Fundamentals of Structural Geology

Exercise: concepts from chapter 10

Exercise: concepts from chapter 10
Reading: Fundamentals of Structural Geology, Ch 10
1) The flow of magma with a viscosity as great as 10
10
a!s, let alone that of roc" with a
viscosity of 10
#0
a!s, is difficult to com$rehend %ecause our common e&$erience is with
li'uids li"e water at room tem$erature which has a viscosity of 10
()
a!s* Recall from
+10*,) that the rate of deformation, shear stress, and viscosity for -ewton.s thought
e&$eriment +Figure 10*#) are related %y:
#
yx yx
D
To %uild intuition investigate -ewton.s sim$le shearing configuration using your own
weight to shear a 1 m cu%ic %loc" of li'uid +Figure 1)*
F
x
v
x
(y)
y
x
L = 1m
liuid
Figure 1* -ewton.s thought e&$eriment for sim$le shearing of a viscous li'uid* /ere the
hori0ontal force is a $erson.s weight transferred to the u$$er $late through a $ulley*
a) 1se the "inematic e'uations to re(write in terms of the velocity and integrate this
relationshi$ to find the velocity distri%ution as a function of vertical $osition in
the cu%e using the no(sli$ %oundary condition to solve for the constant of
integration* 2rite down the e'uation for the velocity of the u$$er $late, V, as a
function of the shear stress, viscosity, and height of the cu%e of li'uid*
%) 3&$lain how the ma&imum velocity of the li'uid is related to the dis$lacement of a
li'uid $article in contact with the u$$er $late* 1se this relationshi$ and your result
from $art a) to write an e'uation for the dis$lacement, U, of the u$$er $late as a
function of shear stress, viscosity, li'uid height, and time* ro$ose an a$$ro$riate
initial condition to solve for the constant of integration*
c) 1se the result from $art %) and your own weight to shear the magma and the roc"
s$ecimens and calculate the dis$lacement, U, if you hung on the ca%le for 1
second, 1 hour, 1 day, and 1 year* 2ould you thin" of either the magma or the
roc" as a li'uid4
Fe!ruary "# "01$ % &a'id &( )ollard and *aymond +( Fletcher "00, 1
Fundamentals of Structural Geology
Exercise: concepts from chapter 10
d) 2ould the $arallel $late a$$aratus $ictured schematically in Figure 1 %e a good
design for measuring the coefficient of -ewtonian viscosity4 5iscuss the good
and the %ad as$ects of this e&$erimental design*
#) 6ost viscometers +Figure #) do not $rovide a direct measurement of the shear stress or
the rate of deformation %ecause these 'uantities vary throughout the flow in a rather
com$le& way* The 'uantities that are measured must %e related to what is needed for the
calculation of viscosity %y solving the a$$ro$riate %oundary(value $ro%lem* 7ecause
these solutions de$end u$on assum$tions a%out the flow %ehavior, the corres$onding
la%oratory tests only $rovide apparent viscosities*
a*
*
r
'

l
i

u
i
d

s
a
m
p
l
e
fixed
rod
turning
cylindrical
cruci!le
liuid
sample
L
dri'e
shaft
roller
!earing
fixed
rod

r
Figure #* Couette viscometer used to determine the a$$arent viscosity of li'uids*
The Couette viscometer is com$osed of a cylindrical cruci%le containing the li'uid and a
centered cylindrical rod of length, L* The annulus %etween the rod and cruci%le has an
inner radius, aR, and an outer radius R* The o%8ective of the e&$eriment is to achieve a
Fe!ruary "# "01$ % &a'id &( )ollard and *aymond +( Fletcher "00, "
Fundamentals of Structural Geology
Exercise: concepts from chapter 10
steady, two(dimensional, and laminar flow within the annulus %ecause these are the
conditions assumed for the solution of the %oundary value $ro%lem* These conditions are
most closely a$$ro&imated if the cruci%le is turned with angular velocity while the rod
is held stationary, and if the rod is long com$ared to the annulus +7ird et al*, 19:0)*
a) ; cylindrical coordinate system, +r, ), is used and the %oundary(value $ro%lem for
the steady state, laminar flow of a -ewtonian viscous li'uid in an annulus, is
solved for the distri%ution of the circumferential com$onent of velocity:
( ) ( )
( )
a < < a
a 1< a
R r r R
v R

1
]
This is the only non(0ero velocity com$onent for this $ro%lem* Solve for the
velocity at the edge of the rod, r = aR, and at the edge of the cruci%le, r = R* 2rite
the e'uation relating the angular velocity of the cruci%le, , to the velocity
com$onent in the direction at the outer wall*
%) Flow in the cylindrical annulus is very similar to flow %etween $arallel $lates,
e&ce$t it is wra$$ed around the a&is of the cylinder* >ne accounts for this
different geometry in the relationshi$ %etween shear stress and velocity gradient
as follows:
r
v d
r
dr r

,
1se the velocity distri%ution to solve for the shear stress distri%ution in the
annulus* 1nli"e the $arallel $late flow where the shear stress is constant, here the
shear stress varies with radial $osition*
c) 5erive the e'uation relating the net tor'ue, T, on the cruci%le to the shear stress in
the li'uid at the edge of the cruci%le, r = R* Su%stitute for the shear stress to derive
the relationshi$ for the a$$arent viscosity as a function of the a$$lied tor'ue* This
is the relationshi$ used to determine the a$$arent viscosity in the Couette
viscometer*
)) Consider the flow of an incom$ressi%le, isotro$ic and linearly viscous li'uid down an
inclined $lanar surface that is very long in %oth the stri"e and di$ directions com$ared to
the thic"ness, h, of the li'uid layer +Figure ))*
y
h
a
q
g
s
in
a
-qg
-
q
g
c
o
s

a
x
-
Fe!ruary "# "01$ % &a'id &( )ollard and *aymond +( Fletcher "00, .
Fundamentals of Structural Geology
Exercise: concepts from chapter 10
Figure )* Cross section of a viscous li'uid flowing down an inclined $lane*
7oth the viscosity and the density are uniform throughout the layer* Furthermore, the
flow is steady and the flow regime is laminar +low Reynolds num%er)* This could %e
considered the most elementary model for the flow of lava down the slo$e of a volcano,
or the flow of ice in a very %road glacier*
a) ?n general the velocity vector is a function of the three Cartesian coordinates and
time: v = v+x, y, z, t)* /owever, more restricted de$endence is indicated for the
flow regime de$icted in Figure 1* 5escri%e which of the four inde$endent
varia%les each com$onent of the velocity vector de$ends u$on and consider
whether the thic"ness is constant* @ustify your choices %ased u$on the geometry,
the li'uid $ro$erties, and the flow conditions* Given these choices, descri%e how
the com$onents of the rate of deformation tensor are related to the gradients in
velocity*
%) 5escri%e %oth 'ualitatively and mathematically the %oundary conditions at the
interface %etween the %ottom of the li'uid and underlying solid su%strate, and at
the interface %etween the to$ of the li'uid and the overlying atmos$here* ?ndicate
how the com$onents of the velocity vector and stress tensor at the two interfaces
are constrained %y these %oundary conditions*
c) The velocity distri%ution for flow down the inclined $lane is given in +10*#A) as:
( )
#
1
#
+ ) + < )sin+ ) h
x
v y g y y
/ere the density, , the acceleration of gravity, g, and the -ewtonian viscosity, ,
are uniform and constant* 5erive the e'uation for the ma&imum velocity and use
this to rewrite in dimensionless form* lot the dimensionless velocity $rofile and
descri%e it*
d) 3stimate the range of thic"nesses of a lava flow that you could 8ust outrun +say for
100m) on slo$es ranging from = 1 to 10 degrees and summari0e your results
gra$hically* 1se values for the constants given %y 6acdonald +19AA) for %asaltic
lava in /awaii where flows ty$ically range from 1 to A m thic":
density, = #*:A 10
)
"g<m
)
acceleration of gravity, g = 9*B m<s
#
a$$arent -ewtonian viscosity, C = )000 a!s
This viscosity is a$$ro&imately the median for the values 'uoted %y 6acdonald
which range from 1,900 to ),B00 a!s*
D) George Sto"es considered a constitutive law for an isotro$ic viscous fluid +,*1:0) in
which the stress com$onents are related linearly to the thermodynamic $ressure and the
rate of deformation com$onents*
a) 2rite down this constitutive law in three dimensions using indicial notation and
treating the stress com$onents as the de$endent varia%les* 5escri%e each $hysical
Fe!ruary "# "01$ % &a'id &( )ollard and *aymond +( Fletcher "00, $
Fundamentals of Structural Geology
Exercise: concepts from chapter 10
'uantity* Rewrite this e'uation for this fluid at rest +or in uniform motion) and in
doing so indicate the relationshi$s %etween the thermodynamic $ressure, p, the
mean normal $ressure,
p
, and the static $ressure,
o
p
*
%) For the flowing fluid considered %y Sto"es align the Cartesian coordinates with the
directions of $rinci$al stresses:
11 1 ## # )) )
, , , so 0,
ij
i j
-ote that the shear stress com$onents are 0ero* 2hat are the magnitudes of the
ma&imum shear stresses and what are the orientations of the $lanes on which
these shear stresses act4 1se the condition descri%ed in to define the mean normal
$ressure in terms of the thermodynamic $ressure, the two material constants, and
the rate of volume change, D
kk
* 1se this relationshi$, in turn, to define the %ul"
viscosity, , and descri%e what the %ul" viscosity measures*
c) 5escri%e the two s$ecial conditions for the flowing fluid with this constitutive law
in non(uniform motion under which the thermodynamic $ressure is e&actly e'ual
to the mean normal $ressure* Rewrite the constitutive law to %e consistent with
each of these conditions* ?n this conte&t descri%e what is meant %y an
incom$ressi%le fluid %y referring to the e'uation of continuity +,*B1):
5
5
y
x z
v
v v
t x y z

_
+ +


,
Rearrange the constitutive law for the incom$ressi%le fluid treating the rate of
deformation com$onents as the de$endent varia%les and the stress com$onents as
the inde$endent varia%les*
Fe!ruary "# "01$ % &a'id &( )ollard and *aymond +( Fletcher "00, ,