THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Classification of Sentences and Clauses

LECTURE 2

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES AND CLAUSES 1. Classification of Clauses. Finite, Nonfinite and Verbless clauses
One of the most important criteria used to classify clauses is the nature of their central functional constituent, the Verb Phrase/Verbal Group. The VP of a clause can: 1) relate the content of the clause to the context of the speech event, by being marked to express the time of the process (tense) and/or the attitude of the speaker towards the content of the proposition expressed by the sentence (modality); 2) only provide few semantic components referring to the lexical meaning of the verb involved in the process and to a limited number of aspectual characteristics of the process (factuality, potentiality etc); without any reference to tense or modality; 3) be missing; This leads to the distinction made between: finite verbs (marked for tense and modality) and nonfinite verbs (unmarked for tense and/or mood) and further, to the classification of clauses as - finite clauses - nonfinite clauses and - verbless clauses DON'T FORGET: - tense can be carried by: - the lexical verb itself (marked for present or past tense: performs/ performed) - (verbal/finite) operators: the first auxiliary of the VP - is/was/has been/ will be/ may have been performed, doesnt perform - modality: is expressed by modal verbs (they also carry tense - they are operators) The English verb can have the following nonfinite forms: - Infinitive - (bare/short) infinitive: deliver, weave - to-infinitive (long infinitive): to deliver, to weave - - ing participle: delivering, weaving - - ed participle: delivered, woven Hence the following types of nonfinite clauses - (nonfinite) bare infinitive clause (NFBICl)

THE SYNTAX OF MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Classification of Sentences and Clauses

(nonfinite) to-infinite clause (NFtoICl) (nonfinite) -ing participle clause (NFingPCl) (nonfinite) -ed participle clause (NFedPCl)

A verbless clause lacks the VP. Angela Downing uses the following terms for N-F Cls: - infinitive cls (= Quirks bare infinitive cls) - to-infinitive cls - participial ing cls - participial en cls (past participial cls) We will use Quirks terminology. Examples of nonfinite clauses and verbless clauses: Daniel helped them [set the table] Bingley will be very glad [to see you] We found the boys [fixing the engine] [Met by friends], I felt safe and happy [Whenever in trouble], she called her mother Nonfinite and verbless clauses, although lacking the linguistic carriers of tense, aspect and modality (they lack finite verb forms), are still considered clauses because they have the same syntactic structures: (SVO, SVC). The missing elements (subjects, finite verb forms) can be recovered from the context of the speech event (linguistic and/or non -linguistic). In the sentence We found the boys] [fixing the engine] the finite equivalent of the NFingCl is The boys were fixing the engine (SVOd) The finite equivalent of the verbless clause in [Whenever in trouble], [she called her mother] is Whenever she was in trouble (Csubord. SVCs) Csubord.: subordinating conjunction

Question:

If they have a finite correspondent, why should we use nonfinite and verbless structures?

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Classification of Sentences and Clauses

Answer: Conclusion:

Because they are simpler. Whenever there is no danger of ambiguity, when some elements of meaning can be recovered, by the receiver/interpreter, from the context, we can use such ways of compressing the syntactic structure of a clause/sentence.

Nonfinite and verbless clauses can be - with or - without a subject NFtoICls We have arranged [for her to leave next week] The dean wants [to see you right now] NFBICls Dont let [him ruin your life] All I did was [shoot my deputy] NFingPCls The police caught [him robbing the mayors house] [Saying Good Bye], he left the room NFedPCls [The meeting adjourned for an hour], Peter went downstairs to have lunch [Lost in her thoughts], she didnt hear the doorbell ring Vless Cls She turned her back on him and left, [her eyes full of tears] [Too disappointed to react verbally], he gave a broad smile

2. Independent versus dependent clauses

From a semantic point of view, clauses can be classified into: - independent (IndpCl) and - dependent (DpdCl) IndCls are those clauses that have a complete meaning; therefore, they can stand alone in the act of communication. DpdCls are semantically (and syntactically) incomplete; they have meaning only in the context of larger linguistic units that contain them; they cannot be used alone in communication, as independent units.

THE SYNTAX OF MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Classification of Sentences and Clauses

Examples: Smuggling pets is a serious offence, because there is a danger of rabies - semantically complete [Smuggling pets is a serious offence] - semantically complete (IndpCl) [because there is a danger of rabies] - semantically incomplete (DpdCl) A clause can be used to communicate only if the process expressed is related to the speech event (if at least the time of the action/state is given). This means that: - an IndpCl is always finite - a DpdCl can be either - finite or - non-finite - a non-finit Cls is always a DpdCl From a syntactic point of view, there is a crucial difference between IndpCls and DpdCls: - an IndpCl (declarative clause) is a configuration of syntactic/semantic units: SV / SVO / SVC / SVOA (SP/SPO), or agent-process-patient/sufferer that are necessary to express a situation/state of affairs in the world (a semantic whole); - a DpdCl is a syntactic/semantic unit; it is a constituent that performs a certain function (S, O, C, A, Mod/agent, affected, circumstance) within - a clause of a higher rank/sentence - a phrase/group

3. From simple sentence to multiple sentence

Peoples thoughts range from the mirroring of very simple situation types such as Jane left My father arrived, expressed by independent clauses/simple sentences, to the mirroring of extremely complex situations that involve a chain of semantically interrelated processes, such as the following Even if we concede the harried reader may cut a corner and let the introduction supplant the introduced, by what right do we let a moral condemnation cover over the accelerating speed and volume which are precisely the temporal and technological characteristics of modern culture that ought to invite reflection?

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Classification of Sentences and Clauses

(Stephen W. Melville, Philosophy Beside Herself. On Deconstruction and Modernism, p.XIV ) A simple situation, that is a single process, is expressed by a simple sentence/independent clause) - a sentence/clause that contains a single verb/predicator, whereas a complex situation, that is, two or more related processes, is expressed by a multiple sentence. Multiple sentence: a sentence that consists of more than one clause. To be consistent in the use of the terms that designate different types of constituents (phrasal or clausal) in the hierarchy of a complex linguistic unit, we will follow Quirks terminology. We already know that in the simplest, ideal sentence/clause, all the grammatical units of the same kind (word, phrase/ group, clause) are placed at the same level in the grammatical hierarchy. ATTENTION! In the following representations, the sentence, S, is not represented as containing only two phrases, NP and VP (as it is used in PSG), but as a string of phrases in which the VP is used in the restricted meaning (only auxiliaries, if any, and the lexical verb) School starts tomorrow S sentence level

Cl

clause level

NP

VP

AdvP

phrase/group level

School

starts

tomorrow

word level

A clause/sentence used in real communication has a more complicated structure. Its constituents can be indefinitely extended; as a consequence the grammatical hierarchy becomes very complex. According to Quirk, a grammatical unit can be extended by: - coordination: two or more units of the same grammatical status (phrases/groups or clause) are joined together to form a unit of the same status (phrase/group or clauses); - embedding: a phrase/group or clause is embedded as a constituent in a unit of the same rank in the grammatical hierarchy: a phrase/group is a constituent of another phrase/group; a clause is a constituent of another clause.

THE SYNTAX OF MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Classification of Sentences and Clauses

Quirk makes a distinction between two types of embedding: 1) at the phrase level, the relation is called embedding: one phrase is a constituent (not necessarily immediate constituent) of another phrase under the bed PP Prep under NP the bed

2) at the clausal level, the relation is called subordination: one clause is embedded in another clause (as its constituent - not necessarily immediate) He has not been able to utter a word [since she called him a liar] S/Cl

Su [NP]

V [VP]

Od [NP]

A [Cl]

He

has not been able to utter a word

since she called him a liar

There is a mixed embedding, when a clause is directly embedded within a phrase (it is an immediate constituent of a phrase) which is in turn embedded within a clause; that is, the clause is indirectly embedded in another clause (e.g. relative clauses)

She approached [a young man [who was wearing a long, heavy black beard]]

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Classification of Sentences and Clauses

S/Cl

Su [NP]

P [VP]

Od [NP]

Det

AP

Cl

She

approached

young

man

who was wearing a long, heavy black beard

In other words, in this course, we will talk about - embedded phrases and - subordinate clauses A multiple sentence, like a simple sentence /independent clause, must be a semantic whole; that is, the clauses the sentence consists of must be semantically related among them. The status of every clause, in terms of its being independent or dependent, and of the nature of the relationships existing between them, is the basic criterion according to which multiple sentences can be classified.

4. Types of relationships between/among the clauses of a multiple sentence

The semantic relations existing between the processes that form a complex situation are expressed syntactically by: - relationships of equivalence (coordination) or - relationships of dependency (subordination)

4.1. Relationships of equivalence/coordination

Rule: only clauses of an equal status can be coordinated: - two or more independent clauses - two or more dependent clauses The coordinated clauses are situated at the same level in the tree diagram representation of the sentence.

THE SYNTAX OF MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Classification of Sentences and Clauses

[Cl1We took the tin out on the bank], and [Cl2Harris went up into a field] and [Cl3got a big, sharp stone], and [Cl4I went back into the boat] and [Cl5brought out the mast], and [Cl6George held the tin . ] As we can see, this is a mere sequence of equivalent processes without any hierarchical relationships between them. Every clause has the same relationship with the sentence of which it is a part.

Cl1

cc

Cl2

cc Cl3

cc

Cl4

cc

Cl5 .

Cc/Coord.: coordinating conjunction Notice that all clauses are immediate constituents of S. Equivalent clauses can be linked in two ways: - by syndetic coordination (or coordination: when the link is explicitly marked by a linguistic element, a coordinating conjunction (or coordinator): and, but, or, (it is the more frequent form) - by asyndetic coordination (or apposition); clauses are simply juxtaposed without any overt linking element [Sheila is an undergraduate researcher];[she is studying engineering at the University of Oxford] (More about coordination in the next lecture)

4.2. Dependency Relationships

Remember that a dependent clause is a semantically incomplete clause, a clause that cannot stand alone in the process of communication. It is semantically dependent on another linguistic unit/element. This creates a hierarchical / asymmetrical / hypotactic relationship between the clausal constituents of the sentence. The relationships of dependency between/among clauses are very complex. Their complex semantic structures are mirrored by complex syntactic structures. We already know that a DpdCl always performs a syntactic function either in the sentence of which it is a part (S, O, C, A), or in one of its constituents ((post)Modifier in NPs). The relation of dependency should not be thought of as an absolute relation between linguistic units, but as a matter of degree.

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Classification of Sentences and Clauses

Dependency is the reflection of the degree of integration of the events expressed in the sentence, and this is further reflected by certain syntactic structures. We have already mentioned the two types of dependency we are going to deal with: 1) embedding: for a phrase which is dependent on the head of another phrase and of which it is an immediate constituent 2) subordination: for a clause which is dependent on another clause/phrase of which it is a constituent NOTE For a different approach to the embedding subordination relationship, see Downing.

5. Classification of Sentences and Clauses

Quirk (and some other grammarians) classify sentences into: - simple and/or - multiple - compound and/or - complex

5.1. The Simple Sentence

It consists of a single clause in which all the compulsory syntactic functions (S, O, C, A) are realized by phrases/groups (not by clausal units). (Dont forget, a single word - noun, adjective etc. - is also considered a phrase/group). This can be illustrated in the following tree diagrams.

[NPYou] [VPcan take] [NPmy wheelbarrow] [PPfrom the garden] (simple sentence) S/Cl

Su (NP)

V (VP)

Od (NP)

A (PP)

You

can take

my wheelbarrow

from the garden

THE SYNTAX OF MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Classification of Sentences and Clauses

[NPYou] [VPcan take] [NPmy wheelbarrow] [PPfrom the garden] [Clif you dont have one] (Cplx S) S/Cl

Su [NP]

V [VP]

Od [NP]

A [PP]

A [Cl]

You

can take my wheelbarrow from the garden if you dont have one

[NPYou] [VPcan take] [NPthat rusty wheelbarrow that lies beneath that bush] (simple sentence) S/Cl

Su [NP]

P [VP]

Od [NP]

Det

AP

Cl

You

can take that

rusty wheelbarrow that lies beneath that bush

5.2. The Compound Sentence

It is a sentence that consists of two or more coordinate clauses. These clauses are independent clauses: clauses that do not function as syntactic elements of other clauses (they are not semantically dependent on other clauses) [[I have often wanted to drown my troubles], but [I can't get my wife to go swimming.]] (Jimmy Carter) NOTE: in a compound sentence: - the whole unit is a sentence - its immediate constituents are independent clauses

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Classification of Sentences and Clauses

- the relation between clauses is one of equivalence (coordination) This is the tree diagram of the compound sentence above S

Cl1

Ccoord

Cl2

I have only wanted..

but

I cant get my wife .

5.3. The Complex Sentence

From a syntactic point of view, a complex sentence is similar to a simple sentence, in that it is a structure in which every constituent plays a syntactic and semantic function (Su, O, C, A, .). The difference is that at least one of the syntactic functions (Su, O, C, A) is performed by a clause (a clausal constituent). The relation between such a clause and the clause/ sentence in which it functions as a syntactic element is a relation of dependency. Dependency is the basic criterion for the classification of the clauses a complex sentence consists of. The most general classification - sentence (the whole construction) - superordinate clause - main clause(s) - subordinate/dependent clause(s) - matrix clause Superordinate clause: the clause of a complex sentence that contains a dependent/ subordinate clause as one of its constituents (sentence and superordinate clause frequently coincide) Main clause: a clause of a complex sentence which is syntactically independent (it is not a syntactic element of another clause), and on which some other clause depends; it contains at least the subject and the verb of the complex sentence. Subordinate/Dependent: a clause that is semantically and syntactically dependent on some clause other linguistic unit and is a syntactic element of a superordinate unit (clause or phrase/group) Matrix clause: Quirk uses this term to refer to the superordinate clause minus its

THE SYNTAX OF MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Classification of Sentences and Clauses

subordinate clause (p. 991). As we can see, main clause and matrix clause overlap a great deal, that is why they are frequently used interchangeably. [[They threw him in jail] [although he was sick]] S/Cl

Su [NP]

V [VP]

Od [NP]

A [PP]

A [Cl]

They

threw

him

in jail

although he was sick

This representation makes it easier to understand the definition of the complex sentence one of the immediate constituents of S (A, in our example) is a clause (Cl). To illustrate the structure of this complex sentence in terms of the types of clauses it consists of, we can use some other representations. They threw him in jail although he was sick main/matrix clause dependent clause sentence = superordinate clause

Superodinate clause S They threw him in jail although he was sick

main/matrix clause They threw him in jail

dependent clause Cl1' although he was sick

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Classification of Sentences and Clauses

In more complex sentences, a dependent clause may enter into more than one type of relationship; for example, it can be dependent/subordinate to one clause and superordinate to another clause of the sentence. [[ClThe man said] [Cl1he would pay the bill] [Cl2when he finished his glass of wine]] Cl1 is dependent on/subordinate to Cl1 and superordinate to clause Cl2

Superordinate clause S The man said he would pay the bill when he finished his glass of wine

main/matrix clause Cl1 The man said

dependent/superordinate clause Cl1 he would pay the bill

Dependent clause Cl2 when he finished his glass of wine

A dependent clause can be a constituent not only of another clause but also of a phrase/group; in other words, the superordinate unit of a dependent clause can also be a phrase /group.

[[The man [Cl1who had switched on the light] moved]] [CL2to where he could see her face in profile]]

THE SYNTAX OF MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Classification of Sentences and Clauses

S/Cl

Su [NP]

P [VP]

A [PP]

Det

CL1

Prep

Cl2

The man

who switched on the light

moved

to

where he could see her face

NOTE:
Quirk uses to term main clause to refer to - the superordinate clause: the superordinate clause is also the main clause (p. 988) - to any simple sentence/independent clause as the concept itself suggests, main implies a comparison, something larger, more important, or having more influence than others of the same type (Cambridge Dictionaries Online); that is why we will use the concept main clause only to make reference to a generally semantically and syntactically complete clause of a complex sentence on which another, subordinate clause depends; the concept usually overlaps with matrix clause when we refer to some single, semantically complete clause we will use the term independent clause (for example, the clausal constituents of a compound sentence are, in our approach, independent clauses (not main clauses) Nevertheless, sometimes (frequently enough) there is something wrong about using the concept clause for a structure that is not, actually, from a semantic point of view, a clause (it is not semantically complete) [Peter said][(that)you are a liar] Peter said is analysed as a main/matrix clause, although it is not a clause it does not express a complete thought (the verb is not semantically satisfied).