AP Chemistry Chapter 1 Chemical Foundations 1.

.1 Chemistry: An Overview _________________________________________________________________ -Atoms cannot be seen with the naked eye but a special microscope called the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) can be used to see individual atoms Reference Fi ure 1.1 !p "# -!e live in a macropscopic world Scientists delve into this macroscopic world to discover it"s parts #or e$ample% sand on a beach &rom a distance looks uni&orm% but close up the irregular sand grains are visible% and each grain is composed o& tiny atoms o& silicon and o$ygen bonded &orming intricate shapes 1.$ %he &cientific 'ethod___________________________________________________________________ -The process o& scienti&ic in'uiry consists o& the &undamental components( ) Making observations (collecting data) * Suggesting a possible e$planation (&ormulating a hypothesis) + ,onducting e$periments to test the possible e$planation (testing a hypothesis) --nce a set o& hypotheses agrees with various observations as an overall e$planation o& some natural phenomenon a theory (also called a model) is &ormed A theory is a human invention and is an interpretation -A natural law summari.es an observation o& what happens% a theory is an attempt to e$plain why it happens -The law o& conservation o& matter is an e$ample o& a natural law Matter is neither created not destroyed but trans&erred 1." 'easurements_( 1.) *ncertainty in 'easurement ____________ ______________________________ -,hemistry is a 'uantitative science Measurements and data are used to draw conclusions -Two ma/or systems are used% the 0nglish system (used in the 1S) and the metric system used by most o& the industriali.ed world -2n )345 an international agreement set up a system o& units called the 2nternational System or S2 units (le System 2nternational in #rench) Reference %a+le 1.1 !p ,# -2nstruments 6 1nits 7ength 8 S2 unit meters (m) 9olume 8 S2 unit liters (7) Mass 8 S2 unit kilograms (kg) Temperature 8 S2 unit :elvin (:) -Signi&icant &igures allow us to cite a degree o& con&idence in a measurement by understanding that there is an uncertainty o& at least one unit in the last digit o& that measurement -The certainty o& a measurement must be determined based on the instrument being used to measure -Two terms are used to describe the reliability o& a measurement% precision and accuracy -Accuracy re&ers to the agreement o& a particular value with a true or accepted value -;recision re&ers to the degree o& agreement among several measurements o& the same 'uantity -A measurement that is precise but not accurate indicates small random errors (poor techni'ue) but a large systemic error (&or e$ample a balance not .eroed correctly) Reference Fi ure 1.- !p 1"# 1.. &i nificant Fi ure Calculations ( 1./ 0imensional Analysis_______________ _________________ -<ules &or counting sig &igs( ) =on.ero integers always count as signi&icant * 7eading .eros never count as signi&icant + ,aptive (middle) .eros always count as signi&icant > Trailing .eros only count as signi&icant when there is a decimal point visible in the measurement

? 0$act numbers are said to have in&inite signi&icant &igures there&ore are not counted =umbers determined by counting &all under this category #or e$ample% )5 people or + apples Also% certain measurement conversion &actors are considered to be e$act such as ) in @ * ?> cm and are not counted in sig &igs Reference p 1) -,alculations using sig &igs( MultiplicationABivision 8 least amount o& sig &igs SubtractionAAddition 8 least amount o& decimal places -2& the same rule is applied throughout one problem then rounding the answer is done at the end 2& di&&erent operations are re'uired &or one problem than order o& operations must be applied and rounding o& the answer must be done be&ore applying a new sig &ig rule -,onverting &rom one unit to another in chemistry is done by using the unit &actor label (also called conversion &acto label) method% commonly re&erred to as dimensional analysis - 2t is important to use units as a guide to the answer 2t is also crucial to know metric pre&i$es in order to convert (re&erence table ) * 8 page C) Reference %a+le 11.$ !p 11# 1.2 %emperature ___________ ______________________________________________________ -Three systems &or measuring temperature are commonly used( ,elsuis% :elvin% and #ahrenheit -The si.e o& the temperature unit (the degree) is the same &or the ,elsius and :elvin scale% however their .ero point are not the same The ad/ustment &or this is simple( To convert degrees ,elsius to :elvin units( T: @ To, D *E+ )? -r subtract *E+ )? &rom the :elvin temperature to get the ,elsius temp -,onverting between the #ahrenheit and ,elsius scales is a little more complicated because not only are the .ero points not the same but the degree amounts are also di&&erent The &ollowing &ormulas maybe used to convert &rom one to the other as they ad/ust &or the degree (3A? or ?A3) and .ero point di&&erence (a di&&erence o& +*)( #ahrenheit to ,elsius( To# @ To, 3o# D +* ?o, ,elsius to #ahrenheit( To, @ (To# 8 +*) ?o, 3o# Reference Fi ure 1., !p $1# 1.- 0ensity __________________________________________________________________ -;roperties o& a substance may be used to identi&y it ;roperties used to identi&y a substance must be independent o& the amount (intensive) unlike properties such as volume or mass which are e$tensive -Types o& properties( ;hysical 8 observed without changing the chemical identity o& a substance o 0ensity a ration of mass per unit volume o Solubility 8 the e$tent to which a solute dissolves in a solvent This unit is e$pressed in terms o& grams o& solute per )55 grams o& solvent (generally water) and is speci&ic to a temperature Saturated 1nsaturated Supersaturated ,hemical 8 observed only when the identity o& a substance is changed 1., Classification of 'atter _________________________________________________________________ -Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space -There are + common state o& matter( solid% li'uid% 6 gas Solid @ de&inite shape and de&inite volume 7i'uid @ inde&inite shape and de&inite volume Fas @ inde&inite shape and inde&inite volume -Any change between the state o& matter is always a physical change

-Three main classi&ications o& matter (:eep in mind elements 6 compounds are both pure substances)( 0lements ,ompounds Mi$tures ,ovalent Geterogeneous 2onic Gomogeneous Common 3a+ 4nstruments ( %echni5ues_________ _____________________________________________ -Measuring volume( Fraduated cylinder 9olumetric pipet Huret 9olumetric #lask Reference Fi ure 1./ !p 11# -#iltration 8 used to separate a heterogeneous mi$ture #unnel and &ilter paper -Becantation 8 used to separate precipitate &rom solution Heaker and stirring rod -Bistillation 8 used to separate a homogeneous mi$ture using the volatility o& a substance Bistillation apparatus Reference Fi ure 1.1$ !p $2# -,hromatography 8 also used to separate homogenous mi$tures Think 7ayer ,hromatography (T7,) Fas-7i'uid ,hromatography (F7) Reference Fi ure 1.1" !p $-# ,olor( Absorption Spectrum - colors o& gases and li'uids are due to the selective absorption o& certain components o& visible light The wavelengths o& visible light range &rom >55 8 E55nm #or e$ample potassium permanganate gives o&& a purple color because it absorbs at appro$imately ??5nm Spectrophotometer ,olorimeter %e6t+oo7 Assi nments Classwor7 Active 3earnin 8uestions: 19 $ 8uestions: $" :omewor7 ;6ercises &i Fi s ( Conversions: $,<"" odd9 "29 )19 ).9 .1 %emperature: ." 0ensity: .,9 /"</2 odd9 21 Classification ( &eparation of 'atter: 2.9 -1 =iochem. Connect: -19 -29 ,1