THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Some Basic Syntactic Concepts Recycling

LECTURE 1

SOME BASIC SYNTACTIC CONCEPTS RECYCLING 1. Sentence / Clause as a pattern of experience

From a semantic p.o.v., a sentence/clause is the linguistic representation/codification of a state of affairs in the world, of a pattern of the human experience. Our human experience is conceptualized in the form of such patterns / situation types of: doing, happening, experiencing, etc. A state of affairs conceptualized as a situation type consists of the following main components: a process (action/state) participant(s) (the entities involved in the process) attributes of participants (qualities, quantities, degrees) the circumstances in which the process takes place (time, space, manner etc.) The language has specific lexical categories to express these components Verbs (Verb Phrases/Groups) - to express processes Nouns (Noun Phrases/Nominal Groups)- to express mainly the participants Adjectives (Adjective Phrases/Adjectival Groups) to describe the participant(s) Adverbs (Adverb Phrases/Adverbial Groups) to describe the process to express the circumstances Other lexical items/structures such as prepositions (Prepositional Phrases) and conjunctions are used to express the relationships between these elements. KEEP IN MIND! Participants can be of any kind: animate or inanimate; they refer to any entity necessarily involved in the process to complete it, syntactically and semantically. Example: My naughty little brother had put the glass on the edge of the table just before you entered the room process: had put (putting something somewhere) participants (necessary to complete the process): - my (naughty little) brother: the one who performs the action of putting - the glass: that which is put - on the edge of the table: the place where the glass is put - attributes: naughty, little - circumstances: (the time of the putting; optional) just before you entered the room

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Some Basic Syntactic Concepts Recycling

DONT FORGET! 1) In a clause/sentence, the linguistic elements (the words) group to form more complex linguistic units (phrases - Quirk, or groups - Downing) to refer to these elements of a situation type. 2) When analysing a clause/sentence, the functions/roles of its constituents, think of what they represent in the real world (match the words to their semantic functions). In our example: - the central words are: put, brother, glass, on the edge - all the other words group round these central words to help the reader/listener identify all the referents of the situation - my, naughty and little are linked to brother to identify who performed the action - the is linked to glass to help the reader/listener identify what glass was put somewhere - had is linked to put to express the temporal relationship between the two actions of the situation (putting and entering) - of, the, table are linked to the prepositional phrase on the edge to identify where the glass was put - just before you entered the room are optionally linked to the main clause (My brother had put the glass on the edge of the table) to give the time of the process of putting.

2. Sentence vs clause
There are not yet definitions that all grammarians would agree on. We shall adopt/use Quirks and Downings views on the relationships between sentence and clause a) Quirk 1) Sentence - the highest ranking unit of grammar (sentence > clause > phrase > word> morpheme) - the discourse is segmented into sentences - a sentence may consist of one or more clauses - in writing, it is marked by beginning with a capital letter and ending with a full stop/question mark/exclamation mark. 2 ) clause - less ambiguous than sentence - Quirk does not give a clear definition of clause: a linguistic unit which consists of one or more phrases (the verb phrase being the crucial element) and is defined by the elements it may contain - Subject - Verb - Object - Complement and - Adverbial
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THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Some Basic Syntactic Concepts Recycling

b) Downing: - the basic category is the clause - the independent clause is the equivalent of Quirks simple sentence, term which is considered to be traditional - clause/simple sentence is the major grammatical unit used to make statements, ask questions and issue directives Compare Quirks and Downings rank-scales Quirk Downing - sentence - clause - clause - phrase - group (& phrase) - word - word - morpheme - morpheme Quirk is concerned mainly with sentence, clause, and phrase, whereas Downing refers mainly to clause and group. Nevertheless, both Quirk and Downing consider the simple sentence or the single independent clause to be the most central part of grammar. We shall use the following definitions: Clause: a group of words that expresses a complete/whole event and contains a subject and a verb/predicator (see paragraph 4)1; Sentence may express a single complete event when it consists of a single, independent clause (the sentence itself) - or more than one event when it consists of several clauses. Conclusions: 1) We will use both terms, sentence and clause 2) Sentence will be considered more like a communicative unit by means of which a complete thought is communicated / a complete situation is expressed 3) We will refer to clauses whenever we are interested in the inner structure of a sentence, from a grammatical point of view

3. Form and function

Remember that the same constituent (word or string of words) of a clause/sentence can be classified in two ways, on the basis of its: 1) Form - word - phrase (Noun Phrase/Nominal Group, Verb phrase/Verbal Group, ) - clause - sentence 2) (syntactic) Function
1

Sometimes, the subject and (more rarely) the verb/predicator are omitted in the surface structure because they can be easily recovered, by the interpreter, from the context (see nonfinite and verbless clauses).

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Some Basic Syntactic Concepts Recycling

At the clause/sentence level - subject - verb/predicator - object - complement - adverbial / adjunct

At the phrase level - head - determiner - modifier - complement

Function is a relational concept; it expresses a relation between linguistic forms/categories. For example: - a subject expresses a certain relation between an NP (usually) and a VP - we talk about the subject of a clause /sentence Quirk (p.48) Form: refers to the internal structure of a constituent (NP, VP); Function: a units privilege of occurrence: its position, mobility, and optionality within the larger unit of which it is a part (subject, complement, modifier, adverbial); Category expresses the class of linguistic forms which are grammatically alike; For example: all the phrases/groups having a noun as their head are called NPs; BARE IN MIND Every unit fulfills a function in the larger unit of which it is a part. Sometimes, the distinction between form and function is not so clear; for example, determiner is treated (in Quirk) as a formal category (a set of closed-class items) even if by its very nature it is a relational /functional concept; it determines /specifies something ( a noun). There is not a one-to-one match between formal category and function: the same formal category may perform different functions (an NP can function as subject, object, complement, adverbial/adjunct) and the same function may be performed by different formal categories (the subject position can be filled with an NP or a clause). Following Quirk, we will make the distinction between o adverb/adverb phrase = formal category and o adverbial = a functional/syntactic category within the clause/sentence; We will use, sometimes (when the context helps the correct interpretation), in parallel the term adjunct, as a functional equivalent of Quirks adverbial. Attention! Quirk uses the term adjunct to refer only to a subclass of adverbials (along with disjunct, conjunct, and subjunct), whereas Downing uses it as an equivalent of adverbial.

Dont forget the standard position a function occupies in English language: subject: o before the V/P: in declarative clauses o after the (verbal) operator in questions
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THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Some Basic Syntactic Concepts Recycling

objects and complements: follow the verb (generally, the head) adverbials/adjuncts: o initial o final or o medial position

4. Clause and phrase/group structure

Remember: Clause / phrase/ group structure refers to the functional/syntactic elements of the clause/phrase/ group. Whenever there is a syntactically/semantically completed string of words (a phrase/group or a clause/sentence) the words (or strings of words) it consists of perform certain meaningful functions in the respective structures. A) The syntactic elements within the clause. Quirks clause structure : - Subject - Verb - Object (direct and indirect) - Complement (subject complement and object complement) - Adverbial As we can see, Quirk uses a morphological term, verb, in the paradigm of the syntactic functions of a clause where we may expect the term predicate. However, he makes reference to predicate. Traditionally, and especially from a logical point, a simple sentence/independent clause consists of only two major parts: - subject :that which the sentence is about) and - predicate: that which is asserted about the subject) (Quirk, pp.78-79) (S Su + P) [All of the radio and TV stations] [will broadcast the news of the peace plan] subject: predicate: [All of the radio and TV stations] [will broadcast the news of the peace plan]

The predicate can further be subdivided into two components: - operator: the first/the only auxiliary: will - predication: the rest of the predicate: broadcast the news of the peace plan) NOTICE: 1) Predicate = operator + predication 2) not all predicates can be divided into operator and predication (when the verb is in the present simple or past simple) Downings clause structure - Subject - Predicator
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THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Some Basic Syntactic Concepts Recycling

Object (direct and indirect) Complement (complement of subject and complement of object) Adjunct

Observe that Downing 1) uses the concept adjunct, for Quirks adverbial; 2) uses the concept predicator for Quirks verb; Make the difference between - Quirks predication = predicate operator and - Downings predicator = VP operator ATTENTION! 1) The predicator can be realised by both finite and nonfinite lexical verbs [Looking out of the window], [she .] [She looked out of the window] [and .] 2) Nonfinite verbs carry only lexical meaning 3) Finite verbs carry both lexical meaning and finite meaning (tense/time and mood/speakers judgment) There are two situations: The Finite component is carried by the lexical verb itself (present simple and past simple declarative sentences the verbal group consists of a single linguistic item) He told me the history of the village - the predicator is told The Finite component is carried by a different/separate element of the predicator, an auxiliary verb called verbal operator We are seeing him next week You should leave now Jim could have done this better - the predicator consists of: - finite (verbal operator): are, should, could - predicator (the rest of the verbal group): seeing, leave, have done B) The syntactic functions within the phrase /group - Head - Determiner - Modifier - Complement

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Some Basic Syntactic Concepts Recycling

REMEMBER! 1) Every word in the phrase/group or clause must occur in one of these functions (there is no word without function). 2) There are compulsory functions and optional functions (e.g. S and V/P are compulsory in the clause, whereas the others are optional, depending on the context; the head is compulsory in the phrase/group, whereas the others are optional, depending on the context). 3) In both structures, phrase/group and clause, the functions are ordered in a centre-periphery relationship; there are central functions (playing a crucial role) and more peripheral functions. at the clausal level. - the most central function is the VERB/PREDICATOR (because it is the expression of the process/action/state in which some entities are involved and the process is the central element in a state of affairs in the world). - the verb/predicator determines what words must accompany it in the clause (the arguments/participants in the process the lexical meaning of the verb/predicator transitive/intransitive /copulative - determines the structure of the clause ). - all the other functions (S, O, C, A) are related (in different degrees of closeness) to the verb/predicator. - the next functions in the order of importance are the S, the O, and the C (they express the participants in the process, the S and the O(s), and the attributes of the participants, the Cs and the Co). - the most peripheral element in the clause /sentence is the adverbial / adjunct (because it provides information about: the circumstances in which the process takes place, the speakers attitude towards the event, the nature of the relationships between words, phrases/groups or clauses). at the phrasal level - the most central, and, usually, the only compulsory element of the phrase/group, is the HEAD (except the Prepositional Phrase, where both head and complement are compulsory). - the most peripheral elements are the modifiers - which are generally optional. 4) Remember that all the functions (at both clause and phrase/group level), except the determiner, the head, and the V/P, can be expressed by CLAUSES. In other words, subjects, objects, complements, adverbials/adjuncts, and modifiers (postmodifiers only) can be expressed by either. - phrases/groups or - clauses

5. Constituents and Tests for Constituents

Constituent is a complex grammatical concept. Possible definition: every linguistic unit which is - morpheme is part of a word - word is part of a phrase/group - phrase/group is part of a clause - clause can be part of a sentence part of a larger linguistic unit:

Morpheme, word, phrase/group, clause are all constituents

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THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Some Basic Syntactic Concepts Recycling

OBSERVE! A constituent can be a single linguistic item (morpheme, word) or a sequence/string of linguistic items: phrase/group/clause). A sequence of words can be defined as a constituent/unit only if : - constitutes a semantic whole and - has a syntactic pattern Every constituent fulfils a syntactic function (determiner, modifier, complement etc.) in the larger constituent of which it is a part so that the larger constituent forms a semantic whole a unit that refers to some referent in the world) (morphemes in words, words in phrases/groups, clauses in sentences). The most difficult unit to be identified is the phrase/group. Sometimes there is ambiguity with respect to where the boundaries of a certain phrase/group are. The correct identification of constituents is essential to the understanding of the meaning of the sentence. In such cases, it is only the context that disambiguates the sentence. Rambo killed the man with a knife This sentence has two readings: 1) Rambo killed a man; Rambo used a knife to kill the man 2) Rambo killed a man; the man was carrying a knife The two readings (disambiguated by different contexts) determine differences in the structural constituency of the sentence. 1) - Rambo: NP (function: subject) - killed: VP/G (function: predicator) - the man: NP/G (function: direct object) - with a knife: PP (function: adverbial/adjunct) 2) - Rambo - killed - the man with a knife: NP (direct object); the head of the NP, man, is postmodified by a PP (with a knife) We will use in this kind of representation (only) the basic rule used in the early Phrase Structure Grammar, according to which a sentence consists of only two phrases, an NP (which performs the function of subject) and a VP (which performs the function of predicate in the logical approach; it is the rest of the sentence)

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Some Basic Syntactic Concepts Recycling

Reading (1) S

NP [Su]

VP [P]

NP

PP

Rambo

killed

the man

with a knife

Reading (2) S

NP [Su]

VP [P]

V N det

NP

PP

Rambo

killed

the

man with a knife

When we are not sure about the boundaries of a certain unit / constituent, we can use a series of tests. Tests for constituents 1) Coordination 2) wh-questios 3) Clefting 4) Passivization 5) Fronting Coordination Rambo killed a man with a knife and a woman with a gun Rambo killed a man with a knife and a woman with a large wide brimmed Mexican hat

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Some Basic Syntactic Concepts Recycling

Wh-questions What did Rambo kill the man with? What was the man that Rambo killed carrying? Clefting It was with a knife that Rambo killed the man It was a man with a knife that Rambo killed Passivization The man was killed by Rambo with a knife The man with a knife was killed by Rambo Fronting A man with a knife Rambo killed With a knife Rambo killed the man Dont forget: a clause can be an immediate constituent of a sentence or of a phrase/group [That Pam is seeking a divorce] surprised us S S/Cl [Su]

VP [P]

That Pam is seeking a divorce

surprised us

[Jane bought the book] and [Peter sold the tickets]

S S/Cl1 S/Cl2

cc

Jane bought the book

and

Peter sold the tickets

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THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Some Basic Syntactic Concepts Recycling

cc: coordinating conjunction

[An older person [who dresses like a teenager]] is ridiculous S

NP [Su] S/Cl

VP [P]

Det

AdjP

An

older

person

who dresses like a teenager

is ridiculous

In the above example, the sequence An older person who dresses like a teenager must be taken as a constituent because it constitutes a semantic whole (all the words refer to the same referent) and constitutes a syntactic pattern (all the words are grouped, in a certain order, around the head person, performing different functions: - Determiner: an - Premodifier: older - Postmodifier: who dresses like a teenager Sequences such as an an older an older person who . are not constituents because: they do not for semantic wholes are semantically incomplete (An what?/ An older what?/ An older person who what? they do not form syntactic patterns (do not obey the syntactic rules) o the determiner an must be followed by either an AdjP + noun or a noun (an older person/a person) o a sequence such as indefinite determiner + adjective in the comparative (an older) is not possible in English unless it is followed by a noun (the sequence definite article + adjective in the positive degree is possible: the old ) o the relative pronoun who must be followed by a subordinate (relative) clause

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THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Some Basic Syntactic Concepts Recycling

6. Clause types
The standard, unmarked clause/sentence is considered to be the independent declarative clause/ simple declarative sentence. We will use Quirks and Downings classifications. Remember: - Verb (V) = Predicator (P) - Adverbial (A) = Adjunct (A) Clause Types - SV / SP: - SVOd/SPOd - SVC / SPCs - SVA / SPA - SVOiOd /SPOiOd - SVOdCo / SPOdCo - SVOdA /SPOdA

[Patrick] [disappeared] [They] [delivered] [the goods] [Her friend] [is] [an engineer] [Helen] [works] [in Paris] [Janice] [gave] [them] [the letter] [The president] [appointed] [him][attorney general] [She] [put] [the flowers] [in a vase]

Keep in mind: these basic clause/sentence types contain only the obligatory constituents of an independent declarative clause/simple declarative sentence (the central syntactic and semantic elements of the clause/sentence) the optional constituents (adverbials/ adjuncts) are not included.

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