International Labor and Working-Class, Inc.

Artisan and Skilled Worker: The Problem of Definition Author(s): Michael Hanagan Source: International Labor and Working-Class History, No. 12 (Nov., 1977), pp. 28-31 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of International Labor and Working-Class, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27671221 . Accessed: 22/01/2014 16:26
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Cambridge University Press and International Labor and Working-Class, Inc. are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to International Labor and Working-Class History.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 200.14.85.85 on Wed, 22 Jan 2014 16:26:02 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

ARTISAN AND SKILLED WORKER: THE PROBLEM OF DEFINITION

Social but rarely historians define them. but of the working It is rather it is appropriate maintained. on one group class often use terms such as "artisan" and "skilled to words choose, some worker" so over

late to attempt

to attach

a precise definition

significance historians briefly

laid with meaning, sidered these argue one terms and

to ask that, whatever In this essay

it be a con of to

consistently

I want which

to survey

definitions intend definitions should

and elaborate

series of definitions of definitions

with

I have worked. but choice

I do not

that any particular different aspects

is superior and

to others, that our

that alternative of definition

illuminate from

of working

class history

flow

the particular One of Marx

issues we

are addressing. used systems as one of occupational of classification bourgeoisie. workers a more comes from Marx's Following who or work this in

the most considers

commonly the lives off tools.

Capital definition, his shop

"artisan" his own

portion

the petty the

the artisan and use his of

labor but has

also off

labor of other of describing

This definition Also,

the advantage of a much

less clearly which society. col these of

observable Marx Other uses

section to analyze

the population. the crises

it is part

larger definitional rate of profit surplus system. structures value For

scheme

of overproduction

and the falling who produces

in capitalist

definitions,

such as that of the industrial worker who does not,

worker flow

and the white the historian,

lar or transportation particular a modern But his with definitions capitalist

from

this overall industrial

are helpful society.1 of

in placing

early modern

in relation

to those

this definition works, historical direction.

"artisan never

as petty to

bourgeois" subdivide

is not

the only his of

one

provided

by Marx.

In to fit

historical actual

Marx

hesitated Engels'

or redefine definition century

large class

categories aristocrat" Engels

observations. Toward stratum

and Lenin's

the "labor in England, skill,

points the

in a different growth and theory The the of

the end of whose

the nineteenth position This

noted

of a privileged super the profits formation here

of workers

depended group played

on their an

craft organization, role in Lenin's countries. criteria of

of British

imperialism.2

important

of a conservative

trade union essay, regularity (4) his and

bureaucracy

in advanced sets down earnings;

capitalist

key word

is privilege. (1) the

In a brilliant level and of work; of living;

E.J. Hobsbawm of the workers* with

the six major

for defining social him; his

this group: (3) his

(2) his prospects above

security;

conditions

relations

the social

strata

and below of

(5) his general children. This

conditions definition whose

(6) his prospects for explaining the

of future

advancement,

and those

is serviceable preeminent

conservative was

trade union secure

strategies

adopted Our focuses and was

by skilled workers third definition on workers'

position

in the workplace

and unchallenged It

is also derived of

from Marx

via modern control

social historians over

and sociologists.4 of employment production after which the "art

possession

skill and

collective machine

the conditions and hand century. organization While

emphasizes still being worker

the continuing fought had out been of inside

struggle

between

manufacture

large factories of his limit one

in the late nineteenth shop, his the free craft

Long was

isanal" control

deprived skills and

independent the scope of the of

still able

to of

a monopoly aristocracy" artisanal

labor market. existence,

the concept

the "labor gles of many growing

captures workers

aspect

skilled

workers'

it neglects

the strug against the

who

were

fighting to assert

to maintain their control

their control

of production floor.

offensive

of employers

seeking

on the workshop

28

This content downloaded from 200.14.85.85 on Wed, 22 Jan 2014 16:26:02 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Let

us

look

at this

third definition context. skills,

more

closely,

for

it needs

to be clearly who

defined was

and placed skilled, into his ability the

in a proper possessed trade. which manual of We

historical

It includes and exercised three

as an "artisan" some control separately.

any worker over

highly

a wide will

range of look time

the admission is defined

of workers as a scarce

at each of these and effort

elements The

"Skill"

it takes dexterity

to acquire. joiner

definition

of skill is a broad

one which

includes

of the wood In any case

and the shoe difficult source

laster as well to evaluate of

as the extraordinary the relative skill be share located physical could

physical

capacity and in his

the forger.

it is frequently Should or the

of dexterity primarily labor perform

capacity knowledge cult

in determining about metal Our

skill. working

the puddler's

in his facility says that

in performing reasonably

demanding strong man muscular

in a diffi the job it may be

environment?

definition unskilled

if any

it should considered

be considered skilled. logically levels skill.

while

if it required

really unusual

development

Following change; demand The skill for

from

our definition, by

these

are two basic in either

ways of

in which skilled

skill workers

levels might or in the

could Both

be affected types of of labor supply

changes occurred

the supply

changes supply

in the nineteenth European by the

century continent declining

European in the

economy.

outstanding was the

feature increased

in the whole labor

late nineteenth of workers some

century employed skills

of manual

caused At

numbers

in agriculture a great deal

and the collapse of seasonal

of rural industry. occurred

times,

rural migrants carpenters,

did possess

and

migration

as skilled But most

sawyers, were not

and masons so fortunate due which to the they

left rural areas as to have spread

after

the harvest training

to work

in the city. craft?or

rural migrants no longer

received

in a specific

their only

skill was

in demand and stamina

of urban

industry?and labor.

so they possessed Together

the physical of was industry

strength and

developed culture nineteenth On was

in farm created

the urbanization labor which

the mechanization the whole period

of agri of the

a vast

surplus

of manual centuries.

to characterize

and early the demand

twentieth side,

the major and

change

in the market of

for skill capital. over

labor

in the nineteenth

century directly at

caused

by mechanization skills, threat. power

the concentration employer capital monopoly

While

mechanization of production gave

tacked more ployers

workers' insidious great

the growing The growing

the means

was

an even of em tools and

requirements Large labor employers and lessen rules of

of heavy used

industry their

a handful of the

to enforce

their will. of

ownership on

the workplace They replaced archy A valuable workers number prepared cient could market further

to increase attempted

the division to introduce craft

their d?pendance and a new work

the skilled

worker. which hier

new

work

administration

the worker-controlled and supervisors. important In artisanal their situations,

organization

labor with

a new

employer-controlled

of foremen second skills.

characteristic industry, skills. each As

of artisanal the employers he passed

industry specialized shop

was

that workers their product

learned while,

a variety

of the

in contrast, find

generalized of work

from different

to

shop

the artisan

would

a large

demanding of

technical by

skills.

Apprenticeship that they had with increasing

programs to be profi who

the workers aspects

for the needs of the trade.

the whole

industry

specifying

in many be

This

requirement

provided situation,

the employer but, power by

a workman

assigned

almost

anywhere skill, it also

in an emergency strengthened

the potential The

for the workers'

his bargaining

vis-?-vis

his employer.

29

This content downloaded from 200.14.85.85 on Wed, 22 Jan 2014 16:26:02 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

introduction rather worker A ticeship

of machinery ate away the skilled

or an increased at his technical industrial of artisanal took agreed

division mastery

of

labor seldom

destroyed

all the workers

skills,

the machine faded final into

one bite

at a time,

and, gradually,

the artisanal

worker. industry was the presence in domestic or formal of a worker-controlled appren of

characteristic This by

program.

usually

the form of training upon worker

industry

or in the regulation rules. arsenal.6 the European of this system. The

apprenticeship to control

informally

customs weapon

trade union

ability

admission the

to a trade was collective control it was

an important of also

in the skilled workers' systems stemmed and from

In part, tradition. But

apprenticeship a response

guild The

in large part

to the decay

abolition

growth of private industry and the dissolution

organizations early fying of industries their which permitted producers collectively to take on to organized it became disinclined and this employers task fell

of guilds destroyed
to regulate themselves workers industry.

the traditional employer's

The small scale of many and certi As the size over the workers

the task of training or their individual

abilities began

families.7

industry

to grow

however,

possible

for employers

once more

to take

education This production and their

and training third and control

of their employees. is most useful production. trade, process for analyzing By focusing it allows itself us rather the transition between of work of small-scale artisans hand

definition

large-scale machine over access on

on the kind

performed inside

to the

to detect

the presence

the artisan

the factory. tion

It centers

the work

than on its social prerogatives twentieth although new centuries they

or contribu of

to capitalist workers

development. were often

In the late nineteenth enclosed work capitalists battles behind

and early walls

large numbers

artisanal much of

factory Using

still managed rules,

to retain

their old autonomous staff, industrial

patterns. began between only

machines, these

disciplinary

and their own production artisans often

supervisory within resulted emerged heavy

to attack

last bastions industrialists group

of pre-industrial and retreating of skilled liberties.

industry. strike the fray,

These conflicts.

advancing slowly

in mass from

It was

that a new skills and

industrial

workers

shorn of many

of the artisan's

traditional

Michael

Hanagan

University of Michigan FOOTNOTES

L ?n Marx's labor theory of value see Ronald Meek, Studies in the Labor Theory of Value (New York, 1976). For some recent applications: Ron Aminzade, "A Marxist Approach to Occupational Classification," Working Paper No. 132, Ann Arbor, Center for Research on Social Organization, 1976, Nicos Poulantzas, Classes in Con James and Herbert Stolzman temporary Capitalism (London, 1975), Gamberg, "Marxist Class Analysis versus Stratification Analysis as General Approaches to Social Inequality," Berkeley Journal of Sociology, 18(1973) pp. 28-43, and Eric Olin Wright, "Contradictory Class Locations," New Left Review, n.98 (July-August 1968)
pp. 3-42.

2, V.L Lenin, What Is To Be Done?

(New York,

1961).

3, EJ. Hobsbawm, "The Labor Aristocracy inNineteenth Century Britain," ii)Workers in the Industrial Revolution, eds. Peter N. Steams and Daniel J. Walkowitz (New Brunswick, 1974) p. 139. 4, Some sociologists and social historians who use one or another The Glassworkers of Carmaux, (Cambridge, 1974); William H. Second Republic," in Steams and Walkowitz, Workers in the and Charles Tilly, Strikes in France 1830-1968 (Cambridge, 30 element of this third definition are: Joan W. Scott, Sewell, uThe Working Class of Marseilles under the Industrial Revolution, pp. 75-116; Edward Shorter 1974); and Alain Touraine, ?/Evolution du travail

This content downloaded from 200.14.85.85 on Wed, 22 Jan 2014 16:26:02 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

(Paris, 1955). Some interesting contributions to the discussion of occupational classification and changes in work structure have been made by students of social mobility: Clyde Griffin, "Occupational Mobility in Nineteenth Century America: Problems and Possibilities," Journal of Social History, 5 (Spring, 1972); Michael B. Katz, "Occupa in History," Journal of Interdisciplinary History, tional Classification 3(Summer, 1972); and Bruce Laurie, Theodore Hershberg, and George Alter, "Immigrants and Industry: The Philadelphia Experience: 1850-1880," Journal of Social History, 9(Winter 1975). 5. On the education of artisanal workers, George Sturt, The Wheelwrights Shop (Cambridge, (1923) 1974).

ouvrier aux Usines Renault

6. American

labor historians have generally emphasized the restrictive quality of craft unionism, particularly A emphasizing its bias against industrial workers, John R. Commons, "American Shoemakers 1648-1895: Sketch of Industrial Evolution," Labor and Administration (New York, 1913) and Sumner Slichter, Union Policies and Industrial Management (Washington, D.C, 1941) chs. 7-9. Alan Dawley has argued persuasively that the opposition between craft and industrial workers in nineteenth century has been overdrawn, Class and The Industrial Revolution in Lynn (Cambridge, 1976). David Montgomery has also argued along Community: similar lines, "Workers' Control of Machine Production in the Nineteenth 17 (Fall Century," Labor History 1976).

7. See Arthur

"Bureaucratic and Craft Administration: A Comparative Stinchcombe, Science Quarterly 4 (Sept. 1959) and Maurice Garden, "Ouvriers et artisans au XVIIIe ?conomique et sociale 48 (1970).

Study," Administrative si?cle." Revue d'Histori?

31

This content downloaded from 200.14.85.85 on Wed, 22 Jan 2014 16:26:02 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions