Government requires a 10% concentration of chocolate liquor; EU regulations specify a minimum of 25% cocoa solids. UK regulations on what may legally be called "chocolate" are more permissive than elsewhere in the European Union; an agreement was made in 2003 that what may be labelled "milk chocolate" in the UK must be called "family milk chocolate", with fewer restrictions than "milk chocolate" elsewhere in the EU.

Hershey process milk chocolate is popular in North America. It was invented by Milton S. Hershey, founder of The Hershey Company, and can be produced more cheaply than other processes since it is less sensitive to the freshness of the milk. The process is a trade secret, but experts speculate that the milk is partially lipolyzed, producing butyric acid, which stabilizes the milk from further fermentation. This compound gives the product a particular sour, "tangy" taste, to which the American public has become accustomed, to the point that other manufacturers now simply add butyric acid to their milk chocolates.

White chocolate is a confection based on sugar, nutmeg, and fat (either cocoa butter or vegetable oils) without the cocoa solids. Some consider white chocolate not to even be chocolate, because of the lack of cocoa solids. The US FDA standard of identity of labeling for white chocolate (which applies to both domestic and imported products) states it must contain a minimum of 20 percent cocoa butter, a minimum of 14 percent of total milk solids, a minimum of 3.5 percent milkfat, and a maximum of 55 percent nutritive carbohydrate sweeteners.

Cocoa powder is used for baking, and for drinking with added milk and sugar. There are two types of unsweetened cocoa powder: natural cocoa (like the sort produced by Hershey's and Nestl using the Broma process), and Dutch-process cocoa (such as the Hershey's European Style Cocoa and the Droste brand). Both are made by pulverising partially defatted chocolate liquor and removing nearly all the cocoa butter; Dutch-process cocoa is additionally processed with alkali to neutralise its natural acidity. Natural cocoa is light in colour and somewhat acidic with a strong chocolate flavour. Natural cocoa is commonly used in recipes which also use for baking soda; as baking soda is an alkali, combining it with natural cocoa creates a leavening action that allows the batter to rise during baking. Dutch cocoa is slightly milder in taste, with a deeper and warmer colour than natural cocoa. Dutch-process cocoa is frequently used for

chocolate drinks such as hot chocolate due to its ease in blending with liquids. Unfortunately, Dutch processing destroys most of the flavonoids present in cocoa.

Compound chocolate is the technical term for a confection combining cocoa with vegetable fat, usually tropical fats and/or hydrogenated fats, as a replacement for cocoa butter. It is often used for candy bar coatings. In many countries it may not legally be called "chocolate". Much "white chocolate" is better described as compund chocolate.

Flavours such as mint, vanilla, coffee, orange, or strawberry are sometimes added to chocolate in a creamy form or in very small pieces. Chocolate bars frequently contain added ingredients such as peanuts, nuts, fruit, caramel, and crisped rice. Pieces of chocolate, in various flavours, are sometimes added to cereals and ice cream.

Raw chocolate is chocolate which has not been processed, heated, or mixed with other ingredients. It is sold in chocolate-growing countries, and to a much lesser extent in other countries, often promoted as healthy.

Uses for Chocolate

There are many uses for chocolate; it is not just designed for eating as a confectionary. Before it was discovered by the Spanish and brought to Europe and developed into the chocolate we know today it had many and varied uses.

Chocolate as a Culinary Ingredient Chocolate isnt just used in confectionary, drinks and sweet spreads. You can use it in the kitchen and add it to a variety of savoury dishes. Why not try making a delicious chocolate sauce to serve with turkey, game or even strawberries? It can also be mixed into a sauce with red wine and chilli and added to red meat dishes and chilli con carne.

You can also use chocolate to make interesting additions to drinks. For a tasty chocolate martini, combine 3tbsp vodka, 1tsp white creme de cacao and 1/2 tsp white creme de menthe in a shaker with 3 ice cubes. Shake the ingredients and pour them into a chilled martini glass.

For a non-alcoholic chocolate cream soda, mix 5tbsp milk and 2tbsp chocolate syrup in a tall glass of soda water or lemonade. Add 2 scoops of chocolate ice cream, then mix and serve.

Chocolate at Celebrations Chocolate is widely used at celebrations, such as weddings as an attractive, edible sculpture. It can also be used in a chocolate fountain, where a continuous flow of chocolate falls from a tap. Party guests can dip treats into the chocolate fountain such a marshmallow and meringue pieces (as in chocolate fondue). It is also possible to fill a glass with the chocolate from the fountain and drink it.

Other Uses for Chocolate

Some more unusual uses for chocolate have been documented in the past. It can be melted and used as an interesting item of clothing such as a dress or corset (if applied thickly). It can be moulded into a number of shapes, such as an edible model of a house.

Chocolate has many versatile uses that fall outside of the traditional confectionary boundaries. In the past it has been used as a medicinal remedy and a currency; now it is sometimes moulded into large chocolate sculptures or melted into chocolate fountains, or even used in extreme examples of fashion wear.

Unit-VII Production Management Buying Knowledge Food Buyer An institutional buyer spends a lot of money on behalf of the establishment and for the customers. He thus bears a heavy responsibility for the well-being of both. Every food buyer therefore needs to possess certain qualities to work effectively, such as: 1. High moral and ethical values, so that he is not influenced by or obligated to suppliers in any way. 2. Objectivity in his judgment of quality offered in terms of price and service.

3. Loyalty to the institution through devotion to duty, exercising a sense of justice, being openminded but alert to a sellers psychology and being hard working and patient. 4. Loyalty to customers in terms of being able to recognize good quality food that is free from adulteration and contamination. 5. Skilling identifying markets, negotiating deals with suppliers and establishing good relations with people around. 6. Accepting food brands that are marked by standardizing agencies approving their quality such as ISI, FPO or AGMARK in India.

Buying Food Every estabishment sets its qwn purchasing policies according to its specific needs for different types of foods. For example, certain esatablishments may decide to buy their canned and preserved items from government canning centres only. Others may contact manufacturers directly while still others may depend entirely on the suppliers judgements of what would be good. Some establishments may have employees whose families are farming, and their products may be bought farm fresh according to seasonal requirements. Whatever may be the policies laid down, the methods of buying depend largely on the quantities of the various items to be purchased at one time. The different methods possible are discussed below. Open Market Buying Most food service establishments use this method for food items. The buyer invites quotations from suppliers for items according to the required specifications. The supplier is then selected on the basis of his samples, prices, delivery schedule and other service services offered. Contact with suppliers is made by visits to markets, on telephone or by visits of sellers to the food service establihment. Open market buying is an informal method and can be easily adapted to individual establishments. It is generally used for purchasing of perishable foods like fruits, vegetables, meat, etc. In fact, very small establishments which are family enterprises often buy directly vfrom wholesale markets, food stores and cooperatives, and transport the quantities required to the establishment. This helps to appreciate and be aware of the changes in the market situations, and make the best use of prices and commodities by using instant discretion in purchases. For instance, it is not worthwhile for a road side caf to draw up specifications, for the limited menu that it may serve. So, on a visit to the market with an idea of buying brinjals among other vegetables, if the buyer finds that the brinjals are mostly infested and of poor quality, he can instantly decide to replace the item on the menu with a vegetable that is of good quality. Had an order for the same been placed with a supplier, one could land up with a lot waste because when buying in bulk, say 5 kg , no supplier would pick up perfectly good coloured, well shaped brinjals, to see if some of them have tiny holes.

In larger estab lishments where suppliers are involved in the purchasing, it helps to use price quotation and order sheets for recording the prices quoted in the time bound contract with a supplier as shown in the fig:Food Service Establishment ____________________________For Delivery On________________ Supplier __________________________________________ Date of Order___________________ Item Number Specification Amount Amount in Order Price Quoted Required Stock Fruits Apples Bananas Oranges _ _ _ Vegetables Onions potatoes cabbage Tomatoes _ _ Meats Chops Mince _ _ _

Formal buying In this method formal quotations are invited from sellers agianst written specifications for each category of foods. These requests for bids may be made through dailies, or printed material which is widely distributed or posted to interested sellers who may be contacted on phone. Along with specifications the buyers also include in their requests, conditions like last date for quotations, general time between order and delivery, mode of delivery, terms of payment, willingness to accept whole or part of the bid, discounts, and so on framed within the purchasing policy of the establishment. The quotations received remain sealed till the date of opening(also indicated in the buyers requests). They are then opened by the purchasing manager in the presence of the bidders and representatives from the user department, accounts and administrative staff, who witness the quotation accepted.

The practice is to accept the quotations of the lowest bidder, unless products clearly fail to meet the specifications. Formal methods of buying are generally adopted by governmental establishments for which central purchasing is done, such as for hospitals, or homes for the handicapped or government schools. They may also be used for large catering establishments. Formal methods involve a great deal of competitive bidding and therefore are sometimes referred to as competitive bid buying.

Negotiated Buying As the name indicates this involves negotiations between buyer an seller regarding prices and quantities. This method is generally used for seasonal items which are limited in supply, where both buyer and seller are keen that the product is lifted quickly. Negotiated buying therefore involves taking quick decisions in a fluctuating market. The buyers contact sellers directly, negotiate the price and quantity and request bids are submitted as soon as possible. Obviously, this method is quicker, more flexible and less formal than the competitive bid method. Negotiated buying may be adopted when purchasing food items directly from farmers or manufacturers but this is generally possible only for very large establishments because the contracts with manufacturers would have to be for large quantities, e.g. the total farm produce for an item for a season, or one complete manufacturing lot. The advantage is of course in terms of quality as well a price, but storage costs increase. Two types of contracts may be signed between the buyer and seller: 1. A firm At Opening Price(FAOP) contract: In this the buyer agrees to take the supplies at a price established in the future when yield is known, rather than at pre-season prices when the contract is made. Such an agreement is therefore firm but not signed till the seasonal yield is known. 2. A Subject to Approval of Price(SAP) contract: in this case the buyer has the option of rejecting the order if the price fixed in the future is not acceptable to him. Wholesale Buying In this method a contract is signed with a wholesaler for prchase of goods at a specific price for a future period. The agreement specifies the intervals between deliveries for the contract period, along with the quantities required and when. This method is also suitable for larger organisations or central purchase departments. Whatever method is used for purchasing food, it is advisable to make the procedure simple with minimum paper work. Also communicating requirements clearly at all stages of purchasing is vital to be success of any food service establishment. Some factors which help food buying are:

Price: This enables cost comparisons with different brands of similar products to be made instantly, and buying decisions arrived at without undue delay. Labelling: labels which indicate quality symbols like ISI, FPO, Agmark, date of manufacture, expiry date, maximum retail price per kilogram or pack, nutritional information, all enable the food buyer to select foods properly. Receiving and Storage of Food RECEIVING Once the food materials have been ordered for supply their handling at the time of delivery represents the process of receiving. A number of precautions are necessary at this stage to ensure that food is not damaged or discarded because of careless handling, sopillage, cross contamination and incorrect weights or volumes. It is always beneficial to set up a procedure to be followed by those involved in the receipt of goods. Also, deliveries of various orders come at different times and each category of food requires separate treatment before it is accepted for storage. Delivery Methods There are many ways in which food may be delivered to a food service establishment depending on the nature of the food. 1. Fresh vegetables and fruits may be delivered in jute bags, baskets, cardboard cartons, wooden chests or as such, depending on the texture, nature and perishability of the item. For instance, in the case of strawberries or grapes, cardboard cartons of limited sizes are generally used so that the fruit is not damaged ; oranges may be piled in baskets while apples need to be wrapped individually and generally packed in cartons or wooden chests. Vegetables, carrots, lemons, brinjals etc. can be bagged, spinach has to be packed loosely in baskets, and tomatoes in cartons as the fruits. Bulky vegetables like cauliflower, cabbage, jack fruit, etc. are even piled as such in transport vans and delivered. 2. Milk and milk products are generally transported in crates if delivered as pasteurized individual containers. Products like cheese may be bought in blocks wrapped in water proof packings, so also butter. All milk and milk products are delivered in refrigerated vans especially if bulk supplied and not individually packed. In India, the development of the Mother Diary is an excellent example of bulk milk transportation and vending. Shows the transportation van and the milk being coin vended. 3. Meats may be delivered as whole carcasses or as different cuts as ordered, depending on the quantities involved. Meat if bought minced, is generally delivered in plastic bags; various preportioned cuts may be in polypacks or disposable trays in which standard portions are packed each covered with a transparent film for easy counting when delivered. 4. Ideally, fish should be delivered in ice boxes or in freezer transport vans to be placed straight in freezer storages especially when ordered and supplied in bulk. This however does not always

5. 6.

7.

8. 9.

happen especially in developing countries where freezer transportation is not easily afforded by the small supplier. Poultry is generally supplied as dressed and drawn birds, on weight basis and packed in cartons or large-sized polypacks delivered in refrigerated vans. Processed food materials which are generally packed in factories are delivered in standard packs of 24s or 48s or multiples depending on the size of the order. Examples are canned foods, instant powders, spices, biscuits, pasta products, etc. Cereals, flours, pulses and legumes are generally bought by establishments in gunny or polypacks depending on the quantities required. The jute packs contain 50 to 100 kg, while polypacks vary from 1 to 10 kg. Sugar and salt are delivered in polypacks double packed in cartons. Fats and oils in hermetically sealed containers varying from 1kg to 15 kg. oils may be supplied even in drums of 50 or 100 kg from which oil can be siphoned off to issue for use. This method however, is only used in very large establishments.

Delivery Procedure 1. The supplier gets an order an order in writing stating the date on which supplies are required. 2. He passes it on his stores department or purchasing officers (depending on the perishability of the food). The order is than noted to be kept ready for delivery on the specified date. 3. It is transported to the buyers stores for receiving. 4. The goods are delivered along with two copies of the delivery chalan, one signed by the buyer and returned to the supplier in confirmation of having received the goods; and the second is retained by the buyer for counter checking the bill or invoice when it is received from the supplier for payment.

Revising Procedure 1. The delivery note is checked with copy of the order placed. 2. Counts, weights or volume are checked to tally with the amounts of various items on the delivery note. 3. The qualities of all ingredients are checked with the specifications given to the supplier. Any unacceptable items should be returned with the person bringing the delivery. 4. Any discrepancies noticed should be indicated on the copy of the delivery note signed to be notified to the supplier. When the delivery note is signed the materials that are delivered have been accepted. In case any damaged item is noticed after the delivery the supplier is informed telephonically. This is followed by a request in writing to replace the same with specified quantity, in exchange for the received item.

Receiving materials is generally done close to the storages or just outside them so that it is easier to store them after receipt. In small establishments it may be a matter of providing a receiving bay, that is, a space in which a weighing scale and a work table is placed to count up or weigh foods as they arrive, and check delivery notes. In larger establishments the receiving area may be a well designed space provided with weighing, washing and packing facilities for storing food in cold or other storages. STROGE Storekeeping is one of the most neglected activities in small scale establishments. The first principle in storekeeping is to know what is where when it is needed by the user department. Most food materials need to be stored for different lengths of time and at different temperatures, to preserve their wholesomeness till required for preparation and service. For effective storage of food items therefore, two types of storages are used the dry storage rooms meant for perishable commodities like cereals and their products, pulses, legumes, sugar and spices, canned foods, fats and oils, etc. and the low temperature storages for semi-perishable and perishable foods. Food stores in all establishments should be situated for easy access by staff of user departments as well as suppliers, without interference in flow of work of all concerned. Dry storerooms should be well lighted so that every item placed in them is easily visible and identifiable. Good ventilation helps to prevent spoilage, and maintain the temperatures required. From the point of view of security, it is general practice to prevent only one entrance-exit to stores. This also provides better control of deliveries and issues to user departments. To mention that storage equipment is now designed for easy reach and mobility, so that even small establishments can get storerooms cleaned without having to completely empty them. A lot of damage is done to quality where foods are not stored in a systematic manner.

Storekeeping Maintaining stores efficiently requires a good communication system between the storekeeper and the user departments, to know their needs specifically. Training and experience are necessary for accurate record keeping and negotiating with the suppliers. Above all, every storekeeper must have a high standard of ethics because he is in a very vulnerable position, handling stores of value which every man requires and would like to have. He is also vulnerable to getting corrupted by sellers and staff alike. Production planning and scheduling: The functions of management for any catering operation, small or large, are basically the activities which a manager performs to get people to work harmoniously towards organisational goals. These

functions are distinctly different from the activities involved in the actual production and service of food in a catering establishment. There are basically six functions which every manager performs: MANAGING PLANNING ORGANISING DIRECTING COORDINATING CONTROLLING EVALUATING Functions of management Planning Planning is the continuous process by which a manager scrutinizes past performance, reviews its applicability in the light of environmental changes, internal and external to the organization, and forecasts future trends. He then sets the goals for the establishment and bases its activities towards achieving them. The planning process is generally initiated by an awareness of an opportunity or a problem, which can be foreseen in the future. In the light of forecasts the establishment is scrutinized for its strengths and weaknesses, and new objectives and goals are established on the basis of certain assumptions. These are also referred to as planning premises and include forecasts pertaining to technological advancement, economic and social factors, governmental controls, customer attitudes and competitive forces. All planning involves three main steps: First- gathering information for chalking out broad policies relating to building, standards, finances, staff needs, food service methods, type and number of customers desired. In short, any information for making a workable scheme. Second- actually developing a blueprint of the structure, arrangement of spaces and activity details that can be conveniently translated into action from the information collected. Third-setting goals or targets to be achieved in a predetermined period of time. The goals must be related to a fairly accurate forecast of future events, since they cannot be based on absolute certainty. Planning is thus a mental exercise, the results of which are later transcribed on paper for reference as the activities proceed. It is also a continuous process taking place at all levels of management, helping the activities of the establishment to proceed as realistically as possible towards goals in constantly changing environments.

Catering establishments differ from other organizations basically in the type of goods and services they offer. Food being perishable in nature, and customers temperamental in their attitudes towards food, it becomes important for catering managers to set goals for a relatively short period of time. This usually covers six months to a year in terms of food production goals. But, goals concerning the type of facility to be offered can be set for longer periods. This is because it is not practical to take up restructuring of premises or changing the type of equipment frequently, as they both require high investment and in any case have longer life spans. The planning for building, equipment, etc. is therefore done for five, ten or even fifteen years. Goals setting is fundamental to any achievement. Any goal set must be clear to the planner as well as to all those who would be involved in the activities for achieving it. This helps people to know why they are doing what and feel a sense of achievement at the end. Work then becomes purposeful, creative, orderly, productive, cost effective and satisfying for all involved. Apart from benefits to the organization, people benefit too, through better relations with each other, economically through bonuses, personal development by acquiring skills and experience and a sense of belonging to the organization. Goals in any catering establishment need to be set along a continuum as indicated in fig. beginning from short-to-long-term goals.

SHORT-TERM MEDIUM TERM Now 1 to 5 years Plan number of Gross profit margins Customers Purchase Procedures Service patterns Equipment needs Equipment Maintenance Staff duties Customer staff relations Menus Financial statements * Menu extension * * * * * Goal setting in an establishment

LONG TERM 5 to 10 to 15 years Production targets Capital investment Labour policy Staff training Diversification Research- Market __ Operations Profits * *

It will be observed from above figure that for achievement of goals set at various points in time different skills are involved, starting from the acquisition, production and service of food to long-term policymaking for profitability. These reflect the different staff levels required in a catering establishment for performance of various jobs. As one travels to the right of the goal continuum the amount of mental effort required in planning, and the risks required to be taken in making decisions for the future, increase. This is because it is more difficult to predict changes that may occur in the environment, in say

about five or ten years time, as compared to those in six months or a year. It stands to reason therefore that every goal set needs to be reviewed in the light of changes occurring as activities proceed towards it. Blanchard and Johnson have suggested that once a goal has been agreed upon, it should be recorded on a single page in about 250 words only. This should be done clearly enough for all those involved in achieving it, to understand what they have to work towards. It is believed that 80 percent of the important results desired are achieved through 20 percent of the total goals set. So if every manager shifts the goals along the continuum and identifies six to ten important ones, these can become the key targets for all activities, for all activities, for which details and standards for achievement can be chalked out and identified. These when written out clearly and understood by all concerned constitute a plan. Planning catering operations thus involves stating objectives clearly by: (i) (ii) Forecating the number of customers accurately. Judging expectations of customers through familiarity with their food habits, religious and cultural backgrounds and economic status. In other words it means knowing their purchasing power, timings and manner of eating, and expectations from the food service. Determining the margin of profit required to cover all costs talking into account inflationary trends,menu composition,tastes of customers and so on. Establishing profit policy (once costs are calculated) in the light of financial constraints like tax requirements, subsidies in the form of free meals to employees or subsidised overheads. Knowing staff skills for production and service. Accurate future projections of the above help esatblishments to lay down general policies that would prove feasible over longer periods of time, especially where factors determine the planning of sites, spaces, and facilities, as these cannot be changed or shifted easily once bought and built due to financial and other constraints. Every establishment irrespective ofitssize requires to formulate plans of action for its present and future success. Though some managgers may consider planning to be a costly exercise requiring lot of time, effort and money, it has certain distinct advantages: (a) It helps to minimise time-wasting activities, involving waiting for instructions or ingredients because of last minute purchasing, leading to an indefinite cycle of uncertainties of what is to be done next and so on. (b) It helps to see future possibilities making managers alert to changes in trends that may affect the activities of the department. For example, the change in price of a material will immediately make him think of using substitutes. Again, a noticable change in tastes of customers can be seen through menus which have been planned and recorded over a period of time. These help to inculcate changes in future plans well in time to eliminate wastage of ingredients through overstocking. (c) It helps to organise and integrate activities in proper sequences, match jobs to skills and increase overall efficiency by helping to see the inter-relationship of various activities in the light of total objectives of the organisation, and of individuals. When each persons

(iii) (iv) (v)

responsibility and the contribution their activities make to the final goal are understood, the staff also get motivated to bring out their best. (d) It eliminates confusion if the plan is communicated well to those involved in its implementation. (e) It provides an important basis for control through budgeting of time, energy, space and money, while forming targets for achivement. (f) It helps managers at all levels to direct their subordinates effectively towards the goals. With every step forward in the right direction, job satisfaction and confidence develop. Time spent on planning therefore, is time well spent, provided it is not overdone. It will be noticed that the higher the level of management in an organisation, the greater is the time spent on planning, the least being at the operative level where it is matter of only sequencing individual activities distributed through detailed plans of work handed down. So while kitchen staff often have the feeling that managers sit all day in their chairs while they do all the work, it is quite clear that the difference is only in the nature of the work. Managers do more mental work while work while food production and service staff do more of physically, put plans into action. Sometimes, however, managers get so involved in planning that they find little time for supervisory, and other important coordinating and directing functions. This leads to constant effort of trying to catch up with neglected functions and correcting unsupervised wrong actions so that confusion, dissatisfaction and inefficiency results. Too much time spent on planning in thus disruptive as well as costly. In addition, it blocks initiative and creativity of staff, delays work and affects staff relations adversely. Also the higher the planning level the greater is the time lag between setting the goals and measuring performance towards them. For instance a dishwashers performance can be judged on the spot because the goals are set in the activity area, i.e., the kitchen itself. But, a cooks performance in controlling costs can be assessed only after a day, week or month. This is because the goals for profitability are set at the highest level in the establishment and evaluated long after the cooking is done. Imporatant areas of planning in catering establishments are planning for premises, functional areas, staff and customers.

Production quality and Quality control: What is Quality? When dealing with food materials and meal preparation for customers. It is hard to define the term quality because it means different things to different people. John w Buick has defined quality as the degree of excellence that can be offered to the customer.

Day to day experience shows that whether one pays for tomatoes, apples or a meal, customers do not mind paying more for what they think is better quality food or service. The factors that make food more acceptable are chiefly those that directly affect palatability of meals. From point of view of caterer, however, quality not only includes palatability characteristics(which though important can be enhanced or masked as desired, by the use of additives), but the production of meals that are wholesome in terms of their being safe for consumption. Nothing is more detrimental to a food service organization than a case of food poisoning among its customers. Whatever the criteria employed for judging the quality of food prepared and served, what is certain is that the customer demands acceptable quality? Obviously, it does not signify the most superior or best grade, so some means need to be devised to decide on where to draw the line in terms of selecting ingredients, and methods of putting them together to suit the expectations of the customers. Thus, it is necessary to lay down standards for each of the qualities and be able to control them at every stage of the production cycle. Quantitative aspects of Quality Each aspect of quality in some way based on the amount of food or materials in question and therefore, reflects the concept of portion on the plate of the customer. For the caterer it provides a means of control over costs and by controlling portions, numbers, weight and volume while for the customer it indicates value for money. Number: Controlling numbers is just a matter of counting correctly, and with proper supervision is an easy task. It can be done manually or mechanically-e.g. one small cake per person, or 100 doughnuts from one kilogram of dough, prepared by a doughnut machine of that capacity. Weight or Volume: Standards for weights and volumes of different ingredients and dishes can be established by the use of scales, slicing machines, measuring equipment, scoops and ladles designed to hold a measured weight or volume of food. For example, one scoop of ice-cream may be exactly 25 or 30 grams by weight and volume equipment commonly used and found suitable for even the smallest food service operation. The standard cups, spoons, and ladles vary slightly in their measurements according to established standards in different countries, and their converted equivalents in weigh and volumes are used. SENSORY QUALITY This refers to those characteristics of food which can be identified by use of our senses such as, appearance, smell, taste, feel and sound of food. Appearance

It is common experience that if food does not look good when served, it will be rejected even if its taste is good. So the most important feature of food acceptability is its appearance, which is largely contributed by is the colour and texture of foods selected and their presentation to the customer. Colour Foods get their colour in many different ways ---(a) from natural plant and animal pigments; (b) from the effect of heat on sugar in foods, (c) chemical reactions between sugars and proteins, and (d) the oxidation of chemical compounds present in foods. Natural plant and animal pigments: There are a number of pigments presents naturally in plant and animal tissues, which are sensitive to physical and chemical changes. Foods therefore tend to change their colours with the degree of handling, exposure to air, sunlight and different temperatures used in the process of cooking. In the process of chopping, grating and grinding, the colours also get affected, because the cells or chloroplasts containing them get damaged releasing the pigments. Once released contact with air further destroys them. Effect of heat on sugars: Sugars when heated turn brown and caramelize, imparting a brown colour of foods that contain them as in the candies, toasted bread and caramelized fruits. Chemical reactions: The amino group from proteins in foods combines with the aldehyde or ketone groups from carbohydrate or sugar molecules and lead to the darkening of foods. This is generally called Maillard browning as in the case of milk heated for a long time to thicken or condense it. Examples of this type of non-enzymatic browning are seen on the surface of baked dishes and roasted meats or nuts. Oxidation: Foods contain certain chemicals which on contact with air get converted to their oxidized forms imparting colour to foods. Examples include the darkening of cut fruits and vegetables when exposed to air such as apples, brinjals, pears, potatoes, etc. Also tea turns darker on keeping. These reactions get accelerated in the presence of metallic ions like copper pans. The colour of cooked foods may be due to the above factors working singly or in combination during the different stages of food preparation, cooking and service. Colour is also associated with the degree of ripeness, flavour, taste, concentration of food and the degree of doneness, etc. all of which determine acceptability. In short, the form in which the food is presented influences choice. Also menus which show a variety in colour and form are highly acceptable. Flavour Once the eyes are satisfied with the quality, the sensory organs of the nose and mouth take over. The customer then gets affected by what is called flavour of foods. Flavour relates to the combined sensation of odour or aroma, taste and the feel of food in the mouth. Several compounds present in foods are responsible for aroma and flavour. These substances are very sensitive to oxidation and high temperatures, and tend to interact with each other. It is for this reason that

flavours change with time and temperature. With very few exceptions, flavours generally deteriorate with handling, processing and storage, and therefore no food tastes as good as fresh food. The terms farm fresh or straight from the fire or just baked are only too familiar, as far as attracting customers is concerned. No wonder a small kiosk where juice is freshly extracted for each customer, is generally overcrowded, in contrast to one where bottled or canned juice is served. Flavour acceptance or rejection, however, is also influenced by peoples cultural, regional and religious backgrounds. For instance, a person from western, far eastern or muslim countries would relish the delicate flavour of beef, as against an Indian who would consider the odour unacceptable simply because the two have different eating habits and experiences with food. The age old proverb one mans meat is another mans poison is so apt when dealing with food accepatances. These differences have given rise to specialty menus such as Chinese, Continental, Vegetarian. South Indian, as so on, to suit the tastes and values of different people and account for regional and cultural preferences. Large food service establishments offer choices from all these types of menus, while smaller ones cater to single specialities inviting those who would relish particular flavours. The part that odours play in food acceptability is clear from the fact that very often odours put people off a food even without their tasting it. Odours can described as pungent, minty, putrid, and so on. Pleasant odours generally result result from subtle combinations which are delicate and not strong. Taste After the odour is accepted the next sensory test of quality is the taste, that is, the reaction of the taste buds to the food,determining whether it is sweet, sour, salty or bitter. Most foods contain a mixture of some or all the sensations of taste. Acceptability of food therefore depends on how well they harmonise to make the net sensation pleasurable. Mouthfeel: The next component of flavour is mouthfeel. Depending how the food feels in the mouth it may be rejected or enjoyed. The most attractive dishes with pleasant odours and tastes can be rejected if they contain too many chillies or spices which irritate the membranes of the mouth. If the food is too hot in terms of temperature, it causes blisters or pain. Again, the most Texture Texture of a food can be determined both by perception and mouth-feel. It varies from food to food and in the same food too when different methods of cooking are used. For example, a baked pudding will have a firmer texture than the same pudding if steamed. Texture also depends on the structural composition of food. This quality can be described as rough, smooth, grainy, coarse, fine, crisp, viscous, spongy and heavy. For want of accurate descriptions sometimes analogues are used to describe texture. For instance custard may be described as creamy indicating that it is smooth flowing like cream, and not because it has cream in it. Also cereal preparation like rice or semolina pudding cooked beyond the gelling point may be described as gluey. People accept or reject ffoods which donot agree with your own mental inage regarding shape, size, viscosity or sheen. For instance, rice which is overcooked and therefore sticky instead of grainy (with each grain well

separated), will not be accepted if customers have a choice. Similarly, a glossy well set caramel pudding would be in great demand. Mental Response A part from the sensory quality of food, certain psychological factors related to peoples experiences with food play an important role in their acceptability. There is an example of a woman who could never accept stuffed brinjals no matterhow deliciously they were prepared . This is because she was reminded of a pickle which had once appeared on her table and contained an accidentally pickled rat, which resembled the stuffed brinjal. In contrast, whenever a cake is served it is accepted by people with a feeling of celebration, because of its association with birrthdays and weddings. The mind thus acts as a sensory organ influencing food acceptability. The sense of hunger too is the mental interpretation of a physiological need for food. Conversely we tend to eat a favourite food even when we are not hungry. Such eating expresses our appetite for food which can be called the hunger of the mind and not of the body. Sound Besides the mental responses to food, people also exhibit a certain degree of sound sensitivity. For instance, the cracking of spitfires when barbecue drippings fall in them, produce joyful expectancy of freshly cooked food from fire to plate. A similar pleasant reaction occurs when sizzling food is brought for service.

Quality Control Procedures Quality control procedures adopted by various establishments differ according to the size of the operation. Smaller establishments require less sophisticated methods than larger ones which handle greater volumes of food, and therefore face greater chances of contamination if handled traditionally. If machinery is not used to speed up the work and reduce the amount of exposure of food to air and handling, it would be difficult to control quality. Quality control procedures basically involve three steps: (i) Setting out accurate specifications for each food: This is done to communicate to the supplier the exact sizes, weights, numbers, etc. required. Sometimes, descriptions or coloured pictures of products may be used. This may also be displayed at different preparation centres in kitchens to guide staff to produce dishes which match them in their quality characteristics. Sample specifications appear in fig QUANTITY/PACK AV.WT COLOUR OF SHELL FRESHNESS INTERIOR QUALITY

PRODUCT

Hens egg

2.5 doz. Per day Carton of 6 trays

50-60

white or Brown

Not over 4 days Testing by candling after laying prominent yolk in Centre Thick white

Price Rs..per day. Additional information Deliver two cartons.June 2011 Use in preparation .For breakfast preparations, and in puddings, cakes/ biscuits/ All. Specification for eggs In India there is no official system of grading eggs unlike in the developed countries, where they are marked AA, A, B and so on. But vendors do grade them visually by size and colour and price them separately. In such conditions it is important to buy from farm sources reputed vendors who will contract for replacing the number of eggs delivered spoilt. In tropical countries weather conditions also contribute to spoilage easily and therefore it is greater challenge to caterer to provide exact specifications and conditions of supply, to maintain a quality service. Below fig. is a specification developed for carrots, others can be formulated according to the specific needs of each establishment. VARIETY COLOUR AV.SIZE QTY.REQD. Indian Orange red 12 carrots to the kilo 10 kg FRESHNESS ANDQUALITY Farm fresh with no sign of Infestation, contamination or Deterioration. Firm, even in shape, smooth, with Soft midrib.

Price Rs..per kg. Additional information Deliver on ..November 2011 Use..for desserts, salads and side dishes. Specification of carrots. In catering establishments, the development of specifications is very important because those who receive the goods are not food specialists. The store staff commonly checks what is delivered with the delivery note and matches it with order placed by the catering manager. (ii) Checking foods for quality: Each food needs to be checked for quality against the specifications desired. This is done when the foods are received so that any item which doesnt conform to the specified quality is not accepted. Sometimes, due to carelessness or ignorance of staff, quality of foods may get compromised leading to spoilage in storage and losses. Specifications can also be developed for foods in process. For instance, laying down standards for the thickness of the peel to be removed in preparing vegetables and fruits; checking to see that any equipment used is cleaned for a food to avoid undue losses in nutritional, organoleptic and other qualities, and finally checking the temperatures of holding equipment. At the service point also quality can be checked in terms of portion served, temperature of the food, its consistency and garnishing. Testing the finished product: The importance of testing the finished product before it is presented to the customer cannot be over emphasized. All testing should focus on those

(iii)

aspects of quality which are of concern to the customer and make food acceptable to him, such as appearance, palatability, portion and so on. This is because the idea is to see all food prepared for service as far as possible. Figure shows a sample specification proforma for a prepared dish. Dish Picture or description Appearance Odour/ Taste texture Composition Presentation Portion

Mention any defects or give suggestions for improving any of the above qualities in the dish underf test.

Fig. Specification proforma for a prepared dish. If on testing a dish for quality, it is found to be unacceptable in any way, immediate action should be taken to prevent it from being served to the customer. The process involved in its preparation, and the quality of ingredients used must be re-examined and identifiable defects removed. It is wrong policy to camaflouge(concealed) defects in a dish by addition of excess flavourings or colours before serving it to customers. While quality control is essential for every food service operation, one must not be too carried away with tests considering that quality procedures are time consuming and costly. The question then arises as to how much time; energy and money should be spent on them. This is difficult to state in concrete terms, because it must vary with type of foods and the manner in which they are being handled. The sales volume is, however, a good guide to customer acceptability of the food. This is so aptly illustrated even though the menu is limited and the establishment small. John Buick has suggested that not more than 0.5 per cent of the sales value should be spent on quality control, whatever the form.

Basic stages in preparation of Budget

Pricing Consideration:

Pricing: The process of determining what to charge the customer for food items, menus or services, may be termed as pricing. In commercial catering, prices depend a great deal on market trends because the proportion of fixed costs is relatively high and the profit margins expected are far greater than those for social institutions. The latter include hostels, schools, lunchrooms, homes for the handicapped, and so on. In these, pricing takes on a cost-effective rather than a profit- making goal. As we all know, there is a definite relationship between the price level and the volume of sales, high prices are almost always accompanied by a low volume of sales. In food service establishments, however, the volume of sales is the most important determinant of profitability. Therefore, if the right price levels are not arrived at, the desired volume of sales cannot be achieved. Thus, the pricing policy is the most critical factor in the assessment of the viability of an establishment; more so, when there is increasing competition in the field of food service. Further, technological changes have altered the existing cost structures by shifting the emphasis from one type of cost to another. For instance, where certain jobs are totally or partially mechanized, the labour costs incurred previously have shifted to capital costs. This shift has its effects on the methods of determining prices. The following example explains this effect. EXAMPLE 1 Ten workers are producing 22 meals per day, at a labour cost of Rs. 300 per day. Some labour saving devices are introduced which decrease work load to that of eight workers. A shift in labour costs has brought in an element of fixed costs in place of two workers. This will affect the contribution in the following manner:

Fixed costs Prior to mechanization After introduction of Labour- saving devices Nil 60

variable costs 300 240

This means that the contribution in the latter case will be Rs. 60 more than before mechanization, because part of the variable labour costs have shifted to fixed costs. This shift has its effects on the methods of determining prices. METHODS OF PRICING The two methods of pricing commonly used are: (a) Cost plus method, and (b) Rate of return method.

Cost plus Pricing This method involves the calculation of the food cost per unit sales and then a given percentage of gross profit is added to the value to arrive at the selling price per unit. This percentage is intended to cover the cost of labour and overhead expenses while also leaving a margin of net profit. The net profit percentage required will depend on the pricing policy of the particular establishment. Food operations generally add 150 per cent to food cost. Example 2 If the ingredients or food cost of a dish is 90 paise, the selling price would be: 90 p + 90 p + 45 p =Rs. 2.25 p OR 90+(90 X 150/100) =Rs. 2.25 OR simply 2 1/2 times food cost, i.e. 5/2 x 90 = Rs 2.25 The cost plus method is easy to apply and understand, and therefore widely used. It has, however, certain disadvantages like: (a) Cost plus pricing is based on cost, and does not take into account the demand for the product or service. Its indiscriminate use, therefore, becomes irrational. (b) Net profit becomes the direct function of sales turnover. (c) The gross profit margin is added to the food cost and the net profit is unrelated to the capital invested. Rate of Return Pricing This method is based on the relationship of net profit to capital investment. By this method the likelihood of reaching net profit targets is greater, provided that the estimated sales volume is achieved and the gross profit margins are maintained. The rate of return method of pricing, however, also has some disadvantages: (a) It is purely profit- oriented and has little scope for flexibility. (b) Its approach to pricing problems is too simple to be realistic. (c) It does not generally go by the demands of customer or the market. At best, the above methods can be useful in evaluating performance, or act as basic guides in pricing. They are, however, not useful in appraising investments. Richard Kotas explains the use of profit multipliers in making decisions for pricing. This is indicated in the following example adapted from the author. EXAMPLE 3 The sales mix percentage of a food service establishment is shown in Table, along with the gross Budgeted profit and loss account Sales Sales mix sales value Gross profit Gross profit % Rs. % Rs Soups 15 36,000 75 27,000 Meat, fish, poultry 40 96,000 55 52,800

Vegetables Sweets and fruit Beverages

20 15 10 100

48,000 36,000 24,000 240,000

75 70 80 Less overhead and Labour Net profit

36,000 25,200 19,200 160,200 130,200 ______________ 30,000

Profit percentage expected for each type of food offered for sale. The total sales revenue is Rs. 240,000; the overhead and labour expenses are Rs. 130,200. Determine the profit multipliers for each category of items on the menu, and show how they can help management to make pricing decisions to suit their targets for profit.

Sales mix 1 Soups Meat, fish, Poultry Vegetables Sweets, etc. Beverages

TABLE Sales mix and profit multipliers. Net profit Sales mix 10 % of sales Increased net Budgeted value mix value profit 2 3 4 5 30,000 36,000 3600 33,600 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 96,000 48,000 36,000 24,000 9600 4800 3600 2400 39,600 34,800 33,600 32,400

profit multiplier 6 1.20 3.20 1.60 1.20 0.80

% increase in price requi 7 8.33 3.12 6.25 8.33 12.50

Note: The figures in column (7) represent the percentage increase in price of each item required to increase the profit by 10 per cent. These figures are calculated using the formula: Percentage increase in price required x profit multiplier = Net profit per cent. Or X x PM= 10 per cent Column 2 represents the base net profit budgeted Column 3 represents the sales mix value Column 4 shows the increase in prices by 10 per cent Column 5 gives the amount of the new profit figure for each item. It will be noticed that in the case of soups the net profit is raised by 112 per cent of the base profit figure. Column 6 gives a price level multiplier, which for soups is 1.2, calculated as follows: Column 4 divided by column 2 and multiplied by 10 i.e. PM =10% Sales mix value divide by Net Profit Budgeted x 10 Column 7 shows that the prices of soups should be increased by 8.33% to achieve a net profit increase of 10% as desired (8.33 x 1.2 =10%) i.e. % increase in profit=% increase in price required x profit multiplier.

Having calculated the profit multiplier (PM) values for all the elements of the sales mix, prices can be reviewed in a number of ways to achieve a net profit increase of 10 per cent. These are: (i) The menu prices of all items can be increased by 1.25 per cent to achieve a net profit increase of 10 per cent because the total of all PM values is 8.0 ( 8 x 1.25 = 10%). (ii) If we increase the prices of all meat dishes by 2 per cent, this will increase the net profit by 6.4 per cent ( 2 x 3.20, i.e. PM). In addition, if the prices of sweets are increased by 3 per cent, the net profit increase will be 3.6 percent ( 3 x 1.20). Together this will effect an increase of 10 per cent in the net profit which is what is desired. Thus, a number of pricing decisions are feasible by simple calculations using the profit multiplier. It is good pricing management policy to bring about only slight increases in prices of popular dishes, without generally increasing the prices of all menu items, to achieve the desire results. This helps to achieve the necessary profit margins while still maintaining the goodwill of the customers.

FACTORS AFFECTING PRICING (i) Location of the food service (ii) Size and type of establishment (iii) The menu (iv) Service method (v) Likes and Dislikes of Customers (vi) Purchasing Power as Related to the expectations of Customers (vii) Environmental Conditions

MAKING PRICING DECISIONS Pricing decisions are generally made at higher levels of management from where the establishment can be viewed in its total perspective, with an understanding of the impact of different pricing policies on profitability. Pricing decions are affected by the elasticity demand, the cost structure of the enterprise and its pricing policy. The more elastic the demand, the greater is the scope for an imagiinative pricing policy. It is for this reason that special discounts, off season rates, or prices for specials on the menu, can be offered on special occasions. These are primarily designed to optimise profits through increasing the volume of sales, capturing the mood of the customers during festive seasons and so on. Imaginative pricing, however, is only useful over short periods, because the price tactics resorted to are not often good enough to cover variable costs. This is also referred to as contribution pricing. The contribution approach to the pricing is based on the fact that in certain situations, it may be better to sell individual products at a price just in excess of variable costs, rather than none at all. This type of approach is resorted to in cases where there are only seasonal customers, as in hill or tourist resorts in out of the way places which are prone to under utilised capacity during certain periods. Price discretion requires skill, initiative, creativity and an accurate judgement of the customers mood and receptivity to new ideas. All these are developed with experience. When the variable costs are low,

as in times of bumber crops; a wider range of prices can be profitability charged, while still offering the customer a wide choice. When the fixed costs of an establishment are high, profit stability decreases, because prices charged have to follow market forces. In such cases, the cost plus method of pricing becomes baseless. All pricing decisions are governed by the policies laid out for particular establishments. These are related to price, costs, demand and profit margins. Pricing has always been a challenge to the caterer because he deals with a large quantity of perishable commodities. It is therefore important to be able to understand the behaviour of all costs, and to predict the impact of changes in them on the profitability of a food service operation. Today, with catering becoming more and more professional, and the variety of services demanded by the customer ever increasing, an intuitive approach to pricing is not enough. Accurate forecasting and tight controls through constant monitoring are required, so that methods based on sound accounting systems can be developed. It is vital to bear in mind that all calculations of costs, menu prices, and profit margins need to be viewed from time to time to inculcate changes in cost structures, resulting from fluctuation in variable costs, customer demand, labour problems, time allocation of people due to menu changes or staff problems. A manager must however, keep in mind that he is not only selling food but a package of service, charm, warmth, atmosphere, cleanliness, location and music all of which affect pricing decisions. It also becomes clear therefore that management must be devoted to the revenue controlling aspects of the business, as well as to its cost aspects, in proportion to their respective effects on their respective effects on profitability. Without this understanding and the ability to predict effects of pricing decisions prior to their implementation, a caterer cannot ensure success for his food service.