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UNIT 423 OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATIONS

Page Section No. 1 2 3 4 " & ! * 1% 11 12 13 14 1" 1& 1! 1* ,ultiple/ing $8$, S'stem Components Optical $evices for Optical Net7or9ing (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications Subject Evolution of Fibre Optic Communication Optics in Fibre C aracteristics of Fibre Construction of Optical Fibre Cable Optical Sources an# $etectors Surve' an# Cable (a'ing Optical Fibre Cable )ointing +ests an# ,easurements ,aintenance .ui#elines of Optical fibre Cable $igital ,ultiple/ing Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stem S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02 S$0 E3uipment S$0 S'nc roni4ation 5 Survivabilit' Over 6ie7 of $ense 8ave $ivision No. 2 14 24 3! "% && *" 1%% 112 12" 14% 1"" 1!2 1-1 21% 22% 234 2"1

423.1
Para No. 1.% 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1." 1.& 1.!

E6O(:+;ON OF F;<=E OP+;C CO,,:N;C>+;ON


Subject Objectives ;ntro#uction 0istor' of +ransmission S'stems Electromagnetic Spectrum ;nformation +ransmission Se3uence + oug Fibre >#vantages of Fibres >pplications of Fibres <asic Construction of Fibre 1.!.1 + e Environment Effect 1.!.2 Cable $rum (engt 1.!.3 ,etallic Or Non?,etallic Cables Comparative ,erits an# $emerits of +ransmission ,e#iums (et :s Sum :p @e' 8or#s Some :seful 8ebsites Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress Page No. 3 3 3 4 " & ! !

1.* 1.1.1% 1.11 1.12

1% 11 11 12 12

????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 Section 1C Evolution of Fibre Optic Communication

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

1. E6O(:+;ON OF F;<=E OP+;C CO,,:N;C>+;ON


1.% Objectives

This Section deals with the stages leading to the evolution of Optical Fibre and its use in the field of communications. It includes the Introduction to Fibre Optics, Electromagnetic Spectrum, basic construction of fibre and the Transmission sequence through fibre and the advantages, applications of fibre in communications. After going through this Section, ou will !now the details about the evolution of Optical fibre and its application in the field of communications.

1.1

;ntro#uction

Optical Fibre is a new medium, in which information is transmitted through a glass or plastic fibre, in the form of light. A ma"or brea!through leading to high capacit optical communications was achieved with the invention of laser in #$%&. The laser acted as a narrow' band source of optical radiation suitable for use as a carrier of information. In #$%%, (harles ). )ao at Standard Telecommunication *aboratories, England fabricated a low loss glass fibre, giving a loss of #&&& d+,!m. Such a fibre could transmit light for a short distance onl . . In #$%%, (harles )ao and -eorge .oc!ham proposed the transmission of information over glass fibre, and the also reali/ed that to ma!e it a practical proposition, much lower losses in the cables were essential. In #$0& (orning glass wor!s, 1.S.A developed a low loss fibre giving a loss of 2& d+,!m. This was the second ma"or brea!through to ma!e an optical communication a practical realit . + #$02, losses were reduced to 3 d+,!m. Toda , the fibres have a loss of 4 &.2 d+,!m.

1.2

0istor' of +ransmission S'stems

Even the most primitive of human cultures in ancient histor developed some wa s to communicate with each other, from guttural sounds and facial e5pressions to bod moves and gestures. In addition, there has alwa s been a need to communicate with others across an arbitrar distance, for instructions and orders while hunting etc. At first, the means for long'distance communication were ver crude and inefficient ' also unreliable ' but, the wor!ed. There were three main means used6 7oise 8megaphones, church bells, cannons etc.9 Optical effects 8heliographs, watch towers and smo!e signals, flashlights etc.9 :h sical deliver 8runners, horses, stage coaches, carrier pigeons, later on trains and other motor vehicles9 The first brea!through was the +elegrap , invented in #;<;, which was ta!en into wide use si5 ears later, in #;33, when Samuel F.+. =orse introduced his revolutionar new language ' the ,orse co#e. The transmission media continued to be predominantl wire'line giving wa for different capacities of Open'wire (arrier transmission s stems. There has been limitation to the number of voice channels being transmitted over open wire media due to attenuation and other line characteristics. Transmission networ!s also progressed considerabl from a single,<,;,#2 channel open 7ire carrier s'stems to coa5ial cable s stems b #$%&s. It is followed b a multi channel communication s stems for long distance starting from coa/ial cables to optical fibre cables and ra#io s'stems and satellite s'stems covering the
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1C Evolution of Fibre Optic Communication 3

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

length and breadth of the countr . (oa5ial cables were widel used till #$;&s, which carried predominantl analog traffic. This was followed b the introduction of optical fibre cables, which are small in si/e with low loss, light weight, large bandwidth and having electromagnetic immunit and can serve both in long distance as well as access networ!.

1.3

Electromagnetic Spectrum

In the visible spectrum 8Figure 1.12 of the Electromagnetic Spectrum 1Figure 1.22D wavelength can be described as the color of the light. >A?E *E7-T. is a characteristic of light that is emitted from the light source and is measured in nanometers 8nm9.

Figure 1.1C 6isible Spectrum For e5ample, @ed light has a longer wavelength than blue light. T pical wavelengths for Fibre optics use are ;A&nm, #<&&nm and #AA&nm. All of which are invisible.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 Section 1C Evolution of Fibre Optic Communication

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

1pm 1nm 1E m 1mm 1m 1@m 8>6E (EN.+0 ;N N, 1,m

1% ?12 1% ?1% 1% ?* 1% ?& 1% ?4 1% ?2 1% % 1% 2 1% 4 1% &

.amma ra's

=ontgen ra's :.6. ra's

6isible (ig t ;nfra =e#

+ ermal =a's

=a#io Fre3uencies

:.0.F.

,.F.

(.F.

Figure 1.2C Electromagnetic Spectrum

1.4

;nformation +ransmission Se3uence + oug Fibre

Optical Fibre is new medium, in which information 8voice, Bata or ?ideo9 is transmitted through a glass or plastic fibre, in the form of light, following the transmission sequence given below6
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1C Evolution of Fibre Optic Communication "

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8i9. Information is encoded into electrical signals. 8ii9. Electrical signals are converted into light signals. 8iii9. *ight travels down the fibre. 8iv9. A detector changes the light signals into electrical signals. 8v9. Electrical signals are decoded into information. Ine5pensive light sources available. @epeater spacing increases along with operating speeds because low loss fibres are used at high data rates.

Figure 1.3C ;nformation +ransmission Se3uence + oug Fibre

1."

>#vantages of Fibres
Fibre Optics has the following advantages6

8i9.

Optical Fibres are non conductive 8Bielectrics96 -rounding and surge suppression not required. (ables can be all dielectric. Electromagnetic Immunit 6 Immune to Electromagnetic Interference 8E=I9 7o radiated energ . 1nauthori/ed tapping difficult. *arge +andwidth 8C A.& -./ for # !m length96 Future upgradeabilit . =a5imum utili/ation of cable right of wa . One time cable installation costs.

8ii9.

8iii9.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? & Section 1C Evolution of Fibre Optic Communication

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8iv9.

*ow *oss 8A d+,!m to 4 &.2A d+,!m t pical96 *oss is low and same at all operating speeds within the fibreDs specified bandwidth for long, unrepeated lin!s 8C0&!ms is operation9. Small, *ight weight cables6 Eas installation and .andling. Efficient use of space. Available in *ong lengths 8C #2 !ms96 *ess splice points. Securit 6 E5tremel difficult to tap a fibre as it does not radiate energ that can be received b a nearb antenna. .ighl secure transmission medium. Securit for safet being a dielectric6 It cannot cause fire. Boes not carr electricit . (an be run through ha/ardous areas. 1niversal medium6 Serves all communication needs. 7on'obsolescence.

8v9

8vi9. 8vii9

8viii9

8i59

1.&

>pplications of Fibres
(ommon carrier nationwide networ!s. Telephone Inter'office Trun! lines. (ustomer premise communication networ!s. 1ndersea cables. .igh E=I areas 8:ower lines, @ails, @oads9. Factor communication, Automation. (ontrol s stems. E5pensive environments. .igh lightening areas. =ilitar applications. (lassified 8secure9 communications.

1.!

<asic Construction of Fibre

There are two t pes of glass fibre optic cables, multimode and singlemode. The word mode 8ra of light9 refers to the fact that either several 8multi9, or "ust one mode 8single9, will pass through the cable at the same time. Singlemode cable can transmit voice, video and data over a longer distance 8up to #&& )ilometresE9 than multimode fibre cable and is t picall used with laser driven transceivers at each end of the cable. These laser transceivers are sometimes four times the cost of multimode transceivers. =ultimode cable is generall used for distances less than two !ilometres and can be used with less e5pensive *EB driven transceivers.
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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The basic construction of a glass fibre optic cable 1Figure 1.42 consists of the following6

Figure 1.4C <asic Construction of Fibre Optic Cable

FibreC Is made up of the core which is the glass that the light travels through and the (ladding which is a glass coating over the core that !eeps light in. <ufferC It is the plastic coating applied to the coating. It protects fibre from outside stress. The cable buffer is one of following two t pes6 8i9 *oose +uffer 8ii9 Tight +uffer

The loose buffer uses a hard plastic tube having an inside diameter several times that of the fibre. One or more fibres lie within the buffer tube. As the cable e5pands and shrin!s with temperature changes, it does not affect the fibre as much. The fibre in the tube is slightl longer than the tube itself. Thus the cable can e5pand and contract without stressing the fibre. The buffer becomes the load'bearing member. The tig t buffer has a plastic directl applied over the coating. This construction provides crush and impact resistance. It is more fle5ible and allows tighter turn radius. It is useful for indoor applications where temperature variations are minimum and the abilit to ma!e tight turns inside walls is desired. -lass optical cable e5periences attenuation, or loss of light. Over distance, the effectiveness of the light pulse decreases causing errors in the data being transmitted. The ph sical properties of singlemode fibre offer ver low attenuation over distance, which is wh singlemode fibre is used to connect cities, campuses and wide area telephone and data networ!s. =ultimode fibre cables e5perience more attenuation, or loss, per the same distance than singlemode fibre. T picall =ultimode fibre is used within buildings and to connect buildings together in a campus environment. *astl , plastic optical fibre has the highest attenuation, or loss of light per distance compared to the glass fibre cable t pes mentioned above. For man applications the ma5imum distance for plastic fibre cable is less than #& metres. -lass Fibre specifications list the core and cladding diameters as a ratio. Figure 1." details the core to cladding ratio for the three most common t pes of glass fibre cable.
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? * Section 1C Evolution of Fibre Optic Communication

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

=ultimode fibre is commonl %2.A,#2A or A&,#2A micron, singlemode fibre is commonl $,#2A micron.

Figure 1."C Core to Cla##ing =atio of t ree common t'pes of Optical Fibre Cables

1.!.1 + e Environment Effect


I. There are however alwa s small defects at the surface of the fibre, called micro crac!s. These crac!s grew when water vapour is present and the fibre simultaneousl is under strain, hence shortening the life of the fibre. II. Another effect is ingress of water, which ma increase the concentration of water vapour around the fibre. III. Temperature variation ma cause E5pansion, (ontraction of fibres and affect the performance to some e5tent. + proper choice of materials and b ad"usting the e5cess length of fibre in the loose tube, the temperature variation effect can be neglected.

1.!.2 Cable $rum (engt


???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1C Evolution of Fibre Optic Communication -

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

(ables come reeled in various lengths, t picall # to 2 !ms, although lengths of A or % !ms are available for single mode fibres. *ong lengths are desirables for long distance applications, since cable must be spliced end to end over the run. Each splice introduces additional loss into the s stem. *ong cable lengths mean fewer splices and less loss.

1.!.3 ,etallic or Non?,etallic Cables


Fibre optic cables sometimes also contain copper conductors, such as twisted pair. One use of these conductors is to allow installers to communicate with each other during installation of the fibre especiall with long distance telephone installation. The other use is to power remote equipment such as repeaters. Sub'marine cables, cables for overhead mounting, highl , armoured cables of railwa s etc are also coming in categor of metallic cables. In such cables strength member will t picall be of steel wire and the cable will also contain one or two copper service pairs. It is also common to include an aluminum water barrier. It is possible to construct completel metal free cables, used in areas suffering from high frequenc of lightening. Strength member is made of fibre glass rod. Induction effect due to lightening or power line parallelism is not at all there on such non'metallic cables.

1.*

Comparative ,erits an# $emerits of +ransmission ,e#iums

The comparative merits and demerits of Optical Fibre cable medium are detailed here considering the distinctive features of this medium. It is e5pected that these fibres will provide a wonderful means of transmitting information. 1i2. Small si4eC The outer diameter of an optical fibre is generall smallF &.#2A mm 8#2A Gm9. The outer diameter remains about # mm even if the fibre is coated with plastic. In comparison, the outer diameter of an ordinar communications cable pair or the conductor of a coa5ial cable is # to #& mm. 1ii2. (ig t 7eig tC The specific gravit of silica is 2.2 and that of copper is ;.$. Further, as the dimensions of the fibres are small, the weight of an optical fibre cable is one'third to one'tenth that of conventional cables with the same transmission capacit . 1iii2. .oo# fle/ibilit'C In general, below < mm in diameter, an optical fibre does not brea! even if it is bent. Therefore, optical fibre cables with almost the same fle5ibilit as that of conventional communications cables can be produced and installed utili/ing almost the same installation techniques as those of conventional communication cables. 1iv2. Free from rustC -lass materials, such as silica, are stable chemicall , and optical fibres are entirel impervious to corrosion which is not the case with metals. Therefore, optical fibres endure well in adverse environments, such as the ocean floor. 1v2. (o7 lossC It is eas to obtain a transmission loss below &.A d+,!m 8#.< Gm9 with optical fibres, and the loss value is generall &.<A to &.3A d+,!m 8#.<Gm9. (ompared with a coa5ial cable, with a loss of #$ d+,!m 8%& =./9, and a broadband cit cable, with a loss of 2& d+,!m 83 =./9, the
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1% Section 1C Evolution of Fibre Optic Communication

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

transmission loss of optical fibres is small. 1vi2. <roa# ban#7i#t C The bandwidth characteristics of a fibre differ according to its construction and the method b which it is made. A graded inde5 fibre can easil be given a ver broad bandwidth, ranging from # to #& -./ !m. The single'mode fibre also has a ver broad bandwidth of more than several tenfold -./ !m. Therefore it is eas to form a transmission s stem of 3&& =+,sec to #.% -+,sec. It is also eas to increase the amount of transmitted information b several to ten times as much b the >avelength Bivision =ultiple5 8>B=9 method in which different carrier wavelengths are used for the transmission of information. In the transmission s stem using coa5ial cable, 3&& =b is considered the broadest possible band from a practical viewpoint, and the >B= method cannot be used. 1vii2. 6er' large information?transmitting capacit' per unit cross?sectional area of t e fibre cableC The small si/e of the fibre, broad bandwidth of transmission, and ver large capacit of transmitting information produce an e5tremel high densit of information transmission per unit cross'sectional area of the cable. The transmitting information capacit of optical fibre per unit cross'sectional area is about #&& times that of pair cables and about #& times that of coa5ial cables. 1viii2. Free from electromagnetic in#uction an# lig tning #amageC -lass is generall a good dielectric and is immune to electromagnetic induction and lightning. 1i/2. 6er' little cross tal9C *ea!ing of light from optical fibres is e5tremel minor, and almost no e5ternal light enters the fibres to propagate. This means that there is e5tremel little cross tal! between fibres. This characteristic, coupled with the non'induction characteristics alread mentioned, cannot be obtained with cooper cables. 1/2. =esistance to ig temperatureC o The melting point of silica is about #$&& (, far above that of copper or plastics. Therefore, cables made with silica are resistant to high temperature. 1/i2. Fibres #o not generate spar9sC 7o discharge occurs at spliced points of fibres. Optical fibres can be used in potentiall flammable or e5plosive environments. 1/ii2. Cannot be branc e# easil'C Optical fibres are thin, and it is difficult to branch them directl . >here branching is required, branching is done after converting that particular section into an electrical s stem. 1/iii2. + e optical fibre is glassC The optical fibre is nothing other than silica or compound glass. It is generall brittle and has an elongation of onl AH or so. >hen the fibre is used, this brittle characteristic must be full ta!en into account. 1/iv2. ,aterial for optical fibre is not copperC (opper resources are limited. Optical fibres are primaril abundant. made of silica, which is

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1C Evolution of Fibre Optic Communication 11

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

1.-

(et :s Sum :p

This section give an introduction to the evolution of optical fibre as a powerful medium for transmission of voice and data in communications and gives information about the construction of optical fibre cables, their merits and demerits and their use in the field of telecommunications. After going through the Section ou will be able to appreciate the importance of optical fibre cable medium for transmission in long distance networ!s as well as local networ!s.

1.1%

@e' 8or#s

8i9. Optical Fibre is a new medium, in which information is transmitted through a glass or plastic fibre, in the form of light. 8ii9. >avelength is a characteristic of light that is emitted from the light source and is measured in nanometers 8nm9. 8iii9. The loose buffer in Optical Fibre cable uses a hard plastic tube having an inside diameter several times that of the fibre. 8iv9. The tig t buffer in Optical Fibre cable has a plastic directl applied over the coating. 8v9. Strength members in Optical Fibre cable add mechanical strength to the fibre. 8vi9. Iac!etC The outer la ers in the cable are often called the sheath. The "ac!et becomes the la er directl protecting fibres and the sheath and refers to an additional la er. 8vii9. (able $rum (engt C (ables come reeled in various length, t picall # to 2 !ms, although lengths of A or % !ms are available for single mode fibres. 8viii9. +road ban#7i#t C The bandwidth characteristics of a fibre differ according to its construction and the method b which it is made. A graded inde5 fibre can easil be given a ver broad bandwidth, ranging from # to #& -./ !m. The single'mode fibre also has a ver broad bandwidth of more than several tenfold -./ !m.

1.11

Some :seful 8eb sitesC


ttpCFF777.arcelect.comFfibrecable. tm ttpCFF777.#atacottage.comFnc Ffibre. tm

1.12

Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress

A1C C oose t e correct >ns7er among t e four options givenC 8i9. Ans6 8ii9. The laser was invented in the ear6 8a9. #$A& 8b9. #$AA 8c9. #$%& 8d9. #$%A (harles ). )ao at Standard Telecommunication *aboratories, England fabricated a low loss glass fibre giving a loss of #&&& d+,!m in the ear6 8a9. #$%A 8b9. #$%% 8c9. #$%0 8d9. #$%; (orning glass wor!s, 1.S.A developed a low loss fibre giving a loss of 2& d+,!m in the ear6 8a9. #$%0 8b9. #$%; 8c9. #$%$ 8d9. #$0& J K J K J K

Ans6 8iii9. Ans6

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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8iv9. Ans6 8v9.

The visible Spectrum of light is in the range6 8a9. <;& to 0;& nm 8b9. 2A& to <A& nm 8c9. ;A& to #<A& nm 8d9. <A& to #AA& nm The t pical wavelengths suitable for fibre optics are6 8a9. <A&, %;&, 0;& nm 8b9. 0A&, $&&, #2&& nm 8c9. ;A&, #<&&, #AA& nm 8d9. #%&&, #%A&, #0&& nm J K J K

8vi9. Ans6 8vii9. Ans6 8viii9. Ans6 A2C

The Specific gravit of Silica is6 8a9. 2.# 8b9. 2.2 8c9. 2.< 8d9. 2.3 The Specific gravit of (opper is6 8a9. ;.# 8b9. ;.2 8c9. ;.$ 8d9. $.2 The melting point of Silica in & ( is about6 8a9. #&&& 8b9. #2&& 8c9. #A&& 8d9. #$&& J K J K J K

Select +=:E 1+2 or F(>SE 1F2 for t e follo7ing statementsC 8i9. 8ii9. 8iii9. 8iv9. 8v9. 8vi9. 8vii9. 8viii9. The optical fibres are non'conductive 8dielectric9 J K K K K K K K K

:rimar Strength member provides tensile strength to OF (able. J Induction effect due to lightening or power parallelism is not at all :resent on non'metallic OF cables. J @ed light has longer wavelength than +lue light. J

The Silica resources are limited and that of (opper are abundant. J The Specific gravit of Silica is greater than that of (opper. The wavelength is measured in nanometers. J J

The Optical fibre cables can be used both in local as well as long Bistance communications. J

>ns7ersC A. 1. 8i9. 1c2. 1-&% 8ii9. 1b2. 1-&& 8iii9. 1#2. 1-!% 8iv9. 1a2. 3*% to !*% nm 8vi9. 1b2. 2.2 8vii9. 1c2. *.- 8viii9. 1#2. 1-%% A. 2. 8i9. 1+2 8ii9. 1+2 8iii9. 1+2 8iv9. 1+2

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1C Evolution of Fibre Optic Communication 13

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8v9. 1F2 + e Copper resources are limite# an# t at of Silica are abun#ant 8vi9. 8F2 + e Specific gravit' of Copper is greater t an t at of Silica 8vii9. 1+2 8viii9. 1+2

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423.2
Para No. 2.% 2.1 2.2

OP+;CS ;N F;<=E

Subject Objectives ;ntro#uction (ig t + eor' 2.2.1 =efraction 2.2.2 Fresnel =eflection 2.2.3 =efractive ;n#e/ 2.2.4 +otal ;nternal =eflection 2.2." Critical >ngle 2.2.& SnellGs (a7 (ig t +ransmission + roug Fibre Classification of Fibre 2.4.1 ,aterial Classification 2.4.2 Classification >ccor#ing to Si4e 1or ,o#e2 2.4.3 Classification base# on =efractive ;n#e/ (et :s Sum :p @e' 8or#s Some :seful 8ebsites Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress

Page No. 1" 1" 1"

2.3 2.4

1* 1-

2." 2.& 2.! 2.*

22 22 23 23

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1" Section2C Optics in Fibre

423.2 OP+;CS ;N F;<=E


2.% Objectives

This Section gives introduction to light theor , refraction, reflection, refractive inde5, total internal reflection, critical angle, SnellLs law, light transmission through fibre, classification of fibre etc, thus covering the theoretical aspects of optics with reference to fibre. After going through this Section ou will be able to understand the theor behind the light being used as a medium for transmission of electrical pulses over long distances.

2.1

;ntro#uction
+otal ;nternal =eflectionC

Total Internal @eflection is the @eflection that Occurs when a *ight @a traveling in One =aterial .its a Bifferent =aterial and @eflects +ac! into the Original =aterial without an *oss of *ight 1Figure 2.12.

Figure 2.1C + e +otal ;nternal =eflection

2.2

(ig t + eor'

Speed of light is actuall the velocit of electromagnetic energ in vacuum such as space. *ight travels at slower velocities in other materials such as glass. *ight traveling from one material to another changes speed, which results in the light changing its direction of travel. This deflection of light is called @efraction. The ra of light passing from a lower refractive inde5 to a higher one is bent towards the normal. +ut light going from a higher inde5 to a lower one is refracting awa from the normal, as shown in the Figure 2.2. As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction approaches $&o to the normal. The angle of incidence that ields an angle of refraction of $& o is the critical angle. If the angle of incidence increases more than the critical angle, the light is totall reflected bac! into the first material so that it does not enter the second material. The angle of incidence and reflection are equal and it is called Total Internal @eflection. <' SnellHs la7, n1 sin 1 I n2 sin

+ e critical angle of inci#ence c 7 ere is c I arc sin 1n2 F n12

I -% o

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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

At angle greater than cD the light is reflected. +ecause reflected light means that n1 and n2 are equal 8since the are in the same material9, 1 and 2 are also equal. The angle of incidence and reflection are equal. These simple principles of refraction and reflection 1Figure 2.22 form the basis of light propagation through an optical fibre.

Figure 2.2C Principals of =efraction an# =eflection

2.2.1 Principles of =efraction

Figure 2.3C (ig t Propagation t roug Fibre a9 *ight ra # in Figure 2.3 in"ected into the fibre and stri!ing the coreFtoFcladding interface at an angle greater than the critical angle. This is totall reflected bac! into the core. Since the
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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

angles of incidence and reflection are equal, the reflected light will again be reflected. The light will continue /ig/agging down the length of the fibre. b9 *ight ra 2 in Figure 2.3 stri!es the core cladding interface at an angle less than the critical angle. Such a ra continues traveling to cladding. It then stri!es the outer surface of the cladding at an angle greater than the critical angle of incidence, so it is reflected bac! into the cladding. It will then reFenter the core, pass through the cladding on the opposite side and is reflected again into the cladding and then to core. The cladding is usuall inefficient as a light carrier, and the light in the cladding becomes attenuated fairl rapidl . Such a ra does not contribute to the light energ traveling to the distant end, and it is lost over distance. c9 *ight ra < in Figure 2.3 stri!es the core cladding interface at an angle less than the critical angle, so it is refracted into the cladding, where it meets the claddingFair interface at angle less than the critical angle of incidence for claddingFair. This ra escapes into air and does not contribute to light propagation in the fibre.

2.2.2 Fresnel =eflection


>hen light passes from one inde5 to another, a small portion is alwa s reflected bac! into the first material. This reflection is !nown as Fresnel =eflection. For light passing from air to glass, reflection loss is about &.#0 d+.

2.2.3 =efractive ;n#e/


The refractive Inde5 profile describes the relation between the indices of the core and cladding. Following two main relationships e5ist6 8i9 8ii9 Step Inde5 -raded Inde5

The step inde5 fibre has a core with uniform inde5 throughout. The profile shows a sharp step at the "unction of the core and cladding. In contrast, the graded inde5 has a non'uniform core. The Inde5 is highest at the center and graduall decreases until it matches with that of the cladding. There is no sharp brea! in indices between the core and the cladding.

2.2.4 +otal ;nternal =eflection


The angle of incidence and reflection are equal and it is called +otal ;nternal =eflection.

2.2." Critical >ngle


The angle of incidence that ields an angle of refraction of $&o is the critical angle.

2.2.& SnellGs (a7


The relationship between the incident and refracted ra is clearl brought out b SnellDs law which states6 n1 sin J1 I n2 sin J 2 where, n1D n2 are the refractive indices of the two materials, and
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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

J1D J 2 are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectivel . Critical angle of inci#ence J c, where J 2 I -%% , is Jc I arc Sin 1n2Fn12

2.3

(ig t +ransmission t roug Fibre

The optical fibre has two concentric la ers called the core and the cladding. The inner core is the light carr ing part. The surrounding cladding provides the difference in refractive inde5 that allows total internal reflection of light through the core. The inde5 of the cladding is less than #H over than that of the core. T pical values for e5ample are a core refractive inde5 of #.30 and a cladding inde5 of #.3%. Fibre manufacturers control this difference to obtain desired optical fibre characteristics. =ost fibres have an additional coating around the cladding. This buffer coating is a shoc! absorber and has no optical properties affecting the propagation of light within the fibre. Figure 2.4 shows the idea of light traveling through a fibre. *ight in"ected into the fibre and stri!ing core to cladding interface at grater than the critical angle, reflects bac! into core, since the angle of incidence and reflection are equal, the reflected light will again be reflected. The light will continue /ig/agging down the length of the fibre.

Figure 2.4C +otal ;nternal =eflection in an Optical Fibre *ight stri!ing the interface at less than the critical angle passes into the cladding, where it is lost over distance. The cladding is usuall inefficient as a light carrier, and light in the cladding becomes attenuated fairl . :ropagation of light through fibre is governed b the indices of the core and cladding b SnellDs law. Such total internal reflection forms the basis of light propagation through an optical fibre. This anal sis considers onl meridional ra s' those that pass through the fibre a5is each time and the are reflected. Other ra s called S!ew ra s travel down the fibre without passing through the a5is. The path of a s!ew ra is t picall helical wrapping around and around the central a5is. Fortunatel s!ew ra s are ignored in most fibre optics anal sis. The specific characteristics of light propagation through a fibre depend on man factors, including6 The si/e of the fibre. The composition of the fibre.
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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The light in"ected into the fibre.

2.4 Classification of Fibre


The optical fibres can be classified in three wa s6 =aterial Si/e 8or =ode9 @efractive Inde5

2.4.1 ,aterial Classification


One wa of classif ing the fibres is b their material ma!e up6 -lass fibres have a glass core and glass cladding. The are most widel used. The glass used in fibres is ultra'pure, ultraFtransparent silicon dio5ide or fused quart/. Impurities such as germanium, phosphorus, boron or fluorine are added to the pure glass to achieve the desired refractive inde5. :lasticFclad Silica 8:(S9 fibres have a glass core and plastic cladding. The performance of this t pe of fibre is not as good as all glass fibres. :lastic fibres have a plastic core and plastic cladding. :lastic fibres have high losses and ver low bandwidths but are ine5pensive. :lastic and :(S fibres do not have protective coatings surrounding the cladding.

2.4.2 Classification >ccor#ing to Si4e 1or ,o#e2


The second wa to classif fibres is b the si/e 8core diameter9 or modes in fibre. =ode is a mathematical and ph sical concept describing the propagation of electromagnetic waves through media. =ode theor is derived from =a5wellDs equations. For the purpose of understanding the concept we shall define the mode simpl as a path that a light ra can follow in traveling down a fibre. The number of modes supported b a fibre ranges from # to over #&&,&&&. Thus, an optical fibre provides a path of travels for one or thousands of light ra s depending on its si/e and properties. ,ultiKmo#e FibreC

These are characteri/ed b relativel large core diameters. T pical values of core diameters are A&, %2.A, ;&, #&& micrometers. A multiFmode fibre supports more than one propagating mode.

Figure 2."C +'pical Core an# Cla##ing $iameters

2.4.3 Classification base# on =efractive ;n#e/


+ this classification there are following three t pes of fibres 1Figure 2.&26 8i9. =ultimode Step Inde5 fibre 8Step Inde5 fibre9 8ii9. =ultimode graded Inde5 fibre 8-raded Inde5 fibre9
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8iii9. Single' =ode Step Inde5 fibre 8Single =ode Fibre9 1i2 Step ;n#e/ ,ultimo#e Fibre This fibre is called LStep ;n#e/L because the refractive inde5 changes abruptl from cladding to core. The cladding has a refractive inde5 somewhat lower than the refractive inde5 of the core glass. As a result, all ra s within a certain angle will be totall reflected at the core'cladding boundar . @a s stri!ing the boundar at angles grater than the critical angle will be partiall reflected and partiall transmitted out through the boundar . After man such bounces the energ in these ra s will be lost from the fibre.

Figure 2.&C +'pes of Fibres base# on t eir =efractive ;n#e/ Profile The paths along which the ra s 8modes9 of this step inde5 fibre travel differ, depending on their angles relative to the a5is. As a result, the different modes in a pulse will arrive at the far end of the fibre at different times, resulting in pulse sprea#ing which limits the bit' rate of a digital signal which can be transmitted.
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The ma5imum number of mo#es 1N2 depends on the core #iameter 1#2D 7avelengt 1 2 and numerical aperture 1N>2 /#/N> NI %." / 1?????????????????? 2 2 12 These t pes of fibre results in considerable model dispersion, which results the fibreDs band width. 1ii2 .ra#e# ;n#e/ ,ulti?,o#e Fibre This fibre is called graded inde5 because there are man changes in the refractive inde5 with larger values towards the center. As light travels faster in a lower inde5 of refraction, the farther the light is from the center a5is, the grater is its speed. Each la er of the core refracts the light. Instead of being sharpl reflected as it is in a step inde5 fibre, the light is now bent or continuousl refracted in an almost sinusoidal pattern. Those ra s that follow the longest path b traveling near the outside of the core, have a faster average velocit . The light traveling near the center of the core, has the slowest average velocit . As a result, all ra s tend to reach the end of the fibre at the same time. That causes the end travel time of different ra s to be nearl equal, even though the travel different paths. The graded inde5 reduces model dispersion to #ns,!m or less. -raded inde5 fibres have core diameter of A&, %2.A or ;A m and a cladding diameter of #2A m. The fibre is used in applications requiring a wide bandwidth and low model dispersion. The number of modes in the fibre is about half that of step inde5 fibre having the same diameter M 7A. / # / N> NI %.2" / 1 ???????????????? 22 1 2 1iii2. Single ,o#e Step ;n#e/ Fibre

Another wa to reduce model dispersion is to reduce the coreDs diameter, until the fibre onl propagates one mode efficientl . The single mode fibre has an e5ceedingl small core diameter of onl A to #& m. Standard cladding diameter is #2A m. Since this fibre carries onl one mode, model dispersion does not e5ists. Single mode fibres easil have a potential bandwidth of A& to #&&-./'!m. The core diameter is so small that the splicing technique and measuring technique are more difficult. .igh sources must have ver narrow spectral width and the must be ver small and bright in order to permit efficient coupling into the ver small core diameter of these fibres. One advantage of single mode fibre is that once the are installed, the s stemDs capacit can be increased as newer, higher capacit transmission s stem becomes available. This capabilit saves the high cost of installing a new transmission medium to obtain increased performance and allows cost effective increases from low capacit s stem to higher capacit s stem. As the wavelength is increased the fibre carries fewer and fewer modes until onl one remains. Single mode operation begins when the wavelength approaches the core diameter. At #<&& nm, the fibre permits onl one mode, it becomes a single mode fibre.
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As optical energ in a single mode fibre travels in the cladding as well as in the core, therefore the cladding must be a more efficient carrier of energ . In a multimode fibre cladding modes are not desirableN a cladding with in efficient transmission characteristic can be tolerated. The diameter of the light appearing at the end of the single mode fibre is larger than the core diameter, because some of the optical energ of the mode travels in the cladding. =ode field diameter is the term used to define this diameter of optical energ .

2."

(et :s Sum :p

The !nowledge about the basics in light theor are necessar in order to understand the characteristics of Optical Fibre cables and their effect on the performance in Optical fibre communications. After going through this Section ou will be able to understand various aspects in light theor li!e speed of light, total internal reflection, refractive inde5 profiles, SnailLs law etc. and their importance in the optical fibre communications.

2.&
8i9.

@e' 8or#s
+otal ;nternal =eflection is the @eflection that occurs when a *ight @a traveling in one material hits a different material and @eflects bac! into the original material without an *oss of *ight. Spee# of lig t is actuall the velocit of electromagnetic energ in vacuum such as space. Fresnel =eflection6 >hen light passes from one inde5 to another, a small portion is alwa s reflected bac! into the first material. This reflection is !nown as Fresnel =eflection. The =efractive ;n#e/ profile describes the relation between the indices of the core and cladding. The Step ;n#e/ Fibre has a core with uniform inde5 throughout. The .ra#e# ;n#e/ Fibre has a non'uniform core. The Inde5 is highest at the center and graduall decreases until it matches with that of the cladding. +otal ;nternal =eflection6 >hen the angle of incidence and reflection are equal and it results in Total Internal @eflection. Critical >ngleC The angle of incidence that ields an angle of refraction of $& o is the critical angle. SnellGs (a7C The relationship between the incident and refracted ra is clearl brought out b SnellDs law which states6 n1 sin J1 I n2 sin J 2 where, n1D n2 are the refractive indices of the two materials, and J1D J 2 are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectivel .

8ii9. 8iii9.

8iv9. 8v9. 8vi9. 8vii9. 8viii9. 8i59.

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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Critical angle of inci#ence J c, where J 2 I -%%, is Jc I arc Sin 1n2Fn12

2.!

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2.*
A1.

Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress E/ercise


8rite +=:E 1+2 or F>(SE 1F2 against follo7ing statementsC 8i9. 8ii9. *ight travels at slower velocities in other materials such as glass. J K

The ra of light passing from a lower refractive inde5 to a higher one is bent towards the normal. J K

8iii9. The angle of incidence that ields an angle of refraction of $&o is the critical angle. J K 8iv9. >hen the angle of incidence and reflection are equal and it results in Total Internal @eflection. J K 8v9. The propagation of light is governed b the indices of the core and cladding and b SnellDs law. J K

8vi9. The refractive Inde5 profile describes the relation between the indices of the core and cladding. J K 8vii9. The step inde5 fibre has a core with uniform inde5 throughout. J K

8viii9. :lasticFclad Silica 8:(S9 fibres have a glass core and plastic cladding. The performance of this t pe of fibre is not as good as all glass fibres. J K

8i59. :lastic fibres have a plastic core and plastic cladding. :lastic fibres have high losses and ver low bandwidths but are ine5pensive. J K 859. :lastic and :(S fibres do not have protective coatings surrounding the cladding. J K >ns7ersC >ll are +=:E.

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423.3
Para No. 3.% 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3." 3.& 3.! 3.* 3.3.1% 3.11 3.12

C0>=>C+E=;S+;CS OF F;<=E

Subject Objectives ;ntro#uction Operating 8avelengt s 8in#o7s <an#7i#t Fre3uenc' >ttenuation $ispersion Numerical >perture (et :s Sum :p @e' 8or#s Some :seful 8ebsites Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress

Page No.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2" Section3C C aracteristics of Fibre

3 . C0>=>C+E=;S+;CS OF F;<=E
3.% Objectives

This Section gives introduction to the characteristics of Optical Fibre li!e operating wavelengths, windows, bandwidth, attenuation, dispersion and numerical aperture. After going through this Section ou will be able to understand these characteristics of Optical Fibre and will be able to appreciate their importance in performance of the Optical Fibre cables.

3.1

;ntro#uction

As with an t pe of Transmission S stem, there are certain parameters that affect the s stemLs operation. In a similar wa the characteristics of Optical Fibre (able also equall effect the operation of Optical fibre s stems. These parameters decide the t pe of Optical Fibre to be selected for achieving optimum results in the operation of Optical Fibre transmission s stems. Some of the important characteristics of the Optical Fibre cable are discussed here.

3.2

Operating 8avelengt s

It is a characteristic of light that is emitted from the light source and is measured in nanometers 8nm9. A nanometer is equivalent to one billionth of metre. In the visible spectrum, wavelength can be described as the colour of the light. For e5ample, @ed *ight has longer wavelength than +lue *ight, T pical wavelength for fibre use are ;A&nm, #<&&nm and #AA&nm all of which are invisible.

3.3

8in#o7s

A narrow window is defined as the range of wavelengths at which a fibre best operates. T pical windows are given below6

3.4

<an#7i#t

The <an#7i#t 1<82 is defined as the amount of information that a s stem can carr such that each pulse of light is distinguishable b the receiver. S stem bandwidth is measured in =./ or -./. In general, when we sa that a s stem has bandwidth of 2& =./, means that 2& million pulses of light per second will travel down the fibre and each will be distinguishable b the receiver. The fibre bandwidth is generall specified as the product of bandwidth and length given in megahert/ or gigahert/ !ilometres. A ban#7i#t of 4%% ,04K9m means that a 3&&F=./ signal can be transmitted for # !m. It also means that the product of the frequenc and the length must be 3&& or less 8+> O * P 3&&9. A lower frequenc can be sent for a longer distance. (onversel a higher frequenc can be sent for a shorter distance.
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3."

Fre3uenc'

Frequenc is the number of pulse per second emitted from a light source. Frequenc is measured in units of hert/ 8./9. In terms of optical pulse, #./ P # pulse, sec.

3.&

>ttenuation

Attenuation is defined as the loss of optical power over a set distance, a fibre with a lower attenuation will allow more power to reach a receiver than a fibre with higher attenuation. Attenuation varies with the wavelength of light. Attenuation of fibre for optical power varies with the wavelengths of light. >indows are low'loss regions, where fibre carries light with little attenuation. The first generation of optical fibres operated in the first window around ;2& to ;A& nm. The second window is the /ero'dispersion region of #<&& nm and the third window is the #AA& nm region. .igh loss regions, where attenuation is ver high occur at 0<&, $A&, #2A& and #<;& nm. One wishes to avoid operating in these regions. Evaluation of losses in a fibre must be done with respect to the transmitted wavelength. Figure 3.1 shows a t pical attenuation curve for a low loss multimode fibre.

Figure 3.1C +'pical >ttenuation curve for a lo7 loss multimo#e fibre >e can obtain losses less than 2.A d+,!m in the first window at ;A& nm. -raded inde5 fibres in the second window with loss below # d+,!m and in the third window below &.A d+,!m are obtained. Even lower losses are regarded as feasible for monomode fibres in all the three windows. T picall minimum loss in the three windows for the multimode fibre is 2.A d+,!m, &.33 d+, !m and &.22 d+,!m respectivel . The corresponding figures for a monomode fibre are #.$ d+,!m, &.<2 d+,!m and &.&3; d+,!m.

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=a!ing the best use of the low loss properties of the fibre requires that the sources emit light in the low loss region of the fibre. :lastic fibres are best operated in the visible light area around %A& nm. One important feature of attenuation in an optical fibre is that the attenuation is constant at all modulation frequencies within the bandwidth. Attenuation in a fibre ma be categori/ed as Intrinsic or E5trinsic.

1;2.

;ntrinsic >ttenuation

Intrinsic attenuation is the loss due to characteristics inherent or within the fibre. It ma occur as following6 8a9. >bsorptionC 7atural Impurities in the glass absorb light energ 1Figure 3.22.

Figure 3.2C (oss #ue to >bsorption Or 8b9. Scattering6 *ight ra s traveling in the core reflect from small imperfections into a new pathwa that ma be lost through the cladding 1Figure 3.32.

Figure 3.3C (oss #ue to Scattering

1;;2.

E/trinsic >ttenuation

E5trinsic Attenuation is the loss due to e5ternal sources. E5trinsic attenuation ma occur as following6 8a9. ,icroben#ing6 ,icroscope ben#ing loss is caused due to determination of the fibre a5is during cabling process. >hen a fibre is sheathed within a protective cable, it sets up stresses, which cause small a5ial distortion 8microbends9 to appear randoml along the fibre. =icrobends cause some of the light to couple out of the fibre. This effect can be eliminated b using looseFtube cable construction. 8b9. ,acroben#ing E5cessive bending of the cable or fibre ma result in loss !nown as ,acroben# loss. This loss ma occur when wrapping the fibre on a spool or pulling the fibre
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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

cable around a corner. Fibres can be bent with radius of curvature as small as #& cm. with negligible loss. T picall , brea!ing will not occur unless the bend radius is less than #A& times the fibre diameter. For e5ample, if the diameter is #2A micrometre, the bend radius before brea!ing is as little as #.$ cm. Figure 3.4 illustrates =icrobend and =acrobend losses. A minimum bend radius should be maintained to avoid losses. As a rule of thumb, the minimum bend radius is five times the cable diameter for an unstressed cable and ten times the diameter for a stressed cable.

Figure 3.4C ,icroben# an# ,acroben# (osses The total attenuation of the fibre is the combination of all the loss phenomena. On the shortFwavelength side, lowFloss for silica fibres is limited b scattering. It is I@ absorption which limits lowFloss region in the longFwavelength side. The minimum loss for silica fibres is about &.#A d+ at #AA& nm. Attenuation is measured in decibels 8d+9. A d+ represents the comparison between the transmitted and received power in a s stem.

3.! $ispersion
Bispersion is defined as the spreading of light pulse as it travels down the length of an optical fibre. +ecause of the spreading effect, pulses tend to overlap, ma!ing them unreadable b the receiver. Bispersion limits the bandwidth or information carr ing capacit of a fibre. The bit'rates must be low enough to ensure that pulses are farther apart and therefore the greater dispersion can be tolerated. There are three main t pes of dispersion in a fibre6 8i9 =odal Bispersion 8ii9 =aterial dispersion 8iii9 >aveguide dispersion 1;2. ,o#al $ispersion

=odal dispersion occurs onl in =ultimode fibres. It arises because ra s follow different paths through the fibre and consequentl arrive at the other end of the fibre at different times.
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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

=ode is a mathematical and ph sical concept describing the propagation of electromagnetic waves through media. In case of fibre, a mode is simpl a path that a light ra can follow in traveling down a fibre. The number of modes supported b a fibre ranges from # to over #&&,&&&. Thus a fibre provides a path of travels for one or thousands of light ra s depending on its si/e and properties. Since light reflects at different angles for different paths 8or modes9, the path lengths of different modes are different. Thus different ra s ta!e a shorter or longer time to travel the length of the fibre. The ra that goes straight down the center of the core without reflecting, arrives at the other end first, other ra s arrive later. Thus light entering the fibre at the same time e5ist the other end at different times. The light has spread out in time. The spreading of light is called modal dispersion. =odal dispersion is that t pe of dispersion that results from the var ing modal path lengths in the fibre. T pical modal dispersion figures for the step inde5 fibre are #A to <& ns, !m. This means that for light entering a fibre at the same time, the ra following the longest path will arrive at the other end of a # !m long fibre #A to <& ns after the ra , following the shortest path. Fifteen to <& billionths of a second ma not seem li!e much, but dispersion is the main limiting factor on a fibreDs bandwidth. :ulse spreading results in a pulse overlapping with ad"acent pulses as shown in Figure 3.". Eventuall , the pulses will merge so that one pulse cannot be distinguished from another. The information contained in the pulse is lost. @educing dispersion increases fibre bandwidth.

Figure 3."C ,o#el $ispersion


=odel dispersion can be reduced in following three wa s6 8i9 1se a smaller core diameter, which allows fewer modes. 8ii9 1se a graded 'inde5 fibre so that light ra s that allow longer paths also travel at a faster velocit and thereb arrive at the other end of the fibre at nearl the same time as ra s that follow shorter paths.
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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8iii9 1;;2.

1se a single'mode fibre, which permits no modal dispersion.

,aterial $ispersion

Bifferent wavelengths 8colours9 also travel at different velocities through a fibre, even in the same mode, as n I cFv >here, n is in#e/ of refraction, c is the spee# of lig t in vacuum and v is the spee# of t e same 7avelengt in t e material. The value of v in the equation changes for each wavelength. Thus Inde5 of refraction changes according to the wavelength 1Figure 3.&2. Bispersion from this phenomenon is called material dispersion, since it arises from material properties of the fibre.

Figure 3.&C ,aterial $ispersion Each wave changes speed differentl and each is refracted differentl . >hite light entering the prism contains all colours. The prism refracts the light and its changes speed as it enters the prism. @ed light deviates the least and travels the fastest. The violet light deviates the most and travels the slowest. The amount of material dispersion depends on following two factors6 8a9 The range of light wavelengths in"ected into the fibre. A source does not normall emit a single wavelength. It emits several. This range of wavelengths, e5pressed in nanometers is the spectral 7i#t of the source. An *EB has a much higher spectral width than a *ASE@' about <A nm for a *EB and 2 to < nm for a *ASE@. 8b9 The center'operating wavelength of the sources. Around ;A&nm, longer 8reddish9 wavelengths travel faster than the shorter 8+luish9 ones. At #AA&nm however, the situation is reversed. The shorter wavelengths travel faster than the longer ones. At some point, the cross over must occur where the bluish and reddish
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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

wavelengths travel at the same speed. This crossover occurs around #<&&nm, the /ero' dispersion wavelength. At wavelengths below #<&&nm, dispersion is negative. So wavelengths travel or arrive later. Above #<&& nm, the wavelengths lead or arrive faster. This dispersion is e5pressed in :ico seconds per !ilometre per nanometre of source spectral width 8ps,!m,nm9. 1;;;2. 8avegui#e $ispersion

>aveguide dispersion, most significant in a single'mode fibre, occurs because optical energ travels in both the core and cladding, which have slightl different refractive indices. The energ travels at slightl different velocities in the core and cladding because of the slightl different refractive indices of the materials. >aveguide and material dispersions depend on the sourceDs spectral width as well as the length of the fibre. Altering the internal structures of the fibre, allows waveguide dispersion to be substantiall changed, thus changing the specified overall dispersion of the fibre. >e will see later on that S= fibre attenuation is lowest at #AA& nm, while the dispersion is lowest at wavelength close to #<&& nm. To ta!e advantage of lowest attenuation as well as low dispersion at #AA& nm, singleFmode fibre is constructed with a triangularFshaped refractive inde5 variation. Such a fibre is !nown as #ispersion s ifte# fibre as shown in Figure 3.!.

Figure 3.!C $ispersion S ifte# Fibre In order to obtain uniforml low dispersion over a wide range of wavelengths in the region #<&& to #%&& nm, dispersion flattened fibres are used. The dispersion'flattened fibre is constructed b appropriatel tailoring the refractive inde5 variation of the fibre. For this depressedFcladding fibre, where the core inde5 is surrounded b a thin inner cladding whose inde5 is low and an outer cladding whose inde5 is a bit higher is used. $ispersion S ifte# FibreC Transmission at *ow loss #AA&nm region Bispersion optimi/ed to /ero at #AA&nm region for effective transmission.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 32 Section3C C aracteristics of Fibre

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The Fibre has become obsolete due to some disadvantages of /ero dispersion at #AA&nm when transmission is done b >B=,B>B= techniques. Non?Oero $ispersion S ifte# FibreC

Fibre is optimi/ed for #AA&nm region transmission but the dispersion is made non'/ero in this transmission region. This is to overcome non linear effects li!e Qfour wave mi5ing Q which leads to interference between different signal wavelengths. This is the latest fibre used for B>B= transmission. (urrentl used in +ac!bone networ!s. <an#7i#t an# $ispersionC

A bandwidth of 3&& =./ '!m means that a 3&& =./'signal can be transmitted for # !m. It means that the product of frequenc and the length must be 3&& or less. >e can send a lower frequenc for a longer distance, i.e. 2&& =./ for 2 !m or #&& =./ for 3 !m. =ultimode fibres are specified b the bandwidth'length product or simpl bandwidth. Single mode fibres on the other hand are specified b dispersion, e5pressed in ps,!m,nm. In other words for an given single mode fibre dispersion is most affected b the sourceDs spectral width. The wider the source spectral width, the greater the dispersion. (onversion of dispersion to bandwidth can be appro5imated roughl b the following equation. <8 7 ereD $isp P Bispersion at the operating wavelength in seconds, nm, !m. S8 P Spectral width of the source in nm. ( P Fibre length in !m. So the spectral width of the source has a significant effect on the performance of a single mode fibre. I %.1*! ?????????????????????????? 1$isp2 1S82 1(2

3.* Numerical >perture


Numerical aperture 1N>2 is defined as the RlightFgathering abilit R of a fibre. Onl light in"ected into the fibre at angles greater than the critical angle will be propagated. In Figure 3.!, a meridional ra is shown entering the end face of the core at an angle J.

Figure 3.!C ,eri#ional ra' entering t e Core The ra will be refracted into the core at an offFa5is angle. It stri!es the core cladding interface at an angle Ji and is totall reflected if Ji P Jc1Jc I (ritical angle9.
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section3C C aracteristics of Fibre 33

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

From SnellHs la7,

n sin J I n1 sin Q I n1 sin1-%KR Ji2 I n1 cos J i In the limiting case J i I J c n sin J I n1 cos J c
Again, appl ing the SnellDs law to the core cladding surface

RS 112

Sin J c I 1n2 F n12 Or cos J c I T1?Un2 Fn1V2 I T 1n12 K n22 2 F n12


From e3uations 112 an# 122D

S 122

n sin J I T n12 K n22


This quantit n sinJ is defined as the 7umerical Aperture of the fibre. If the outer medium is air, n I 1 and

N> I sin J I T n12 K n22


It is important to note that 7A is a unit'less quantit . >e can also define the angles at which ra s will be propagated b the fibre. These angles form a cone that gives the ma5imum angle of light acceptance. The acceptance angle is related to the 7A6

J I SinK11N>2 N> I Sin J


>here,

J 1t eta2 is the half angle of acceptance.


:lease refer Figure 3.*. A ra not falling within the acceptance cone is lost b radiation.

Figure 3.*C Numerical >perture *ight @a A6 Bid not Enter Acceptance (one F *ost *ight @a +6 Entered Acceptance (one ' Transmitted through the (ore b Total Internal @eflection.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 34 Section3C C aracteristics of Fibre

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

N> I %.2!" 1For &2." m Core Fibre2 The 7A of a fibre is important because it gives an indication of how the fibre accepts and propagates light. A fibre with a large 7A accepts light well. A fibre with a low 7A requires highl directional light. In general, fibres with a high bandwidth have a lower 7A. The thus allow fewer modes means less dispersion and hence greater bandwidth. A large 7A promotes more modal dispersion, since more paths for the ra s are provided.

Figure 3.-C N> an# ,o#al $ispersion 7A for singleFmode fibre is onl about &.## 8Figure <.$9. *ight in a singleFmode fibre is not reflected or refracted, so it does not e5it the fibre at angles. Similarl , the fibre does not accept light ra s at angles within the 7A and propagates them b total internal reflection. 7A is essentiall meaningless for a S= fibre as a practical characteristic. 7A in a multimode fibre is important to s stem performance and to calculate anticipated performance.

3.- (et :s Sum :p


In this Section we studied the important fibre characteristics such as 7umerical Aperture, =odal Bispersion, =aterial Bispersion, Attenuation and Sources of losses in fibres. The dispersion limits the total bandwidth available for sending a specific bit rate over a certain distance. 1sing single mode fibres can minimi/e modal dispersion and the material dispersion is almost /ero at #<<& nm. Absorption due to the presence of impurities, scattering of light due to impurities and imperfections in the fibre and e5cessive binding of the fibres will cause losses which are in addition to the intrinsic attenuation due to the fibre material.

3.1%
8i9.

@e' 8or#s
A narrow 7in#o7 is defined as the range of wavelengths at which a fibre best operates

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section3C C aracteristics of Fibre 3"

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8ii9. 8iii9. 8iv9. 8v9. 8vi9. 8vii9. 8viii9. 8i59. 859. 85i9. 85ii9. 85iii9. 85iv9.

Fre3uenc' is the number of pulse per second emitted from a light source. Frequenc is measured in units of hert/ 8./9. In terms of optical pulse #./ P # pulse, sec. The <an#7i#t 1<82 is defined as the amount of information that a s stem can carr such that each pulse of light is distinguishable b the receiver. >ttenuation in Optical Fibre (able is defined as the loss of optical power over a set distance. ;ntrinsic attenuation in Optical Fibre (able is the loss due to characteristics inherent or within the fibre. E/trinsic >ttenuation in Optical Fibre (able is the loss due to e5ternal sources. ,icroscope ben#ing loss is caused due to determination of the fibre a5is during cabling process. ,acroben# loss is cause# #ue to e5cessive bending of the cable or fibre. $ispersion is defined as the spreading of light pulse as it travels down the length of an optical fibre. ,o#al #ispersion is that t pe of dispersion that results from the var ing modal path lengths in the fibre. ,aterial #ispersion arises due to material properties of the fibre that cause changes in refractive indices according to wavelength. 8avegui#e #ispersion occurs because optical energ travels in both the core and cladding, which have slightl different refractive indices. Spectral 7i#t C The range of wavelengths, e5pressed in nanometers is the spectral 7i#t of the source. Numerical aperture 1N>2 is defined as the RlightFgathering abilit R of a fibre.

3.11

:seful <oo9sF7eb sites


ttpCFFen.7i9ipe#ia.orgF7i9iFOpticalMFibre ttpCFF777.ciscopress.comFarticlesFarticle.aspNpI1!%!4%

3.11
A1.

Auestions an# >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress E/ercise


8rite +=:E 1+2 or F>(SE 1F2 against follo7ing statementsC 8i9. 8ii9. T pical wavelength for fibre use are ;A&nm, #<&&nm and #AA&nm all of which are invisible. J K .igh loss regions, where attenuation is ver high occur at 0<&, $A&, #2A& and #<;& nm. J K J K 8iv9. Attenuation is measured in decibels 8d+9. 8v9. J K J K 8vi9. The violet light deviates the most and travels the slowest. J K

8iii9. >e can obtain losses less than 2.A d+,!m in the first window at ;A& nm.

Bispersion limits the bandwidth or information carr ing capacit of a fibre.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 3& Section3C C aracteristics of Fibre

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8vii9. Around ;A&nm, longer 8reddish9 wavelengths travel faster than the shorter 8+luish9 ones. J K 8viii9. 7umerical aperture is an unit'less quantit . J K

8i59. In general, fibres with a high bandwidth have a lower 7umerical Aperture. J 859. 7umerical Aperture is essentiall characteristic.

meaningless for a S= fibre as a practical J K

>ns7ersC >ll are +=:E. 555555555555555555555555

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section3C C aracteristics of Fibre 3!

423.4
Para No. 4.% 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4." 4.& 4.! 4.* 4.4.1% 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14

CONS+=:C+;ON OF OP+;C>( F;<=E C><(E


Subject Objectives ;ntro#uction =e3uirement of Cable ,ain components of Optical Fibre Cable Optical Fibre Cable Configuration ;#entification of Fibres $ifferent t'pes of Optical Fibre Cables an# ,anufacturers >rmore# Optical Fibre Cable >erial Optical Fibre Cable Submarine Optical Fibre Cable =ibbon Fibres (et :s Sum :p @e' 8or#s Some :seful 8ebsites Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress Page No.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section4C Construction of Optical Fibre Cable 3*

4 CONS+=:C+;ON OF OP+;C>( F;<=E C><(E


4.% Objectives

This Section includes the details about construction of Optical fibre cable, its different components and their identification. After going through this Section ou will be able to identif various components of optical fibre cable and select the cables as per the requirements and need in communications.

4.1

;ntro#uction

Optical fibre cable needs to be protected before it is used. (abling is the process to pac!age one or more fibres in an outer protective structure. (abling improves the mechanical characteristics of a fibre without causing a deterioration of its optical properties. (abling protects fibre environmentall , mechanicall from being damaged or degraded in performance.

4.2

=e3uirement of Cable

Optical fibre cable is available in variet of configurations depending on its application. Following are some important parameters, which provide strengthening and protection to cable6 Tensile strength 8pull9 (rushing resistance :rotection from e5cess bending Abrasion protection Twist and (hemical protection Optical fibre cables are light, small, fle5ible, flame retardant and temperature insensitive besides being mechanicall strong and rugged.

4.3

,ain components of Optical Fibre Cable


The optical fibre cable is based on its construction is classified into two6 8i9. =etallic and 8ii9. 7on'metallic

,etallic cables are those, which use metallic component for protection and also ma be using metallic conductors. Non?metallic fibre cables use non'metallic protection material and there is no metal component involved in the cable. The non'metallic fibre cables provide the needed protection from electromagnetic induction from lightening or from paralleling power lines and are e5clusivel used in the induction prone areas. =ain components of a t pical fibre optical cable are shown in Figure 4.1. 8i9. Optical Fibre 8ii9. +uffer tube 8iii9. Strength member 8iv9. Iac!et 8v9. Fillers and (ore wrappers Though there is a great variet in cables, the following components are commonl used in most of the cables.
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 3Section4C Construction of Optical Fibre Cable

423. Optical Fibre Communications ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8i9. 8ii9. 8iii9. 8iv9.

+uffer Strength member Filler and core wraps Iac!et and moisture barrier

Figure 4.1C ,ain Components of a t'pical Optical Fibre The details of various components of Optical Fibre (able, the material used and their functions are detailed in +able 4.1. +able 4.1C 6arious Components of Optical Fibre Cable Component Function ,aterial +uffer :rotect fibre From Outside 7 lon, = lar, :lastic Facilitate Stranding Temperature (entral =ember Steel, Fibreglass Stabilit Anti'+uc!ling :rimar Strength Tensile Strength Aramid Sarn, Steel =ember (ontain and :rotect (able (ore :E, :1@, :?(, (able Iac!et Abrasion @esistance Teflon :revent =oisture >ater +loc!ing (able Filling (ompound intrusion and =igration (ompound @odent :rotection Armoring Steel Tape (rush @esistance 1;2 Optical FibreC Ever telecommunications fibre cable falls into one of two categories6 single'mode or multimode. It is impossible to distinguish between single'mode and multimode fibre with the na!ed e e. There is no difference in outward appearance, onl in core si/e. +oth fibre t pes act as a transmission medium for light, but the operate in different wa s, have different characteristics, and serve different applications. 1a2. Single?mo#e 1S,2 fibre allows for onl one pathwa , or mode, of light to travel within the fibre. The core si/e is t picall ;.< Gm. Single'mode fibres are used in applications where low signal loss and high data rates are required, such as on long spans where repeater,amplifier spacing needs to be ma5imi/ed.
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4% Section4C Construction of Optical Fibre Cable

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

1b2. ,ultimo#e 1,,2 fibre allows more than one mode of light. (ommon == core si/es are A& Gm and %2.A Gm. =ultimode fibre is better suited for shorter distance applications. >here costl electronics are heavil concentrated, the primar cost of the s stem does not lie with the cable. In such a case, == fibre is more economical because it can be used with ine5pensive connectors and *EB transmitters, ma!ing the total s stem cost lower. This ma!es == fibre the ideal choice for short distance, lower bandwidth applications. The multi' mode Optical fibres used are Step inde5 or -raded inde5 or -@I7 fibres. 1;;2 <uffersC

The fibres are coated with a buffer immediatel after being drawn. This buffer !nown as primer, coating is made of silicon rubber, acr late, or lacquer and is applied to the cladding b the fibre manufacturer. This primar coating serves as mechanical protection during the subsequent stages of the cable manufacturing. The t pical diameter of the fibre after primar coating is 2A& to <A& micrometer. After this primar coating the fibres are normall colored b passing through the coloring machines and then the colored fibres are passed through the additional buffer, which is !nown as secondar coating. These cable buffers are of two t pes6 8a9. 8b9. 1a2. (oose <uffer 1Figure 4.22C *oose buffer Tight buffer

Figure 4.2C (oose <uffer One wa of isolating the optical fibre from e5ternal forces is to place fibre length in a TbufferU tube. The cable fills these tubes with Iell li!e compound to provide additional cushioning and prevents the intrusion of moisture. The inside diameter of buffer is several times that of the fibre. One or more fibres lie within the buffer tube. The buffer tube protects the fibre from an mechanical forces acting on the cable. The fibre can ad"ust itself within the tube when the cable is distorted. As the cable e5pands and shrin!s with change in temperature, it does not affect the fibre much. The fibre in the tube is slightl longer than the tube itself. Thus, the cable itself can easil e5pand and contract without stressing the fibre. The diameter of this tube is #.2 to #.$ mm. The loose buffer is preferred for almost all outdoor applications. Figure 4.3 shows the fibre in loose tube in different conditions. In India, the cables from =,s SEI(O@E and =,s O:TE*, +hopal use the loose tube buffer.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section4C Construction of Optical Fibre Cable 41

423. Optical Fibre Communications ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure 4.3C <uffere# Fibre 1b2.+ig t <ufferC The tight buffer 1Figure 4.42 has a plastic coating directl applied over the primar coating of the fibre. This t pe of construction provides better crush and impact resistance. The tight buffer is also more fle5ible and allows tighter turn ratio. Tight tube buffers have general application in indoor cables where temperature variations are mi5ed and the abilit to ma!e tight turns inside walls is desired. The do not protect the fibre from stressing or temperature variations. Single fibre pigtail cables use tight buffer. The are used for termination in equipment room.

Figure 4.4C +ig t <uffer )ac9et 1;;;2 Strengt ,emberC The function of strengt member is to add mechanical strength to the fibre. The protect the fibre from the tensions and strains generated during pulling, shearing and bending of the cable. The most common strength members are6
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 42 Section4C Construction of Optical Fibre Cable

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8i9. )evlar 8ii9. Aramid Sarn 8iii9. Fibreglass @einforce :lastic 8F@:9 or -lass @einforced :lastic 8-@:9. The )evlar is one of the most frequentl used strengthening members. Its effective strength to weight ratio is almost four times that of steel. Fibreglass rods 8F@: or -@:9 are used in multi fibre cables while )evlar is most commonl used for individual fibres. The strength members are centrall located 8central strength member9 or applied over buffer "ac!et. The central strength member construction is generall used in multi fibre cables. 1;62 )ac9et an# ,oisture <arrierC

The "ac!et or sheath provides protection from the effects of cut and abrasion, oil, o/one, acids, al!ali, solvents and so forth. =aterials such as low densit :ol eth lene, high'densit :ol thene, :ol urethane, :ol vin l (hloride 8:?(9, 7 lon, etc. have been successfull emplo ed in commercial cables. The choice of "ac!et material depends on application and cost. In a cable containing several la ers of "ac!eting and protective material, the outer la ers are often called the S.EAT.. The inner la er directl protecting the fibres becomes the IA()ET. 162 Fillers an# Core 8rapsC

Fillers are emplo ed to provide cushioning to the fibres and to give shape to the cable. T pical materials are :?(, :ol eth lene, low'densit cellulose paper, spun bonded pol ester. The cable core is generall filled with a water bloc!ing or filling compound to prevent moisture intrusion. +inder tapes are applied to hold the assemblies of coated fibres and fillers, together. It also provides a heat barrier to the fibre during the e5trusion process of outer sheath. 1sual materials are :ol ester, = lar, (ellulose paper, etc.

4.4

Optical Fibre Cable Configuration

>e will discuss here onl the cable structures 1Figure 4."2 generall used in outdoor. -enerall , the cables installed outdoors are sub"ected to e5treme conditions. Such cables are rugged and durable. =ost cables have additional protective sheaths. =ost outdoor cables contain man fibres. The central strength member is usuall a Fibreglass wrap 8F@: or -@:9. There are man !inds of optical fibre cable designed to utili/e their merits full . Following Two t pes of cables are in generall used in outdoor applications. 8i9. *oose tube structure 8ii9. Slotted core structure 1i2 (oose +ube Structure This t pe of structure uses protective loose tube made of thermoplastic material. The tube ma contain one or more fibres. These tubes are then stranded helicall in continuous or alternate paths around a central strength member. The central strength member used in the cables is Fibreglass @einforced :lastic 8F@:9 or -lassfibre @einforced :lastic 8-@:9. These tubes are generall filled with selected materials, which have stable ph sical characteristics over a wide temperature range. The cable interstices are filled with moisture resistant filling compound to retard the ingress and a5ial migration of water. The cable core is wrapped with a wrapping tape.
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section4C Construction of Optical Fibre Cable 43

423. Optical Fibre Communications ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure 4."W Optical Fibre Cable Structure 1ii2 Slotte# Core Structure

Figure 4.&C Slotte# Core $esign This t pe of cable 1Figure 4.&2 consists of a plastic rod abstracted over a central strength member assuring good mechanical and thermal performance of the structure, ?' -rooves or slots are cut in the surface of the plastic rod. These grooves or slots ma contain one or more fibres protected onl b primar coating. After the fibres have been inserted, appl ing plastic or s nthetic covering closes the slotted core, and wherever necessar , slots are filled with a filling compound having stable ph sical characteristics over a wide range of temperature. Each slotted core ma either be used alone with protective outer "ac!et, or assembled with similar cable units before providing outer protection.
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 44 Section4C Construction of Optical Fibre Cable

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

4."

;#entification of Fibres
The arrangement of different colour fibres in SEI(O@ cable is shown in Figure 4.!.

Figure 4.&C <uffer +ube ;#entification Sc eme 1E/ample C Seicor Cable2 It ma be noted from the above description that different colours are used to identif the colour of fibres in the cable. This will ensure that fibre no. # in first cable is spliced to fibre # in the second cable and 2 to 2, < to < and so on. .ence, colour coding simplifies fibre identification.

4.&

$ifferent t'pes of Optical Fibre Cables an# ,anufacturers


=anufacturers of Optical Fibre (able 8i9 8ii9 8iii9 8iv9 8v9 O:TE*, +hopal. Sterlite, :une. :lassmac, Ahmednagar. +irla Ericsson, @ewa. A!sh, -urgaon. 8vi9 8vii9 8viii9 8i59 1nifle5 +hilai >ire *td.,Burg. .(*, +angalore. Siecore, 1SA

4.!

>rmore# Optical Fibre Cable

The Armored Optical Fibre (able is being introduced in Telecom 7etwor! in remote areas where development chances are low and no further new e5changes are e5pected and the chances of induction from lightning or from paralleling power lines are not foreseen. 7ormall the Armored Optical Fibre cables are of small capacit 8%F9 and ma be laid in @ural Areas. 7ormal cable installation practices and the precaution required for the installation of OF cables are to be followed for armored cables as well. In an >rmore# 1Single )ac9et2 or 1$ual )ac9et2 (oose +ube Optical Fibre CableD the *oose tube construction insures stable optical performance b protecting the fibres in a loose buffer tube. This design is well suited for interoffice, long haul, high densit and distribution
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section4C Construction of Optical Fibre Cable 4"

423. Optical Fibre Communications ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

applications. The armored cable design ma be used in duct, aerial or buried applications and is available with a steel or dielectric (entral Strength =ember 8(S=9.

4.*

>erial Optical Fibre Cable

The cable is designed and constructed in such a wa that it is robust and rigid during its installation, operation, ad"ustments, replacement, storage and transportation. This cable even can wor! in saline atmosphere of coastal areas where normal line material gets corroded. The theoretical life of cable is 2& ears. Ariel cable comes in %F, #2F or 23 fibres as per the requirements. *oose pac!aging with in tube or groove further protects the primar coated fibres. The cable has F.@.: solid non'metallic member for strength. The primar coated fibres in loose tubes are stranded together around this central strength member using helical technique. Alternativel multiple units of fibres are placed loosel in a single tube with the strength member in sheath. This is protected b means of filling compound having non'h groscopic di'electric material. The inner sheath is a non'metallic moisture barrio over and above the core. The sheath is circular and free from an holes, "oints and other defects. The outer sheath is applied over the reinforcement of armide arn and covered b tough weather resistant pol eth lene compound 8.B:E9. The thic!ness is uniform, circular and free from "oints, holes or an other defects. 1? ra s or sunlight cannot degrade the outer sheath. The usual length of cable in a drum is 2!ms appro5imatel . The length of whole cable in a drum should not have an "oints. +oth ends of the cable are sealed and have pulling e e. The Arial cable is easil identifiable from the other cable because it has continuous orange lines over the full'length cable. The cable has compan name, number of fibres, and t pe of fibres and ear of manufacture at each one'metre length.

4.-

Submarine Optical Fibre Cable

A submarine communications cable 1Figure 4.*2 is a cable laid beneath the sea to carr telecommunications between countries. The first submarine communications cables carried telegraph traffic. Subsequent generations of cables carried first telephon traffic, then data communications traffic. All modern cables use Fibre optic technolog to carr digital pa loads, which are then used to carr telephone traffic as well as Internet and private data traffic. As of 2&&A, submarine cables lin! all the worldDs continents e5cept Antarctica. In the #$;&s, fibre optic cables were developed. =odern optical fibre repeaters use a solid'state optical amplifier, usuall an Erbium'doped fibre amplifier. A solid'state laser is powered b the voltage difference between the ocean and a wire carr ing high'voltage direct current. The solid' state laser e5cites a short length of doped fibre that itself acts as a laser amplifier. As the light passes through the fibre, it is amplified. This s stem also permits wavelength'division multiple5ing, which dramaticall increases the capacit of the fibre. The optic fibre used in undersea cables is chosen for its e5ceptional clarit , permitting runs of more than #&& !ilometres between repeaters to minimi/e the number of amplifiers and the distortion the cause. @epeaters 1Figure 4.-2 are powered b a constant direct current passed down the conductor near the centre of the cableN all repeaters in a cable are powered in series. At both terminal stations power feed equipment is installed, this feeds current to the cable and the return current to what is called a sea earth. Originall , submarine cables were simple point'to'point connections. >ith the development of Submarine +ranching 1nits 8S+1s9, more than one destination could be served
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4& Section4C Construction of Optical Fibre Cable

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

b a single cable system. =odern cable s stems now usuall have their fibres arranged in a self'healing ring to increase their redundanc , with the submarine sections following different paths on the ocean floor. One driver for this development was that the capacit of cable s stems had become so large that it was not possible to completel bac!'up a cable s stem with satellite capacit , so it became necessar to provide sufficient terrestrial bac!'up capabilit . 7ot all telecommunications organi/ations wish to ta!e advantage of this capabilit , so modern cable s stems ma have dual landing points in some countries 8where bac!'up capabilit is required9 and onl single landing points in other countries where bac!'up capabilit is either not required, the capacit to the countr is small enough to be bac!ed up b other means, or having bac!'up is regarded as too e5pensive.

Figure 4.*C Submarine Cable Structure

Figure 4.-C Optical Submarine Cable =epeater


???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section4C Construction of Optical Fibre Cable 4!

423. Optical Fibre Communications ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The first transatlantic telephone cable to use optical fibre was TAT';, which went into operation in #$;;. IndiaDs largest public sector telecom compan , +harat Sanchar 7igam *td. 8+S7*9 is alread operating its fibre submarine cable s stem that connects Tirchchendur in Tamil 7adu to the *an!an capital (olombo.

4.1%

Fibre Optic =ibbon Cable

A Fibre Optic @ibbon (able is a cable in which the optical fibres are held in grooves and laminated within a flat semi'rigid strip of material, such as plastic, which positions, holds, and protects them.

Figure 4.1%C Fibre Optic =ibbon Cable 7ote6 @ibbon cables ma be stac!ed to produce fibre optic cables with large numbers of fibres. +uffers, strength members, fillers, and "ac!eting are usuall added to produce the final cable. It is in some wa s a variation on the tight'buffered cable. A group of coated fibres is arranged in parallel, and then coated with plastic to form a multifibre ribbon. This differs from the Tight buffered cables in that one plastic la er encases man parallel fibres. The flat ribbon loo!s something li!e flat 3'wire cables used for household telephones. T pical ribbons contain A to #2 fibres. 1p to #2 ribbons can be stac!ed together to form the core of a cable. The simple structure ma!es a ribbon cable eas to splice in the fieldN a single splice can connect multiple fibres. =ultifibres connectors can also be installed readil .

4.11

(et us Sum :p

An attempt has been made in this Section to include the structural details of various optical fibre cables and their characteristics including the identification process of fibres. After going through ou will get a fair idea about identif ing various t pes of optical fibre cables and their applications in communications.

4.12
8i9. 8ii9.

@e' 8or#s
,etallic fibre cables are those, which use metallic component for protection and also ma be using metallic conductors. Non?metallic fibre cables use non'metallic protection material and there is no metal component involved in the cable.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4* Section4C Construction of Optical Fibre Cable

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8iii9. 8iv9. 8v9. 8vi9. 8vii9. 8viii9. 8i59. 859. 85i9.

Single?mo#e 1S,2 fibre allows for onl one pathwa , or mode, of light to travel within the fibre. ,ultimo#e 1,,2 fibre allows more than one mode of light. <ufferC +uffer !nown as primer, coating is made of silicon rubber, acr late, or lacquer and is applied to the cladding b the fibre manufacturer. Strengt ,emberC The function of strengt member is to add mechanical strength to the fibre The @evlar is one of the most frequentl used strengthening members. The )ac9et or S eat provides protection from the effects of cut and abrasion, oil, o/one, acids, al!ali, solvents and so forth. Fillers are emplo ed to provide cushioning to the fibres and to give shape to the cable. (oose +ube Structure of an optical fibre cable uses protective loose tube made of thermoplastic material. Slotte# Core Structure of an optical fibre cable consists of a plastic rod abstracted over a central strength member assuring good mechanical and thermal performance of the structure, and ?'-rooves or slots are cut in the surface of the plastic rod. The central strength member used in the cables is Fibreglass =einforce# Plastic 1F=P2 or .lass?fibre =einforce# Plastic 1.=P2. A submarine communications cable is a cable laid beneath the sea to carr telecommunications between countries. A Fibre Optic =ibbon Cable is a cable in which the optical fibres are held in grooves and laminated within a flat semi'rigid strip of material, such as plastic, that positions, holds, and protects them.

85ii9. 85iii9. 85iv9.

4.13

Some :seful <oo9sF7eb sites ttpCFF777.commspecial.comFconnectorgui#e. tm ttpCFFops.f 7a.#ot.govFpublicationsFtelecommM an#boo9Fc apter*. tm ttpCFF777.cliffor#vt.comFfibrecableMte/t. tml

4.14

Auestions an# >ns7ers to C ec9 'our Progress


A1. 8i9. 8ii9. 8rite +=:E 1+2 or F>(SE 1F2 against follo7ing statementsC (abling is the process to pac!age one or more fibres in an outer protective structure J K Optical fibre cables are light, small, fle5ible, flame retardant and temperature insensitive besides being mechanicall strong and rugged. J K

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section4C Construction of Optical Fibre Cable 4-

423. Optical Fibre Communications ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8iii9. The non'metallic fibre cables provide the needed protection from electromagnetic induction from lightening or from paralleling power lines and are e5clusivel used in the induction prone areas. J K 8iv9. =ultimode 8==9 fibre allows more than one mode of light. 8v9. J K

One wa of isolating the optical fibre from e5ternal forces is to place fibre length in a TbufferU tube. J K

8vi9. Tight tube buffers do not protect the fibre from stressing or temperature variations. J K 8vii9. The )evlar is one of the most frequentl used strengthening members. J 8viii9. K

In an Armored 8Single Iac!et9 or 8Bual Iac!et9 *oose Tube Optical Fibre (able, the *oose tube construction insures stable optical performance b protecting the fibres in a loose buffer tube. J K A submarine communications cable is a cable laid beneath the sea to carr telecommunications between countries. J K The simple structure ma!es a ribbon cable eas to splice in the field. J K

8i59. 859.

>ns7ersC >ll are +=:E. 555555555555555555555555

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? "% Section4C Construction of Optical Fibre Cable

423."
Para No. ".% ".1 ".2 ".3 ".4 "." ".& ".!

OP+;C>( SO:=CES >N$ $E+EC+O=S


Subject Objectives ;ntro#uction =e3uirement of Optical Sources (ig t Emitting $io#es (aser $io#e Comparison of (E$ an# ($ Principles of P oto $etection Semicon#uctor P oto#io#es ".!.1 PN P oto#io#e ".!.2 P;N P oto#io#e ".!.3 >valanc e P oto?#io#e Comparison of P;N an# >P$ (et :s Sum :p @e' 8or#s Some :seful boo9s F 7ebsites Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress Page No.

".* ".".1% ".11 ".12

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? "1 Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors

423." OP+;C>( SO:=CES >N$ $E+EC+O=S


".% Objectives

This Section includes the details about various Optical Sources and Betectors, their properties, merits and demerits. After going through this Section ou will be able to understand the principles and requirements of optical sources li!e *ight Emitting Biodes 8*EBs9, *aser Biodes 8*Bs9 and detectors li!e Semiconductor :hoto Biodes, :7 Iunction Biodes, :I7 Biodes and Avalanche :hoto Biodes 8A:Bs9 etc.

".1 ;ntro#uction
An Optical fibre communication s stem comprises of6 8i9. An Optical transmitter, 8ii9. An Optical fibre as transmission medium and 8iii9. An Optical receiver. The Figure ".1 shown is a basic bloc! diagram of an optical communications lin!.

Figure ".1C <asic Optical Communication (in9 The transmitter comprises of a suitable Optical source and is often considered to be the active component in an optical fibre communication s stem. Its fundamental function is to convert electrical energ 8from the message source9 usuall in the form of a current into optical energ at the desired wavelength in an efficient manner that allows the optical energ to be launched into the optical fibre for propagation to the distant end. About the Optical fibre as medium we have alread studied in the previous sections. The function of the optical receiver is to receive the modulated optical signal and convert into electrical energ b means of photodetector and demodulate the electrical energ to obtain the original message signal.

".2

=e3uirement of Optical Sources

The two t pes of sources emplo ed in fibre optics communication s stems as carriers of information are the *ight Emitting Biode 8*EB9 and *aser Biode 8*B9. Analogous to electronic oscillators in radio s stems, these are the optic oscillators in fibre s stem. The sources provide suitable power at the required wavelengths for long distance applications. The sources found suitable in communication applications are the semiconductor sources 8*EB and *B9. To meet the communication needs in optical fibre technolog , the requirements have been summari/ed in +able ".16 *i!e in man other cases, the practical sources fall short of these requirements particularl in respect of stabilit and emission of single frequenc . The efforts required to
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors "2

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

achieve stabilit are not as difficult as the generation of a single frequenc output. (ontinuous development wor! is in progress to achieve the latter requirement. +able ".1C + e =e3uirements of Optical Communication Sources Propert' =e3uirement +arget :rimar It must operate at a wavelength which gives ;A&, #<&& and (haracteristic low loss and low dispersion in fibres #AA& nm. >avelength *ong life, good stabilit of operation and @eliabilit good reproducibilit of output characteristics *ife P #&% hrs. are necessar . Output power S stem demands must be met C # m> It must operate with an electric power suppl requiring onl a low power and low voltage, :ower efficienc C #&H and the amount of waste heat generated must be small. Besirable :roperties It must have a spectral width which enables The scale of the Spectral width the ma5imum bandwidth of the optical fibre s stem must 8temporal coherence9 to be reali/ed determine target. It should be possible to focus the output Focusing effect onto the fibre and to obtain high coupling 8spatial coherence9 efficienc . Birect modulation must be possible or =odulation coupling to an e5ternal modulation made eas . Si/e and weight It must be small and light in weight. (ost =ass production and low cost are desirable. *ight emitting diode optical sources find application in short haul and medium haul communication s stems where the power requirement is small and bit rates are low. For long distance, high bit rate applications, *aser diode is the answer. The two t pes of sources are discussed below. The optic beams generated b these two light sources carr the information through the process of intensit modulation. The operating principles, transfer characteristics, modulation and stabili/ation of output pertaining to the two t pes 8*B and *EB9 of semiconductor optical sources are considered.

".3

(ig t Emitting $io#es


Operating PrinciplesC

An *EB is a semiconductor pFn "unction diode and when it is forward biased it emits light under this condition. Figure ".2 U1a2 an# 1b2V show the principle of operation. >hen the p and n t pes of semiconductor materials are brought together, the resulting energ barrier under /ero e5ternal applied voltage prevents the movement of the n and p charge carriers. >hen the barrier energ level is lowered b the application of an e5ternal voltage 8in forward direction9, the movements of electrons and holes have ta!en place and some of the charge carriers recombine in the transition region. The energ lost in the transition is converted to optical energ giving rise to photon.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors "3

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figures ".3 an# ".4 illustrate digital modulation principle. The diode is modulated b a current source, which turns the *EB on or off. 1nli!e analog modulators, digital drivers need not provide dFc bias current. In the off state, the emission of the *EB should be low.

Figure ".2C Principle of Operation

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? "4 Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure ".3C 1a2 SeriesKs7itc e#D an# 1b2 ParallelKs7itc e# $igital ,o#ulators The switch is reali/ed b a transistor circuit functioning as a series switched modulator

Figure ".4C +ransistor S7itc e# (E$ $igital ,o#ulation (ong +erm Stabilit'

*ifetime of the *EB is about #&A hours and large temperature variations are tolerated but at the cost of output power. The decline in output power is appro5imatel #H per degree centigrade. The temperature dependence of *EB is shown in Figure ".". The driving current is required to be increased if constant power output is required.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors ""

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure "."C =a#iate# Optical Po7er 6s <ias Current Bifferent t pes of pac!ages are available. The pigtail construction and micro lens t pe are a few.

".4

Principle of (aser $io#e

A laser has an optical cavit formed b two parallel mirrors at the end facets of the semiconductor cr stal as shown in Figure ".&. For most applications, it is sufficient to use the natural cleavage facets of the cr stal as mirrors. To increase the reflectivit , the mirrors can be coated with a metallic film.

Figure ".&C *=esonant Cavit'


??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? "& Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Operating PrinciplesC Following are a few characteristics of lasers6 8i9. Pumping t res ol#6 The input power must be above a threshold before emission of light ta!es place. This is not required in *EB. 8ii9. =a#iation pattern6 The angle of radiation depends on the si/e of the emitting area and on the modes of oscillation within the laser. 8iii9. Output spectrum6 The output power is spread over a range of frequencies and power does not var smoothl over this range but has pea!s and valle s. The number of such pea!s depends on spectral width, refractive inde5 of material and dimension of cavit .

Figure ".! covers the operation of *ASE@, where following three situations have been e5plained. 8i9. Absorption 8ii9. Spontaneous emission 8iii9.Stimulated emission

Figure ".*C >llo7s #eviation of a co erent source 1(ig t >mplification b' Stimulate# Emission of =a#iation2 The structure of semiconductor,atom,molecule contains discrete energ levels, e.g. E#, E2. E# is lower energ level and E2 is higher energ level. If electron goes up from lower energ level E# to higher energ level E2, it absorbs light and light energ is thus converted to electrical energ and that is the case of absorption.
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors "!

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

If electron falls from E2 to E#, it looses electrical energ in the form of photon 8light9 and phonons 8heat9. This is the case of spontaneous emission. If at the time of fall of electron from E2 to E# and generation of photon is due to feedbac! mechanism or some other wa , we send another photon, i.e. photon generation is stimulated b other photons, i.e., amplif ing the light, the situation is called Stimulate# Emission and this is the principle used in *ASE@. In this principle, we somehow arrange the material in which we put more electrons in higher energ level 8E29 than that in lower energ level 8E #9. This situation is called population inversion. A medium with population inversion has gain and behaves as an amplifier 8*ASE@9. For oscillations to occur in the laser, the medium and the mirrors provide the three required needs of amplification, feedbac! and tuning. :hotons bounce off the mirrors and return through the medium for further amplification as shown in Figure ".-. One 8or both9 of the mirrors is partiall transmitting to allow a fraction of the light to emerge. >hen low voltages are applied to laser, the output is /ero since the gain is less than the loss. At certain voltage level this condition of gain e5ceeding loss is fulfilled and oscillations begin. The laser is at the threshold of oscillation. Further increase in voltage leads to an increase in power and coherence of beam. Technolog is being improved to obtain single frequenc radiation 8Figure ".1%9.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? "* Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure ".-C Population ;nversion

Figure ".1%C Single Fre3uenc' =a#iation *aser diodes are edge'emitting t pe. The threshold current must be small to prevent heating of semiconductors. This is achieved b confining the charge carriers in active regions b hetero "unctions in vertical direction.

"."

Comparison of (E$ an# ($


+able ".2 shows the comparison of *EB and *B. +able 2 +'pical C aracteristics of $io#e (ig t Sources Single ,o#e Propert' (E$ (aser $io#e (aser $io#e Spectral >idth 8nm9 2&F#&& #FA 4&.2 @ise Time 8ns9 2F2A& &.#F# &.&AF# =odulation +andwidth 8=./9 4 <&& 4 2&&& V 2&&& (oupling Frequenc ?er low =oderate .igh (ompatible Fibre == 8SIM-I9 ==-I, S= Single =ode Temperature Sensitivit (ircuit (omple5it *ifetime 8.ours9 (osts :ath *ength Bata @ate *ow Simple #&A *ow =oderate =oderate .igh (omple5 #&3F#&A .igh *ong .igh .igh (omple5 #&3F#&A .ighest ?er *ong ?er .igh

".&

Principles of P oto $etection

>e will loo! at two distinct photo detection mechanisms. The first is the e/ternal p otoelectric effectD in which electrons are freed from the surface of a metal b the energ absorbed from an incident stream of photons. The vacuum photodiode and the photomultiplier tube are based on this effect. A second group of detectors are semicon#uctor junction #evices in which free charge carriers 8electrons and holes9 are generated b absorption of incoming photons. This
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors "-

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

mechanism is sometimes called the internal p otoelectric effect. The common devices using this phenomenon are the :I7 photodiode, and the avalanche photodiode.

".!

Semicon#uctor P oto#io#es

Semiconductor "unction photodiodes are small, light, sensitive, fast, and can operate with "ust a few bias volts. The are almost ideal for fibre s stems. >e will investigate three forms of these devices the pn, :I7, and avalanche photodiodes.

".!.1 PN P oto#io#e
The simple pn photodiode, drawn in Figure ".11 illustrates the basic detection mechanism of a "unction detector. >hen reverse biased, the potential energ barrier between the p and n regions increases. Free electrons 8which normall reside in the n region9 and free holes 8normall in the p region9 cannot climb the barrier, so no current flows. The "unction refers to the region where the barrier e5ists. +ecause there are no free charges in the "unction, it is called the #epletion region. .aving no free charges, its resistance is high, resulting in almost all the voltage dropping across the diode appearing across the "unction itself. Therefore, the electrical forces are high in the depletion region and are negligible outside.

Figure ".11C Semicon#uctor )unction P oto#io#e. 1a2 + e reverse biase# #io#eD 1b2 t e pn junctionD an# 1c2 t e energ' level #iagram >hat happens when a photon is absorbed in the p or n regions, outside the "unctionW An electronFhole pair is created but these free charges will not move quic!l because of the wea! electrical forces outside the "unction. =ost of the free charges will diffuse slowl through the diode and recombine before reaching the "unction. These charges produce negligible current, thus reducing the detectorDs responsivit . (learl , this phenomenon ma!es the pn detector
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? &% Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

inefficient. To increase the response, a preamplifier ma be integrated onto the same chip as the diode. The resulting device is an ;ntegrate# $etector Preamplifier 1;$P2. (harge carriers created close to the depletion la er can diffuse towards it and, subsequentl , be swept across the "unction b the large electrical forces there. An e5ternal current is produced, but it is dela ed with respect to variations in the incident optic power. Suppose we wish to measure the rise time of a pn photodiode b appl ing an optic power step input. Some of the photons from the leading edge of the step will be absorbed in the "unction, causing almost immediate current flow. .owever, those photons from the leading edge that are absorbed close to the "unction will cause current flow a little later. Therefore, our e5periment will show a gradual increase in the current, the ma5imum being reached well after the input step has been applied. The rise time will be long. T pical pn diodes have rise times on the order of microseconds, ma!ing them unsuitable for highFrate fibre s stems. The :I7 diode structure solves the problem of low responsivit and slow response. It is interesting to compare the semiconductor "unction used as a light emitter and as a light detector. For emission, the diode is forward biased and charges in"ected into the "unction recombine to produce photons. For detection, the process is reversed. The diode is reverse biased and incoming photons generate electronFhole pairs, producing electrical current. Although not commonl done, a single pn device could be designed to be used as both an emitter and a detector.

".!.2 P;N P oto#io#e


:I7 photodiodes are the most common detectors in fibre s stems. The :I7 diode has a wide intrinsic semiconductor la er between the p and n regions, as illustrated in Figure ".12. The intrinsic la er has no free charges, so its resistance is high, most of the diode voltage appears across it, and the electrical forces are strong within it. +ecause the intrinsic la er is so wide, there is a high probabilit that incoming photons will be absorbed in it rather than in the thin p or n regions. This improves the efficienc and the speed relative to the pn photodiode.

Figure ".12C P;N P oto#io#e CurrentK6oltage C aracteristicsC

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors &1

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure ".13C CurrentK6oltage c aracteristics curves for a silicon p oto #etector The currentFvoltage characteristics curves for a silicon diode having responsivit &.A A,> are drawn in Figure ".13. >hen reverse biased, the diode is said to operate in the photoconductive mode. In this mode, the output current is proportional to the optic power. >hen no reverse bias is provided, the figure shows that incident optic power results in a forward voltage. This is the photovoltaic mode, the basis for solar cells that produce electrical voltages when sub"ected to optic radiation. Fibre communications detectors wor! in the photoconductive mode. Even when there is no optic power present, a small reverse current flows through a reverseFbiased diode. This is called the dar! current, labeled ;$ in Figure ".13. Bar! current is caused b the thermal generation of free charge carriers in the diode. It flows in all diodes, where it is conventionall called the reverse lea!age current. Its ma5imum value, occurring at large negative voltages, is the reverse saturation current. The dar! current, being of thermal origin, will increase rapidl with temperature, sometimes doubling for ever #& o( increase near room temperature 82Ao(9. Bar! currents range from a fraction of a nanoampere to more than several hundred nanoamperes. -enerall , silicon detectors have the lowest dar! currents, ;n.a>s #io#es have somewhat larger dar! currents, and germanium diodes have the largest dar! currents. This is one of the main reasons that silicon photodiodes are preferred over germanium in wavelength regions where their responsivities are comparable. As might be e5pected, a small optic signal might be undetectable because the small photocurrent that it generates could be mas!ed b the dar! current.

".!.3 >valanc e P oto?#io#e


The >valanc e P oto $io#e 1>P$2 is a semiconductor "unction detector that has internal gain, which increases its responsivit over pn or :I7 devices. The internal gain ields much better signalFtoFnoise ratios that can be obtained with e5ternal amplification. Avalanche current multiplication comes about in the following wa 6

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? &2 Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

A photon is absorbed in the depletion region, creating a free electron and a free hole. The large electrical forces in the depletion region cause these charges to accelerate, gaining !inetic energ . >hen fast charges collide with neutral atoms, the create additional electronF hole pairs b using part of their !inetic energ to raise electrons across the energ band'gap. One accelerating charge can generate several new secondar charges. The secondar charges, themselves, can accelerate and create even more electronFhole pairs. This, then, is the process of avalanche multiplication. Avalanche photodiodes are usuall variations of :I7 diodes. The materials used, and thus the spectral ranges, are the same. One form of AB:, a reachFthrough diode, is s!etched in Figure ".14. The pX and nX la ers are highl doped, lowFresistance regions having a ver small voltage drop. The Y region is lightl doped, nearl intrinsic. =ost of the photons are absorbed in this la er, creating electronFhole pairs. As indicated in the figure, photoelectrons move to the p region, which has been depleted of free charge b the large reverse voltage. In essence, the depletion region at the pFnX "unction has Rreached throughR to the Y la er. The voltage drop is mostl across the pFnX "unction, where the resulting large electrical forces cause avalanche multiplication. In this device, multiplication is initiated b electrons. .oles generated in the Y la er drift to the pX electrode, but do not ta!e part in the multiplication process. Structures that limit the initiation of multiplication to "ust one t pe of charge carrier have superior noise characteristics. As with the nonmultiplier :I7 diode, the response speed of the A:B is limited b the chargeFcarrier transit time and the @( time constant. TransitFtimeFlimited avalanche photodiodes are available with rise times as low as a few tenths of a nanosecond. @ise time less than #&& ps have been achieved with both silicon and germanium. QL

Figure ".14C =eac Kt roug >valanc e P oto#io#e Avalanche photodiodes have e5cellent linearit over optic power levels ranging from a fraction of a nanowatt to several microwatts. If more than a microwatt is available at the receiver, an A:B is usuall not needed. At this power level :I7 diodes provide enough responsivit and sufficientl large signalFtoFnoise ratios for most applications. The gain of an avalanche photodiode is temperature dependent, generall decreasing as the temperature rises. This occurs because the mean free path between collisions is smaller at higher temperatures. =an of the charge carriers do not get a chance to reach the high velocities required to produce secondar carriers. Temperature stabili/ation, or compensation, ma be required in an A:B receiver operating over an e5tended temperature range.
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors &3

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

".*

Comparison of P;N an# >P$

The ma"or relationship developed in this chapter was the one between the incident optic power and the electrical current it generates in a photo detector. This relationship can be summari/ed as i I X PD >here, the responsivit X is around &.A to &.0 A,> for :I7 diodes and increases b factors up to several hundred for avalanche detectors. The detector in a fibre communications s stem will either be an avalanche or a :I7 photodiode. The :I7 device is cheaper, less sensitive to temperature, and requires lower reverse bias voltage than the A:B. The speeds of the two devices are comparable, so the :I7 diode is preferable in most s stems. The A:B gain is needed when the s stem is loss limited, as occurs for longFdistance lin!s. Suppose an A:B receiver can clearl detect a signal whose power level is $ d+ below that which can be detected b a :I7 diode. If the fibre loss is < d+,!m, the A:B lin! can be < !ms longer than the :I7 lin!. Similarl , if repeaters are needed to boost the optic power levels, the can be spaced < !ms. farther apart if the A:B detector is used in this e5ample. Although a wide variet of detectors and detector characteristics e5ist, it is useful to consider the t pical values of important photodiode parameters, as shown in +able ".3. The responsivit given in the table is representative of the value at a wavelength where the detector might be used F near ;&& nm for silicon and near #<&& nm or #A&& nm for germanium and In-aAs. +able ".3 +'pical C aracteristics of )unction P oto#etectors Structure =ise 8avelengt =esponsivit' $ar9 +ime Current :I7 &.A <&&F##&& &.A # :I7 &.# A&&F#;&& &.0 2&& :I7 &.< #&&&F#0&& &.% #& A:B &.A 3&&F#&&& 00 #A A:B # #&&&F#%&& <& 0&&

,aterial Silicon -ermanium In-aAs Silicon -ermanium

.ain # # # #A& A&

>e ma need further information, however, for some applications. For e5ample, to determine if an A:B is required, we need to !now how much power is available at the receiver. This, in turn, requires that we !now all the s stem losses, not "ust the fibre attenuation. These other losses are caused b source coupling, splices, connectors and an power division for signal distribution. In addition, we need to determine the effects of noise.

".-

(et us Sum :p

For efficient transmission of message signal from transmitter to the receiver in an optical fibre communication lin!, proper selection of Optical sources and detectors is necessar !eeping in view various attenuation characteristics of the lin!. This Section provided detailed information about the available optical sources and detectors After going through this section,
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? &4 Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

ou will be able to understand the importance of selection of proper optical sources and detectors in an optical communication medium.

".1%

@e' 8or#s

8i9. (ig t Emitting $io#e 1(E$2 is a semiconductor pFn "unction diode and when it is forward biased it emits light under this condition. 8ii9. A *ASE@ 8(ig t >mplification b' Stimulate# Emission of =a#iation2 has an optical cavit formed b two parallel mirrors at the end facets of the semiconductor cr stal. For most applications, it is sufficient to use the natural cleavage facets of the cr stal as mirrors. To increase the reflectivit , the mirrors can be coated with a metallic film. 8iii9. >bsorptionC If electron goes up from lower energ level E # to higher energ level E2, it absorbs light and light energ is thus converted to electrical energ and that is the case of absorption. 8iv9. Spontaneous EmissionC If electron falls from energ level E 2 to E#, it looses electrical energ in the form of photon 8light9 and phonons 8heat9. This is the case of spontaneous emission. 8v9. Stimulate# EmissionC If at the time of fall of electron from energ level E 2 to E# and generation of photon is due to feedbac! mechanism or some other wa , we send another photon, i.e. photon generation is stimulated b other photons, i.e., amplif ing the light, the situation is called Stimulate# Emission and this is the principle used in *ASE@. 8vi9. The E/ternal P otoelectric EffectD in which electrons are freed from the surface of a metal b the energ absorbed from an incident stream of photons. The vacuum photodiode and the photomultiplier tube are based on this effect. 8vii9. Semicon#uctor )unction $evices are those in which free charge carriers 8electrons and holes9 are generated b absorption of incoming photons. This mechanism is sometimes called the ;nternal P otoelectric Effect. 8viii9. The simple pn p oto#io#e, when reverse biased, the potential energ barrier between the p and n regions increases. Free electrons 8which normall reside in the n region9 and free holes 8normall in the p region9 cannot climb the barrier, so no current flows. The "unction refers to the region where the barrier e5ists. +ecause there are no free charges in the "unction, it is called the #epletion region. .aving no free charges, its resistance is high, resulting in almost all the voltage dropping across the diode appearing across the "unction itself. Therefore, the electrical forces are high in the depletion region and are negligible outside. 8i59. To increase the response, a preamplifier ma be integrated onto the same chip as the pn p oto#io#e. The resulting device is an ;ntegrate# $etector Preamplifier 1;$P2. 859. P;N p oto#io#e has a wide intrinsic semiconductor la er between the p and n regions. The intrinsic la er has no free charges, so its resistance is high, most of the diode voltage appears across it, and the electrical forces are strong within it. +ecause the intrinsic la er is so wide, there is a high probabilit that incoming photons will be absorbed in it rather than in the thin p or n regions. This improves the efficienc and the speed relative to the pn photodiode.
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors &"

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

85i9. The >valanc e P oto $io#e 1>P$2 is a semiconductor "unction detector that has internal gain, which increases its responsivit over pn or :I7 devices. The internal gain ields much better signalFtoFnoise ratios that can be obtained with e5ternal amplification.

".11

Some :seful boo9s F 7ebsites ttpCFFen.7i9ipe#ia.orgF7i9iF(ig t?emittingM#io#es ttpCFF 'perp 'sics.p '?astr.gsu.e#uF baseFelectronicFlas#io. tml ttpCFF777.fibre?optics.infoFarticlesF#etector. tm

".12

Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress


A2C i9. 8ii9. 8iii9. 8iv9. 8v9. 8vi9. 8vii9. Select +=:E 1+2 or F(>SE 1F2 for t e follo7ing statementsC Fundamental function of an Optical source is to convert electrical energ 8from the message source9 usuall in the form of a current into optical energ . J K The two t pes of sources emplo ed in fibre optics communication s stems are *EB M *aser Biode. J K The lifetime of the *EB is about #&A hours. A laser has an optical cavit formed b two parallel mirrors. J J J K K K

*aser diode are more temperature sensitive than *EBs.

Electrons and holes are generated b absorption of incoming photons. This =echanism is sometimes called Internal photoelectric effect. J K To increase the response, a preamplifier ma be integrated onto the same chip as the diode. The resulting device is an Integrated Betector :reamplifier 8IB:9. J K The function of the optical receiver is to receive the modulated optical signal and convert into electrical energ b means of photodetector and demodulate the electrical energ to obtain the original message signal. J K Avalanche photodiodes have e5cellent linearit over optic power levels ranging from a fraction of a nanowatt to several microwatts J K The gain of an avalanche photodiode is temperature dependent, generall decreasing as the temperature rises. J K >ns7ersC >ll are +=:E

8viii9.

8i59. 859.

555555555555555555555555

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? && Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section "C Optical Sources an# $etectors &!

423.&
Para No. &.% &.1 &.2 &.3 Subject Objectives ;ntro#uction

S:=6EB >N$ C><(E (>B;N.


Page No.

Planning an# Selection of =oute an# Surve' +renc ing an# Pipe (a'ing +renc ing an# Pipe (a'ing &.3.1 ;n built up areas &.3.2 ;n Cross Countr' C ec9s an# Operation before Cable (a'ing Cable Pulling &.".1 ,ac ine Pulling &.".2 ,anual Pulling Cable <lo7ing +ec ni3ues (a'ing of >rmore# Cables Erection of >erial Optical Fibre Cables +renc less +ec nolog' (et :s Sum :p @e' 8or#s Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress

&.4 &."

&.& &.! &.* &.&.1% &.11 &.12

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? &* Section &C Surve' an# Cable (a'ing

423.& S:=6EB >N$ C><(E (>B;N.


&.%. Objectives

This Section covers the aspects relating to planning of Optical Fibre (able routes, Surve ing and la ing of ducts for the Optical Fibre routes, Trenching for cable la ing, ?arious =ethods of :ulling the cable in the Buct and la ing of various other t pes of optical fibre cables. After going through this Section ou will be able to understand the procedures relating to planning, surve ing and la ing of various t pes of Optical Fibre cables.

&.1

;ntro#uction

*a ing the Optical Fibre cable, a medium of transmission between the transmitting and receiving ends of a route is an important activit and it involves planning, surve ing, selection of proper route, and la ing of the Optical Fibre cable. The la ing practices of optical fibre cables suitable to Indian conditions are detailed here. Though highl advanced techniques are available in developed countries, the cannot be followed in our countr and suitable adoptions of those practices will have to be made to suit Indian conditions. The e5ecution of optical fibre cable route mainl consists of6 :lanning and Selection of @oute, Surve , :reparation of Estimates, Floating of 7IT, :ermissions from the appropriate authorities such as @M+, @ailwa s and =unicipalit , :rocurement of OF( Accessories, awarding of wor!s and Supervision and Inspection of @outes

&.2.

Planning an# Selection of =oute an# Surve'

:lanning and Selection of @oute is done in line with the overall networ! planning of the organi/ation. After planning and selection of a route, Surve' is conducted to !now 8a9 >hether the route is feasible to ta!e up the wor! or not and 8b9. E5tract the details of strata to carr out estimation in order to e5amine the Economical viabilit of route. Surve consists of following two steps6 8i9. Inspection and 8ii9. Strata ?erification ;. ;nspectionC The route is inspected to decide that the conditions for smooth maintenance and operation 8E.g. approach road in good condition etc.9 are available. Becision regarding the side of the road on which trenching to be carried out is also to be ta!en into consideration during inspection. This decision is based on obstructions noticed on route. Simultaneousl route diagram is prepared showing road crossing, railwa crossing if an , rivers, bridges, culverts etc with their lengths so that the e5act quantit of -I pipes @(( half,full round pipes etc can be calculated. ;;. Strata 6erificationC There are following two methods to ascertain the t pe of soil in order to calculate the cost for the purpose of estimation. 8a9. E e Surve and 8b9. :it Surve 1a2. E'e Surve'C 7ormall this method should not be adopted. +ut when due to urgenc of wor!, if time does not permit for standard method, which is time consuming, this method is adopted. E e surve is similar to inspection.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section &C Surve' an# Cable (a'ing &-

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Buring e e surve the surve or moves on the route M assesses the t pe of soil and calculates the cost of trenching as below. Suppose the surve or goes on route and his observations in a # !m section about strata are as follows. 2&& metres seems Troc! T %&& metres seemsU normal soilU 2&& metres seems TmurramU .e notes down these observations and can further verif these assessments from villagers, seeing 7earb pits M wells, seeing strata of nearb land cuts, if available and culvert nallas. 7ow calculation can be done as follows. 2&& 5 @s.23& P @s.3;&&& %&& 5 @s.3& P @s.23&&& 2&& 5 @s.#&& P @s.2&&&& For Total #&&& metres P @s.$2&&& The cost of trenching for this section of # )= length as per specification of trench i.e. #%A cm deep 3Acm >idth on top M <& cms wide at bottom comes out to be @s, $2&&&, onl . Therefore, the cost per metre trench is @s.$2,' This cost is also called estimate# cost. This is an appro5imation because with e e surve , it cannot be said that soil strata is same from top to #%A cms depth as assumed in this method. 1b2. Pit Surve'C Although this method is time consuming, but is ver accurate and reliable. It gives correct details of strata up to full depth. In this method, sample pits are got e5cavated at ever 2&& metres on route of #%A cms deep, 3Acms wide on top and <& cms wide at bottom. *ength of pit is generall !ept as # metre. If an roc! is encountered after certain depth, then further e5cavation is not done. .owever, if murram is encountered, then full depth is e5cavated. Surve or who records data of strata seeing actual t pe of soil and its correct measurements then inspects these pits. This data is recorded as below. Section 7o.#6 P;+ NO O# O2 O< O3 OA SO;( #%A #&& A& A& & ,:==>, & %A AA #&& #%A =OC@ & & %& #A & 8all depths in cms9

7ow, this data is fed into computer. One programmed application is alread available for calculation of the estimated cost .It can be used for calculation. Efforts should be made to follow this method as far as possible. Some times due to improper positioning of pits this method ma cause error but that will be limited to 2&& metres onl if it is not repetitive.

&.3.

+renc ing an# Pipe (a'ing


=a"or specifications for trenching t picall followed b the vendors are6

Bepth should be #%A cms in soft soil with a minimum of #metre depth in roc! areas.
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? !% Section &C Surve' an# Cable (a'ing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Top and bottom width of the trenches should be a minimum of 3A cms and <& cms respectivel . Trenching should be as far as possible straight. >henever curves or deviations are encountered it should be ver smooth curve where the radius of curvature should be more than %& cm at least. In different field situations, the requirement of pipes is as given below.

&.3.1 ;n built up areas


1i2 On $ucte# =outesC Optical Fibre cable ma be laid through the e5isting ducts wherever new pipes for this purpose are to be laid in the duct. :?( pipes of #&& mm inner diametre with 2.A mm thic!ness in case of cement encased duct and 3 mm in case of sand filled duct ma be used as per standard practice being followed in +S7*. It is preferable to la optical fibre cable through sub pipes. < :?( sub pipes of <& mm diametre each ma be fi5ed in main duct pipe. Initiall , at the time of la ing of pipes, the first two end positions 8awa from road side9 of pipe formations in the duct ma be preferred for safe la ing and maintenance of optical fibre cables. 1ii2 Non?$ucte# =outesC Optical Fibre cable ma be laid through .B:E pipe of 0A mm outer diametre having strength of % !g,cm2. It is directl buried in the ground at about #.%A m depth with stone,(( slab of about <A mm thic!, <&& mm wide and &.%'# metre long at about 2& cms. above the pipe. In case the (( slab is e5pensive, metal or equivalent @(( ma be used. The top of the stone,(( slab is sign'written as ITB TOptical Fibre (ableU in indelible ellow paints. 1iii2 Congeste# Cit' (imitsC #& !g,cm2 pipes are laid in congested cit limits to ensure better protection.

&.3.2 ;n Cross Countr'


The Optical Fibre cable shall be directl buried at #.%A metres depth with stone,(( slab as per specification mentioned above. The pipe used is $A& mm O,B, % !g,cm2 .B:E. 1i2. (a'ing of pipes on <ri#ges 5 CulvertsC In small bridges and culverts across canals, different methods as given below could be followed, depending upon the situations6 If the bridge,culvert is broad and having sufficient cushioning6 The pipes can be buried under the cushioning. If the bridge,culvert is provided with raised and hollow footpath or wheel guard, the pipe can be buried inside the hollow footpath or can be laid over the wheel guard and chambered. If the supporting pillars are having pro"ections and the distance between the pillars is small, then the pipes 8.B:E and -.I.9 could be laid over the pillar pro"ections. If none of the above solutions is possible then outside the parapet wall, -.I. troughs can be fitted with suitable clamps. For smaller bridges, the .B:E pipes can be laid inside the trough. .owever, for long bridges, .B:E pipes need not be laid inside the troughs. >hile la ing the cable, glass wool or other cushioning items ma be used to reduce vibrations. At e5pansion "oints QSL t pe troughs ma be used to reduce tension.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section &C Surve' an# Cable (a'ing !1

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

It ma be appreciated that all these wor!s can be completed in advance before the receipt of the cable. >hen the cable is received it can be straightwa pulled through the pipes, which have alread been laid. In such cases the cable can be pulled at a much faster speed, when compared to direct burial after the cable is received. 1ii2 Special t'pes of +errainC

8a9 In e5ceptional cases, the depth of the trench could be much more than #.A metres due to undulating terrain as shown in Figure &.1.

Figure &.1C :n#ulating +errain 8b9 In certain cases, in a uniform terrain a sudden burrow pit of a short length might be encountered as shown in Figure &.2.

Figure &.2C Su##en <urro7 Pit In such cases, the .B:E pipes can be further protected b -.I. pipes of ;& mm diametre. In some particular locations, though the depth is #.A metres, big tree roots ma be e5isting "ust above the trench. As the tree roots are li!el to grow and crush the .B:E pipes, it is preferable to protect it b enclosing in -.I. pipe or cut the tree roots completel , if possible. 1iii2 +'pe of ,an 0olesC Since the cable lengths are ver large, it is difficult to pull the whole cable length 8# to 2 !ms.9 in one stretchN therefore, it is prescribed to have temporar intermediate manholes at ever 2&& metres. The normal manholes ma be of different shapes and si/es as per the requirement. The manholes on the straight stretches ma be either square or rectangular. The manholes at the corner are normall *'t pe. The si/e of the manholes should be such that the installation,maintenance personnel can stand inside and perform the wor! convenientl . T picall , the manhole si/e is #2L 5 %L. 1iv2. 0$PE Pipes6 The use of different t pes of pipes for encasing was considered and the choice fell on .B:E pipes. It is light, not ver rigid, durable, and available easil , cheaper and
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? !2 Section &C Surve' an# Cable (a'ing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

easier for handling. The OF cables will be laid in .B:E pipes along the cross countr in A&mm OB, %!g,cm2 .B:E pipes have been standardi/ed for the route and #&!g,cm 2 pipes for congested cit limits to ensure better protection. 80$PE? 0ig $ensit' Pol' Et 'lene9 1v2. Permanentl' (ubricate# 1P(<2 0$PE $uctC In the +7o (a'er Construction of the :*+ .B:E duct, for the Outer la'er constructionsN the base .B:E resin is used, which shall conform to an designation of ;S?!32* stan#ar#. $ensit'C %.-4 to %.-"* gmFcc at 2!% c temp ,elt flo7 rateC %.2 to 1.1 gmF1%min at 1-% c temp an# "@g loa#. The inner lubrication material shall be of friction reducing, pol meric material, which shall be integral with .B:E la er. The lubricant materials shall have no to5ic or dermatic ha/ards for safe handling and shall be white colour and clearl visible in cross section of the duct. $imensionsC Out si#e $iametreC Stan#ar# (engt C I 4%mm F 33mm I 4% Y %.4mm I 1%%% Y 1%%m or as or#ere# ? 32 F 2& mm ? 32Z%.3mm ? 1%%% Y 1%%m or

as

or#ere# ,a/. Outer $ia t at Can be installe# b' <lo7ing met o#C I 1& mm

12 mm.

NoteC Selection of Buct si/e will depend on out side BIA of OF cable to be laid.

&.4
8i9

C ec9s an# Operation before Cable (a'ing

Confirmation of man oles6 The position, t pe and space of the manholes should be confirmed b comparison with the related design drawings. 8ii9 Inspection for stagnant water and harmful gases in a manhole should be done. The water should be pumped out and e5haust provided, in case of their presence. 8iii9 For ease of wor! in alread utili/ed manhole, changes in positions of bends in e5isting cables ma be carried out. These cables must be protected properl . 8iv9 The cable drum, number of cable lengths, cable si/e and !ind of cable pulling ends should be confirmed b comparing with the drawings. 8v9 +rea!age of .B:E "ointing soc!et due to level difference at the point of "ointing of two pipes provide new soc!et after resetting of level. 8vi9 (onfirmation should be done for the availabilit of all necessar tools, materials, etc., to be utili/ed for the cable installation. 8vii9 After confirming the designated duct for the cable to be laid, rodding is done so as to put the pulling rope inside the duct, if it does not e5ist. Otherwise also, rodding ensures that there is no obstruction in the ducts and the cable can be pulled through without an difficult . 8viii9. A 3 mm n lon rope is alread laid in the .B:E pipe. After completion of rodding, a n lon brush and rags ma be attached to one end of this rope. The other end of the brush and rags should be firml tied to another rope of suitable si/e 83 mm9 and length to cover the distance between 2 manholes. The e5isting 3 mm rope is pulled from the other manhole. In this wa , the n lon brush and the rags will be passing through the pipes, which will clear them from all obstructions. The >ire brush to clean the duct is shown in Figure &.3. If
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section &C Surve' an# Cable (a'ing !3

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

obstructions are still encountered, the same procedure ma be done with a wooden mandrel of suitable si/e. If obstruction persists in spite of this, the length of the rope up to the obstruction is to be measured and the pipe is to be removed for cleaning and replacing.

Figure &.3C 8ire brus to clean t e #uct 8viii9 If it felt that there are some obstructions in the duct, which ma possibl cause damages to the cable, mandrel'passing test should be performed. This test can even be performed with duct cleaning operations as mentioned above. In such a case, suitable si/ed mandrel, commensurate with the duct si/e or cable outer diametre ma be attached with the wire brush and rags. 8i59 Cable L+ES+KP;ECEL Passing +est6 For concrete pipes, cement pipes and other ducts through which a mandrel cannot be passed easil , a cable RTESTF:IE(ER passing test should be performed. A cable test piece of 2 metres length and outer cable diametre equal to more than that of the cable to be pulled ma be used for this purpose. The cable test piece is coated with blac! enamel to facilitate the inspection for scratches thereon. The results of the inspection for scratches give a basis for "udgment of duct conditions and whether the cable can be laid in the duct smoothl or not.

&."

Cable Pulling

;. Preparation for Cable PullingC 8a9. The Optical Fibre cable ma be lubricated for eas pulling of cable through the duct b means of pulling rope attached to pulling e e at the cable end. The t pes of lubricants with their frictional coefficient are given as under 1+able &.;2. +able.1 (ubricant Frictional Coefficient 8it (ubricants $ucts 8Fo (ubricant <etonite or <etonite Paraffin 7it et 'lene grease gl'col (oncrete &.%& &.32 &.2A Fibre Buct &.30 &.33 &.2A Fibre (ement &.A& &.A& &.2A :lastic &.3< &.<; &.#; :?( &.<A &.<# &.#0

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? !4 Section &C Surve' an# Cable (a'ing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8b9. It ma be necessar to install a cable roller 8"ac! and spindle9 with support for one particular direction before the la ing wor! is started 8Figure &.49.

Figure &.4C Cable =oller 8c9. A Swivel 8rotating hoo!9 must be attached between pulling line and pulling e e at the end of cable so as to avoid an possible twist during pulling and la ing 8Figure &."9.

Figure &."C >ttac ment of Pulling to Cable En# 8d9. Buring la ing operation, a good communication between supervisor staff members along the route is necessar . The conventional t pes of signaling such as flags and hand signs, etc. cannot be used because of larger distances of # M 2 !ms involved between drum set up and pulling end. As such @adio (ommunication vi/. >al!ie'tal!ie set would be necessar for la ing part . 8e9. (able loading at the store and unloading at the site are to be done with utmost care. A portable metallic ramp suitable for the truc! in use ma be got prepared which can be convenientl used for this purpose. 8f9. As the drums are standardi/ed for 2 !ms. for highwa s, it is preferable to la the cable b placing the cable drum at the manhole point nearest to # !m from the "oint location. .owever, with the use of mechanical pulling winches, it is possible to pull 2 !ms. length at a time, if the terrain is good. 8g9. Cable (a'ing $irection 1Figure &.&2C Each cable piece,drum is allocated for predetermined position along the cable route. This is done because of the two following considerations. 8i9. (able piece length is commensurate with the actual proposed splicing locations or manhole spans and 8ii9. The numbering of the OF cores are !ept as either counter cloc!wise or cloc!wise, when viewed from the direction of the reference station.
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section &C Surve' an# Cable (a'ing !"

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Each cable drum is given a number indicating its relative position along the cable route. Therefore, cable drums should be arranged so that each cable piece is laid in its relative predetermined position, without replacement of cable piece unless otherwise speciall instructed b the persons concerned.

Figure &.&C Setting Position of Cable $rum For the cable la'ing #irection, Optical Fibre cable is installed in such a direction that the Fibre cores of the cable end at the upper grade station are numbered counter cloc!wise along the whole route unless otherwise specified. (onsidering the case of cable la ing wor!, numbering of the fibre cores in a cloc!wise or counter cloc!wise direction at the cable pulling is altered according to site condition. This numbering of the fibre cores in a cloc!wise or counter cloc!wise direction at the cable running end should accordingl be chec!ed in connection with the cable la ing direction. 8h9. >hen cable pieces are wound and supplied on the same drum in one continuous length, it is cut into a few pieces at the installation etc. Each cable piece should be "ointed at identical'ends with each other. ;;. Cable Pulling ,et o#sC The :ulling of the cable can be done in following three wa s in the Indian conditions6 8a9. + cable winch 8machine pulling9. 8b9. + cable winch assisted b manual pulling at intermediate stations. 8c9. =anuall with intermediate assistance. The first method is a concentrated pulling method whereas the other two are disperse pulling methods. In first method, the cable length to be pulled becomes limited, the side stress in the cable increases but s nchroni/ation is required onl between the pa off end and pulling end. In case of the other methods, the cable length to be pulled becomes unlimited, the side stress is much less but s nchroni/ation is required at all points.

&.".1 ,ac ine Pulling


7ow, let us discuss the machine pulling and manual pulling procedures. For this purpose cable winch and pulling machines are to be used. First #2 mm cable pulling rope is installed through the pipeline in two !ms length of section with the help of 3 mm rope. The pulling machine is so ad"usted that ma5imum pulling tension of cable, as specified b manufacturer, is not e5ceeded. The antiFtwist device is attached between #2 mm pulling rope and optical fibre
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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

cable with the help of pulling grip to avoid twist in the cable during pulling. The t pical arrangement of cable connection in manhole is shown in Figure &.!.

Figure &.!C Pulling En# >rrangement in ,an ole Buring machine pulling monitor the pulling tension 8refer Figure &.*9 and slow down the pulling speed whenever required. Again, there are two methods for using pulling machine6

Figure &.*C Pulling +ension ,onitoring 8i9 Straig t PullingC This method is applicable for straight length of 2 !ms with even surfaces. Two pulling machines are used, one at intermediate point at # !m from cable rear and other at 2 !ms pulling end. Speed of machine is so set that machine R+R pulls slightl faster than RAR. 8ii9 Center PullingC This method is adopted for t pical section having uneven surface, $& degree turns or curves in pipe lines. The steps to be followed are as under6 :lace the cable drum at middle point of 2 !m. section. Install pulling machine at %&& to ;&& metres from cable drum to both sides 8@efer Figure &.-9. First pull #&&& metres feeding from cable drum using machine and manual pull, in one direction.
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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

=a!e figure of eight 8refer Figure &.1%9 of the remaining cable of the drum.

CABLE DRUM

Figure &.-C ,ac ine Pulling >rrangement :ull remaining cable, i.e. #&&& metres to other direction using other pulling machine and manual pulls. =anual pulling assistance in the intermediate pits is necessar to reduce the tail load to nearl /ero.

Figure &.1%C ,a9ing Figure [*G

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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

It is desirable to !eep the radius more than 2&B, where B is the outside diametre of the cable in cm. .owever, manufacturer specifies the minimum'bending radius. For e5ample, =,s Siecor for #2 Fibre cable recommends minimum bending radius as under6 8i9 Buring installation or under tension F 22.A cms. 8ii9 After installation or without tension F #A cms. +ut practicall during installation it is !ept as %& cm. >hile la ing the cable, sufficient e5cess length should be stored at each "oint location. These are required for testing, "ointing and fault rectification. 7ormall , A to #& metres of e5tra cable on either side is to be coiled into 2'metres diametre and !ept at ever "oint location. This coiled cable should be placed in such a wa inside splice 8"oint9 pit on soft soil so that there is no tension after set up condition of cable. :roper warning and protection arrangement for cable stac! are to be provided at each splice location. Buring installation, cable is not left in e5posed condition. This is to avoid an ph sical damage to cable.

&.".3 ,anual Pulling


For the route having uneven surfaces, $& degree turns and hill terrain the manual pulling method is eas and progress of wor! is also better than machine pulling. In case of manual pulling, monitoring of tension is not required. It is alwa s better to use centre pull' method in case of manual pulling. The steps are as under6

Figure &.11C ;nterme#iate ,anual Pull :lace the cable drum at intermediate pit of 2 !ms length. :ull manuall first 2&& metres feeding from drums and then second 2&& metres b using one labour at first pit and further 2&& metres b using second labour at 2 nd pit and two labours at pulling end.
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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

:ull required length of cable and ma!e figure of eight at 3&& metres location of required length of cable. 7ow, pull further from figure of eight at 3&& metres, location manuall towards pulling end at &&&& metre. =a!e figure of eight of the remaining cable in drum and pull first %&& metres at other direction similar to procedure as above up to #%&& metres location. :ull remaining cable from drum location and ma!e figure of eight at #%&& metres location and then pull further 3&& metres up to pulling end at 2&&& metres. In case of $& degree turns on heav angles requiring more pulling tension, ma!e figure of eight at that location of required length of cable and then pull further.

&.&

Cable <lo7ing +ec ni3ues

This advanced method is based on the concept of a consistent high'pressure airflow, equall distributed along the entire cable throughout the duct. The cable is mechanicall fed into the pressuri/ed space to overcome the pressure drop at the entr point. The additional pushing force at the entr point is important to increase the total blow able length. A cable blowing machine with an appropriate compressor is essential for optimal blowing. For an effective cable blowing at an average speed of A& to %& metres,minute, the compressor should have the following parametres6 $isc arge pressureC 1% bars Free air #eliver'C 4"% CF, ;. Factors influencing t e <lo7able lengt C 8a9. Inside diametre of the duct. 8b9. Outside cable diametre. 8c9. (able weight. 8d9. (oefficient of friction between cables sheath and duct inner surface. 8e9. 7umber of slopes. 8f9. (able stiffness. 8g9. (ompressor parametres. 8h9. Straightness of the route. 8i9. Begree of winding of the duct in the trench. 8"9. Ambient temperature

;;. <asic =ules an# =ecommen#ations for <lo7ing Cable into 0$PE $uctC Ideall the inner diametre of the duct should be twice the outer diametre of the cable. For appropriate refer the following table. Outer $iametre of =ecommen#e# t e Cable in mm $uct Si4e 1O.$ F ;.$2 in mm $.&'#2.A #<.&'#%.& #%.A'2&.& <2,2% 3&,<< A&,32

8a9. +efore starting the cable blowing, be sure that the duct is free of an obstacles or damage. Sou have to use a proper mandrel equipped with a transmitting device. This method will quic!l locate the damaged areas if an , which must be replaced immediatel . 8b9. >hen cable blowing is carried high temperatures ou have to protect cable from direct sunlight where possible. .igh temperature drasticall reduces blow able lengths.
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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8c9.

.B:E duct is a unique permanentl dr lubricant evenl distributed through out the inner bore of the duct. Therefore it is not necessar to appl an lubricant when blowing cable into the duct. 8d9. The blowing method is far less sensitive to bends and curves along the route comparing to the pulling technique. >hen using state of the art .B:E Telecom Buct and cable "et blowing machines, it is possible to safel install fibre optic cable around <& degrees to $& degrees bends with out an additional lubricant. +efore beginning the blowing we have to surve the route to determine the best location for access point for blowing machines and compressors. This can save considerable materials and labor. >e alwa s blow down hill wherever possible. 1p hill slopes located at the beginning of the route reduces the blowable length. 8e9. The blowing technique can be used in almost an situation and reduces cost related to pulling method in man cases. +lowing e5erts less stress on the cable. This lowered stress combined with fewer splices to the fibre optic cable increases overall networ! qualit . 8f9. The average blow able distance ranges between 0&& to 2&&& metres depending on the above mentioned parametres. *onger utili/ing several blowing machines in tandem can accommodate blowing lengths, positioned in the series of access points along the route. Another technique for achieving e5tra long cable installation distances are to access the cable at man holes and fig.; or pull out the cable and then continue the installation from the point along the route.

&.!

;nstallation 5 (a'ing Of >rmoure# Optical Fibre Cable

The Armoured Optical Fibre (able can be introduced in remote areas where development chances are low and no further new e5changes are e5pected. 7ormall the Armoured OF cable is of %F and ma be laid in inter SB(A e5changes, Normal cable installation practices an# t e precaution re3uire# for t e installation of OF cables are to be follo7e# for >rmoure# cables as 7ell. ;. ;nstallation Proce#ureC The trenc shall be dug to a minimum depth of one metre plus the diametre of the (able 87ormall 2 (ms9. This will ensure top of the buried cable at a minimum depth of one metre. As per the Acceptance Testing specification in +S7*, the 7ormal trench depth is #.20 metres. The trench shall not have a sharp bed or steep curvatures to ensure strain free cable installation. .owever in certain field condition li!e roc!er land and built up area where depth one metre cannot achieved due to practical difficulties, (able ma be laid at a lower depth but not less than A&cm. .owever for such section the written consent of Birector in charge shall be required. After digging, the stones etc shall be removed and the bed of the trench shall be leveled and made smooth and ever. The trench shall be made such that the sharp edges are avoided. Additional protection F .alf round @(( pipe cover on the top shall be provided where depth is less than 0&cms, as well as in roc! area. The trench curvature shall be such that cable shall not be allowed to bend <&OB 8>here B is cable outer diameter, ma5imum permissible #;mm.9 ;;. Special casesC On culverts F bri#ges over nalla s 7 ere Nalla s are #r' for nine mont s in 'ear 6 The cable shall be laid at #.A metres depth below the bed of nallah through @(( pipe of minimum internal dia. #&&mm. The @(( pipe shall e5tend 2metres minimum be ond the bed of nallah on either side.

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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

For Culvers F <ri#ges over ot er nalla s 6 ?arious options are available for la ing OF cable along :arapet wall of the culverts , +ridges. One of those options can be adopted depending on the site conditions. On approach roads to these culverts , +ridge, 2metres using @(( pipe shall be provided on either side for additional protection. =ail <ri#ge F CrossingC On rail bridge , crossing the optical fibre cable shall be laid through suitable -.I. pipes as prescribed b @ailwa authorities. =oa# crossingsC The optical fibre cable shall be laid at a minimum depth of #.Ametres of through @(( pipe, which shall be e5tended three metre on either side of the road edge to ta!e care of an future road e5pansion. ;n built up areasC In built up areas wherever under ground facilities are e5isting, depth is not available, protection to the fibre cable shall be provided using the @(( pipes. $ucte# routesC The OF cables ma be laid through the e5isting ducts wherever the ducts are available. In duct depth of the cable shall not be insisted upon. End of the ducts shall be properl sealed and necessar protecting b wa to -I pipe , @(( pipe should be provided at the entr and e5it of the duct till the cable is buried at the depth of #metre.

&.* Erection of >erial Optical Fibre Cables


;. 8a9. Preparation for Erection of >erial OF CableC

The e5isting route alignment wherever available can be used or new route alignment can be erected. The span length must not e5ceed above $& metres. 8b9. A line diagram should be prepared to mar! the poles and actual distance between the poles in a splice section 8normall #A poles per !m are recommended9.additional poles should be erected if required to !eep the span length within the specified limits. (are should be ta!en to see that the alignment is easil accessible from the road. It is necessar to !eep a clear head wa 8-round clearance9 of #2 to #A feet in a section. A complete route diagram should be prepared i.e., from station A to station +. The number of road crossings, canals or mullahs, electric lines should be clearl mar!ed in the route diagram. 8c9. *ine erection rules must be strictl followed. Additional poles ma be erected for better support to optical fibre cable and to avoid sharp curves and bends. Span lengths should be reduced to avoid sags in case of steep slopes. 8d9. +ension poles are dead end or termination poles. The tension poles shall have dead end fittings. The dead end fittings offer a continuous run of the aerial optical fibre cable. These fittings relieve the optical fibre cable of its compressive, bending and clamping stresses. The performed dead end fittings are suitabl gritted for e5cellent tensile holding strength. 8e9. Selection of tension poles depends upon the actual site location of the route. Ever fifth pole should be a tension pole in straight alignment. Splicing location poles should be tension poles or wherever alignment ta!es a sharp turn 8more than #A degrees9 should also be a tension pole. 8f9. The suspension pole assembl is designed to offer cushion to aerial optical fibre cable against the d namic stress of Aeolian vibration at the suspension point. The also reduce static stresses at the support point. Selection of suspension pole also depends upon the actual site location of route. All intermediate poles between two tension poles will be suspension poles. 8g9. Splicing (ocation6 The splice bo5 of the aerial optical fibre cable should be buried underground. Therefore it is necessar to fi5 and determine the splicing location as per the designated cable drum length.
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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

;;.

>erial Optical Fibre Cable SpecificationsC =a5imum span length6 =a5imum ice loading6 Operational wind velocit 6 =a5imum sag allowed 8>ithout e5cess load96 =a5imum sag allowed 8>ith e5cess load96 Temperature range Operation M storage6 Installation =inimum bend radius6 Tensile force Buring the installation6 :ermanent with ice and wind load6 #& metres. # !g per metre. 0A !ms per hour. 2H of span length. < H of span length '<& to X0& degree. '#A to XA& degree. 2& B 8B'dia of cable9 $.; 5 #.< 5 w $.; 5 < 5 w. 8w is the mass of # !m length of cable in !g.9

;;;.

;nstallation of >erial Optical Fibre Cable StepsC

8a9. Install the accessories and fi5tures as per the requirement of the individual poles i.e, tension and suspension fittings. 8b9. Install the demountable pulle on all the poles in the section before pulling the cable. 8c9. )eep the cable drum over the "ac! near the #st pole at the beginning of the section. 8d9. Attach anti'twist device and the shac!le hoo! along with the rope to the front end of the cable on pulling e e or on the cable grip. (arr the attached rope over the demountable pulle s for pulling the cable. 8e9. Bepute one person at each pole to monitor and in case it is required, to guide the cable over the demountable pulle during pulling operation. 8f9. The cable should be pulled till the cable reaches the last pole of the section. 8g9. .alf section or one fourth section pulling method is to be adopted b using figure of ; techniques, if through pulling is difficult. 8h9. The feeding and pulling of the cable should be s nchroni/ed b using communication lin!. (are is required to be ta!en so that the cable is not accumulated at an one point during the pulling operation and !in!s and sharp bends are avoided. 8i9. Once the cable reaches the other end, actual tensioning of the cable and fi5ing the installation of the accessories and fi5tures should be ta!en up with the help of cable pulling winch. The pulling tension must be monitored during tensioning. 8"9. Install the tension fittings and accessories at the #st pole. 8!9. Fi5 a flat twin open t pe cable grip on the cable after tension pole for tensioning the cable in the preceding tension section. 8l9. The cable shall be tensioned to tension of #.< to #.% times of the cable weight. The sag shall be monitored and !ept between &.2A to &.AH of the span length. 85ii9. The cable should be lifted between two poles b using cable pole for! during tensioning and fi5ing of the cable. 8m9. Buring the fi5ing operation the cable shall remain under required tension for minimi/ing the sag in the splice section. 8n9. 7ow install tension fitting and accessories at all the tensioned poles at the end of the tension section.
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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8o9. Install the suspension fitting and accessories on the intermediate poles in tensioned section. 8p9. Similarl installation should be carried out in each tension pole in the entire section and the tension and suspension fittings are to be installed. 8q9. At the through tension poles the cable shall be !ept loose and shall be supported b the cable "umper clamp. 8r9. At the end pole where the cable reel is !ept, the cable to be ta!en through -.I pipe to the splice location. E5tra care for the aerial O.F cable ma be ta!en at the bends and at entr and at the e5it of the pipe. About #& metres of O.F cable shall be !ept at the splice location for coiling 8spare cable9 and "ointing requirement. 8s9. Test the installed O.F cable. 8t9. (oil the O.F cable and !eep it safe in the splice location for splicing. ;6. 8a9. 8b9. 8c9. 8d9. 8e9. 8f9. PrecautionsC :rovide displa boards. :rovide sufficient number of road sign and traffic cones. Avoid sharp bending of the O.F cable during the installation. The O.F cable should not be given e5tra tension than the permissible tension limits. >hile crossing the overhead electric installations, safet measures should be ta!en. Also provide guard wire where necessar . To avoid man made damages, safet measures should be ta!en for each pole.

&.-

+renc less +ec nolog'

Trench less technolog is the science of installing and rehabilitating the underground utilities li!e water, sewer and gas pipelines, electricit and communication cables and other underground facilities. This technique minimi/es or eliminates the need for e5cavation of open' cut trenches. The growth of the cities is ver fast nowada s. The civic amenities are over loaded. This needs augmentation, repair and renovation without much disruption to social, commerce, trade and environmental life of citi/ens. ;. $emerits of Open +renc C ;;. 7o ob"ection certificate Obstruction on roads'Traffic snarls'Iams Biversions'Additional mileage'Time Bamages'E5penditure'(ompensation Sta orders'(laims'Bela s Birect, Indirect increase in cost Bamages to other services'Supports E5cavation'+ac! filling Bust,7oise pollution Bamage to -reener and Environment 1nmatched surface'Bamage to vehicles :ublic irritation'Additional maintenance E5pensive with increase in labour costs Bifficulties on @ailwa crossings, narrow lines, canals, ponds, rivers ,erits of +renc less +ec nolog'C

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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

;;;.

Speed methodolog for installation,renovation It generates .i'tech trade wor! force Eco friendl , non polluting, non ha/ardous *ess disruption'7on destructive Safet of all utilities Zuic! pro"ect Implementation (ost effective' social cost benefit is passed on to societ in respect of Traffic, Environment, Industr , (iti/en and Societ Banger of Bust6 Air,7oise pollution and Bamage to green belt is also avoided ,ac ine ComponentsC 8i9. Electronic trac!ing equipment 8ii9. Brill component 8iii9. Trac!ing component (ables,:ipes of 0Amm to 2 metres diametre can be laid in one shot of 2&& metres and

above. ;6. $rilling Flui# or $rilling ,u#C ,i/ture of flui# an# 7aterC This mud is cla with thi5otropic properties. It remains fluid as long as being pumped or agitated. It forms a gel if allowed to stand and solidifies the bore. Actuall it wor!s as lubricant between pipe and bore and reduces the soil regression and friction. 6. +rac9ing an# .ui#ing S'stemC

A beacon is housed behind the bore head. This emits the radio signals, which are pic!ed up b the receivers on the surface. It gives position and depth of bore head, inclination of drill bit and orientation of head. +ased on that information the necessar ad"ustments are done b the operator.

&.1%

(et :s Sum :p

The e5ecution of Optical fibre cable routes is a crucial activit involving meticulous planning, surve , selection of material and la ing of cables. =aintaining the standards of installation along the entire route is necessar in order to ensure the optimum performance of cables through out their active life. The information given in this Section will help in achieving these ob"ectives.

&.11
8i9. 8ii9. 8iii9. 8iv9.

@e' 8or#s
0$PEC 0ig $ensit' Pol' Et 'lene 1P(<2 0$PEC Permanentl' (ubricate# 1P(<2 0$PE $uct Straig t PullingC This method is applicable for straight length of 2 !ms with even surfaces. Center PullingC This method is adopted for t pical section having uneven surface, $& degree turns or curves in pipe lines.

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423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8v9.

Cable <lo7ing +ec ni3ueC This advanced method is based on the concept of a consistent high'pressure airflow, equall distributed along the entire cable throughout the duct

&.13

>ns7ers to c ec9 Bour Progress E/ercise


A1. 8i9. 8ii9. 8rite +=:E 1+2 or F>(SE 1F2 against follo7ing statementsC Surve consists of 8i9. Inspection and 8ii9. Strata ?erification. J K

Bepth of the trench should be #%A cms in soft soil with a minimum of #metre depth in roc! areas. J K

8iii9. Top and bottom width of the trenches should be a minimum of 3A cms and <& cms respectivel . J K 8iv9. :?( pipes of #&& mm inner diameter with 2.A mm thic!ness in case of cement encased duct and 3 mm in case of sand filled duct ma be used as per standard practice being followed in +S7*. J K 8v9. In non'duct routes, Optical Fibre cable ma be laid through .B:E pipe of 0A mm outer diameter having strength of % !g,cm2. J K

8vi9. #& !g,cm2 .B:E pipes are laid in congested cit limits to ensure better protection. J K 8vii9. The inner lubrication material shall be of friction reducing, pol meric material, which shall be integral with .B:E la er. J K 8viii9. 7ormall , A to #& metres of e5tra cable on either side is to be coiled into 2'metres dia and !ept at ever "oint location. for testing, "ointing and fault rectification. J K 8i59. It is desirable to !eep the +E7BI7- radius more than 2&B, where B is the outside diameter of the cable in cm. J K 859. The span length of Aerial OF (able must not e5ceed above $& metres. J K

>ns7ersC >ll are +=:E. 555555555555555555555555

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423.!
Para No. !.% !.1 !.2 !.3 !.4 !." !.&

OP+;C>( F;<=E C><(E )O;N+;N.


Page No.

Subject Objectives ;ntro#uction Splices Splicing ,et o#s Splicing ,ac ine )oint (osses Connectors !.&.1 Optical Fibre Connector +ec ni3ues !.&.2 +'pes of Connectors

!.! !.* !.!.1% !.11 !.12

(oa#ing of Fibre in )oint Closures +ermination )oint 7it Fibre $istribution Panel (et :s Sum :p @e' 8or#s Some :seful boo9s F 7ebsites Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section !C Optical Fibre Cable )ointing *!

! OP+;C>( F;<=E C><(E )O;N+;N.


!.% Objectives

This Section deals with the details about Optical Fibre cable "ointing, splicing techniques used in Optical Fibre cable la ing, the "ointing losses and various t pes of connectors etc. After going through this Section ou will be able to understand various splicing techniques and their use in Optical Fibre cable la ing and how to achieve minimum losses in "ointing,slicing while la ing or terminating Optical Fibre cables.

!.1

;ntro#uction

Optical Fibre is now considered as the most efficient medium of transmission in communications. Optical Fibre cables are supplied in fi5ed lengths, and the are required to be "ointed or spliced together along the Optical Fibre route. :roper "ointing and splicing along with terminations are necessar in order to !eep the losses due to attenuation to minimum for ensuring optimum performance of the Optical Fibre lin!.

!.2

Splices

Splices are permanent connection between two fibres. The splicing involves cutting of the edges of the two fibres to be spliced.

SingleKFibre ,ec anical SplicingC


Single Fibre (apillar Aligns two fibre ends to a common centerline, thereb aligning cores. (lean, cleaved fibres are butted together and inde5 matched. :ermanentl secured with epo5 or adhesive.

E5amples6 Siecor, See Splice 8Figure !.19, -TE Elastomeric Splice.

Figure !.1C See Splice ,ec anical Splice

!.3

Splicing ,et o#s


The following three t pes are widel used6 8i9. Adhesive bonding or -lue splicing. 8ii9. =echanical splicing. 8iii9. Fusion splicing.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ** Section !C Optical Fibre Cable )ointing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

1i2. ># esive <on#ing or .lue SplicingC This is the oldest splicing technique used in fibre splicing. After fibre end preparation, it is a5iall aligned in a precision ?Fgroove. ( lindrical rods or another !ind of reference surfaces are used for alignment. Buring the alignment of fibre end, a small amount of adhesive or glue of same refractive inde5 as the core material is set between and around the fibre ends. A two'component epo5 or an 1? curable adhesive is used as the bonding agent. The splice loss of this t pe of "oint is same or less than fusion splices. +ut fusion splicing technique is more reliable, so at present -lue Splicing technique is ver rarel used. 1ii2. ,ec anical Splicing 6 This technique is mainl used for temporar splicing in case of emergenc repairing. This method is also convenient to connect measuring instruments to bare fibres for ta!ing various measurements. The mechanical splices consist of following four basic components6 8i9 Alignment surface for mating fibre ends. 8ii9 @etainer 8iii9 Inde5 matching material. 8iv9 :rotective housing A ver good mechanical splice for =.=. 8=ulti mode9 fibres can have an optical performance as good as fusion spliced fibre or glue spliced. +ut in case of single mode fibre, this t pe of splice cannot have stabilit of loss. 1iii2. Fusion SplicingC The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving ver low splice losses. The fusion can be achieved either through electrical arc or through gas flame. The process involves cutting of the fibres and fi5ing them in microFpositioners on the fusion'splicing machine. The fibres are then aligned either manuall or automaticall core aligning Jin case of S.=. 8Single =ode9 fibreK process. Afterwards the operation that ta!es place involve withdrawal of the fibres to a specified distance, preheating of the fibre ends through electric arc and bringing together of the fibre ends in a position and splicing through high temperature fusion. If proper care is ta!en and splicing is done strictl as per schedule, then the splicing loss can be minimi/ed as low as &.&#d+,"oint. After fusion splicing, the splicing "oint should be provided with a proper protector to have following protections6 8i9. =echanical protection 8ii9. :rotection from moisture. Sometimes the two t pes of protection are combined. (oating with Epo5 resins protects against moisture and also provides mechanical strength at the "oint. 7owFaFda s, the heat shrin!able tubes are most widel used, which are fi5ed on the "oints b the fusion tools. The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving ver low splice losses. The introduction of single mode optical fibre for use in long haul networ! brought with it fibre construction and cable design different from those of multimode fibres. The splice loss indicated b the splicing machine should not be ta!en as a final value as it is onl an estimated loss and so after ever splicing is over, the splice loss measurement is to be ta!en b an OTB@ 8Optical Time Bomain @eflectometer9. The manual part of the splicing is cleaning and cleaving the fibres. For cleaning the fibres, Bichlorine =eth l or Acetone or Alcohol is used to remove primar coating. >ith the special fibre cleaver or cutter, the cleaned fibre is cut. The cut has to be so precise that it
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section !C Optical Fibre Cable )ointing *-

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

produces an end angle of less than &.A degree on a prepared fibre. If the cut is bad, the splicing loss will increase or machine will not accept for splicing. The shape of the cut can be monitored on the video screen, some of the defect noted while cleaving are listed below6 8i9 8ii9 8iii9 8iv9. +ro!en ends. @ipped ends. Slanting cuts. 1nclean ends.

It is also desirable to limit the average splice loss to be less than &.# d+.

!.4

Splicing ,ac ine

Splicing Proce#ure using Splicing ,ac ineC 8i9. :reparation of the cable6 Strip awa the coating of appropriate length. 1se the =iller tool for 2A& Gm and the 7o' 7i![ tool for $&& Gm 1Figure !.22

8ii9. (lean the fibre with lint free wipe soa!ed in isoprop l alcohol or a Fibre'(lean[ towelette. (Figure 7.3)

8iii9. :lace fibre in the cleaver using the guides. Align the fibre for proper cleave length. (omplete the cleaving process (leave the fibre so that the end has a straight, smooth surface. Alwa s operate the cleaver slowl 1Figure !.42

8iv9. (arefull place the fibre in the unit. :osition the fibre tip near the electrode and close the fibre clamp ne5t to the electrode flap. (lose the outer tensile clamp1Figure !."2

8v9. Once the preferred program has been selected, press the diamond !e to splice
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? -% Section !C Optical Fibre Cable )ointing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8vi9. After appro5imatel <& seconds the loss estimation will displa . 1Figure !.&2

If proper care is ta!en and splicing is done strictl as per schedule, then the splicing loss can be minimi/ed as low as &.&#d+,"oint. After fusion splicing, the splicing "oint should be provided with a proper protector to have following protections6

Splice protectors 1Figure !.!)C

0eat s rin9C Splice put in place and heated. The are the costliest. ,ec anical protector6 A piece of formed plastic or metal folded around the splice. Silicone .elC Splice placed in a grooveN covered with gel which hardens quic!l . Figure !.!

,ec anical splicers 1Figure !.*)C


A mechanical splice is the optical "unction of two or more fibres. Fibres are precisel held in a self'contained assembl . Figure !.* The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving ver low splice losses. The introduction of single mode optical fibre for use in long haul networ! brought with it fibre construction and cable design different from those of multimode fibres.

!."

)oint (osses

Ioint losses are the loss of splices at "oining two fibres at the cable "ointing point. Ioint loss is the difference of the optical power between A, + two points before and after the splice 8Figure !.-9. Ioint losses are high at bad splices due to bad cleave, high,low fusion current setting in the splicing machine, bad alignment of fibre and environmental factors,

Figure !.-C Splicing Point Splicing of optical fibres 1Figure !.1%2 are done to connect two fibres end to end. In mechanical splices the two fibre ends are held together inside a ?'groove sleeve and the loss at "oint is more. This is for temporar restoration of the cable.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section !C Optical Fibre Cable )ointing -1

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

In fusion splices the fibres are aligned and fused b an electric arc and the "oint loss is minimum not more than &.&A d+.

Figure !.1%C Splicing tec ni3ues ;. ,easurement of joint losses #ue to Splicing Errors 1Figure !.11 2b' using O+$=C OTB@s are used to pin point splices, measuring splice losses 8indicative9, @eflection and other fault anal sis. An OTB@ produces a graphical representation of Events in the total optical plant. OTB@s measure fibre length, which is generall # to <H more than the cable length. =eflectionsC At connectors, mechanical splices, cable brea!s, End of the fibre. @eflections are alwa s combined with losses. End of fibres might have no reflection at all. (ossesC At splices, fibre bends. .ainersC At splices of dissimilar fibres with the second fibre having higher scattering.

Figure !.11C Splicing Errors OTB@ trace shown in Figure !.12 is for anal /ing the splice, "oint loss as non'reflective and the connectors as reflective events. OTB@ measures two point loss and splice loss at ever
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? -2 Section !C Optical Fibre Cable )ointing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

"oint and displa s event table 1Figure !.132 with distance between "oints and "oint losses. Splice *oss is negative b splicing low loss fibre to high loss fibre.

Figure !.12C O+$= trace

Figure !.13C Event +able ;;. ,easurement of joint losses b' Splicing ,ac ineC In the :AS and *:AS s stems pictures before and after the splice are compared to give an estimate of the splice loss 8Figure !.149. *IB s stems measure the light loss before and after the splice at the splice point.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section !C Optical Fibre Cable )ointing -3

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure !.14C Estimate of t e Splice (oss

!.&

Connectors Connector =e3uirementsC


8i9. The attenuation in optical fibre connectors should be less than # d+. 8ii9. The connector must provide consistent performance on each remating. 8iii9. The connector must provide protection to the fibre so that it does not brea! while being handled. 8iv9. The connectori/ation technique should be simple. 8v9. The connector si/e should not be ver much bigger than the fibre si/e and it should not be too small. 8vi9. (onnector must be cost effective.

The connectors are rematable interconnect devices which provide fle5ibilit required in a Fibre Optical Transmission s stem. The basic function required of connectors is to allow transfer of optical power from one fibre component to another with minimum loss and possibilit of disconnection and remating number of times with minimum insertion loss. Optical connectors are used to "oin two fibres or a fibre to equipment. All common connectors have a housing holding fibre and a polished end. :rotruding part is the ferrule mounted on a spring. Spring provides a5ial pressure. (onnector fundamentall consists of following two parts 8Figure !.1"96 8i9. a :lug and 8ii9. an Adapter. For fibre'to'fibre connections, the fibres are terminated in individual plugs and mated in the adapter. For fibre to device connection, the devices ma be housed in the adapter part and the fibre in the plug part. The fi5ing of the fibre in the plug ma be achieved directl or b using sleeves commonl !nown as ferrules. The proper centering in these ferrules could be achieved b using precision'drilled holes, "ewels or rods depending on the arrangement. The adapter provides the alignment mechanism.
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? -4 Section !C Optical Fibre Cable )ointing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure !.1"C > Plug an# an >#opter The performance of the connectors depends on the accurac of the alignment of the optical elements to be connectori/ed. The basic elements in the connectors are fibre fi5ing mechanism and the alignment mechanism. The alignment accuracies required are of ver high to avoid losses and are consequentl quite costl .

!.&.1 Optical Fibre Connector +ec ni3ues


Optical fibre connectors are made b the following techniques6 1i2 .eometric tec ni3ues 8a9 <F@od connectors 8b9 <FSphere connectors 8c9 ?Fgrove connectors Precision tec ni3ues 8a9 Ferrule connectors. 8b9 +I F (onical connectors. 8c9 (oreFcentered connectors 8d9 (oreFaligned connectors 8e9 :recision molded connectors Optical +ec ni3ues 8a9 Opticall focusing connectors. 8b9 Opticall collimating connectors. 8c9 Fibre Taper connectors.

1ii2

1iii2

!.&.2 +'pes of Connectors


Following t pes of practical connectors are available in the mar!et. 1a2 (C Connectors 1Figure !.1&2C

Figure !.1&C

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section !C Optical Fibre Cable )ointing -"

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

1b2

(oop <ac9 connector 1Figure !.1!C

Figure !.1!C 1c2 SC Connector 11Figure !.1*2C The use a push F pull mechanism. The come in plug assembl containing a ferrule. These plugs mate in a housing that aligns the connectors

Figure !.1*C SC Connector 1#2. + e FC connectors 1Figure !.1-2C These connectors are primaril connectors. precision plug

Figure !.1-C These connectors have notches and pin arrangement to maintain angular alignment for a repeatable insertion loss performance. The F( t pe of connector has been approved b the 7IT(, Iapan. These connectors consist primaril of precision plugs and coupler bod . The fibres are fi5ed in the plugs and the plug ends polished. 1e2. Precision mol#e# connectors 1Figure !.2%2C These connectors are e5actl similar in construction to F(, B< etc. 8metal t pe of connectors9, but made of plastic and are light weight, eas to handle and interchangeable.

Figure !.2%6 1f2. Fibre a#aptors 1Figure !.212C These are primaril optical connectors in which the fibre can be fi5ed. SC a#apters are used to mate industr standard S( connectors. Adapters are available with metal and ceramic alignment sleeves, and are color coded for eas identification. The duple5 adapters accept two simple5 connectors or one duple5 connection. (C a#apters are used in high'densit applications and feature a quic! plug in installation. Adapters are available in both simple5 and duple5 designs and utili/e high qualit /irconia and phosphorous bron/e sleeves.
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? -& Section !C Optical Fibre Cable )ointing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure !.21C Fibre >#apters

LC Adopters

(onnectors 8Figure !.229.are categori/ed in following two wa s 6 8i9 b the famil and 8ii9 b the t pe of end finish <iconicD ,ini?<NC an# SC 1super PC2D :PC 1ultra PC2D >PC 1>ngular PC2 (ommon end finishes areC PC 1Polis e# contact2D SPC (ommon famil of connectors are6 FCD S+D S,>D $4D $;ND

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section !C Optical Fibre Cable )ointing -!

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure !.22C Connectors

!.!

(oa#ing of Fibre in )oint Closure


)oint closureC 8i9. The Ioint closure bo5 8Figure !.239 is used for protecting the "oint of OF (able 8ii9. Straight "oint enclosure with all cable entries from one end 8iii9. =ultiple cables can be handled b this "oint enclosure. 8iv9. Oval port provides for looping a cable where onl some fibres can be used. This t pe of "oints are called as branch "oints 8v9. Fibres are transported from the ports to the tra s b plastic tubes.

Figure !.23C )oint Closer <o/ (oa#ing t e fibresC 8i9. @emove appro5imatel #.A'metres n lon sheath of cable b using sheath removing tool. For sheath removal give round cut at two to three places of around &.A to &.0A m and then pull out the outer sheath. 8ii9. If rib cord,thread is provided then remove the sheath b using it. 8iii9. Separate the loose tubes b removing the :?( binders. 8iv9. (lean the loose tubes b using isoprop l alcohol.
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? -* Section !C Optical Fibre Cable )ointing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8v9.

Identif the tube numbers as per numbering scheme given b manufacturer. Insert the tube identification number over the tube.

Figure !.24C )oint Enclosure 8vi9. =a!e "oint enclosure 8Figure !.249 read for fi5ing the cable. 8vii9. Fi5 the above cable in the "oint enclosure b the arrangement provided in the "oint enclosure. 8viii9. After fi5ing both ends in the "oint closure fi5 the "oint enclosure on the wor!ing table. 8i59. @emove the buffer tube and clean the Fibres b using tissue paper and isoprop l alcohol ,acetone. 859. The length of primar coated Fibres should be such that it should be eas to handle the Fibres at the time of splicing. 85i9. :lace all the Fibres in the splice tra s provided in the "oint enclosure after splicing and heating the splice protectors with the splicing machine 8Figure !.2"9. 85ii9. The Fibres are coiled in the splice tra . )eep the diameter of the coils as large as possible to avoid heav loss due to e5tra bend in Fibres. 85iii9. Fi5 all the tra s and close the "oint enclosure using tightening arrangement provided. 85iv9. After fi5ing the all fibres in the "oint closures the Fibres are tested from OF( Station for continuit and loss measurement. 85v9. After getting O) report from OF( Station, place the "oint enclosure in pit safel avoiding sharp bend in cable and reinstating of the soil is carried out.

Figure !.2"C Splicing b' Splicing ,ac ine

!.*

+ermination )oint 7it Fibre $istribution PanelC

Preparation of Pig +ailsC :ig tails are used for termination of cables in equipment room. The cable is coming to >all Splice (losure 8>S(9 in equipment room and from >S( to Fibre Bistribution :anel 8FB:9 the pig tail cables are brought and the number of pig tail cables is equal to the number of fibres in the fibre cable. The configuration in equipment room is shown in Figure !.2&.
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section !C Optical Fibre Cable )ointing --

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure !.2&C E3uipment =oom Cable (a'out The process of pig tail cable preparation is as given below6 8i9 1ncoil the pig tails. 8ii9 (ut the pigtails from the end to ma!e them of equal length. 8iii9 =ar! the cable and fibre number on the pigtails. 8iv9 +unch them in a group of si5 each 8to match with si5 fibres of a buffer tube9 b appl ing tape. 8v9 @emove #A& cm of protection sheath. 8vi9 (ut the binder. 8vii9 =a!e the coil of the bunched pigtails. The process of termination in >all Splice (losure 8>S(9 8 Figure !.2!9 is as given below6

Figure !.2!C 8all Splice Closure


??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1%% Section !C Optical Fibre Cable )ointing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8i9. 8ii9. 8iii9. 8iv9. 8v9.

Elaborate arrangement for routing fibres to an tra . splices are protected b placing in splice tra s (an handle up to % to ; cables with a total fibre capacit :igtails can be suitabl terminated. it can be fi5ed to wall

of 2A% or more.

!.- (et :s Sum :p


In the e5ecution of Optical Fibre cable route, the splice or "ointing losses need to be !ept to minimum in order to ensure optimum performance of the Optical Fibre cables through out their active life. The procedures detailed in this Section should be followed in order to !eep the losses to minimum.

!.1% @e' 8or#s


8i9. ConnectorC A non'permanent device for connecting two fibres or fibres to equipment where the are e5pected to be disconnected occasionall for testing or rerouting. It also provides protection to both fibres. 8ii9. FerruleC A tube which holds a fibre for alignment, usuall part of a connector. 8iii9. SpliceC a permanent "oint between two fibres 8iv9. ,ec anical SpliceC A splice where the fibres are aligned created b mechanical means 8v9. Fusion SpliceC A splice created b welding or fusing two fibres together 8vi9. Fusion SplicerC An instrument that splices fibres b fusing or welding them, t picall b electrical arc.

!.11 Some :seful <oo9sF8ebsites


ttpCFF777.#atacottage.comFnc Ffibrefusion. tm

!.12 Auestions an# >ns7er to C ec9 Bour E/ercise


A2C Select +=:E 1+2 or F(>SE 1F2 for t e follo7ing statementsC 8i9. 8ii9. Splices are permanent connection between two fibres. This )oint Closer bo/ is used for protecting the "oint of OF(. J J K K the

8iii9. The fusion can be achieved either through electrical arc or through gas flame in fusion splicing technique. J K

8iv9. The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving ver low splice losses. J K 8v9. ,ec anical Splicing is the technique mainl used for temporar splicing in case of emergenc repairing. J K

8vi9. The splice loss indicated b the splicing machine should not be ta!en as a final value as it is onl an estimated loss and so after ever splicing is over, the splice loss measurement is to be ta!en b an OTB@. J K 8vii9. If proper care is ta!en and splicing is done strictl as per schedule, then the splicing loss can be minimi/ed as low as &.&#d+,"oint. J K
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section !C Optical Fibre Cable )ointing 1%1

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8viii9. A mechanical splice is the optical "unction of two or more fibres.

8i59. OTB@ trace is for anal /ing the splice, "oint loss as non'reflective and the connectors as reflective events. J K 859. Splice *oss is negative b splicing low loss fibre to high loss fibre. J K

>ns7ersC >ll are +=:E.

555555555555555555555555

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1%2 Section !C Optical Fibre Cable )ointing

423.* * Para
No. *.% *.1 *.2 *.3 *.4

+ES+S >N$ ,E>S:=E,EN+S


Subject Objectives ;ntro#uction +ests on Optical Fibre Cable 6isual ;nspection Optical Po7er 1Po7er or (oss2 *.4.1 ,easuring po7er *.4.2 +esting loss Page No.

*." *.&

+roubles ooting 0ints ,easuring ;nstruments *.&.1 + e Calibrate# (ig t Source *.&.2 Optical Po7er ,eter *.&.3 Optical >ttenuator

*.! *.* *.*.1*.11 *.12

O+$= +esting Optical +al9 set (et :s Sum :p @e' 8or#s Some :seful boo9s F 7ebsites Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1%3 Section *C +ests an# ,easurements

* +ES+S >N$ ,E>S:=E,EN+S


*.% Objectives

After the cables are installed and terminated, itDs time for testing. For ever fibre optic cable plant, ou will need to test for continuit , end'to'end loss and then troubleshoot the problems. If ou are the networ! user, ou will also be interested in testing power, as power is the measurement that tells ou whether the s stem is operating properl . This Section accordingl includes various tests to be ta!en on OF cable s stems along with details about the measuring instruments and the test procedures. After going through this Section, ou will !now about various measuring instruments required for testing the OF (able s stems and the testing methods on OF(.

*.1 ;ntro#uction
+efore starting, get together all our tools and ma!e sure the are all wor!ing properl . 1se it to test ever one of our reference test "umper cables in both directions using the single' ended loss test to ma!e sure the are all good. =a!e sure ou have cable la outs for ever fibre ou have to test. :repare a spreadsheet of all the cables and fibres before ou go in the field and print a cop for recording our test data. Sou ma record all our test data either b hand or if our meter has a memor feature, it will !eep test results in on'board memor that can be printed or transferred to a computer when ou return to the office. Fibre optic sources, including test equipment, are generall too low in power to cause an e e damage, but itDs still a good idea to chec! connectors with a power meter before loo!ing into it. Some B>B= and (AT? s stems have ver high power and the could be harmful, so better be safe than sorr .

*.2 +ests on Optical Fibre Cable


Fibre optic testing includes following three basic tests that we will cover separatel 6 or connector chec!ing, *oss testing, and 7etwor! Testing6 8i9. ?isual inspection for continuit , 8ii9. *oss testing , :ower testing and 8iii9. 7etwor! Testing. The instruments needed for these tests include a calibrated light source, an Optical :ower =eter, an Optical Attenuator and Optical Time Bomain @eflectometer 8OTB@9.

*.3

6isual ;nspection

1i2. 6isual +racingC (ontinuit chec!ing ma!es certain that the fibres are not bro!en and to trace a path of a fibre from one end to another through man connections. 1se a visible light Rfibre optic tracerR or Rpoc!et visual fault locatorR. It loo!s li!e a flashlight or a pen'li!e instrument with a light bulb or *EB source that mates to a fibre optic connector. Attach a cable to test to the visual tracer and loo! at the other end to see the light transmitted through the core of the fibre. If there is no light at the end, go bac! to intermediate connections to find the bad section of the cable. A good e5ample of how it can save time and mone is testing fibre on a reel before ou pull it to ma!e sure it hasnDt been damaged during shipment. *oo! for visible signs of damage 8li!e crac!ed or bro!en reels, !in!s in the cable, etc.9. For testing, visual tracers help also
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section *C +ests an# ,easurements 1%4

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

identif the ne5t fibre to be tested for loss with the test !it. >hen connecting cables at patch panels, use the visual tracer to ma!e sure each connection is the right two fibresE And to ma!e certain the proper fibres are connected to the transmitter and receiver, use the visual tracer in place of the transmitter and our e e instead of the receiver 8remember that fibre optic lin!s wor! in the infrared so the are invisible an wa .9 1ii2. 6isual Fault (ocationC A higher power version of the tracer uses a laser that can also find faults. The red laser light is powerful enough to show brea!s in fibres or high loss connectors. Sou can actuall see the loss of the bright red light even through man ellow or orange simple5 cable "ac!ets e5cept blac! or gra "ac!ets. Sou can also use this gadget to optimi/e mechanical splices or pre'polished'splice t pe fibre optic connectors. 1iii2. 6isual Connector ;nspectionC Fibre optic microscopes are used to inspect connectors to chec! the qualit of the termination procedure and diagnose problems. A well made connector will have a smooth, polished, scratch free finish and the fibre will not show an signs of crac!s, chips or areas where the fibre is either protruding from the end of the ferrule or pulling bac! into it. The magnification for viewing connectors can be <& to 3&& power but it is best to use a medium magnification. The best microscopes allow ou to inspect the connector from several angles, either b tilting the connector or having angle illumination to get the best picture of whatDs going on. (hec! to ma!e sure the microscope has an eas 'to'use adapter to attach the connectors of interest to the microscope, and remember to chec! that no power is present in the cable before ou loo! at it in a microscope to protect our e esE

*.4

Optical Po7er 1Po7er or (oss2

:racticall ever measurement in fibre optics refers to optical power. The power output of a transmitter or the input to receiver is RabsoluteR optical power measurement, that is, ou measure the actual value of the power. *oss is a RrelativeR power measurement, the difference between the power coupled into a component li!e a cable or a connector and the power that is transmitted through it. This difference is what we call optical loss and defines the performance of a cable, connector, splice, etc.

*.4.1 ,easuring po7er

Figure *.1C ,easurement of Po7er


???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section *C +ests an# ,easurements 1%"

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

:ower in a fibre optic s stem is li!e voltage in an electrical circuit ' itDs what ma!es things happenE ItDs important to have enough power, but not too much. Too little power and the receiver ma not be able to distinguish the signal from noiseN too much power overloads the receiver and causes errors too. =easuring power requires onl a power meter 8most come with a screw'on adapter that matches the connector being tested9 and a little help from the networ! electronics to turn on the transmitter. @emember when ou measure power, the meter must be set to the proper range 8usuall d+m, sometimes microwatts, but never Rd+R thatDs a relative power range used onl for testing lossE9 and the proper wavelengths matching the source being used. @efer to the instructions that come with the test equipment for setup and measurement instructions 8and donDt wait until ou get to the "ob site to tr the equipment9E

*.4.2 +esting loss


*oss testing is the difference between the power coupled into the cable at the transmitter end and what comes out at the receiver end. Testing for loss requires measuring the optical power lost in a cable 8including connectors, splices, etc.9 with a fibre optic source and power meter b mating the cable being tested to !nown good reference cable. In addition to our power meter, we will need a test source. The test source should match the t pe of source 8*EB or laser9 and wavelength 8;A&, #<&&, #AA& nm9. Again, read the instructions that come with the unit carefull . >e also need one or two reference cables, depending on the test we wish to perform. The accurac of the measurement we ma!e will depend on the qualit of our reference cables. Alwa s test our reference cables b the single ended method shown in Figure *.2D ma!e sure the Dre good before ou start testing other cablesE

Figure *.2C +esting (oss 7e5t we need to set our reference power for loss our R& d+R value. (orrect setting of the launch power is critical to ma!ing good loss measurementsE Clean t e connectors an# set up e3uipment li9e t isC

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1%& Section *C +ests an# ,easurements

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Turn on the source and select the wavelength ou want for the loss test. Turn on the meter, select the Rd+mR or Rd+R range and select the wavelength ou want for the loss test. =easure the power at the meter. This is our reference power level for all loss measurements. If our meter has a R/eroR function, set this as our R&R reference. Some reference boo!s and manuals show setting the reference power for loss using both a launch and receive cable mated with a mating adapter. This method is acceptable for some tests, but will reduce the loss ou measure b the amount of loss between our reference cables when ou set our R&d+ lossR reference. Also, if either the launch or receive cable is bad, setting the reference with both cables hides the fact. Then ou could begin testing with bad launch cables ma!ing all our loss measurements wrong. +esting t e (ossC

There are following two methods that are used to measure loss:
8i9. 8ii9. RSingle'ended lossR and RBouble'ended lossR.

Single'ended loss test uses onl the launch cable, while double'ended loss test uses a receive cable attached to the meter also. Single'ended loss is measured b mating the cable ou want to test to the reference launch cable and measuring the power out at the far end with the meter. >hen ou do this ou measure the following6 8i9. The loss of the connector mated to the launch cable and 8ii9. The loss of an fibre, splices or other connectors in the cable ou are testing. This method is described in FOT:'#0# and is shown in Figure *.2. @everse the cable to test the connector on the other end. In a double'ended loss test, ou attach the cable to test between two reference cables, one attached to the source and one to the meter. This wa , ou measure two connectorsD loses, one on each end, plus the loss of all the cable or cables in between. This is the method specified in OFST:'#3 8Figure *.29, the test for loss in an installed cable plant. Calculation of (ossC >hile it is difficult to generali/e, here are some guidelines6 For each connector, figure &.A d+ loss 8&.0 ma59 For each splice, figure &.2 d+ For multimode fibre, the loss is about < d+ per !m for ;A& nm sources, # d+ per !m for #<&& nm. This roughl translates into a loss of &.# d+ per #&& feet for ;A& nm, &.# d+ per <&& feet for #<&& nm. For single mode fibre, the loss is about &.A d+ per !m for #<&& nm sources, &.3 d+ per !m for #AA& nm. This roughl translates into a loss of &.# d+ per %&& feet for #<&& nm, &.# d+ per 0A& feet for #<&& nm. So for the loss of a cable plant, calculate the appro5imate loss as6 P 1%." #< \ ] connectors2 Z 1%.2 #< / ] splices2 Z fibre loss on t e total lengt of cable

*."

+roubles ooting 0ints

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section *C +ests an# ,easurements 1%!

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

If ou have high loss in a cable, ma!e sure to reverse it and test in the opposite direction using the single'ended method. Since the single ended test onl tests the connector on one end, ou can isolate a bad connector ' itDs the one at the launch cable end 8mated to the launch cable9 on the test when ou measure high loss. .igh loss in the double ended test should be isolated b retesting single'ended and reversing the direction of test to see if the end connector is bad. If the loss is the same, ou need to either test each segment separatel to isolate the bad segment or, if it is long enough, use an OTB@. If ou see no light through the cable 8ver high loss ' onl dar!ness when tested with our visual tracer9, itDs probabl one of the connectors, and ou have few options. The best one is to isolate the problem cable, cut the connector of one end 8flip a coin to choose9 and hope it was the bad one 8well, ou have a A&'A& chanceE9

*.&

,easuring ;nstruments

*.&.1 + e Calibrate# (ig t Source


The calibrated *ight source is the equivalent of a signal generator. It must generate light energ signals of !nown power levels. These light signals come out through an *EB or *ASE@ . The other requirement ma be the need to var the wave'length 8frequenc 9 of the light wave, "ust as a signal generator allows the user to var the frequenc . The reason for this is that optical fibres perform best at specific light wavelengths onl 8depending on the e5act t pe of glass used9 and the light supplied to the optical fibre must have the matching wave'length for that fibre t pe.

*.&.2 + e Optical Po7er ,eter


The Optical :ower =eter measures the power of an light signal, which t picall ranges from # nanowatt 8n>9 to 2 milliwatts 8m>9. This is similar to measuring the voltage or power of an electrical signal. The power meter must also be calibrated carefull since its readings form the basis for determining the amount of light'to'electrical'energ transducer and then measures its electrical output.

*.&.3 Optical >ttenuator

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1%* Section *C +ests an# ,easurements

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure *.3C >n attenuator for fibreKoptic signals 7it a special glass plate The Optical Attenuator is similar to a simple potentiometer or circuit used to reduce a signal level. The attenuator is used whenever performance tests must be run. For e5ample, to see how the bit error rate is affected b var ing the signal level in the lin!. The optical equivalent is much more comple5 than the one used in electronic circuitr . It can be implemented in two wa s. One wa is to have a precise mechanical setup in which the optical signal passes through a glass plate with differing amounts of dar!ness and the bac! to the optical fibre, as shown in Figure *.3. The glass plate has gre densit ranging from &Hat one end to #&&H at the other end. As the plate is moved across the gap, more or less light energ is allowed to pass. This t pe of attenuator is ver precise, and can handle an light wavelength 8since the plate attenuates an light energ b the same amount regardless of wavelength9. +ut it is mechanicall e5pensive.

*.!

O+$= +esting

As we mentioned earlier, OTB@s are alwa s used on OS: cables to verif the loss of each splice. +ut the are also used as troubleshooting tools. *etDs loo! at how an OTB@ wor!s and see how it can help testing and troubleshooting.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section *C +ests an# ,easurements 1%-

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure *.4C O+$= ;nstrument Principle 0o7 O+$= 8or9sN 1nli!e sources and power meters, which measure the loss of the fibre optic cable, plant directl , the OTB@ wor!s indirectl . The source and meter duplicate the transmitter and receiver of the fibre optic transmission lin!, so the measurement correlates well with actual s stem loss. A pulse generator drives a laser diode which then launches high power optical pulses 8#&& n> up to several milli watts9 with pulse widths of #&&ns to 3 s and repetition rate of few )./ into fibre using a polari/ing beam splitter. @efractive inde5 of fibre core, under test, up to four decimal points can be entered in the instrument for e5act displa of fibre length on 5'a5is. An A:B is used as a detector. Its signal is fed to amplifier. A t pical OTB@ arrangement is shown in the Figure *.4. The reflection from the fibre front is the largest signal in an OTB@. The attenuation of cable section can be obtained from equation6 >ttenuation of cable section I ;F( / %." / 1% log 1p1Fp22 #bF9m. At an point in time, the light the OTB@ sees is the light scattered from the pulse passing through a region of the fibre. Onl a small amount of light is scattered bac! toward the OTB@, but with sensitive receivers and signal averaging, it is possible to ma!e measurements over relativel long distances. Since it is possible to calibrate the speed of the pulse as it passes down the fibre, the OTB@ can measure time, calculate the pulse position in the fibre and correlate what it sees in bac!scattered light with an actual location in the fibre. Thus it can create a displa of the amount of bac!scattered light at an point in the fibre.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 11% Section *C +ests an# ,easurements

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure *."C >n O+$= #ispla' Since the pulse is attenuated in the fibre as it passes along the fibre and suffers loss in connectors and splices, the amount of power in the test pulse decreases as it passes along the fibre in the cable plant under test. Thus the portion of the light being bac!scattered will be reduced accordingl , producing a picture of the actual loss occurring in the fibre. Some calculations are necessar to convert this information into a displa , since the process occurs twice, once going out from the OTB@ and once on the return path from the scattering at the test pulse. There is a lot of information in an OTB@ displa 8Figure *."9. The slope of the fibre trace shows the attenuation coefficient of the fibre and is calibrated in d+,!m b the OTB@. In order to measure fibre attenuation, ou need a fairl long length of fibre with no distortions on either end from the OTB@ resolution or overloading due to large reflections. If the fibre loo!s nonlinear at either end, especiall near a reflective event li!e a connector, avoid that section when measuring loss. (onnectors and splices are called ReventsR in OTB@ "argon. +oth should show a loss, but connectors and mechanical splices will also show a reflective pea! so ou can distinguish them from fusion splices 8Figure *.&9. Also, the height of that pea! will indicate the amount of reflection at the event, unless it is so large that it saturates the OTB@ receiver. Then pea! will have a flat top and tail on the far end, indicating the receiver was overloaded. The width of the pea! shows the distance resolution of the OTB@, or how close it can detect events.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section *C +ests an# ,easurements 111

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure *.&C Splice (oss OTB@s can also detect problems in the cable caused during installation. If a fibre is bro!en, it will show up as the end of the fibre much shorter than the cable or a high loss splice at the wrong place. If e5cessive stress is placed on the cable due to !in!ing or too tight a bend radius, it will loo! li!e a splice at the wrong location. O+$= (imitations The limited distance resolution of the OTB@ ma!es it ver hard to use in a *A7 or building environment where cables are usuall onl a few hundred meters long. The OTB@ has a great deal of difficult resolving features in the short cables of a *A7 and is li!el to show RghostsR from reflections at connectors, more often than not simpl confusing the user. Precautions 7 ile using + e O+$= >hen using an OTB@, there are a few cautions that will ma!e testing easier and more understandable. First alwa s use a long launch cable, which allows the OTB@ to settle down after the initial pulse and provides a reference cable for testing the first connector on the cable. Alwa s start with the OTB@ set for the shortest pulse width for best resolution and a range at least 2 times the length of the cable ou are testing. =a!e an initial trace and see how ou need to change the parameters to get better results. +ac! scattered light from two nonFuniformities reach the input at the same time if the are spaced apart b half of pulse length in fibre. Improvement in received power is possible b increasing pulse width at the e5pense of length resolution. +ac!'scattered signals are normall buried in noise because of their tin amplitudes. Special techniques are used to improve Signal to 7oise 8S,79 of received signal in OTB@. Sometimes, a simple flashlight is used as the light source, and the light coming out can be seen b e e. This is not a recommended practice because in a multifibre bundle the fibre, the technician loo!s into ma not be the one with the flashlight at the other end. Instead, it ma be an active fibre that has a laser *EB as its source, and e e damage can result. The flashlight and e e should onl be used for a single strand of fibre, when the entire length of fibre is visible and there can be no mista!es.

*.*

Optical +al9 set

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 112 Section *C +ests an# ,easurements

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

This is a dedicated Tal! set for fibre optic engineers involved in telecommunications plant installations and maintenance. This set allows Full'Buple5 conversation between up to four operators with headset or voice gated spea!erphone over a single optical fibre. Besigned for long distance single mode applications. The features of the set include volume control 8both in headset and spea!erphone modes9 for the best listening comfort and a Call function for alerting the companion user. ;nstrument Po7er Suppl' It is supplied with rechargeable cells, which are initiall completel discharged. One complete first charge is required. To charge the batteries connect the A(,B( adapter card to the soc!et on the bottom of the set and plug the A(,B( adapter into an A( power outlet. For the first charge allow a charge time of #3 hrs. For subsequent charge #2 hrs will be enough. It is necessar to effect a charge c cle when the :O>E@ *EB begins flashing. Al!aline QAAL batteries ma be used instead of the rechargeable Q7i(dL. In this case A(,B( adapter must not be used. It is advisable not to connect A(,B( adapter if the rechargeable cells are not fitted.

*.-

(et :s Sum :p

Buring both installation and maintenance, ou need tools to diagnose problems and fi5 them, and spares including a fusion splicer or some mechanical splices and spare cables. In fact, when ou install cable, save the leftovers for restorationE And the first thing ou must decide is if the problem is with the cables or the equipment using it. A simple power meter can test sources for output and receivers for input and a visual tracer will chec! for fibre continuit . If the problem is in the cable plant, the OTB@ is the ne5t tool needed to locate the fault. >ith the help of these the downtime of the OF (able s stem can be brought to minimum.

*.1%
8i9. 8ii9. 8iii9. 8iv9. 8v9. 8vi9. 8vii9. 8i59. 859.

@e' 8or#s
>ttenuationC The reduction in optical power as it passes along a fibre, usuall e5pressed in decibels 8d+9. See optical loss. <an#7i#t C The range of signal frequencies or bit rate within which a fibre optic component, lin! or networ! will operate. $ecibels 1#<2C A unit of measurement of optical power, which indicates relative power. A '#& d+ means a reduction in power b #& times, '2& d+ means another #& times or #& times overall, '<& means another #& times or #&&& times overall and so on. #<C Optical power referenced an arbitrar /ero level #<mC Optical power referenced to # milliwatt ,icron 1m2C A unit of measure used to measure wavelength of light. Nanometer 1nm2C A unit of measure used to measure the wavelength of light 8meaning one one'billilonth of a metre9. Optical (ossC The amount of optical power lost as light is transmitted through fibre, splices, couplers, etc, e5pressed in d+. Optical Po7erC is measured in Rd+mR, or decibels referenced to one miliwatt of power. >hile loss is a relative reading, optical power is an absolute measurement, referenced to standards. Sou measure absolute power to test transmitters or receivers and relative power to test loss. ScatteringC The change of direction of light after stri!ing small particles that causes loss in optical fibres and is used to ma!e measurements b an OTB@

85i9.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section *C +ests an# ,easurements 113

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

85ii9.

8avelengt C A term for the color of light, usuall e5pressed in nanometers 8nm9 or microns 8m9. Fibre is mostl used in the infrared region where the light is invisible to the human e e.

*.11

Some :seful <oo9sF7ebsites


http6,,www.lanshac!.com,fibre'optic'tutorial'testing.asp5

*.12 Auestions 5 >ns7ers to c ec9 'our Progress E/ercise


A1. 8rite +=:E 1+2 or F>(SE 1F2 against follo7ing statementsC 8i9. 8ii9. Continuit' chec!ing ma!es certain that the fibres are not bro!en and to trace a path of a fibre from one end to another through man connections. J K The red laser light is powerful enough to show brea!s in fibres or high loss connectors. J K

8iii9. *oss testing is the difference between the power coupled into the cable at the transmitter end and what comes out at the receiver end. J K 8iv9. Single'ended loss uses onl the launch cable, while double'ended loss uses a receive cable attached to the meter also. . J K 8v9. The calibrated *ight source is the equivalent of a signal generator. J K

8vi9. The Optical :ower =eter measures the power of an light signal, which t picall ranges from # nanowatt 8n>9 to 2 milliwatts 8m>9. J K 8vii9. The Optical Attenuator is similar to a simple potentiometer or circuit used to reduce a signal level. J K 8viii9. (onnectors and splices are called ReventsR in OTB@ "argon. 8i59. OTB@s can also detect problems in the cable caused during installation. J 859. . K The limited distance resolution of the OTB@ ma!es it ver hard to use in a *A7 or building environment where cables are usuall onl a few hundred meters long. J K >ns7ersC >ll are +=:E. 555555555555555555555555 J K

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 114 Section *C +ests an# ,easurements

423.*
Para No. -.% -.1 -.2 -3 -.4 -." -.& -.! -.* -.-.1% -.11

,>;N+EN>NCE .:;$E(;NES OF OP+;C>(F;<=E C><(E


Page No.

Subject Objectives ;ntro#uction .eneral Prepare#ness for Fault =estoration =oute ,aintenance Fault (ocali4ation +emporar' =estoration Familiari4ation of Staff Familiarit' of .ui#elines for OFC =oute ,aintenance ,aintenance ;n#e/ #iagram (et :s Sum :p @e' 8or#s Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 11" Section -C ,aintenance .ui#elines of Optical Fibre Cable

423.- ,>;N+EN>NCE .:;$E(;NES OF OP+;C>(F;<=E C><(E


-.% Objectives

This Section includes the standard maintenance guidelines of Optical Fibre (able route. After going through this Section ou will !now6 .ow to locali/e the faults in OF cable ?arious Tools and accessories needed for attending to the faults :recautions ta!en while attending faults and maintenance of OF cable @outine tests that are ta!en on OF cable

-.1

;ntro#uction

Optical Fibre (ables now'a'da s have become the live line of telecommunication networ!s. The maintenance of Optical Fibre (ables therefore needs to be given the due importance in order to ensure not onl their optimum performance during the prescribed active life of the cables but also uninterrupted services from optical fibre cable s stems. Since the are all high capacit s stems an down time will result in heav losses to the telecom operators. The basic guidelines described in this Section will greatl help in successful maintenance of the Optical fibre (ables and OF cable s stems.

-.2

.eneral Prepare#ness For Fault =estoration


The following items to be !ept read for restoration of fault

1i2. +ool 9its an# ot er itemsC See that all the necessar accessories for cable splicing and cleaning liquids, cable pulling, etc are to be !ept available in the tool !it. Splicing +ool @it containingC (able sheath cutter. +uffer tube cutter. Fibre stripper. Scissor. (able cutter, plier. .ac!saw. Sleeves. Buster cloth. Tissue paper, cotton buds. Ot er itemsC -I wires. 7 lon @ope :etrol can with petrol . :hawra, Tic!a5e, -hamela, (row bar. (aution 7otice Bispla +oards. Flash glow lamps. OF( Spra . :atch cords and pad. @odometer. =easuring tape.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section -C ,aintenance .ui#elines of Optical Fibre Cable 11&

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Torches with cells. Biar of colour codes of different t pe of OF( (ables. >ater pump in rain season. .B:E pipes, .B:E cut pipes, (ouplings. @(( half round and full round pipes

1ii2. Optical Fibre CableD )oint ClosuresC? Optical fibre cable should be tested and !ept read for suitable t pe of cable 8i.e. %F, #2F, 23Fibre etc, Single =ode or =ulti =ode and of all manufacturers in use9. Ioint closures !ept in the vehicle for providing splice tra s and protecting "oints. Ioint closures are to be suitable to the e5isting OF cable. 1iii2. Po7er suppl' arrangementsC :ortable generator serviced and tested along with sufficient fuel, lighting arrangements, power boards, multi meter for e5tending power suppl at the site. 1iv2. +esting ;nstrumentsC OTB@, :ower meter, Tal! sets, and :ower source for testing the fibre condition. These instruments should be tested periodicall and !eep charged the internal batter for good wor!ing condition. 1v2. =oute ;n#e/ $iagramC ' 1pdated route inde5 diagram with following details for identif ing the cable route path for locali/ing cable fault spot6 (able depth speciall mentioned in variation. Bistance from center of the road. =a"or landmar!s li!e .otel, :etrol :umps, and ?illages etc. :rotection wherever provided and t pe of protection. (ulvert, bridges along with their Serial 7o. and length. *ocation of "oints and manholes. E5cess cable coil left at each "oint. The latest fault Ioint information. Offset distance depth at ever 2& meters. ?illage roads, @oad crossings, (anals etc and position of cable and t pe of protection given to cable. =anhole Indicators and Ioint Indicators. =anhole'to'=anhole Bistances. Betails of full round,half round pipes 8.B:E, @((, and -I9. Betails whether the cable is in bed or parapet wall in pipe on culvert M bridges. 1vi2. Cable splicing mac ineC Fibre cutter, loose tube cutter, splice sleeves, cleaning liquid, cotton buds, tissue papers, electrode cleaner, groove cleaning brush, made available with full charged and tested Splicing machine for cable splicing. In charge of the route should chec! the splicing machine software settings as specified in the manual for single mode fibres and correct an deviations observed. (lean the =achine after splicing, remove carefull the fibre pieces around the cleaver and avoid damage to human bod . 1vii2. +entsC Tents along with its accessories !ept available with route part for providing good wor!ing conditions. Buring rainfall and hot summer for digging "oint pits tents are most useful to provide wor!ing atmosphere to the labourers and wor! progress. 1viii2. 6e icleC )eep read an air'conditioned vehicle in running condition for transporting and splicing. @oute in charge is responsible for the pa ment of road ta5 and renewal of fitness certificate as per the @TA rules. ?ehicle driver and other route staff are made available for proceeding on route in emergenc .
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section -C ,aintenance .ui#elines of Optical Fibre Cable 11!

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

1i/2. Safet' re3uirementsC ? :rovide fire safet equipments and *aser safet instructions at the wor! spot. :rovide fire e5tinguisher in the vehicle to protect equipment and tools in the vehicle from accidental fire. The staff should !now the operation of the fire equipment. Bispla the laser safet instructions and precautions during handling fibres. :rovide filters to the splicing staff to avoid e e damage. 1/2. Competent uman resourceC Alert the trained and s!illed e5perienced technicians, labourers and e5ecutives for e5ecution of the wor!. The staff should have familiarit on route and route inde5 diagram. @oute in charge is responsible to see that for all the staff are well trained in handling splicing machine, OTB@, optical power meter and other testing instruments.

-.3

=oute ,aintenance
The following maintenance wor!s are to be carried out b maintenance staff.

1i2. Perio#ical route inspection6 :eriodicit depends upon the digging wor!s along the cable route for ta!ing protection for the cable. -enerall wea!l once inspect the route for identif ing the digging wor!s and route indicators, b meeting with other agencies. 1ii2. ,aintenance of route in#icators6 =aintain the route indicators for ever 2&& metres Spans and remove the bushes around the indicators to ma!e visible the cable path. :lant the missed route indicators according to the route inde5 diagram and mar! in the maintenance register. :lant the additional route indicators at cable crossings, pulling gaps, bridges, village town areas. )eep painting and sign writing on route indicators for eas identification. 1iii2. ,aintenance of joint in#icators. =aintain the "oint indicators at ever "oint and remove the bushes around the indicators to ma!e visible the cable "oint indicator. :lant the missed "oint indicators according to the route inde5 diagram and mar! in the maintenance register. )eep painting and sign writing on "oint indicators for eas identification. 1iv2. :p#ating route in#e/ #iagram6 Entr should be made for ever instance of planting additional route indicators and "oint indicators and cable diversions. =a!e entries about the location of the "oint and coils provided at the "oints and length of the cable added in the route inde5 diagram after adding additional "oints. Entr should be made in the route inde5 diagram about the concrete, -I, @(( used during the restoration of cable fault. 1v2. +est of spare fibresC Fibre continuit test with OTB@ and end'to'end test b source and power meter for measuring fibre loss in the section should be done as per the test schedule. The fibre continuit test for ever quarterl and loss measurement with source and power meter for ever half earl to be ta!en and results enter in the registers. After attending the cable fault, continuit and splice loss of the fibres to be tested and if observed an abnormalit to be rectified. 1vi2. Co?or#ination 7it ot er agencies6 (onduct coordination meetings with 7ational .ighwa authorities, @M+, =unicipal, :ower distribution agencies, water wor!s department, and local authorities at regular intervals for creating awareness about the OF cable route and importance of the communication and avoiding damages to the cable. @ecord the minutes of meeting, with the other agencies. =aintain good liaison with all e5ternal agencies. 1vii2. Provi#ing caution boar#sC Bispla caution boards instructing the general public to intimate the concerned official before carr ing digging wor!s. Bispla telephone numbers and address of the concerned official in'charge of the cable route. :rovide caution boards at public
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 11* Section -C ,aintenance .ui#elines of Optical Fibre Cable

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

places li!e bus stands petrol bun!s and other important places on route where digging wor!s planned and progress along road. 1viii2. P 'sical inspection at lo7 level areas an# rat prone areasC Inspect carefull at water flowing areas on the cable route and concreting to be done at identified places where cable is e5posed. Identif the rat prone areas and fill with sand on rat holes for preventing rodent attac!s. 1i/2. Emerging ;+:?+ stan#ar#s on fibre optic supervisionC IT1'T Stud -roups are wor!ing on the optical fibre networ! maintenance, since it is recogni/ed that optical performance monitoring has become critical6 actuall , on modern networ! performance spot'chec!s carried out on field, it has been found to be time consuming, e5pensive and ineffective in detecting problems at an earl stage. The status of ma"or @ecommendations approved or elaborated on this sub"ect is reported below. (.2" 'Optical fibre cable network classification. >pprove# 11%F-&2 maintenance H ,aintenance function

(.4% 'Optical fibre outside plant maintenance support, monitoring and testing systems' The new @ecommendation *.3& deals with outdoor optical fibre maintenance support, monitoring and testing s stems for both trun! and access optical fibre cable networ!s, with the aim of describing the level of maintenance and testing required to provide high reliabilit and quic! response to faults and degradation. One proposed method for preventive maintenance is based on power monitoring, recogni/ing the effectiveness of this method and the importance of continuous monitoring at the signal wavelength. OTB@ methods are also proposed, focusing on testing to be performed after installation or after repair,replacement. 1/2. <rea9#o7n ,aintenance @itC +rea! down !it consists of the following items in good condition6 a. Optical Fibre (able. b. Ioint Enclosure. c. :ortable -enerator Set. #. Electric wire, tubes and bulbs, E5tension +oards. e. (ar +atter . f. Tent and Tarpaulins. g. -I wires. . 7 lon @ope. i. .B:E pipes, .B:E cut pipes, (ouplings. j. @(( half round and full round pipes. 9. OTB@. l. :ower source. m. :ower meter. n. Splicing =achine. o. Splicing Tool )it containing6 i. (able sheath cutter. ii. +uffer tube cutter. iii. Fibre stripper. iv. Scissor. v. (able cutter, plier.
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section -C ,aintenance .ui#elines of Optical Fibre Cable 11-

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

vi. vii. viii. i5. 5. p. 3. r. s. t. u. v. 7. /. '. 4.

.ac!saw. Sleeves. Buster cloth. Tissue paper, cotton buds. :etrol can with petrol

:hawra, Tic!a5e, -hamela, (row bar. (aution 7otice Bispla +oards. Flash glow lamps. OF( Spra . :atch cords and pad. @oute Inde5 Biagram. @odo meter. =easuring tape. Torches with cells. Biar of color codes of different t pe of OF (ables. >ater pump in rain season.

-.4

Fault (ocali4ation

(able brea! down due to =an made 8due to road wor!, other digging wor!s on cable route9 fault or rat bite fault. In both cases Optical Fibres get bro!en and s stem wor!ing on them fails. In the event of fibre brea!, on dut staff in the OF( Station gets audible , visible alarm on the (entrali/ed Alarm displa +oard and at the same time @ac! alarm on the s stem ba wor!ing on the bro!en fibres. On dut staff connects 7=( , *(T to affected s stem. In case of 7=(, fault section is highlighted in the @ing =ap, which gives clear indication of the fault section. Information is passed on to the route in'charge. In case of cable brea! down, *ocali/ation of the fault on OF( @oute is done b means of OTB@ at both the stations of the affected section to have correct distance of the fault in the section.

Figure -.1C O+$= (onnect OTB@ 8Figure -.19 to the connector of Fibre in FBF b patch cord. Switch on the OTB@. It goes through self'chec! and chec!s all its internal parameters. Set the OTB@ for following parameters6 i. 8avelengt 1 2C 8a9 #<#& nm or 8b9 #AA& nm. ii. ;O= 8@efractive Inde5 of Fibre under test9. iii. =angeC Set the range double than the actual Fibre length under test.
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 12% Section -C ,aintenance .ui#elines of Optical Fibre Cable

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Pulse 8i#t C -enerall !ept as # Sec 8!ept high for longer lengths9. ,easurement timeC can be from #& sec to A minutes. After setting OTB@ start the measurement b pressing run !e . The OTB@ will automaticall scan the trace and after e5pir of measurement time as set above, the trace graph will be displa ed on the screen along with event table. viii. The trace graph gives the e5act optical distance of the brea! point. i5. 7ote down the reading. iv. v. vi. vii.

Actual trace graph is shown in Figure -.2 in normal condition with full length.

Figure -.2C >ctual trace grap in O+$= E/act Fault (ocationC @efer @oute Inde5 Biagram and readings at both stations, e5act spot of the fault can be pin pointed. As per the OTB@, reflective end point is the cable brea! at 0&&m as shown in Figure -.3. @efer the previous events 8splice distances9 and compare the fault point distance form the previous and after splice points. Sa Event # at #&&&m the brea! point distance from event # is <&&m 8#&&&m'0&&m9. Correction factor6 (orrection Factor can be determined b !nowing actual cable length and fibre length through OTB@. (orrection factor is the ratio between cable length and fibre length Cable lengt I Fibre lengt ^ Correction factor E5ample6 (able length P $$Am Fibre length P #&&&m (orrection factor P $$A,#&&&P .$$A 1sing OTB@ the fibre length measured as 0&& m
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section -C ,aintenance .ui#elines of Optical Fibre Cable 121

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Cable lengt I !%%%^--"F1%%%I&-&."m

Figure -.3C Cable brea9 at !%%m (oil lengths at the "oints and station to be ta!en in to account to get the actual fault distance form the measuring point. :atch cord distance is sa #Am =oa# $istances I &-&.",?2",?1",I&"&."m

Figure -.4C >ctual $istance to Fault =easure road distance using roadometer and mar! the fault locali/ation point. Inspect ph sicall and observe an digging wor! on route for identif ing the manmade faults. Fault is not visible in case of rat bite fault. Big the fault spot 2 metres either side of the fault spot and two test pits at A& metres awa from both sides of the suspected fault spot. @estore the fault cable b la ing new cable 2&& metres temporaril .

-."

+emporar' =estoration

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 122 Section -C ,aintenance .ui#elines of Optical Fibre Cable

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

7ormall in the event of brea!'down fault on OF (able, fault spot is bridged b ma!ing two additional "oints with interruption cable laid overhead for !eeping interruption period to the minimum 8Figure -."9.

Figure -."C +emporar' =estoration

-.&

Familiari4ation Of Staff
+raining an# $evelopment6

All the maintenance staff should will be well versed with the technolog so that the can maintain OF cable. The need to !now a little about the theor , but lot more about cables, connectors and hardware and how cable plants are designed, installed and tested. Training should focus on practical !nowledge and lots of hands'on e5ercises on OF cable "ointing procedures, fault locali/ation using OTB@, familiarit on route and route inde5 diagram, fault restoration procedures. Bevelop the s!ills of the staff wor!ing for route maintenance b arranging seminars and wor! shops for short periods.

-.!
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. i/. /. /i. /ii. /iii. /iv. /v. /vi.

Familiarit' of .ui#elines for OFC =oute ,aintenance


Ioint and =anhole Indicators should be ph sicall in their position. +ro!en indicators should be replaced b new ones. =issing indicators should be provided. Ioint and manhole indicators should be painted and numbered suitabl b stencil. Indicators should be clearl visible from the roads. ?egetation, if an should be cleared. Indicator should be mounded properl , if required. Status of the cable in the bed and on the bridges of culverts, rivers and nallahas should be chec!ed and protection wor! be carried out, if an . @oute Inde5 Biagram should be updated b recording the changes in the la out of the route. @oute Inde5 Biagram should be computeri/ed. @at prone areas should be mar!ed on the @oute Inde5 Biagram. @at prone area of the route should be protected b concreting. A chart indicating optical length and ph sical length between "oints should be maintained. Foot patrolling of the OF( @oute in cit areas should be carried out. Biar of foot patrolling be maintained and chec!ed regularl . =eetings should be held with road authorities. =inutes of the meeting should be issued. Telephone numbers of the concerned @oad Agencies , Authorities should be available with the @oute in charge. Overhead Optical Fibre (able, if an should be removed b carr ing out permanent restoration. +rea! down )it should be read . It should be chec!ed b in charge regularl . (hec! list of tools for splicing should be available.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section -C ,aintenance .ui#elines of Optical Fibre Cable 123

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

/vii. /viii. /i/. //. //i. //ii. //iii. //iv. //v. //vi. //vii. //viii. //i/. ///. ///i. ///ii. ///iii. ///iv.

///v.

@ecord of color codes of different t pe of OF( cable should be available with @oute part . Splicing =achine, OTB@, :ower Source, and :ower =eter etc. should be maintained in wor!ing condition. (aution +oard warning lamp should be available. Fibre loss on spare Fibre should be ta!en twice in a ear and immediatel after restoration of brea! down and record thereof be maintained. If li!el spot of digging is !nown, the caution notice board should be placed displa ing the contact number and address of the concerned in charge. @oad Agencies ma be requested to carr out the digging wor! manuall in close pro5imit of OF( route. First Aid +o5 should be !ept read in vehicle. Optical Fibre cable entr should be properl sealed in the wall cabinet,steel almirah and should have no space for rodent to enter in OF( station. OF( cable coil should be nicel laced and termination arrangement should be neat and clean. The pigtails coming from termination bo5 to FBF should be ta!en through fle5ible pipes and secured properl . :ig tails should be properl arranged and Fibres are properl labeled on FBF. Spare Fibre connectors on FBF should be properl sealed with the caps. FBF should be closed b covers to prevent dust. Sufficient patch cords should be read for carr ing out crossings on FBF whenever required. :ig tails and patch cords should be cleaned b suitable spra whenever the are removed and reinserted in the connectors. Isopropanol $$H cleaning fluid and lint free cloth should be used for cleaning of Fibres. =icro bending of the Fibre should be avoided as the cause losses of higher order. .eneral recommen#ations for t e process of splicing of Fibres a. :reparation of the Fibres and Fibre ends has to be properl performed to achieve low splice losses and high strength splices. b. 7inet percent of all splice losses are attributable to poorl prepared Fibres. c. Alwa s ensure that the Fibres are clean. d. Alwa s insert the Fibres so that the distance between Fibre ends is never too wide or narrow. e. Alwa s ensure that the Fibres donLt over lap. -arbage of cit collected for burning it near OF( @oute should be requested to be shifted awa from the OF( route.

-.*

,aintenance of =oute ;n#e/ $iagram

=oute ;n#e/ $iagrem for OF (able @oute indicating offset distance, location of indicators, bridges on river, road !ilometres stones, permanent land mar!s etc. 8 Figure -.&9 is maintained as important document b the route parties.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 124 Section -C ,aintenance .ui#elines of Optical Fibre Cable

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure -.&C =oute ;n#icators 1i2. @, reference stones should be indicated as per the 7., @M+ reference stones and the reference !m reading to be mar!ed on the )= reference indicator as shown. Ever 2&& metres 8appro59 one road reference !m,m stones and ever )= one )= reference stones are provided b 7., @M+. According to the 7., @M+ stones entire route inde5 diagram is to be prepared and for ever 2&& metres one page of total route inde5 diagram boo!. 1ii2. =oute in#icatorsC Indicate the route indicators for ever 2&& metres span and where man hole, pulling gap is available and according to the availabilit of the route indicators on route. Indicate the planted additional route indicators at cable crossings, pulling gaps, bridges, village town areas. Indicators are numbered as per the "oint number , route indicator number. 1iii2. )oint in#icatorsC Indicate the "oint indicators for ever "oint according to the availabilit of the "oints on route. Indicate the additional "oint indicators in the route inde5 diagram and numbered. For e5ample, the cable repaired and additional "oints between I'#& A7B I'##, indicate the additional "oint numbers as I'#&A, I'#&+, 1iv2. Off setC Offset is the distance between road centers to OF cable location. Offset is noted in the route inde5 diagram for ever 2& or ever <& metres length of the cable. 1v2. $ept C cable depth from the surface to OF cable noted in the route inde5 diagram for ever 2& or ever <& metres length of the cable. 1vi2. <ri#ges an# culverts are noted in the route inde5 diagram and show OF cable path at the bridges and culverts how cable was laid. Indicate the usage of @(( and -I pipes and its length on the route. 1vii2. .; Pipes6 Show on the route inde5 diagram where -I :ipes are used in the route while cable la ing between ever sub section with the reference )m stones and e5act meter readings E5ample6 Sub section %,2 !m to %,3 !m Sub Section length #$$m, i.e. &\\.#$$ -I pipes used6 2Am to 3Am @(( .,( F,@6 As above -I pipes 1viii2. )oint locations6 First page of the route inde5 diagram should show briefl the connectivit between the stations with distance and t pe of the cable used in the route. Second
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section -C ,aintenance .ui#elines of Optical Fibre Cable 12"

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

page should show "oint locations with !m reference and other land mar!s available at the cable "oint location, distance between two "oints. The coils at the "oints to be clearl mentioned on the page. Page ?1C E/.ample6 @oute inde5 diagram station A and + Bistance is 3& !m (able t pe6 Sterelite 23F Bate of (ommissioned6 Sear 2&&3 Page ?2C

Bistance between I'# and I'2 is 22&A metres including coils lengths of 2A metres and <& metres. (oils at Ioint I'# station A side is 2& metres and + side is 2A metres and at Ioint I'2 station A side is <& metres and + side is 2& metres. :p#ating route in#e/ #iagram6 Entr should be made for ever instance of planting additional route indicators and "oint indicators and cable diversions. Ioint locations are to be carefull noted down in the route inde5 diagram with specif ing cable coil !ept in "oint pits for both ends.

-.-

(et :s Sum :p

The maintenance of Optical fibre cables calls for preparedness in attending to the faults along with trained men and required material so that with minimum possible time the fault is locali/ed and the s stem restoration ta!es place. The guidelines described in this Section will greatl help in ensuring minimum downtime during the maintenance of Optical Fibre (ables and s stems.

-.1%
8i9. 8ii9. 8iii9. 8iv9.

@e' 8or#s

=aintain the route in#icators for ever 2&& metres. =aintain the joint in#icators at ever "oint. Fibre safet full complies with IT1'T @ec. *.3&. Cable lengt I Fibre lengt ^ Correction factor. This can be determined b !nowing actual cable length and fibre length through OTB@. Correction factor is the ratio between cable length and fibre length. 8v9. =oute ;n#e/ $iagram for OF (able @oute indicates offset distance, location of indicators, bridges on river, road !ilometres stones, permanent land mar!s etc. 8vi9. Offset is the distance between road centers to OF cable location. Offset is noted in the route inde5 diagram for ever 2& or ever <& metres length of the cable. 8vii9. Cable #ept from the surface to OF cable is noted in the route inde5 diagram for ever 2& or ever <& metres length of the cable.

-.11
A1.

Auestions 5 >ns7er +o C ec9 Bour Progress E/ercise


8rite +=:E 1+2 or F>(SE 1F2 against follo7ing statementsC

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 12& Section -C ,aintenance .ui#elines of Optical Fibre Cable

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8i9. 8ii9. 8iii9. . 8iv9.

All the necessar accessories for cable splicing and cleaning liquids, cable pulling, etc are to be !ept available in the tool !it. J K -enerall wea!l once inspect the Optical Fibre route for identif ing the digging wor!s, route indicators, meeting with other agencies. J K The fibre continuit test for ever quarterl and loss measurement with source and power meter for ever half earl to be ta!en and results entered in the registers. J K The new @ecommendation *.3& deals with outdoor optical fibre maintenance support, monitoring and testing s stems for both trun! and access optical fibre cable networ!s . J K (oil lengths at the "oints and station to be ta!en in to account to get the actual fault distance form the measuring point. J K In the event of fibre brea!, on dut staff in the OF( Station gets audible , visible alarm on the (entrali/ed Alarm displa +oard. J K In case of cable brea! down, *ocali/ation of the fault on OF( @oute is done b means of OTB@ at both the stations of the affected section to have correct distance of the fault in the section. J K 7ormall in the event of brea!'down fault on OF (able, fault spot is bridged b ma!ing two additional "oints with interruption cable laid overhead for !eeping interruption period to the minimum. J K A chart indicating optical length and ph sical length between "oints should be maintained.. J K Offset is noted in the route inde5 diagram for ever 2& or ever <& metres length of the cable. J K >ns7ersC >ll are +=:E. 555555555555555555555555

8v9. 8vi9. 8vii9.

8viii9.

8i59. 859.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section -C ,aintenance .ui#elines of Optical Fibre Cable 12!

423.1% *Para
No. 1%.% 1%.1 1%.2 1%.3 1%.4

$;.;+>( ,:(+;P(E\;N.
Subject Objectives ;ntro#uction +ime $ivision ,ultiple/ing 1+$,2 <an#7i#t =e3uirement for +$, ,ultiple/ing $igital Signals 1%.4.1 ,ultiple/ing of S'nc ronous $igital Signals 1%.4.2 ,ultiple/ing of >s'nc ronous Signal 1%.4.3 0ar#7are =eali4ation Of $igital ,ultiple/ S'stem 1%.4.4 +ransmit +ributar' 1%.4." )itter >spect of ,ultiple/ E3uipment $igital 0ierarc ' $igital ,ultiple/ Subs'stem Optical Fibre +ransmission (in9 (et :s Sum :p @e' 8or#s Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress Page No.

1%." 1%.& 1%.! 1%.* 1%.1%.1%

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1%C $igital ,ultiple/ing 12*

1% $;.;+>( ,:(+;P(E\;N.
1%.% Objectives

This Section covers various aspects connected with Bigital =ultiple5ing techniques, including evolution of various digital multiple5ing hierarchies used in Optical Fibre communication s stems. After going through this Section ou will be able to understand the details and application of digital multiple5ing in OF cable communication s stems.

1%.1 ;ntro#uction
In analogue communication s stems, multiple5 equipment uses Frequenc Bivision =ultiple5ing 8FB=9 to assemble individual voice channels 8&.< to <.3 )./9 into groups J%& to #&; )./ 8#2 chls9K, and super group J<#2 to AA2 )./' 8%& chls9K etc. Similarl , in digital communication s stems, hierarchical levels have been defined using +ime $ivision ,ultiple/ing 1+$,2 and are identified b their digit rate measured in bit,sec.

1%.2

+ime $ivision ,ultiple/ing 1+$,2

Time Bivision =ultiple5ing 8TB=9 is eminentl suited for multiple5ing digital signals. In its simplest form a communication lin! can be used b a single user. >hen he completes his use, another user ma ta!e over the same s stem. .owever, there is no set time for each user and the order of turn of users is arbitrar . =odern communication s stems based on TB= technolog are designed to provide access to a lin! for man users on a periodic and prescheduled time division basis. +asicall , +ime $ivision ,ultiple/ing involves nothing more than sharing a transmission medium b a number of circuits in time domain b establishing a sequence of time slots during which individual channels 8circuits9 can be transmitted. Thus the entire bandwidth is periodicall available to each channel. 7ormall all Q +ime SlotsG are equal in length. Each channel is assigned a time slot with a specific common repetition period called a frame interval. This is illustrated in Figure 1.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 12Section 1%C $igital ,ultiple/ing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure 1%.1C +ime $ivision ,ultiple/ing 1+$,2 Each channel is sample# at a specified rate and transmitted for a fi5ed duration. All channels are sampled one b one, and the c cle is repeated again and again. The channels are connected to individual gates, which are opened one b one in a fi5ed sequence. At the receiving end also similar gates are opened in unision with the gates at the transmitting end. The signal received at the receiving end will be in the form of discrete samples and these are combined to reproduce the original signal. Thus, at a given instant of time, onl one channel is transmitted through the medium, and b sequential sampling a number of channels can be staggered in time as opposed to transmitting all the channels at the same time as in FB= s stems. This staggering of channels in time sequence for transmission over a common medium is called +ime $ivision ,ultiple/ing 1+$,2. Thus the functions of digital multiple5 equipment are to combine a defined integral number of digital input signals 8called tributaries9 at a defined digit rate b +ime $ivision ,ultiple/ing 1+$,2 and also to carr out the reverse process 8demultiple5ing9.

1%.3

<an#7i#t =e3uirement for +$,

<an#7i#t is defined as the amount of information that a s stem can carr such that each pulse of light is distinguishable b the receiver. >hen the digital signal, a rectangular pulse with a period equal to the bit period, became narrower 8in the time domain9 its spectrum 8in the frequenc domain9 e5tended over a large frequenc interval. In other words, transmission of narrower rectangular waves corresponding to smaller bit periods require larger transmission frequenc bandwidths. The availabilit of channel bandwidth sets a limit on the ma5imum bit rate of transmission and in turn the number of voice channels that can be multiple5ed. S stem bandwidth is measured in =./ or -./. In general, when we sa that a s stem has bandwidth of 2& =./, means that 2& million pulses of light per second will travel down the fibre and each will be distinguishable b the receiver. The information carr ing capacit , which increases with the bandwidth of the transmission medium, is ver large in fibres. The bandwidth available on a pair of single mode fibres is in the order of several -./. Thus, thousands of circuits can be carried on the fibres whether the information is voice, data or video or a combination of these. C annel Capacit' or ;nformation =ate In general, the capacit of a channel for information transfer is proportional to its bandwidth. Two ma"or theories that relate to the amount of data that can be transmitted based upon the bandwidth of a medium are the 7 quist @elationship and ShannonDs *aw. :rior to discussing these theories, it is important to understand the difference between bit and baud due to the confusion that dominates the use of these terms. <it versus bau# The binar digit or bit is a unit of information transfer. In comparison, the term baud defines a signaling change rate, normall e5pressed in terms of signal changes per second.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 13% Section 1%C $igital ,ultiple/ing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

In a communications s stem, the encoding of one bit per signal element results in equivalenc between bit and baud. That is, an information transfer rate of O bits per second is carried b a signaling change rate of O baud, where each baud signal represents the value of one bit. 7ow, suppose our communications s stem was modified so that two bits are encoded into one signal change. This would result in the baud rate being half the bit rate, which obviousl ma!es bit and baud nonFequivalent. The encoding of two bits into one baud is !nown as dibit encoding. N'3uist relations ip In #$2;, .arr 7 quist developed the relationship between the bandwidth and the baud rate on a channel as < I 28 where < is the baud rate and 8 the bandwidth in ./. The 7 quist relationship was based upon a problem !nown as inters mbol interference, which is associated with bandFlimited channels. If a rectangular pulse is input to a bandFlimited channel, the bandwidth limitation of the channel results in a rounding of the corners of the pulse. This rounding results in the generation of an undesired signal in which the leading and trailing edges formed due to signal rounding can interfere with both previous and subsequent pulses. This signal interference is illustrated in Figure 1%.2.

Figure 1%.2C Pulse response t roug a ban#Klimite# c annel . The bandwidth limitation of a channel causes the leading and trailing edges of a pulse to interfere with other pulses as the signal change e5ceeds twice the bandwidth of a channel. This condition is called inters'mbol interference. The 7 quist relationship states that the rate at which data can be transmitted prior to inters mbol interference occurring must be less than or equal to twice the bandwidth in ./. Thus, an analog circuit with a bandwidth of <&&& ./ can onl support baud rates at or under %&&& signaling elements per second. Since an oscillating modulation technique such as amplitude, frequenc or phase modulation halves the achievable signaling rate, a twisted pair telephone circuit supports a ma5imum signaling rate of <&&& baud. N'3uist sampling + eorem6 =inimum numbers of samples are to be sent for an band'limited signal to get a good appro5imation of the original analogue signal and the same is defined b the N'3uist sampling + eorem6
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1%C $igital ,ultiple/ing 131

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

L;f a ban# limite# signal is sample# at regular intervals of time an# at a rate e3ual to or more t an t7ice t e ig est signal fre3uenc' in t e ban#D t en t e sample contains all t e information of t e original signal.L =athematicall , if f0 is the highest frequenc in the signal to be sampled then the sampling frequenc Fs needs to be greater than 2 f0. i.e. FsP2f0 Since the voice signals are band limited to 3 )./ the sampling frequenc be ; )./. +ime perio# of sampling +s I 1 sec *%%% or +s I 12" micro secon#s

E/ampleC For a <&'channel :(= s stem, we have <2 time slots in a frameN each slot carries an ;'bit word. o The total number of bits per frame P 32 / * I 2"& o The total number of frames per seconds is *%%% o The total number of bits per second are 2"& / *%%% I 2%4* @Fbits. o Thus, a <& chl :(= s stem has 2%4* @ bits.

1%.4

,ultiple/ing $igital Signals

The digital signals, which are to be multiple5ed, ma be s nchronous to one cloc! 8called master cloc!9 or the ma not be s nchronous 8called as nchronous signals9.

1%.4.1 ,ultiple/ing of S'nc ronous $igital Signals


The various tributar bit streams are s nchronous and operate at the same rate defined as + bit,sec. To multiple5 [nG such tributaries the rate of multiple5 output should be n+ bit,s. The method adopted for multiple5ing such n signals into one stream ma be as follows6 <loc9 interleavingC +unch of information ta!en at a time from each tributar and fed to main multiple5 output stream. The memor required will be ver large. <it interleavingC A bit of information ta!en at a time from each tributar and fed to main multiple5 output stream in c clic order, a ver small memor is required. At the demultiple5ing end, it is necessar to recogni/e which bit of information belongs to which tributar . This could be achieved b transmitting a fi5ed code after a fi5ed number of information bits called TframeU. The fi5ed code is called frame alignment signal. It is recogni/ed first and received frame of information is aligned to this fi5ed code. This method of multiple5ing is eas but not reliable. If an deviation in nominal bit rate of a tributar occurs, it will cause loss of time slot and hence loss of information.

1%.4.2 ,ultiple/ing of >s'nc ronous Signal

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 132 Section 1%C $igital ,ultiple/ing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

.ere, various tributaries operate at different bit rates. Two signals are as nchronous at their corresponding significant instant occur at nominall the same rate, an variation in rate being constrained within specified limits. >hen nominal bit rate of tributaries are within specified limit. It is necessar to s nchroni/e the tributar signal with a common nominal bit rate of multiple5er derived from timing generator of multiple5er. The s nchroni/ation is done in such a wa that there is no loss of information. The process adopted for such s nchroni/ation is called _Pulse stuffing` or justification. Iustification is a process of changing the rate of digital signals in a controlled manner. There are three t pes of "ustification processes6 1i2. Positive justificationC (ommon s nchroni/ation bit rate offered at each tributar is higher than the bit rate of individual tributar . 1ii2. Positive?negative justificationC (ommon s nchroni/ation bit rate offers is equal to the nominal value. 1iii2. Negative justificationC (ommon s nchroni/ation bit rate offered is less than the nominal value.

Figure 1%.3C Combining of PC, Signal Figure 1%.31a2 shows a configuration where the outputs of two :(= transmitters AM+ are to be multiple5ed in the combiner. If A and + are s nchronous, the can be easil multiple5ed b the combiner as shown in Figure 1%.31b2. -enerall , however, AM+ are cloc!ed b separate cloc! sources of as nchronous. In this case multiple5ing is not successivel accomplished simpl b the use of combiner owing to the occurrence of pulse phase fluctuations and,or pulse amplitude superposition as can be seen in Figure 1%.31c2.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1%C $igital ,ultiple/ing 133

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

=etiming >s'nc ronous Signals <' )ustificationC Figure 1%.4 shows a s stem for e5plaining the principle of the multiple5er for successfull multiple5ing plural as nchronous signals. The waveforms appearing at various points in Figure 1%.4 are shown in Figure 1%.". An as nchronous. input pulse train > is written into ,E, ; comprising several elements. The writing pulse train C whose bit rate is f is e5tracted from > at a cloc! e5traction 8C(@ E\+ ;9. On the other hand, the written information is read out of ,E, ; with a sufficient phase lag with respect to time of writing in. Through an inhibit gate 8;N0 .>+E I9, the reading pulse train $ is obtained b dividing the output bit rate nf 11Z a2 of a common cloc! generator 8(*) -E79 at a bit rate divider 8BI? #9. >here, nC no. of as'nc ronous signals to be multiple/e#. aC cloc9 increase rate.

Figure 1%.4C ,ultiple/ing plural as'nc ronous signals As the bit rate of the reading pulse train $ is set at 1fZ a f2 which is higher than an value of f, the time of read out 1$2 graduall approaches that of write in 1C9. The phase difference between C5$ is monitored b a phase comparator of CO,P ; and "ust before the difference reaches /ero, a pulse is applied to the inhibit input of ;N0 .>+E ; from a control circuit 1CON+ ;2 to inhibit the gate. At this moment, with one bit of the reading pulse train $ being removed, the reading operation pauses and an information less pulse 8or "ustification pulse9 is inserted into the read out pulse train E. the time of read out 1$2 at the same time is again set to a sufficient lag with respect to time write in 1.2. As all the signals read out of the respective memories are now retimed b timing pulses derived from the common C(@ .EN, the are now easil multiple5ed as F in Figure 1%." at the combiner 8CO,<9.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 134 Section 1%C $igital ,ultiple/ing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The information pulses inserted into E 8those hatched in Figure 1%."9 and this sort of retiming method are respectivel called _justification pulsesU and _justificationU. The information whether or not "ustification has been performed, is inserted into F and CO,< and transmitted to the receiving side =ecovering Original Signals <' $ejustificationC The "ustification pulses have to be removed at the receiving side to perfectl recover the original signals. This operation is called Tde"ustificationU. The transmitted pulse train F from the line is received and demultiple5ed at distributor 8$;S+9. One of the demultiple5ed signals E that corresponds to >D is written into memor ,E, 2. The writing pulse train - whose bit rate is a is obtained through an inhibit grate 8;N0 .>+E 22 b dividing the output bit rate nf11Z a f2 of cloc! e5tractor 8C(@ E\+29. On the other hand, the written information is read out of ,E, 2 with a slight phase lag with respect to the time of write in. The reading pulse train 0, whose bit rate is fD is applied from ?oltage (ontrolled Oscillator 86CO9. As the bit rate of the reading pulse train 0 is lower than that of the writing pulse train ., the time of read out 109 graduall drifts awa from that of write in 8 .2. Iust before a "ustification pulse in E 8O7E of these hatched in Figure1%."9 is written into ,E, 2, the information, telling that the "ustification has been performed is applied from $;S+ to a control circuit 8CON+ 29. Then a pulse is applied to the inhibiting input of ;N0 .>+E 2 from CON+ 2 to inhibit the gate.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1%C $igital ,ultiple/ing 13"

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure 1%."C 8ave forms at various points in Figure 1%.4 At this moment, with one bit of the writing pulse train . being removed, the writing operation pauses and the "ustification pulse is removed or de"ustified. At the same time, the time of read out 102 again set to be ver close to the time of write in 1.2. As the reading operation does not pause, the original signal is recovered as [>G. The phase difference between . and 0 is monitored b a phase comparator 8CO,P 29, and the low frequenc components of the output voltage of CO,P 2 are applied to 6CO through a low pass filter 8 (PF9. Thus, the "itter introduced due to de"ustification into the read out pulse train Q>L is sufficientl suppressed. The loop formed b 6COD CO,P and (PF is called a TP ase controlle# loopU. )ustification Control SignalC Iustification control signal indicates at demultiple5er the presence of "ustifiable bit in the frame. To avoid errors present in the "ustification control bit, more than one bit is transmitted as control bit and ma"orit decision is ta!en at demultiple5er. 7ormall < or A bits 8< bits in case of ; and <3 =bits s stems and A bits in #3&= bits s stem9 are transmitted per tributar per frame as "ustification control bits and 2 or < bits present at demultiple5er out of < or A bits transmitted are ta!en as ma"orit decision and it is assumed that "ustifiable bit is present in the frame. These < or A bits of "ustification control bits per tributar per frame are distributed in the frame. Two or three digital errors are required to cause false information of "ustification 8loss of one digit or addition of one digit9, which results in a loss of frame alignment in lower hierarchical levels.

1%.4.3 0ar#7are =eali4ation of $igital ,ultiple/ S'stem


S stems are reali/ed b digital circuits using TT* and E(* I(s. The t pical gate dela s and toggling speeds of the different series of I(s are given in +able 1. Table #6 t pical gate dela s and toggling speeds of the different series of I(s Propagation #ela's 1t'pical2 +oggling spee# 1t'pical2 (S series ++( #A ns 2A =./ S series ++( A ns 0A =./ 1%D%%% series EC( < ns 2&& =./ As is evident from the above rates that *S series is suitable onl till ; =./ s stem, where as S series is suitable for <3 =./ s stem and #&,&&& series is being used for #3& =./ s stem.

1%.4.4 +ransmit +ributar'


The information from tributar is written in an elastic memor with tributar cloc! derived from incoming signal. Elastic memor is read out b a cloc!, which is faster than the cloc! of its own. @eading cloc! is derived from common transmit cloc! 8(ommon s nchroni/ation cloc!9. The reading cloc! is of rate F2Fn 8where n is the no. of tributaries and F2 is output frequenc of multiple5er, for e5ample, <3,<%;,3 for <3= bit s stem9 with gaps where non information bit occurs in the frame structure 8i.e., for frame alignment signal and "ustification control bit, service digits9.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 13& Section 1%C $igital ,ultiple/ing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Since read cloc! alwa s operates faster than write cloc!, it is required to stop read cloc! for a bit and insert non'information bit'"ustification bit. The information, which read out from memor , contains information bit, "ustification control bit and "ustifiable bit. The decision when to insert the "ustifiable bit is ta!en when linearl increasing phase difference crosses a threshold level. The threshold value is selected in such a wa that average rate of read cloc! is equal to the write cloc! rate. In the demultiple5er, the cloc! timing of the input multiple5 signal enables a control on the timing of operations. The detection of frame alignment signals enables the receive frame to be aligned with the transmit frame which enables the receiver to demultiple5 the tributar information. This tributar information is written in elastic memor as in transmit tributar b the cloc! derived from receive cloc!. A phase loc!ed oscillator is used to read the elastic memor with a timing rate equal to the average write cloc! and, therefore, equal to that of the corresponding tributar signal at the input of the multiple5er.

1%.4." )itter >spect of ,ultiple/ E3uipment


>hile considering the "itter aspect of the multiple5 s stem, different t pes of "itter introduced in the s stems are ta!en into account such as6 8i9. Iitter introduced due to the routine insertion of the frame alignment words and of the service digits and "ustification instructions. 8ii9. Iustification "itter. 8iii9.>aiting time "itter. The first two "itter components are at high frequencies in relation to the pass band of the :hase (ontrol *oop, and hence filtered out, whereas waiting time "itter which is due to phase difference between write and read cloc! and varies from frame to frame, has a low frequenc component and cannot be "ittered out b :hase (ontrol *oop at the demultiple5er output.

1%."

$igital 0ierarc '

The term _#igital ierarc '` has been created when developing digital transmission s stems. It was laid down when b multiple5ing a certain number of :(= primar multiple5ers were combined to form digital multiple5ers of higher order 8e.g. second'order multiple5 equipments9. (onsequentl , a digital hierarch comprises a number of levels. Each level is assigned a specific bit rate, which is formed b multiple5ing digital signals, each having the bit rate of the ne5t lower level. In ((ITT @ec. -.0&2, the term Tdigital multiple5 hierarch U is defined as follows6 TA series of digital multiple5es graded according to capabilit so that multiple5ing at one level combines a defined number of digital signals, each having the digit rate prescribed for the ne5t lower order, into a digital signal having a prescribed digit rate which is then available for further combination with other digital signals of the same rate in a digital multiple5 of the ne5t higher orderU. As far as the analogue FB= technique is concerned, the (.(.I.T.T. recommends the worldwide use of the #2'channel group 8secondar group9. @elevant (.(.I.T.T. @ecommendation e5ists also for channel assemblies with more than %& channels so that with certain e5ceptions F there is onl one worldwide hierarch for the FB= s stem 8although the term Thierarch U is not used in the FB= technique9. In the digital transmission technique it was unfortunatel not possible to draw up a worldwide digital hierarch . In practice, equipment as specified in (.(.I.T.T. @ecommendation
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1%C $igital ,ultiple/ing 13!

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

-.0<2 and 0<<, the do not onl differ completel in their bit rates, but also in the frame structures, in signaling, frame alignment, etc. 7eedless to sa that, as a consequence, the higher order digital multiple5ers derived from the two different :(= primar multiple5ers and thus the digital hierarchies differ as well. The two :(= based hierarchies are shown in +able 2. For this digital hierarch , two specifications have at present been laid down onl for the first level at 2&3; !b,s and for the second level at ;33; !b,s. As for the higher levels, the situation is "ust contrar to that e5isting in the case of digital hierarchies derived from #A33 !b,s primar multiple5, i.e. general agreement has more or less been reached on the fourth level having a bit rate of #<$2%3 !b,s. Ath order s stem where bit rate of A%A#3; !b,s are also available. +able 2C PC,Kbase# ierarc ies $igital ierarc ies base# on t e 1"44 @bitsFs PC, primar' multiple/ e3uipment 1b?la72 (evel in 0ierarc ' <it rate in ,bitsFs #.A33 +rans. (ine 5 No. of C als

Digital hierarchies based ! the


2%4* @bitsFs PC, primar' multiple/ e3uipment <it rate in +rans. (ine 5 No. of ,bitsFs C als

FI@ST T#'23 2.&3; E#'<& *E?E* SE(O7B %.<#2 T#'$% ;.33; E2'#2& *E?E* T.I@B 33.0<% *A 8Iumbo -roup9'%02 <3.<%; E<'3;& *E?E* FO1@T. $# >T3 8>ave guide9'#<33 #3& E3'#$2& *E?E* FIFT. 203 TA'3&<2 AA% EA'0%;& *E?E* NoteC The bit rates indicated for Fourth and Fifth level are rounded off to nearest =bits,s

1%.&

$igital ,ultiple/ Subs'stem

The Bigital =ultiple5 Sub S stem 1Figure 1%.&2 comprises :rimar =1O, Second Order =1O, Third Order =1O or Second,Third Order =1O 8called S)I: =1O9 and Fourth Order =1O. These =ultiple5ers digiti/e and multiple5 signals into digital streams of 2&3; !bps 82=+' <&channels9, ;33; !bps 8;=+'#2&channels9, <3,<%;!bps 8<3=+'3;& channels9 and #<$,2%3!bps 8#3&=+'#$2& channels9. The :rimar =ultiple5er converts the analog signals of <& ?F channels in the trans'path into a :rimar :(= group of <& channels with a line bit rate of 2&3;!bps. In the receive'path it converts bac! the :(= bit rate of 2&3;!bps into <&?F channel analog signals.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 13* Section 1%C $igital ,ultiple/ing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Secon#Kor#er multiple/ingC At transmitting side, the SecondForder Bigital =ultiple5ers multiple5 four 2&3; !bit,s digital bitFstreams into one ;33; !bit,s bit stream. @eversel , these multiple5ers separate 8demultiple59 one ;33; !bit,s digital bitFstream into four 2&3; !bit,s digital bitFstreams at receiving side. + ir#Kor#er multiple/ingC At transmitting side, the ThirdForder Bigital =ultiple5ers multiple5 four ;33; !bit,s digital bit streams into one <3<%; !bit,s stream. @eversel , these multiple5ers separate one <3<%; !bit,s digital bit stream into four ;33; !bit,s digital bit'streams at receiving side. Secon#F+ ir#Kor#er multiple/ingC At transmitting side, the Second,ThirdForder Bigital =ultiple5ers multiple5 si5teen 2&3; !bit,s or four ;33; !bit,s bitFstreams into one <3<%; !bit,s bit stream. @eversel , these =ultiple5ers separate 8demultiple59 one <3<%; !bit,s bitFstream into si5teen 2&3; !bit,s or four ;33; !bit,s bitFstreams at receiving side. It is also called S)I: =1O. Fourt Kor#er multiple/ing6 At transmitting side, the FourthForder Bigital =ultiple5er multiple5es four <3<%; !bit,s bitFstreams into one #<$,2%3 !bit,s bitFstream. @eversel , it separates one #<$,2%3 !bit,s bitFstream into four <3<%; !bit,s bitFstreams at receiving side.

Figure 1%.&C $igital ,ultiple/ Subs'stem Fift Kor#er multiple/ingC At transmitting side, the FifthForder Bigital =ultiple5er multiple5es four #<$.2%3 =b,s bitF streams into one A%3.$$2 =b,s bitFstream. @eversel , it separates one A%3.$$2 =b,s bitF stream into four #<$.2%3 =b,s bitFstreams at receiving side. +rans ,ultiple/er e3uipmentC The Trans =ultiple5er equipment 8Figure 1%.!9 is connected between the digital multiple5 equipment and Frequenc Bivision =ultiple5 8FB=9 Equipment. The Trans =ultiple5er performs direct conversion between a basic supergroup band 8<#2 to AA2 )./9 to two :(= signals 82&3; !bps9 and vice versa.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1%C $igital ,ultiple/ing 13-

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure 1%.!C +rans ,ultiple/er e3uipment

1%.! Optical Fibre +ransmission (in9


The basic components of Optical Fibre lin! are6 8i9. Optical =odulator at the transmitting end. 8ii9. Optical Bemodulator at the receiving end. 8iii9. Optical fibre 8the transmission medium9 8iv9. Two fibres are used for providing an optical fibre communication lin!, one for transmission and the other for receiving the optical signals. The Transmission Sequence is as given below6 8i9. Information is Encoded into Electrical Signals. 8ii9. Electrical Signals are converted into light Signals 8E to O9. 8iii9. *ight Travels Bown the Fibre. 8iv9. A Betector (hanges the *ight Signals into Electrical Signals 8O to E9. 8v9. Electrical Signals are Becoded into Information. +otal ;nternal =eflection6 The @eflection that Occurs when a *ight @a Traveling in One =aterial .its a Bifferent =aterial and @eflects +ac! into the Original =aterial without an *oss of *ight.

Optical Communication6 Birect Intensit =odulation 8B I=9 is the t pe of modulation used for optical communications. In this t pe of modulation, the intensit of the optical carrier is varied in accordance with the modulating signal. At the receiving end, the B I= optical signal is direct detected b using photodetector and the output of this detector is demultiple5ed in electrical regime. It is also possible to utili/e a number of optical sources, each operating at a different wavelengths on the single fibre lin!. This technique is referred to as the >avelength Bivision =ultiple5ing 8>B=9. The separation of the multiple5ed signals in a >B= s stem is done bu using optical filters li!e Interference filters, Biffraction grating filters etc. The demultiple5ing of >B= signal at the receiving end is thus done in the optical regime. .B+ < +inar (ode is a bipolar line code. The optical modulator, which generall is an intensit modulator, cannot respond to negative unipolar signal. (oop S7itc C For locali/ing faults on the fibre optic lin!, *oop Switches are provided along the route, which are operated with remote control for locali/ing the faults in the optical fibre lin!. + looping at the intermediate points, the continuit of the optical fibre lin! can be tested and the fault section can be locali/ed.
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 14% Section 1%C $igital ,ultiple/ing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Elastic <ufferC Elastic +uffer is used for ad"usting the e5tra bits used for "ustification with the help of @EAB,>@ITE cloc!. ScramblerC *ong streams of #s and &s in digital stream are scrambled b a process of coding and decoding. This is done to facilitate eas recover of cloc! at the receiving end. Service C annelC An orderwire channel is provided for connecting a service telephone for the purpose of inters communication among service personnel at the terminals and at enroute regenerating stations of the optical fibre lin!. >u/iliar' C annelC In addition to the service channel service data channels are provided for the operation of central maintenance computer. "<&< Enco#er6 The resultant digital multiple5ed data stream is coded into an optical line code in order to increase the line bit rate and hence the bandwidth and also to provide in service monitoring of the optical fibre lin!. The bloc! code A+%+ code is used in <3=+ and #3& =+ Optical transmission s stems where A binar bits are ta!en sequentiall and converted into % successive binar bits. Optical =egenerator6 The optical signal transmitted on the fibre suffers loss of power due to attenuation, optical connector losses, fibre splicing losses etc and also distortion. To remed these defects in the signal after it has propagated to a long distance, regenerators,repeaters are installed enroute. CP: Control6 The (entral :rocessing 1nit is meant for controlling the optical fibre lin! from the terminal end b using a central computer. The (:1 networ! is e5tended to all the regenerators in the lin!. It provides control, maintenance and alarm functions for the entire optical fibre lin!. E3uipment Po7er Suppl'6 -enerall B(,B( converter is used for providing all the required B( voltages for the operation of various units. The nominal B( voltage is F 3; ? and the power consumption would be around % to #& watts.

1%.*

(et :s Sum :p

The Plesioc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 8P$09 is a technolog used in telecommunications networ!s to transport large quantities of data over digital transport equipment such as fibre optic and microwave radio s stems. The term plesiochronous is derived from -ree! plesio, meaning near, and chronos, time, and refers to the fact that :B. networ!s run in a state where different parts of the networ! are almost, but not quite perfectl , s nchronised. :B. is now being replaced b S nchronous Bigital .ierarch 8SB.9 equipment in most telecommunications networ!s. The information given in this Section will help in understanding the digital multipl5ing principles and their application in fibre optic cable s stems.

1%.8i9. 8ii9.

@e' 8or#s
F$,6 Frequenc Bivision =ultiple5ing +$,6 Time Bivision =ultiple5ing

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1%C $igital ,ultiple/ing 141

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8III9. 8I?9. 8v9. 8vi9. 8vii9.

8viii9. 8i59. 859. 85i9.

85ii9.

<an#7i#t is defined as the amount of information that an Optical Fibre cable s stem can carr such that each pulse of light is distinguishable b the receiver. <itC The binar digit or bit is a unit of information transfer. The term bau# defines a signaling change rate, normall e5pressed in terms of signal changes per second. ;nters'mbol ;nterference. The bandwidth limitation of a channel causes the leading and trailing edges of a pulse to interfere with other pulses as the signal change e5ceeds twice the bandwidth of a channel. This condition is called inters'mbol interference. N'3uist sampling + eorem6 RIf a band limited signal is sampled at regular intervals of time and at a rate equal to or more than twice the highest signal frequenc in the band, then the sample contains all the information of the original signal.R <loc9 interleavingC +unch of information ta!en at a time from each tributar and fed to main multiple5 output stream. The memor required will be ver large. <it interleavingCA bit of information ta!en at a time from each tributar and fed to main multiple5 output stream in c clic order, a ver small memor is required. )ustification is a process of changing the rate of digital signals in a controlled manner. $igital ierarc 'C TA series of digital multiple5es graded according to capabilit so that multiple5ing at one level combines a defined number of digital signals, each having the digit rate prescribed for the ne5t lower order, into a digital signal having a prescribed digit rate which is then available for further combination with other digital signals of the same rate in a digital multiple5 of the ne5t higher orderU. S@;P ,:\C In S!ip =u5, at transmitting side, the Second,ThirdForder Bigital =ultiple5ers multiple5 si5teen 2&3; !bit,s or four ;33; !bit,s bitFstreams into one <3<%; !bit,s bit stream. @eversel , these =ultiple5ers separate 8demultiple59 one <3<%; !bit,s bitFstream into si5teen 2&3; !bit,s or four ;33; !bit,s bitFstreams at receiving side.

1%.1% Auestions 5 >ns7ers to c ec9 'our Progress E/ercise


A1. 8i9. 8ii9. 8rite +=:E 1+2 or F>(SE 1F2 against follo7ing statementsC In analogue communication s stems, multiple5 equipment uses Frequenc Bivision =ultiple5ing 8FB=9 to assemble individual voice channels. J K Time Bivision =ultiple5ing 8TB=9 is eminentl suited for multiple5ing digital signals. J K

8iii9. Iustification is a process of changing the rate of digital signals in a controlled manner. . J K 8iv9. Iustification control signal indicates at demultiple5er the presence of "ustifiable bit in the frame. . J K 8v9. S series of Ics is suitable for <3 =./ s stem and #&,&&& series is being used for #3& =./ s stem. J K

8vi9. Birect Intensit =odulation 8B I=9 is the t pe of modulation used for optical communications.. J K

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 142 Section 1%C $igital ,ultiple/ing

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8vii9. *oop Switches are provided along the route, which are operated with remote control for locali/ing the faults in the optical fibre lin!. J K 8viii9. Elastic +uffer is used for ad"usting the e5tra bits used for "ustification with the help of @EAB,>@ITE cloc!. . J K 8i59. An orderwire channel is provided for connecting a service telephone for the purpose of inters communication among service personnel at the terminals and at enrooted regenerating stations of the optical fibre lin!. J K 859. In addition to the service channel service data channels are provided for the operation of central maintenance computer J K

>ns7ersC >ll are +=:E. 555555555555555555555555

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1%C $igital ,ultiple/ing 143

423.11 1*
Para No. 11.% 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11." 11.& 11.! 11.* 11.11.1%

F;<=E OP+;C +=>NS,;SS;ON SBS+E,S

Subject Objectives ;ntro#uction Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stem 1FO+S2? * ,bps Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stem 1FO+S2? 34 ,bps Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stem 1FO+S2? 14% ,bps Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stem 1FO+S2? "&" ,bps ,easurements in P$0 s'stems Capacities of OF S'stems (et :s Sum :p @e' 8or#s Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress

Page No.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 144 Section 11C Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stems

423. 11 F;<=E OP+;C +=>NS,;SS;ON SBS+E,S


11.% Objectives

This Section presents the details about Fibre Optic Transmission S stems 8FOTS9 of different capacities. After going through this Section, ou will !now about various fibre optic transmission s stems vi/N ;=bps, <3=bps, #3&=bps and A%A=bps and learn about various measurements in :B. s stems.

11.1

;ntro#uction

As alread seen in the previous Sections, Fibre Optic Transmission S stem 8FOTS9 uses light waves as carrier of information signals, which are transmitted through an optical fibre using the principle of total internal reflection. FOTS mainl consists of two terminal stations with or without repeaters in between. A terminal of FOTS in trans path converts the baseband data into optical signal 8Electrical to Optical9 for feeding onto the optical fibre, and re'converts the received optical signal into baseband data 8Optical to Electrical9 in its receive path. An intermediate repeater converts received optical signal from one direction to baseband data, re'generates and re'converts the baseband into optical signal for transmission to other direction. The discussion in this Section however will be limited to :lesiochronous Bigital .ierarch 8:B.9 Fibre Optic Transmission S stems.

11.2

Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stem 1FO+S2? * ,bFs


comprise of following two

The ; =b,s Fibre optic transmission s stems mainl subs stems6 8i9. The =1O subs stem and 8ii9. The Optical *ine Terminating Equipment 8O*TE9.

The =1O subs stem as alread seen in previous Section, multiple5es 3 numbers of as nchronous 2=bps into one ; =bps aggregate. The O*TE subs stem processes the electrical ; =bps and converts the signal from electrical to optical. and vice versa. Figure 11.1 gives a general bloc! diagram. *,bFs O(+E The *,bFs O(+E can wor! for both long .aul and short .aul routes, without an change of .ardware,Software. The d namic range of the equipments is much better than 2&d+ for either t pe of operation, can wor! from '#d+ to be ond F<Ad+. T picall in short .aul operation, with the transmit power of '#d+ and losses around 'Ad+, the equipment is required to be operative for a @O power of '%d+8'#X'Ad+9, for which the equipments wor! directl without an modification. In addition to the above, a trim port facilit is provided in the optical interface card wherein it is possible to decrease the Transmit power to about 'Ad+. :rovision is made at both the transmit and receive sections of the Optical Interface card to mount attenuators to further var the TO,@5 power as required.
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 11C Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stems 14"

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure 11.1C * ,bps FO+S 1i2. Optical +/ section of * ,bFs O(+EC

In the Transmit section of the ; =b,s O*TE, this electrical ;33$)b,s signal is directl converted to ##.2%=b,s rate to accommodate Supervisor and Orderwire information, which is converted into optical signal b *aser Biode and transmitted over #<#&nm wavelength on single mode optical fibre cable. 1ii2. Optical =/ section of * ,bFs O(+EC

In the @eceive section of the ;=b,s O*TE, the optical signal is converted to digital electrical signal using A:B 8Avalanche :hoto Biode9 with suitable line decoder and the Supervisor and Orderwire information is removed. An electrical signal of ;33;)b,s is derived from the ##2%)./ signal and the .B+< output signal of ;33;)b,s is obtained. State'of'the'art ?*SI devices are used to obtain and ensure good performance, high reliabilit , low power consumption and compact si/e. The optical power input , output signals from the main cable itself shall be e5tended using 2& metres F(':( cables, and connected to F(':( adaptors provided on the Optical Interface card of the O*TE subrac!. A minimum cable length of 3&&mm should be coiled to facilitate removal , "ac!ing of the Optical Interface card without damaging the cables. The incoming .B+< data from the 2nd Order =ultiple5ing equipment 8at a bit rate of ;33; )b,s X,' <&ppm9 is equali/ed to cater for a station cable loss of a ma5imum of %d+. The ;=b,s O*TE comprises of the following :(+ assemblie6 a9 Supervisor card. b9 Order wire card. c9 Optical Interface card. In addition to the above, a separate )e board and displa control unit 8.and held unit9 is mounted at a height, which has a *(B displa . This is the supervisor and control unit, from
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 14& Section 11C Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stems

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

which the status of the terminals ,regenerator can be monitored and man parameters relevant to the monitoring of the supervisor functions and other functions concerning optical parameters li!e Auto *aser shut function and au5iliar functions can be selected and commands issued through this (ontrol 1nit. 1iii2. (oss of recover' of frame alignmentC

As per IT1'T recommendations, *oss of frame alignment is assumed to have ta!en place when four consecutive frame alignment signals have been incorrectl received in their predicted positions. >hen frame alignment is assumed to be lost, the frame alignment device decides that such alignment has effectivel been recovered, when it detects the presence of three consecutive frame alignment signals. The frame alignment device having detected the presence of a single correct frame alignment signal begins a new search for the frame alignment signal, when it detects the absence of the frame alignment signal in one of the following frame. 1iv2. >larm an# conse3uent actionsC +able 11.1C $efects an# Conse3uent >ction in O(+E $efect Conse3uent >ction Failure of internal power suppl . :rompt maintenance alarm is actuated. *oss of incoming digital signal at :rompt maintenance alarm is actuated ;33;)b,s. and AIS is applied to line side. *oss of incoming optical signal :rompt maintenance alarm is actuated and AIS is applied to interface side. +it Error @atio of # 5 #&E'< on @ec :rompt maintenance alarm is actuated side. and AIS is applied to interface side. +it Error @atio of # 5 #&E'% on @ec Beferred maintenance alarm is actuated. side8opt9. *aser +ias current out of limit. Beferred maintenance alarm is actuated. Optical power down or *aser switches Beferred maintenance alarm is actuated. off as per IT1 FT -.$A; 8opt9.

Sl. No. # 2 < 3 A % 0

All faults actuate urgent or deferred alarms, as the case ma be and displa the necessar information, with provision !ept for locating the fault units and replacing them in a modular wa . 1v2. Or#er 7ire Facilit'C

Order wire facilit is provided between terminal stations using main optical fibre transmission pair. Accordingl , suitable provision for e5tracting and in"ecting order wire speech is provided in each of the terminal equipment and there is facilit to e5tend the line s stem orderwire to an other s stem or e5change lines on 2>,3> basis. The orderwire is wor!able even when main s stem has deteriorated to +E@ of #&E'<.

11.3

Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stem 1FO+S2? 34,bps

The <3 =b,s Fibre optic transmission s stem mainl comprises of two subs stems. 7amel the ,:\ subs'stem and Optical (ine +erminating E3uipment 1O(+E2. The =1O portion, as alread seen in previous Section, multiple5es 3 numbers of as nchronous ;=bps
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 11C Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stems 14!

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

into one <3=+ aggregate .The O*TE subs stem processes the electrical <3 =bps and converts the signal from electrical to optical. and vice versa. This Section deals with the O*TE portion onl . 1i2. FunctionsC

<3=b,s O*TE 8Figure 11.29, on the transmitting side converts a <3,<%; =b,s .B+< coded signal coming from the third order digital multiple5 equipment, to a 32%%3 =b,s A+%+ coded signal and finall into an optical signal for transmission over an optical fibre cable. On the receiving side the O*T equipment converts bac! the optical signal into a <3,<%; =b,s .B+< signal in the reverse process, which is fed to the third order digital multiple5 receive chain.

Figure 11.2C <loc9 $iagram of 34 ,bFs O(+E <3=b O*T transmits service data signals and remote service data 8onFline monitoring9 signals as overhead bits, inserted into the main signal, after A+%+ code conversion.

1ii2.

CompositionC
One Transmit (ode (onverter 1nit. One @emote (ode (onverter 1nit.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 14* Section 11C Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stems

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

One Alarm (ontrol 1nit. One Electrical to Optical 8E,O9 (onverter 1nit. One Optical to Electrical 8O,E9 (onverter 1nit. One :ower Suppl 1nit. One Service Bata Interface 1nit 8O:TIO7A*9.

A :ortable (ontrol Terminal 8:(T9 is provided which functions as service status monitoring unit and facilitates in e5ecuting the commands for testing the equipment. 1iii2. Functional <loc9 $escriptions

+ransmit Si#eC <3<%; )b,s .B+< signal is applied to the transmit code converter unit 8O=T (O7?9 through the <3=b,s in coa5ial terminal on the front of the unit, the signal is converted into a unipolar signal and decoded. Then, the speed is converted to 32%%3 !bit,s, after serial to A'bit parallel data conversion. The data is thereafter scrambled and coded b A+%+ coding rule and fed to the combiner, where the main data is combined with @emote Service Bata 8@SB9, service data and the frame alignment signal as overhead bits. The 32%%3 !bit,s electrical signal is fed to the electrical to optical converter unit 8E,O (O7?9, where it is converted into an optical signal. The optical signal is then applied to the optical transmission line through the 32= O:T O1T optical adaptor on the E,O (O7? unit. =eceive Si#eC The 32%%3 )b,s received optical signal is applied to 32= O:T I7 optical adapter on optical to electrical converter unit 8O,E (O7?9. In the O,E (O7? unit, the signal is converted into an electrical signal and fed to the receive code converter unit 8@(? (O7?9. In the @(? (O7? unit, frame s nchroni/ation is achieved b detecting the frame alignment signal in the received signal. After serial to % bit parallel conversion, the overhead bits corresponding to service data and remote service data are separated in the separator 8SE:9. Then the 32%%3 )bit,s signal is converted from %+ to A+ code. The %+A+ code rule violations are monitored b error detector 8E@@ BET9 to deduce the +itFerror rate 8+E@9 of the s stem. The data is then descrambled and converted to a bit rate of <3<%; )b,s b the speed converter 8S:B (O7?9 unit. Thereafter, the A bit parallel data is converted into serial form b parallelFtoFserial converter unit 8:,S (O7?9 and coded to .B+< line code b .B+< (OBE@ unit. Finall , thus obtained unipolar data is converted into a bipolar data b unipolar to bipolar converter, 81,+ (O7?9, suitable for transmission over interconnecting 0A ohms unbalanced coa5ial cable to the third order digital multiple5 equipment, as per the ((ITT recommendations. The <3=b digital output is available on <3= @ O1T coa5ial terminal on the @(? (O7? unit Service $ata C annel 1Optional2C Four %3 !bit,s service data channels, as nchronous to each other, can be transmitted using A service data bits in the overhead bits. These five bits form a frame having a data rate of 2$% )b,s. >larm .enerationC Alarms generated in the <3= O*T and the remote service data from remote O*T or repeaters are processed in A(1 8Alarm (ontrol 1nit9 to initiate the appropriate activation of stations alarms and alarm indicators. The generated alarms include the alarm indication lamps, alarm output terminal and when appropriate, the signal is sent to the remote station to indicate the status of the local station. The alarm information is classified as either a :rompt =aintenance 8:=9 alarm or Beferred =aintenance 8B=9 alarm. *amps are provided on the front of the O*T and repeaters for the := and B= alarm indications. The O*Ts indicate the := and B= alarms for local,
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 11C Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stems 14-

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

remote O*Ts and repeaters. The detailed alarm information is displa ed on the :(T or *ine Supervisor Equipment. +ransmit Co#e Converter :nitC The Transmit code converter 1nit 8O=T (O7?9 converts the incoming <3<%; )b,s signal into a 32%%3 )b,s A+%+ signal including the frame alignment signal, service data 8SB9 signal, and remote service data 8@SB9 signal as the overhead bits. =eceive Co#e Converter :nit 1=C6 CON62C The receive code converter unit establishes frame alignment and separates the service data and remote service data from the received 32%%3 )b,s signal. It also converts the received signal into the <3<%; )b,s .B+< signal. Service $ata ;nterface :nit 1Optional2C The Service Bata Interface 1nit 8SB I7TF9 multiple5es four %3 )b,s service data streams as nchronous to each other into a single 2$% )b,s digital pulse streams, and demultiple5es the 2$% )b,s signal into four %3 )b,s signals to reproduce the original %3 )b,s service data signals. Four %3 )b,s service data streams can optionall be transmitted as the service data bits in the overhead bits. The service data channels are assigned as follows6 S$ C0 1C for or#er7ire signal. S$ C0 2C for s'stem supervisor' signal. S$ C0 3C for s7itc control signal. S$ C0 4C for future use. >larm Control :nitC The Alarm (ontrol 1nit 8A(19 continuousl monitors the alarm status, +it Error @atio 8+E@9 and laser diode bias current, and transmits the data to the remote A(1 b means of an overhead bit 8remote service data bit9, which is added to the line signal. The A(1 also receives such data from the remote A(1. Then the A(1 processes the alarms generated in the particular Optical *ine Terminating 8O*T9 equipment, as well as the @emote Service Bata 8@SB9 received from the remote O*T and the optical repeaters 8OF @E:s9, in order to initiate suitable station alarm and to provide corresponding *EB indications on the equipment front panel. The A(1 also provides the interface with the :ortable (ontrol Terminal 8:(T9, which can displa more detailed information on the generated alarms. In addition, the A(1 provides the interface with the *ine Supervisor Equipment 8*S?9. ElectricalKtoKOptical Converter :nitC ElectricalFtoFOptical (onverter 1nit 8E,O (O7?9 converts the 32%%3 )bit,s electrical digital signals into light pulses with A&H dut c cle. A semiconductor laser diode is used as the optical source. OpticalKtoKElectrical Converter :nitC OpticalFtoFElectrical (onverter 1nit 8O,E (O7?9 converts the 32%%3 )b,s light pulses into an electrical digital signal. Po7er Suppl' :nitC The :ower Suppl 1nit 8:>@9 converts input voltage of F3;,F%&? B( into stabili/ed outputs of XA? B(, FA.2? B(, X$? B( and F$? B(. Each output is provided with over current protection circuit and the XA? B( output is provided with an over voltage protection circuit, to protect the equipment and the :ower Suppl 1nit. Special FeaturesC Portable Control +erminal 1PC+2C A large number of monitoring operation and some control operations can be carried out b using the :ortable
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1"% Section 11C Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stems

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

control Terminal. The function of :(T can be best understood b demonstration in the laborator . The operation is e5tremel simple, and can be operated with interactive commands.

11.4

Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stem 1FO+S2? 14%,bFs

The *ine Switcher receives #3&mbps (=I signals from the output of #3&= =1O, which are normall fed to their respective Optical *ine Terminals 8O*Ts9. In case of fault, the *ine Switcher has a provision for switching that particular #3&mbps =1O signal from regular to protection s stem. The O*TE converts #3& mbps (=I signal to optical signal. The :ortable (ontrol Terminal 8:(T9 can be connected to Alarm (ontrol 1nit 8A(19 for monitor and control functions. Service Bata Interface 8SB I7TF9 1nit is used for supervisor functions such as Order'wire facilit for *ine Switcher 8*'S>9 signal, for (entral Supervisor S stem and provision e5ists for future use of one %3!bps signal. The #3& =b,s FOTS comprises the following subs stems6 ;. $igital ,ultiple/ Sub S'stem ;;. Optical (ine +ransmission S'stem ;;;. Central Supervisor' S'stem ;6. +rans ,ultiple/er Sub S'stem 6. >larm Sub S'stem 6;. Po7er Suppl' Sub S'stem ;. $igital ,ultiple/ Sub S'stem

The Bigital =ultiple5 Sub S stem comprises :rimar =1O, Second Order =1O, Third Order =1O or Second,Third Order =1O 8called S)I: =1O9 and Fourth Order =1O. These =ultiple5ers digiti/e and multiple5 signals into digital streams of 2&3; !bps 82=+'<&channels9, ;33; !bps 8;=+'#2&channels9, <3,<%;!bps 8<3=+'3;& channels9 and #<$,2%3!bps 8#3&=+' #$2& channels9. The Primar' ,ultiple/er converts the analog signals of <&?F channels in the trans'path into a :rimar :(= group of <& channels with a line bit rate of 2&3;!bps. In the receive'path it converts bac! the :(= bit rate of 2&3;!bps into <&?F channel analog signals. S@;P ,:\ multiple5es si5teen 2&3;!bps or four ;33;!bps bit streams into <3,<%; !bps bit stream in trans side and in receive side demultiple5es <3,<%; !bps bit stream into si5teen 2&3;!bps or four ;33;!bps bit streams. ;;. Optical (ine +ransmission Sub S'stem Optical *ine Transmission 8O*T9 Sub S stem comprises of6 Optical *ine Transmission Section *ine Switching Section *ine Supervisor Section Order wire Section 1a2. Optical (ine +ransmission SectionC Trans6 The Optical *ine Transmission Section comprises #3&= Optical *ine Terminating Equipment 8O*TE9 and Optical fibre cables. A #<$,2%3!bps (=I'coded digital multiple5ed signal is applied at the input of O*TE to O=T (O7? unit, where it is converted into unipolar form. After A+%+ line'code conversion, frame s nchroni/ation bits, service data bits as overhead bits and @=T service data bits are added into the main signal. The up'converted signal at a bit rate of #%;,33< !bps is then converted from

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 11C Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stems 1"1

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

an electrical signal to an optical signal b E,O (O7?. unit and sent to OF( through FB: 8Fibre Bistribution :anel9. @eceive6 In the receive side the O,E (O7?. unit converts the received optical signal #%;,33< !bps into an electrical #<$,2%3 !bps in the reverse process. The ma5imum allowable line loss 8including splice loss9 is obtained b the following formula6 >llo7able line loss I 1average output po7er2 K 1minimum receive level2 K 1Connection loss2 K 1s'stem margin2 K 1po7er penalt'2 Service $ata C annelC Four Streams of %3 !bps service data channels as nchronous to each other are combined with main signal. At the transmit side, each stream of %3!bps service data is received b the Service Bata Interface and are multiple5ed into a single signal using bit'interleaving and positive "ustification technique. This signal is inserted into the main bit stream. At the receive side, reverse process is done.

1b2. (ine S7itc ing SectionC *ine Switcher automaticall switches the transmission path to a protection s stem, when an alarm is generated b an one of eleven regular FOTS 8ma5imum9. Automatic Switching is performed b logic circuits in both local and remote *ine Switchers. (ommunication between the two end line switchers is carried out using the overhead bit emplo ed b the FOTS. Switching operations are also carried out b manual control in order to ensure s stem fle5ibilit during maintenance. 1c2. (ine Supervisor' SectionC The *ine Supervisor Equipment can monitor and control the operations of two *ine Switchers and up to twelve Optical *ine S stems comprising of two units of O*TE and a ma5imum of 2< units of Optical @epeater Equipments. To perform supervisor functions, the *ine Supervisor Equipment 8*'S?9 periodicall polls the O*TE and *ine Switchers in order to obtain alarm and status information. The supervisor data thus collected is processed and stored in the memories. 1#2. Or#er7ire SectionC The Order'wire is essential for carr ing out prompt maintenance of FOTS. Following telephone functions are available6 Spea!er calling telephone Selective calling telephone Subscriber telephone @ingdown telephone ;;;. Central Supervisor' Sub S'stem Configuration It consists of Sub'central Supervisor Section 8S1+ (FS?9 and @emote Supervisor Section. =ainl this sub s stem is used for supervising function.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1"2 Section 11C Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stems

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

;6. +rans ,ultiple/er Sub S'stem The Trans =ultiple5er equipment is connected between the digital multiple5 equipment and Frequenc Bivision =ultiple5 8FB=9 Equipment. The Trans =ultiple5er performs direct conversion between a basic supergroup band 8<#2 to AA2 )./9 to two :(= signals 82&3; !bps9 and vice versa. 6. >larm Sub S'stem

The Alarm Subs stem can send a :rompt =aintenance 8:=9 Alarm, a Beferred =aintenance 8B=9 Alarm and a +ell and *amp 8+*9 Alarm for station use. 6;. Po7er Suppl' Sub S'stem

Station power at F 3;? 7ominal 8' 3&? to F %3? B(9 is fed to the power terminals of equipment frame. The power suppl card convert F 3;? B( to various B( voltages required for the operation of different units.

11."

Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stem 1FO+S2 "&",bps

A logical e5tension to the famil of as nchronous Fibre Optic (ommunication S stems, which were hitherto confined to the bit rates of <3=b and #3&=b is the new A%A=b s stem which provides a transmission capacit of 0%;& channels. This s stem directl interfaces with the #3& =b =u5 of e5isting transmission s stems thereb providing an eas upgradabilit of transmission capacit . This is facilitated b the incorporation of a fifth order =ultiple5er, Bemultiple5er into the s stem structure. ;. Salient features of "&",b FO+SC :rovides a transmission capacit of 0%;& channels. Allows a ma5imum send,receive loss of 2% d+ for #<&& nm s stems and 2; d+ for #AA& nm s stems allowing a repeater spacing of appro5imatel 3&,#&& )ms for #<&&,#A&& nm s stems respectivel . :rovides a safet off feature, which reduces the laser output level to less than equal to F#&d+m in the event of a brea! in the optical path. The optical output level is automaticall restored to the normal transmission level as soon as the optical path is put through. An omnibus Engineering Orderwire 8EO>9 channel with selective calling facilit . The supervisor and EO> channels are unaffected b AIS or safet generation and are operational even at degraded bit error rates. :rovides man test points for In Service =onitoring. :rovides for e5tending upto 3 e5ternal alarms to the supervisor s stem. The supervisor s stem ma be through a centrali/ed computer s stem or the decentrali/ed s stem using Fault location units in each line terminal station. Two data channels are available for =1O'B=1O communications in addition to the two channels available in the line transmitter and line receiver.

;;.

Operation principlesC 1a2. Electrical ;nterfaceC The incoming tributaries at #<$.2%3 mbps in (=I format are first decoded into a 7@] data and cloc! signals in the =ultiple5er module.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 11C Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stems 1"3

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

1b2. Optical ;nterfaceC The incoming data bits at A%A =b from the electrical interface are sub"ected to optical line coding using #%+,#;+ coding principle in the optical interface. The operation principle of the s stem in the trans and receive paths is as follows. 1c2. +rans Pat C ,ultiple/er66 Accepts four streams of (=I coded data at a rate of #<$.2%3 mbps. Inserts overhead bits to accommodate frame s nchroni/ation information, four service channels out of which two are used to carr alarm information and the "ustification,"ustification control information to ta!e care of plesiochronous nature of incoming tributaries. -ives out an A=I coded data at A%3.$$2 mbps. (ine +ransmitterC Accepts A=I coded data at A%3.$$2 mbps, from the fifth order =u5. Boes the #%+,#;+ line coding in the process increasing the line rate to %<A.%#% mbps, which comprises of frame s nchroni/ation, parit chec!, alarm transmission, engineering orderwire and 2 s nchronous data channels at ;.; mbps for optional use in addition to data bits. The line transmitter also does scrambling b inverting half of data bits in each subframe. Boes electrical to optical conversion and interfaces with the optical fibre. 1#2. =eceive Pat C (ine =eceiverC Interfaces with the optical fibre and accepts optical signal at %<A.%#% mbps @ecovers overhead bits to e5tract the orderwire and decipher information regarding alarms. -ives out A=I coded data at A%3.$$2 mbps and cloc! to demultiple5er. $emultiple/erC Accepts A=I coded data at A%3.$$2 mbps. E5tracts overhead bits to decipher service channels which contain alarm information. E5tends four (=I coded output channels at #<$.2%3 mbps. 1e2. =egeneratorC Accepts optical signal at %<A.%#%mbps Brops and inserts orderwire and supervisor information -ives out optical output at %<A.%#% mbps ;;;. Supervisor' >n# >larm S'stem

The optional supervisor s stem of the A%A =b,s s stem provides for either the centrali/ed supervision of the lin! b a master computer or the decentrali/ed supervision with the help of a module called Fault (ocation :nit 1F(:2 normall provided with the *T1. 1sing
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1"4 Section 11C Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stems

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

the supervisor channel in the optical line code F*1 supervises the lin! up to a total of <2 units 8regenerators, *T1 and =BOs9 and displa s pending alarms and +E@ values on a *(B displa . The F*1 performs the following ma"or functions6 8a9. (ommunicates with the alarm transceivers using the supervisor channel. 8b9. Acts as a local digital voltmeter for the test points provided for in'service monitoring of the s stem. 8c9. @egisters the date and time of the occurrence and the disappearance of an alarm from an line terminal, or multiple5er,demultiple5er. 8d9. =easures the transmission qualit of each line section or regenerator section and performs line qualit statistical calculations. In the decentrali/ed method of supervision using F*1, one of the F*1s is configured as a master while the other acts as a slave. From userLs point of view there is no difference between a master F*1 and a slave as the supervisor information polled b the master is continuousl echoed to the slave F*1 8passive slave9 but for the fact that onl the master F*1 will activate station alarms in case of fault conditions at regenerators. In the event of brea! in the optical path between the master F*1 and the slave F*1, the slave becomes active 8active slave9 as a temporar master and e5ecutes most of the functions of the master. The active slave returns to the passive state upon detection of the polling b the master. A F*1 provided in a regenerator serves a digital voltmeter onl . ;6. >larm S'stem 1a2. Primar' >larmsW The individual basic modules generate primar alarms in case of certain fault conditions. All primar alarms in a unit are combined in the alarm combiner module, which classifies the alarm as A 8:rompt9 or + 8Beferred9 alarms. 1p to 3 e5ternal alarms, which can be wired for each unit also, are combined 8e5cept e5ternal alarm #9 with the primar alarms and generate local A or + alarms. 1b2. E/ternal >larmsW which could be used applications could be6 6. The s stem provides for e5tending up to 3 e5ternal alarms per unit for various remote supervisor applications, some of the t pical Betection of A( suppl failure in a repeater station. Betection of forced entr in a repeater station. Betection of power plant alarms in a repeater station.

;n Service ,onitoring

The equipment provides for a number of test points for In'Service =onitoring of certain B( and @F parameters which indicate the health of the s stem. In case decentrali/ed supervision is used, the F*1 provides for In Service =onitoring of various parameters of the =1O, local and remote line terminal and the regenerators.

11.& ,easurements ;n P$0 S'stems


=easurements in S stems are required to ensure that6 I. The performance ob"ectives of transmission s stems are achieved.
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 11C Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stems 1""

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

II. The transmission s stems are capable of meeting the requirements of various services i.e., speech, data and T? etc., Tests and testing procedures for different capacit s stems are more or less same e5cept difference in the specifications of electrical parameters. The following ,easuring ;nstruments are re3uire# for testing purpose6 $igital ,ultimeter6 @ange & to X#&&&? B( Psop ometer Fre3uenc' counter6 @ange 1pto %&&=./ Pattern .enerator 5 Error $etector Optical Po7er ,eter 8with optical power sensor9 range XA to F A&d+m Optical variable attenuator ;mpe#ance Converter !"F"% conversion range upto 2%-./. Equipment testing can be classified into following two groups6 I. *ocal Test and II. Through Tests 1i2. (ocal +estsC *ocal Tests that are to be carried out in :B. S stems are6 :ower Suppl ?oltage (hec! Optical Output :ower =easurement Error @ate =easurement. AIS Frequenc =easurement *B (urrent and Optical Output =onitoring. QA-( =O7L ?oltage ?s Input *evel ?ariations. @eceiver B namic @ange Test Alarm Operation (hec! 1ii2. + roug +estsC Through Tests that are to be carried out in :B. S stems are6 Optical @eceiving :ower =easurement. :ull in Frequenc @ange Input Iitter Tolerance Output Iitter =easurement 1iii2. +est Proce#uresC Po7er Suppl' 6oltage c ec9C =easure the voltages at the voltage chec! terminals of power suppl unit with the help of digital multimeter. Also measure the :ower .um 8:sophometric weighted9 at the same chec! terminals with the help of psophometer. =easured :ower .um should be less than 2m? 8'A#.0d+m9. Optical Output Po7er ,easurementC (lean properl the optical fibre cord M optical output connector on the send unit. (onnect the optical fibre cord to the optical
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1"& Section 11C Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stems

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

output connector on send unit. Set the *SO switch to QresetL position. (onnect the other end of optical fibre cord to the optical power sensor. (onnect the appropriate signal pattern from the BTA. 7ow measure the optical output power. After measurement set the *B Shut'off switch to QsetL position. ($ current an# optical output monitoringC Turn the Q*B shut'off SwL located on the send unit to the reset position in order to inhibit the *B shut'off position. Set the BTA o,p for the appropriate bit rate of the s stem pattern and feed at I7 point. (hec! with the help of power meter that output power is more than F<.Ad+m. 7ow with the help of voltmeter measure the voltage of Q*B (urrentL on the O*TE unit. [>.C ,ONGvoltage 6s input level variationsC ?ar the input level from F#0d+m to F3&d+m and measure the voltage with the help of voltmeter at point LA-( =O7L and plot a graph between the i,p level and QA-( =O7L voltage. >hen the s stem is in operation the QA-( =O7L voltage indicates the level at A:B in. For the remaining s stem specific tests, the manual of the corresponding s stem ma be referred.

11.!

Capacities of OF S'stems

;n P$0C 1a2 ConventionalC 8i9 ; =b,s 8ii9 <3 =b,s 8iii9 #3& =b,s 8iv9 A%A =b,s Optimu/C 8i9 8ii9 ;n S$0 S.No. 8i9.. 8ii9. 8iii9.. 8iv9. Capacit' ST=F# ST=F3 ST=F#% ST=F%3 <it rate #AA.A2 =bit,s %22.&; =bit,s 23;;.<2 =bit,s $$A<.2; =bit,s 2,<3 =b,s optimu5 2,#3& =b,s optimu5 #2& channels 83 :(=9 3;& channels 8#% :(=9 #$2& channels 8%3 :(=9 0%;& channels 82A% :(=9

1b2

The details about SB. s stems we will be stud ing in subsequent Sections.

11.*

(et :s Sum :p

FOTS consists of two terminal stations with or without repeaters in between. A terminal of FOTS in trans path converts the baseband data into optical signal 8Electrical to Optical9 for feeding onto the optical fibre, and re'converts the received optical signal into baseband data 8Optical to Electrical9 in its receive path. An intermediate repeater converts received optical signal from one direction to baseband data, re'generates and re'converts the baseband into optical signal for transmission to other direction. The discussion in this Section however was
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 11C Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stems 1"!

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

limited to :B. s stems, which are now being replaced b SB. s stems in telecommunication networ!s.

11.-

@e' 8or#s
8i9. 8ii9. 8III9. 8iv9. 8v9. 8vi9. 8vii9. 8viii9. 8IO9. 8O9. 85i9. 85ii9. 85iii9. 85iv9. 85v9. 85vi9. 85vii9. FO+S6 Fibre Optic Transmission S stem P$0C :lesiochronous Bigital .ierarch . S$0C S nchronous Bigital .ierarch O(+EC Optical *ine Terminating Equipment 8O*TE9. P, >larmC :rompt =aintenance 8:=9 alarm $, >larmC Beferred =aintenance 8B=9 alarm \,+ CON66 Transmit code converter 1nitL =C6 CON6C @eceive (ode (onverter 1nit. S$ ;N+FC Service Bata Interface 1nit >C:C Alarm (ontrol 1nit <E=6 +it Error @atio PC+C :ortable (ontrol TerminalD (S6C *ine Supervisor Equipment. EFO CON66 ElectricalFtoFOptical (onverter 1nit. OFE CON66 OpticalFtoFElectrical (onverter 1nit. EO8C Engineering Orderwire. F(:C Fault (ocation :nit 12

11.1% Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress


A1. 8i9. 8rite +=:E 1+2 or F>(SE 1F2 against follo7ing statementsC FOTS mainl consists of two terminal stations with or without repeaters in between. J K The *,bFs O(+E can wor! for both long .aul and short .aul routes, without an change of .ardware,Software. J K

8ii9.

8iii9. A trim port facilit' is provided in the optical interface card in ; =bps FOTS, wherein it is possible to decrease the Transmit power to about 'Ad+. J K 8iv9. <3=b O*T transmits service data signals and remote service data 8onFline monitoring9 signals as overhead bits, inserted into the main signal, after A+%+ code conversion. . J K 8v9. A :ortable (ontrol Terminal 8:(T9 is provided which functions as service status monitoring unit and facilitates in e5ecuting the commands for testing of the equipment. . J K

8vi9. In <3 =+ FOTS, four %3 !bit,s service data channels, as nchronous to each other, can be transmitted using A service data bits in the overhead bits. J K 8vii9. The >larm Control :nit 1>C:2 continuousl monitors the alarm status, +it Error @atio 8+E@9 and laser diode bias current, and transmits the data to the remote
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1"* Section 11C Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stems

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

A(1 b means of an overhead bit 8remote service data bit9, which is added to the line signal. J K 8viii9. *ine Switcher automaticall switches the transmission path to a protection s stem, when an alarm is generated b an one of eleven regular FOTS 8ma5imum9. J K 8i59. The *ine Supervisor Equipment can monitor and control the operations of two *ine Switchers and up to twelve Optical *ine S stems comprising of two units of O*TE and a ma5imum of 2< units of Optical @epeater Equipments. J K 859. The Order'wire is essential for carr ing out prompt maintenance of FOTS. J K

>ns7ersC >ll are +=:E. 555555555555555555555555

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 11C Fibre Optic +ransmission S'stems 1"-

423.12 1*
Para No. 12.% 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12." 12.&

SBNC0=ONO:S $;.;+>( 0E;=>=C0B 1S$02


Subject Objectives ;ntro#uction Features an# Principles of S$0 S$0 Frame Structure <asic $efinitions S.$.0. (a'er Structure S$0 ,ultiple/ing 5 ,apping 12.&.1 Section Over ea# 12.&.2 Pointers Page No.

12.! 12.* 12.121% 12.11

S'nc ronous <'te?interleave# ,ultiple/ing ,easurement in S$0 s'stems (et :s Sum :p @e' 8or#s Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02 1&%

423.12 SBNC0=ONO:S $;.;+>( 0E;=>=C0B 1S$02


12.% Objectives

In the previous Section we have learnt about :lesiochronous Bigital .ierarch 8:B.9 s stems, which are progressivel being replaced with S nchronous Bigital .ierarch 8SB.9 s stems in telecommunication networ!s due to their technical advantages. This Section accordingl covers the details about the disadvantages in :B., relative advantages in SB., features of SB. s stems, =ultiple5ing M =apping of SB. signals and measurements on SB. s stems. After going through this Section ou will !now the technical advantages of SB. s stems over :B. s stems and the details about SB. s stems and measurements on SB. s stems.

12.1

;ntro#uction

S nchronous Bigital .ierarch 8SB.9 is an international standard networ!ing principle and a multiple5ing method. The name of hierarch has been ta!en from the multiple5ing method, which is s nchronous b nature. The evolution of this s stem will assist in improving the econom of operabilit and reliabilit of a digital networ!

(imitations Of P$0C Following are the limitations of :B. multiple5ing6 A 0ierarc ' of multiple5ers at either end of the lin! can lead to reduced reliabilit and resilience, minimum fle5ibilit , long reconfiguration turn'around times, large equipment volume, and high capital'equipment and maintenance costs. :B. lin!s are generall limited to point'to'point configurations with full demultiple5ing at each switching or cross connect node. Incompatibilities at the optical interfaces of two different suppliers can cause ma"or s stem integration problems. To add or drop an individual channel or add a lower rate branch to a bac!bone lin! a complete 0ierarc ' of =1Os is required.

These limitations of :B. paved the wa for the introduction of an acceptable worldwide s nchronous transmission standard called SB.. 1i2. Evolution of S$0C S.B... Evolution is possible because of the following factors6 Fibre Optic <an#7i#t C The bandwidth in Optical Fibre can be increased and there is no limit for it. This gives a great advantage for using SB..

1ii2. +ec nical Sop isticationC Although, SB. circuitr is highl complicated, it is possible to have such circuitr because of ?*SI technique, which is also ver cost effective. 1iii2. ;ntelligence6 The availabilit of cheaper memor opens new possibilities. 1iv2. Customer Service Nee#s 6 The requirement of the customer with respect to different bandwidth requirements could be easil met without much additional equipment. The different services it supports are6 *ow,.igh speed data. ?oice Interconnection of *A7
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1&1 Section 13C S$0 E3uipment

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

(omputer lin!s Feature services li!e ..B.T.?. +roadband ISB7 transport 8AT= transport9 S$0 Stan#ar#C In Februar #$;;, an agreement was reached at ((ITT 8now IT1'TS9 stud group O?III in Seoul, on set of recommendations, for a S nchronous Bigital .ierarch 8SB.9 representing a single worldwide standard for transporting the digital signal. These recommendations -'0&0, -'0&;, -'0&$ cover the functional characteristic of the networ! node interface, i.e. the bit rates and format of the signal passing over the 7etwor! 7ode Interface 877I9. For smooth transformation from e5isting :B., it has to accommodate the three different countr standards of :B. developed over a time period. The different standards of :B. are given in Figure 12.1. The first attempt to formulate standards for Optical Transmission started in 1.S.A. as SO7ET 8S nchronous Optical 7etwor!9. The aim of these standards was to simplif interconnection between networ! operators b allowing inter'connection of equipment from different vendors to the e5tent that compatibilit could be achieved. It was achieved b SB. in #$$&, when the ((ITT accepted the recommendations for ph sical la er networ! interface. The SO7ET hierarch from A2 =b,s rate onwards was accepted for SB. hierarch 1Figure 12.12.

Figure 12.1C Net7or9 =eference ,o#el an# Stan#ar#i4ation of $igital 0ierarc ies

12.2

Features an# Principles of S$0


Features of S$0C

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1&2 Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8i9. 8ii9. 8iii9. 8iv9. 8v9. 8vi9. 8vii9. 8i9.

Simplified multiple5ing ,demultiple5ing techniques. Birect access to lower speed tributaries, without need to multiple5,demultiple5 the entire high speed signal. Enhanced operations, Administration, =aintenance and provisioning capabilities. Eas growth to higher bit rates in step with evolution of transmission technolog . (apable of transporting e5isting :B. signals. (apable of transporting future broadband 8AT=9 channel bit rates. (apable of operating in a multi vendor and multi'operator environment.

Principles Of S$0C SB. defines a number of _Containers`, each corresponding to an e5isting plesiochronous rate. 8ii9. Each container has a _Pat Over ea# 1PO09` added to it 8III9. :O. provides networ! management capabilit . 8iv9. (ontainer plus :O. form a _6irtual Container`. 8v9. All equipment is s nchroni/ed to a national cloc!. 8vi9. Bela s associated with a transmission lin! ma var slightl with timeFcausing location of ?( within the ST=F# frame to move. 8vii9. ?ariations accommodated b use of a Pointer' :oints to beginning of ?(. 8viii9. :ointer ma be incremented or decremented. 8i59. -.0&$ defines different combinations of ?(s, which can be accommodated in the _pa'loa#` of an ST=F# frame. 859. >hen ST=F# pa load is full, more networ! management capabilit is added to form the _Section Over ea# 1SO02`. 8OI9. SO. remains with pa load for the fibre section between s nchronous multiple5ers. 8OII9. SO. b tes provide communication channels to cater for6 OAM= facilities. 1ser channels. :rotection switching. Section performance Frame alignment Other functions.

12.3

S$0 Frame Structure

The S.B... standards e5ploit one common characteristic of all :B. networ!s namel #2A micro seconds duration, i.e. sampling rate of audio signals 8time for # b te in %3 ! bit per second9. This is the time for one frame of SB.. The frame structure of the SB. is represented using matri5 of rows in b te units as shown in Figures 12.2 an# 12.3. As the speed increases, the number of bits increases and the single line is insufficient to show the information on Frame structure. Therefore, this representation method is adopted. .ow the bits are transmitted on the line is indicated on the top of Figure 12.2. The Frame structure contains $ rows and number of columns depending upon s nchronous transfer mode level 8ST=9. In ST='#, there are $ rows and 20& columns. The reason for $ rows arranged in ever #2A micro seconds is as follows6 For #.A33 =b,s :B. signal 87orth America and Iapan Standard9, there are 2A b tes in #2A microseconds and for 2.&3; =b,s signal, there are <2 b tes in #2A microseconds. Ta!ing some additional b tes for supervisor purposes, 20 b tes can be allotted for holding #.A33 =b,s signal, i.e. $ rows 5 < columns. Similarl , for 2.&3; =b,s signal, <% b tes are allotted in #2A
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02 1&3

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

microseconds, i.e. $ rows 5 3 columns. Therefore, it could be said $ rows are matched to both hierarchies. Earlier this was the basic rate but at present ST='& which is "ust #,< rd of ST='#, i.e. A#.;3& =b,s has been accepted b ((ITT. The ST='& contains "ust #,< rd of the ST='#, i.e. $ rows 5 $& columns out of that $ rows 5 < columns consist of section overhead and $ rows 5 ;0 columns consist of pa load. The ST='& structure was accepted so that the radio and satellite can use this bit rate, i.e. A#.;3& =b,s across their section.

Figure 12.2C S$0 ;nterface Frame =epresentation ,et o#

Figure 12.3C S+,?N Frame Structure


??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1&4 Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The Frame Structure of S+,1 1Figure 12.32 is generall represented b - ro7s and 2!% columns of b tes 1- / 2!% b'tes or 243% b'tes or 1-44% bits2 per 12" bs of +ime Frame. 8It is convenient to represent the frame structure in a matri5 form9. Thus, +it rate of ST=# is6 1- / 2!% / * / 1 / 1%&2F12" I 1""."2 ,bFs +it @ate of ST=3 is6 1""."2 / 4 I &22.%* ,bFs +it @ate of ST=#% is6 1""."2 / 1& I 2.4** .bFs From the frame structure, it is clear that there are following two parts6 8i9. 8ii9. Section overhead 8SO.9 and :a load.

SO0 contains the overhead b tes which are added at various stages,sections and perform the function of frame s nchroni/ation, Order wire and parit chec!ing etc. The actual information field consists of $ 5 2%# b tes and is called the pa'loa#. SO. is nothing but the overhead bits necessar for performing some common functions for maintenance of s stem. It is similar to O. bits being added in :les nchronous s stems at various stages for management of lin!.

12.4

<asic $efinitions

1i2 S'nc ronous +ransport ,o#ule 1S+,2C This is the information structure used to support information pa load and over head information field organi/ed in a bloc! frame structure which repeats ever #2A micro seconds. 1ii2 Container 1C2C The first entr point of the :B. signal is the container in which the signal is prepared so that it can enter into the ne5t stage, i.e. virtual container. In container 1Container?;2 the signal speed is increased from <2 b tes to <3 b tes in the case of 2.&3; =b,s signal. The additional b tes added are fi5ed stuff b tes 8@9, Iustification (ontrol + tes 8(( and (L9, Iustification Opportunit b tes 8S9. In Container?3D <3.<%; =b,s signal 8i.e., A<3 b tes in #2A microseconds9 is increased to 0A% b tes in #2A microseconds adding fi5ed stuff bits8@9, Iustification control bits 8('#, ('29 and Iustification opportunit bits 8S'#, S'29. In this 0A% b tes are in $ 5 ;3 b tes,#2A microseconds frame. The are further subdivided into < sub frames < 5 ;3 82A2 b tes or 2&#% bits9. Out of this #3<# information bits 8I9, #& bits 8in two sets9 8('#, ('29, 2 Iustification opportunit bits 8S'#, S' 29 and A0< 8fi5ed bits9 In Container?4D #<$.2%3 =b,s signal 82#0% b tes in #2A microseconds9 is increased to $ 5 2%& b tes. .ere, $ 5 2%& b tes are partitioned into 2& bloc!s consisting of #< b tes each. In each row one "ustification opportunit bit8S9 and five "ustification control bits 8(9 are provided. The first b te of each bloc! consists of eight'information bits 8I9 or eight fi5ed stuff bits 8@9 or One "ustification control bit 8(9 plus five fi5ed stuff bits 8@9 plus two overhead bits 8O9. or Si5 information bits 8I9 plus one "ustification opportunit bit 8S9 plus one fi5ed stuff bit 8@9. The last #2 b tes of one bloc! consists of information bits 8I9. 1iii2 6irtual Container 16C2C In ?irtual container, the Pat Over 0ea# 1PO02 fiel#s are organi/ed in a bloc! frame structure of either #2A microseconds or A&& microseconds. The :O. information consists of onl # b te in ?('# for #2A microseconds frame. In ?('<, :O. is #
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02 1&"

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

column of $ b tes. In ?('3 also :O. is # column of $ b tes. The t pes of virtual container identified are lower orders ?(s ?('# and ?('2 and higher order ?('< and ?('3. 1iv2 +ributar' :nit 1+:2C A tributar unit is an information structure, which provides adaptation between the lower order path la er and the higher order path la er. It consists of an information pa load 8lower order virtual container9 and a tributar unit pointer, which indicates the offset of the pa load frame start relating to the higher order ?( frame start. Tributar 1nit # is for ?('# and Tributar 1nit 2 is for ?('2 and Tributar 1nit < is for ?('<, when it is mapped for ?('3 through Tributar -roup'<. T1'< pointer consists of < b tes out of $ b tes. Three b tes are .#, .2 and .< and remaining b tes are fi5ed b tes. T1'# pointers are one b te interleaved in the T1-'2. 1v2 +ributar' :nit .roup 1+:.2C One or more tributaries are contained in tributar unit group. A T1-'2 consists of homogenous assembl of identical T1'#s or T1'2. T1-'< consists of a homogenous assembl of T1-'2s or T1'<. T1-'2 consists of < T1'#2s 8For 2.&3; =b,sec9. T1-'< consists of either 0 T1-'2 or one T1'<. 1vi2 Net7or9 No#e ;nterface 1NN;2C The 77I is the interface at a networ! node, which is used to interconnect with another networ! node. 1vii2 PointerC :ointer is an indicator whose value defines frame offset of a ?( with respect to the frame reference of transport entit , on which it is supported. 1viii2 >#ministrative :nit 1>:2C It is the information structure, which provides adaptation between the higher order path la er and the multiple5 section la er. It consists of information pa load and an A.1. pointer, which indicates the offset of the pa load frame start relating to the multiple5 section frame start. Two A1s are defined 8i9 A1'3 consisting ?('3 plus an A.1. pointer indicating phase alignment of ?('3 with respect to ST='7 frame, 8ii9 A1'< consisting of ?('< plus A.1. pointer indicating phase alignment of ?('< with respect to ST='7 frame. A.1. location is fi5ed with respect to ST='7 frame. 1i/2 >#ministrative :nit .roup 1>:.2C A1- consists of a homogenous assembl of A1'<s or an A1'3. . 1/2. ConcatenationC It is the procedure with which the multiple ?irtual (ontainers are associated with one another, with the result their combined capacit could be used as a single container across which bit sequence integrit is maintained

12."

S.$.0. (a'er Structure

The S.B... can be based on la ered concept. Figure 12.4 shows the SB. based Transport 7etwor! la ered model. Figure 12." shows the la ered concept and Figure 12.& shows the la er interconnection in detail.

12.&

S$0 ,ultiple/ing an# ,apping

The basic multiple5ing principles and processing stage b stage the information signal is shown in Figure 12.!. In ('##, #.A33 =b,s is mapped. In ('#2 container, the entr is 2.&3; =b,s. In ('2 container, the entr is %.<#2 =b,s, which is of American standard. These three containers pass through their respective virtual containers and tributar unit pointers. At T1-'2 it can be either 3 numbers of ?('## with T1'## or < numbers of ?('#2 with T1'#2 or # ?('2
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1&& Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

with T1'2. The ('< container ta!es the input <3 =b,s or 33.0 =b,s of the American Standard. These through ?('< container and with Tributar 1nit'< go to Tributar 1nit -roupF<. < numbers of ?('< with A1'< can directl go to A1- and enter ST='frame. Similarl , 0 numbers of T1-'2 can be mapped into one ?('<. Otherwise one ?('< with T1'< or 0 numbers of T1-'2 can go to T1-'< and < numbers of T1-'< are mapped into one ?('3. A #<$.2%3 =b,s signal can be mapped into one ?('3 through ('3. ?('3 with A1'3 goes to A1- and then to ST=' frame. The different possibilities are shown in Figure 12.!.

Figure 12.4C S$0 base# +ransport Net7or9 (a'ere# ,o#el

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02 1&!

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure 12."C S$0 (a'ere# Concept

Figure 12.&C (a'er ;nteraction

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1&* Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure 12.!C .eneric ,ultiple/ing Principles

Figure 12.*C =e#uce# ,ultiple/ing Structure The details of processing and adding pointers from the base level to ?(F3 container and then to A1- and then to ST=F7 is given in Figure 12.*, where the entr 2=b,s is shown. .ere it can be noted that pointers give the phase alignment between the shaded and unshaded areas, i.e. the pointer locates the position of the virtual containers, which are floating in the ST=Fframes.
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02 1&-

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The processing of <3 =b,s signal through ?(F< container and going to Administrative 1nit -roup 8A1-9 and then to ST= frame and mapping of#3& =b,s signal into ?(F3 container and then entering into ST= frame through A1- can also be seen. The details of processing 2.&3; =b,s signal into ?(F< container and then directl through A1- entering into ST= frame. is also possible..

12.&.1 Section Over ea#


The Section Overhead 8SO.9 portion of the ST='# frame with their relevant b tes are indicated in Figure 12.-. #st three rows of SO. belong to =KSO0D i.e., @egenerator Section Overhead. These overhead b tes are used for lin! management functions in a @egenerator Section. 3th @ow of SO. pertains to pointers. Pointers are necessar to indicate the starting b te of 6irtual Container 16C2, i.e. pointer indicates the location in pa load where #st + te of ?( will be accommodated. @ows 7umbers A to $ pertain to ,KSO0, i.e. =ultiple5 Section Overhead b tes. These b tes are used for information e5change within a =1O section. A brief idea of the different b tes in regenerator section overhead and multiple5 overhead are given below 6 8i9. >?1D >?2 are framing b tes. Their values are6 A#6 ####&##& A26 &&#&#&&& These two t pes of b tes form #% bit Frame >lignment 8or# 1F>82. FA> formed b the last A'# b te and the ad"acent A'2 b te in the transmitter sequence defines the frame reference for each of signal rates. There are < A'# b tes in ST='# and < A'2 b tes in ST='#. In higher order ST= their number increases with ST= order. In ST='3, there will be #2 A'# b tes and #2 A'2 b tes. <?1 b'tes are called bit inter?leave parit'?*. This is used for error monitoring in the regenerator section. There is onl # b te in ST='# or ST='3 or ST='#%. On line monitoring is done in this case.

8ii9.

8iii9. <?2 b'tesC These are used for error monitoring in the multiple5 section. There are < b tes for ST='#. ST='3 and ST='#% will have more number of +'2 b tes as per their order.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1!% Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure 12.-C $etails of SO0 5 0O?PO0 b'tes 8iv9. S+, ;#entifier 7it C?1 <'teC In ST='# there is a single ('# b te which is used to identif each of inter'leaved ST=s and in an ST='7 signal. It ta!es binar equivalent to position in inter'leave. 8v9. $?1 to $?12C These b tes are for data communication channel. In this B'#, B'2 and B'< are for regenerator section. It can support #$2 !bps. B'3 to B'#2 are for multiple5 section. The can support A0% !bps.

8vi9. E?1 is for regenerator section order wire. E?2 is for multiple5 section order wire. 8vii9. F?1 is used for fault control purposes. 8viii9. )%C Trace identifier 8i59. @?1D @?2 b'tes6 There are 2 b tes for ST='#, 3 or #%. These are used for coordinating the protection switching across a set of multiple5 sectionS organi/ed as protection groupN the are used for automatic protection switching. 859. 85i9. 85ii9. 85iii9. ,1C Transmission error ac!nowledgement. S1C (loc! qualit indicator. ^ 6 =edia dependent b tes. O?1D O?2C These b tes are located for functions and recommendations.

et defined, as per ((ITT

0.O. PO0 C Pat Over 0ea# 16C3F6C42 )1 I F :ath Trace + te 8*i!e FA>9 =OBE # F A %3 + te Fi5ed *ength String =OBE 2 F #A + te String M # + te .eader 8(@(F09

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02 1!1

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

<3

+ F +it Interleaved :arit (ode 8+I:F;9 + te for :ath Err. =on. is calculated over all +its of :revious ?( before Scrambling. ( F :ath Sig. *abel b te to indicate, S:E EZ:B 8#9 or 7OT 8&9 AT= F &&&#&&##, =A7 F &&&#&#&&, FBBI F &&&#&#&#, *O()EB T1 F &&&&&&##. - F :ath Status + te or @emote Stn. 8+IT #F3 FE+E, +IT A F FE@F, +IT %F; 7ot 1sed9 F F E.O.>. between :ath . F =ultiframe Alignment + te or denote starting position of AT= (ell. ] F Future 1se.

C2

.1 F2 04 O 1F32 O 1@32 O 1N12

)< F A:S for :rotection S>-. 8b# \. b39 S:A@E 8bA \. b;9 To increase 7,> (apabilit 7# F Tandom (O77. =O7 A7B :ath Bata + te.

(.O. P.O.0 1For 6CK11D 6CK12D 6CK22 6" +I:'# +I: @EI @FI *#,*2,*< @BI +I:F2 @EI @FI *# *2 F +it Interleaved :arit F @emote Error Indication F @emote Fault Indication F Signal *abel F @emote Befect Indication *< @BI

)2 NK2 @? 4

:ath Trace Tandem (onnection :ath A:(

12.&.2 PointersC
The >:Kn pointer provides a method of allowing fle5ible and d namic alignment of the ?(Fn within the A1Fn frame. B namic alignment means that the ?(Fn is allowed to TFloatU within the A1Fn frame. Thus, the pointer is able to accommodate differences, not onl in the phases of the ?(Fn and the SO., but also in the frame rates. The pointer contained in .# and .2 designates the location of the b te where the ?(Fn begins. The two b tes allocated to the
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1!2 Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

pointer function can be viewed as one word. The last ten bits 8bits 0 to #%9 of the pointer word carr the pointer value.

12.!

S'nc ronous <'te?interleave# ,ultiple/ing

-roups of s nchronous transport frames ma be pac!aged for transportation as a higher order s nchronous transport signal .igher order grouping is achieved b the process of b te' interleaved multiple5ing, whereb parallel streams of transport signals are mi5ed together on a fi5ed b te'b 'b te basis. These parallel streams of transport signals are required to have the same frame structure and bit rate and in addition be frame s nchroni/ed with each other.

Figure "#."$% B&te '!terlea(ed Multi)le*i!g


For e5ample, 3 parallel and frame s nchroni/ed ST='# SB. signals ma be b te' interleave multiple5ed together 8Figure 12.1%2 to form an ST='3 SB. signal at %22.&; =b,s 835 ST='# bit rate9. + te'interleaved multiple5ing is accomplished b ta!ing in turn, one b te from each input tributar and placing it in the higher speed output signal. Since the signals to be multiple5ed at this level are all s nchronous, their multiple5ing is achieved b simple b te interleaving. Some definition is needed as to the e5act method used so that the signal structure at all levels remains the same. For e5ample, consider an ST='# signal to be multiple5ed to ST='#%. Two possible routes are possible, ST='# to ST='3 to ST='#% or direct ST='# to ST='#%. To maintain the same signal structure, recommendation -.0&; states that to form an ST='= signal ST='7 signals must be 7 b te interleaved. For e5ample, ST='# multiple5ing is achieved b interleaving one b te from each tributar . For ST='3 multiple5ing each 3 b te group is ta!en and interleaved with that from the ne5t tributar . Figure ;.#< shows how an ST='#% signal would be made up from ST='# and ST='3 tributaries.

12.*

,easurement in S$0

Sou receive the networ! equipmentN mechanicall assemble the rac! and then rac!F mount itN configure and install the cards 8optical interface, processor, and tributar cards9N connect cabling for power, cloc!ing, and between the tributar interfaces and the digital distribution frame. After completing the mechanical steps ou will then perform the steps relating
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02 1!3

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

to the SB. networ! elementLs software s stems. These steps are performed using a networ! element control computer and include6 Bownloading the operating s stem software into the networ! element. (onfiguring the required operating characteristics. Once all the assembl and configuration is finished, ou then perform tests designed to verif that each step in the installation procedure has been successfull completed. These tests should be focused on verif ing operating characteristics of the networ! element that can be affected b shipping or b the installation process. >hen connecting an optical transmitter to an optical receiver, care must be ta!en to avoid overloading the receiver. IT1FT recommendation -.$A0 8+able 12.19 specifies the overload level for a range of different optical receivers. If the optical transmit power is higher than the specified value, an optical attenuator must be used. +able 12.1C ;+:K+ ..-"! Optical =eceiver Specifications >pplication ,inimum ,inimum >ppro/imate overloa# sensitivit' ,i#Kvalue ST=F# Short .aul F; d+m F2; d+m F#; d+m *ong .aul F#& d+m F<3 d+m F22 d+m ST=F3 Short M *ong F; d+m F2; d+m F#; d+m .aul ST=F#% Short .aul & d+m F#; d+m F$ d+m *ong .aul F$ d+m F20 or F2; d+m F#; d+m Note C An optical receiver can be damaged when driven b a signal power significantl greater than the overload level. ;nterface =ate >hen performing functional tests, it is good practice to drive the optical receiver with a signal, which has an average power in the middle of the receiverLs operating range 8i.e., midF wa between the overload level and the sensitivit level9. For all SB. testing it is essential that the setFup is s nchroni/ed. This ensures that no uncontrolled pointer ad"ustments occur during testing. =an SB. functional tests require the application of a single input stimulus and the monitoring of multiple output responses. An e5ample of this is testing an AB=Ls response to a received =SFAIS defect. On detecting this defect the AB= must6 Transmit A1FAIS in all un'terminated downstream paths. Transmit .:F@BI 8.:FFE@F9 upstream in all terminated paths. Transmit AIS in all dropped tributaries. Transmit =SF@BI 8=SFFE@F9 upstream. @eport the =SFAIS defect to the management s stem. >hen designing an SB. test setFup and itLs associated test procedure, ou must, therefore, ma!e a decision on whether all responses are tested simultaneousl or separatel . The tradeFoff ou will ma!e is cost, in terms of measurement hardware versus testFtime. Figure 12.11 shows a general'purpose test configuration for verif ing installation of an SB. networ! element. Although this e5ample assumes that an AB= is being tested, it can also be used 8with appropriate modifications9 to test SB. *ine Terminal =ultiple5ers 8*T=s9 and Bigital (rossFconnects 8BO(s9.
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1!4 Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure 12.11C .eneral?purpose +est Configuration $escription of test configurationC Test set connected to ST=Fn line interfaces 8t5,r59 on one side of the networ! element. ST=Fn line interface on opposite side of networ! element is e5ternall loopedFbac!. 7etwor! element tributar ports are loopedFbac! at the digital distribution frame. 7etwor! element control is achieved via the local control port or management interface.

This configuration supports the ma"orit of tests performed during a t pical SB. installation. It, therefore, minimi/es the amount of reFcabling required during testing, and consequentl helps reduce both testFtime and testFcosts. NoteC @emember that the test configuration must be s nchroni/edN and that an optical attenuator will be required when connecting a *ong .aul 8high power9 optical transmitter to an optical receiver in order to ensure the receiver input power within limits. Summar' of +'pical +ests6 A summar of tests is given in Table #2.2. These tests are a small sample of those t picall performed during installation of an SB. networ! element. A comprehensive installation test plan will however include6 8i9. A small number of parametric tests that verif 6 The basic qualit of signals transmitted b frequenc , "itter9. 8ii9. the networ! element 8power level,

The abilit of receiver ports to tolerate defined levels of signal impairments 8low signal power, frequenc offsets, "itter9.

A range of functional tests that verif 6 The basic operation of the networ! element 8computer control, errorFfree transmission, basic error and alarm handling9. (orrect configuration of specific operating characteristics 8path routing, optional alarms, protection switching, cloc! s nchroni/ation, etc.9. +able 12.2C > Summar' of +ests Functional +ests Parametric +ests 7etwor! Element (ontrol Optical :ower 8transmitter9 ErrorFfree Transmission 8via all :aths Optical Sensitivit 8receiver9

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02 1!"

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

through 7E9 :ath @outing 8provisioning9 Alarm .andling 8detection, responses, reporting9 Error .andling 8detection, responses, reporting9. :rotection Switching (loc! S nchroni/ation :ointer Ad"ustment .andling Automatic *aser Shutdown Other (onfigured Operating (haracteristics

Internal (loc! Frequenc Frequenc Offset Tolerance 8receiver9. SB. Iitter 8tolerance, transfer, generation9. :.B Iitter 8tolerance, pointer, deFmapping9.

Adopting a test plan that focuses on verif ing these critical aspects of an installation, will help ensure that the new equipment can be smoothl integrated into the operational networ!N and when operating, will support the e5pected networ! operation and maintenance procedures.

12.-

(et :s Sum :p

The S nchronous Bigital .ierarch 8SB.9 is a standard technique for transporting information on a fibre. It facilitates multi vendor and multi point or hub configurations and provides enhanced Operation and =aintenance facilities. Therefore the transition from :B. to SB. is ta!ing place and all future networ!s are being based on SB. in view of its technical advantages.

12.1% @e' 8or#s


8i9. 8ii9. 8iii9. 8iv9. 8v9. 8vi9. 8vii9. 8viii9. 8i59. 859. The Frame Structure of S+,1 1Figure 12.32 is generall represented b - ro7s and 2!% columns of b tes 1- / 2!% b'tes or 243% b'tes or 1-44% bits2 per 12" bs of +ime Frame. SO0 contains the overhead b tes which are added at various stages,sections and performs the function of frame s nchroni/ation, Order wire and parit chec!ing etc. The actual information field consists of $ 5 2%# b tes and is called the pa'loa#. ContainerC The first entr point of the :B. signal is the container in which the signal is prepared so that it can enter into the ne5t stage, i.e. virtual container. In Container?; the signal speed is increased from <2 b tes to <3 b tes in the case of 2.&3; =b,s signal. In Container?3D <3.<%; =b,s signal 8i.e., A<3 b tes in #2A microseconds9 is increased to 0A% b tes in #2A microseconds adding fi5ed stuff bits8@9, Iustification control bits 8('#, ('29 and Iustification opportunit bits 8S'#, S'29. In Container?4D #<$.2%3 =b,s signal 82#0% b tes in #2A microseconds9 is increased to $ 5 2%& b tes. A +ributar' :nit 1+:2 is an information structure, which provides adaptation between the lower order path la er and the higher order path la er. Net7or9 No#e ;nterface 1NN;2 is an interface at a networ! node, which is used to interconnect with another networ! node. PointerC An indicator whose value defines frame offset of a ?( with respect to the frame reference of transport entit , on which it is supported.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1!& Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

85i9. 85ii9.

>#ministrative :nit 1>:2C It is the information structure, which provides adaptation between the ConcatenationC It is the procedure with which the multiple ?irtual (ontainers are associated with one another, with the result their combined capacit could be used as a single container across which bit sequence integrit is maintained

12.11 Auestions 5 >ns7ers +o C ec9 Bour Progress E/ercise


A1. 8rite +=:E 1+2 or F>(SE 1F2 against follo7ing statementsC 8i9. 8ii9. The first attempt to formulate standards for Optical Transmission started in 1.S.A. as SO7ET 8S nchronous Optical 7etwor!9. J K The S.B... standards e5ploit one common characteristic of all :B. networ!s namel #2A micro seconds duration. J K

8iii9. The Frame structure contains $ rows and number of columns depending upon s nchronous transfer mode level 8ST=9. J K 8iv9. SO. is nothing but the overhead bits necessar for performing some common functions for maintenance of s stem. J K 8v9. =?SO0 i.e., @egenerator Section Overhead b tes are used for lin! management functions in a @egenerator Section. J K

8vi9. ,KSO0, i.e. =ultiple5 Section Overhead b tes. These b tes are used for information e5change within a =1O section. J K 8vii9. In + te'interleaved multiple5ing, parallel streams of transport signals are mi5ed together on a fi5ed b te'b 'b te basis. J K 8viii9. If the optical transmit power is higher than the specified value, an optical attenuator must be used. J K 8i59. An optical receiver can be damaged when driven b a signal power significantl greater than the overload level. J K 859. For all SB. testing it is essential that the setFup is s nchroni/ed. >ns7ersC >ll are +=:E. 555555555555555555555555 J K

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 12C S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02 1!!

423.13 *
Para

S$0 EA:;P,EN+

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1!* Section 13C S$0 E3uipment

Subject

Page

No. 13.% 13.1 13.2 13.3

No. Objectives ;ntro#uction Net7or9 Elements ;n S$0 >C?1 Famil' Of S$0 E3uipment 13.3.1 ,ec anical S'stem 13.3.2 +ransport S'stem

13.3.3 ,anagement S'stem 13.3.4 Po7er Suppl' S'stem 13.4 >C?4 Famil' Of S$0 E3uipment 13.4.1 ,ec anical S'stem 13.4.2 +ransport S'stem 13.4.3 ,anagement S'stem 13.4.4 Po7er Suppl' S'stem (et :s Sum :p

13."

13.& 13.! 13.*

@e' 8or#s Some :seful boo9s F 7ebsites Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress

423.13 S$0 EA:;P,EN+


13.% Objectives

This Section covers the details about the 7etwor! Elements in SB. 7etwor! and A('# and A('3 famil of S'nc ronous $igital 0ierarc ' 1S$02 equipments. After going through this Section, ou will !now the configuration, functions and use of various functional bloc!s in the SB. 7etwor! and about the A('# and A('3 families of SB. Equipments.

13.1

;ntro#uction

SB. is an international standard networ!ing principle and a multiple5ing method. The name of hierarch has been ta!en from the multiple5ing method, which is s nchronous, b nature. The evolution of this s stem has improved the econom of operabilit and reliabilit of a digital networ!. In order to understand the evolution and growth of SB. 7etwor!s we have to !now about various 7etwor! Elements which form part of a SB. 7etwor!. It will further help in understanding the functioning of A('# and A('3 famil of SB. equipments.

13.2

Net7or9 Elements in S$0


Following are the basic 7etwor! Elements in SB.6 8i9. SB. @egenerator 8ii9. *ine Terminal =1O 8*T=9 8iii9. Add Brop =1O 8AB=9 8iv9. S nchronous Bigital (ross (onnect S stem 8SBO(9

*et us now ta!e a loo! at the networ! Tbuilding bloc!sU and how the are configured. These networ! elements are now all defined in ((ITT standards and provide multiple5ing or switching functions 8Figures 13.19.

Figure 13.1C <asic S$0 Net7or9 Elements 1i2. S$0 =egenerator

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 13C S$0 E3uipment 1*2

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The most basic element is the S$0 =egenerator 1Figure 13.22. SouLll find regenerators whenever transmission over A& !ms is needed. The terminate and regenerate the optical signal. Spacing of regenerators depends on the transmission technolog i.e., the operating wavelength being used, the power of the transmitted signal and the receiverLs sensitivit . These are not "ust simple signal regenerators but have alarm reporting and performance monitoring capabilit . Since all networ! elements have alarm reporting capabilit , a fault can be isolated quic!l to the individual transmission section with the problem.

Figure 13.2C S$0 =egenerator The farther the signal has to go, the greater the transmitted power and the more sensitive the receivers have to be. That is wh fibre s stems are described as short, intermediate and long reach s stems. The standards define the transmitted optical power and receiver sensitivit for each t pe of s stem. >avelengths of #<#& nm and #AA& nm are preferred because glass fibre is peculiarl transparent to light at these wavelengths. #AA& nm is preferred for long routes because even though the #AA& nm lasers cost more, the fibre is even more transparent at #AA& nm than #<#& nm and so lower regenerators are needed. An SB. regenerator shall not generate more than &.&# 1I rms "itter, with no "itter applied at the ST='7 input. 1ii2 (ine +erminal ,:\ 1(+,2

Figure 13.4C (ine +erminal ,:\ The (ine +erminal ,ultiple/er 1Figure 13.42 will ta!e a range of input tributaries, either 2, <3, #3& =b,s or ST=F# and multiple5 them onto a high rate optical carrier, i.e. ST=F3 or ST=F#%. As an option, a *ine Terminal =ultiple5er ma have a secondar terminal interface for internal 8#X#9 protection switching. Bepending on the required regenerator spacing, optical interfaces of both #<#& nm and #AA& nm are generall available 8#AA& nm has lower attenuation characteristics and, therefore, supports greater regenerator spacing9. Additional options on *ine Terminal =ultiple5er equipment provide for access to the Orderwire channel 8voice9 and the Bata (ommunication (hannels 8B((9. 1iii2. >## $rop ,:\

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 13C S$0 E3uipment 1*3

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

An >$, is a particular t pe of multiple5er designed to operate in a through mode fashion. >ithin the AB=, it is possible to add channels to, or drop channels from the TthroughU signal. AB=s are generall available at the ST=F# and ST=F3 interface rates and signals, i.e. 2, <3 or #<3 =b,s.

Figure 13."C >## $rop ,:\ Configuration The AB= function is one of the ma"or advantages resulting from the SB. since the similar function within a :B. networ!, required ban!s of hardwired bac! to bac! terminals. The Add Brop =1O 8AB=9 1Figure 13."2 is the basic SB. building bloc! for local access to s nchronous networ!s. It generall offers ST=F# interfaces 8the ne5t generation of AB=s will offer ST=F39 and operates in a thruFmode fashion. A wide variet of plesiochornous tributar signals, such as 2 =b,s can be added too or dropped from this TthruU ST= signal. This capabilit is one of the !e benefits provided b s nchronous s stems since AB= elements support a function that previousl too! ban!s to bac!Fbac! equipment 8i.e., a =1O,BE=1O chain9. The AB= with its TthruFmodeU capabilit adds a new dimension to networ! designs and can be formed into local access s nchronous rings. 8 at is >##F$rop ,:\N Add,Brop =1O 8AB=9 is a 7etwor! Element, which allows configurable add,drop of a subset of a pa load 8e.g. 2 =b,s traffic channels9 transfer from a higher rate data stream 8e.g. #AA =b,s ST=F# traffic. In contrast with normal multiple5er, in which a high'speed signal must be completel demultiple5ed to some intermediate stage, at the minimum before access to a portion of signal can be achieved. AB= will be terminating %3 numbers of 2.&3; =b,s or < numbers of <3.<%; =b,s channels or a mi5 of them at T=. Access is provided to 2.&3; =b,s channels 8an from # to %<9 or <3.<%; =b,s channels 8an from # to <9 at AB= through software control. >## $rop ,:\ in a Net7or9 in +an#em Configuration 1Figure 13.&2

Figure 13.&C ;n +an#em Configuration 1iv2. S'nc ronous $\C

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1*4 Section 13C S$0 E3uipment

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

S nchronous BO( will form the cornerstone of the new s nchronous digital hierarch . The can function as semiFpermanent switches for transmission channels and can switch at an level from %3 )b,s up to ST=F#. -enerall , such devices have interfaces at ST=F# or ST=F3. The BO( can be rapidl re'configured under software control, to provide digital leased lines and other services of var ing bandwidth. BO( devices are classified in terms of their line interface and switching level, i.e. a BO( 3,3 1Figure 13.!2 will have interfaces at ST=F# 8or #3& =b,s9 and switch at the ST=F# 8#3& =b,s9 level.

Figure 13.!C S'nc ronous $\C The S'nc ronous $\C 8Figure 13.*9 functions as a semiFpermanent switch for var ing bandwidth transmission channels, i.e. 2 =b,s #AA =b,s 8ST=F#9. 1nder software control, the crossFconnect devices can pic! out and reroute one or lower order channels from the transmission signal without the need for demultiple5ing. It is this capabilit which ma!es the digital cross connect such a powerful tool, allowing rapid configuration of the transport networ! to provide digital leased lines and other services. The BO( 3,<,# 1Figure 13.*2 device will be used e5tensivel to replace the Bigital Bistribution Frames 8BBF9, which are used in present da digital e5changes. This will eliminate the networ! problems that result from faults in the wiring and rewiring of BBFs.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 13C S$0 E3uipment 1*"

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure 13.*C S'nc ronous CrossKConnect 2 / 2 $>CS 1$igital >ccess an# Cross Connect S7itc 2

It can be seen from Figure 13.-D the 252 $>CSD that a 2 =+ can be dropped from the ST=F# _# east line and can be added on ST=F# _2 west line and viceFversa. This !ind of functionalit where a pa load gets cross'connected to other line is called BA(S. One can visuali/e 2 5 2 BA(S as two AB=s put in the form to cross connect their pa load at BBF. In BA(S both AB=s are located in the same bo5. 7ote that <2 5 <2 BA(S can be seen as <2 AB=s arranged as shown.

Figure 13.-C $igital >ccess an# Cross Connect S7itc

13.3

>C?1 Famil' of S$0 E3uipment

The FI+(O= (ompan in India having their manufacturing facilit in -urgaon, .ar ana, manufactures SB. equipment of various capacities in collaboration with BS( 8Bigital Switching (orporation9 of Benmar!. The >C1 and >C4 are their product families 1> K >## #ropD C K Cross connect2. The >C1 pro#uct famil' consists of S+,K1 and S+,K4 equipments where as the >C4 t'pe of e3uipments has S+,K4 and S+,K1& equipments. In the A(# famil AB= 8AddFdrop multiple5er9 and T= 8Terminal =ultiple5er9 along with the necessar cross connect functions are implemented in a single module. The same unit also incorporates sufficient dropping capacit , which is upgradeable, to ma!e a cost effective solution for small capacit networ!s. The s stem has protection facilit and utili/es the inherent management capacities of SB. with a Q(raft TerminalL 8nothing but a :(9 or through a full'fledged 7etwor! =anagement S stem. The ph sical and technical features of A(# range of equipments are briefl outlined here. (ompact, modular design with single board AB=F < boards form a complete T=F# or AB=F#. E5tensive support of SB. management features. :erformance monitoring. S nchroni/ation management. Fast protection switching SubF7etwor! (onnection protection 8S7(F#9 Full ?(F#2 connectivit
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1*& Section 13C S$0 E3uipment

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Full AT= integration 7=2#&& management. The A(# s stem can be functionall classified into following four categories6 8i9. =echanical 8ii9. Transport 8signal processing stages9 8iii9. =anagement 8Fault, (onfiguration, Alarms, :erformance, Securit P F(A:S9. 8iv9. :ower Suppl

13.3.1 ,ec anical S'stem


The mechanical s stem ta!es care of @ac!s, Subrac!s, @ac! (onnection Fields 8@(Fs9, Subrac! (onnection Fields 8S@(Fs9, etc. The rac! conforms to ETSI standards 8ETSI F European Telecom Standards Institute9 and has a dimension of 22&& mm 5 %&& mm 5 <&& mm 8.eight, >idth, Bepth9. In this four to five subrac!s 8with rear cable access9 can be mounted. +ut it is recommended to use it onl for four so that sufficient space is available for wiring etc. when the equipment is full equipped. +oth the sides of the rac! are having provision for connecting Anti Static bracelets which has to be worn while installation,testing,operation. The upper part of the rac! is reserved for the @ac! (onnection Field 8@(F9. .ere, the station alarms and the power for the subrac!s are connected. Their is provision for connecting ; Subrac!s. The Alarm *EBs, :ower suppl filters and circuit brea!ers are also located in the @(F. The Station :ower suppl is connected to the input terminal bloc! and the output is connected to the subrac!s. The s stem =odules can be divided into following two groups6 8i9. Traffic modules 8AB= or TEO9 and 8ii9. Service modules 8EO> or power modules9. BS( FO(1S A(# is a modular product line of SB. transmission s stems with ST=F# aggregate interfaces and 2 =b,s tributar interfaces. A BS( FO(1S A(# can be configured either as an add,drop multiple5er or a terminal multiple5er depending upon the number of aggregate interfaces. These interfaces can be either optical or electrical resulting in five different t pes of 7Es as listed in +able 13.1. +able 13.1C $ifferent >ggregate Optical or Electrical ;nterfaces ;nterfaces +'pe of ,o#ules E3uipment >ggregate +ributar' Add,drop AB=# OEO 2 5 optical ST=F# 2# 5 2 =b,s multiple5er AB=# OEO X # TEO# 32 5 2 =b,s AB=# OEO X 2 TEO# %< 5 2 =b,s AB=# OEE # 5 optical ST=F# 2# 5 2 =b,s AB=# OEE X # TEO# # 5 electrical ST=F# 32 5 2 =b,s AB=# OEE X 2 TEO# %< 5 2 =b,s AB=# EEE 2 5 electrical ST=F# 2# 5 2 =b,s AB=# EEE X # TEO# 32 5 2 =b,s AB=# EEE X 2 TEO# %< 5 2 =b,s
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 13C S$0 E3uipment 1*!

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Terminal multiple5er

T=#,# OE T=#,#OE X # TEO# T=#,# OE X 2 TEO# T=#,# EE T=#,# EE X # TEO# T=#,# EE X 2 TEO#

# 5 optical ST=F#

# 5 electrical ST=F#

2# 5 2 =b,s 32 5 2 =b,s %< 5 2 =b,s 2# 5 2 =b,s 32 5 2 =b,s %< 5 2 =b,s

13.3.2 +ransport S'stem


The functional diagram of an >$,1 8here # stands for ST=F#9 is given in Figure 13.1%. This bloc! diagram depicts how the AB= performs the function of s nchroni/ing to the line signal to ultimatel e5tracting the tributaries.

Figure 13.1%C Functional $iagram of >$, 1 The functions of the bloc!s are as below6
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1** Section 13C S$0 E3uipment

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The ++F 1+rail +ermination Function2C 8QTrailL is a term used in SB. parlance9. .ere, the Frame >lignment 8or# 8The A#FA2 sequence of Section Overhead F SO.9 is identified and the A1F3 pointer is located. Automatic *aser Shut Off facilit is also provided. The S3 anal ses :O. of ?(F3. S3,S#2 performs T1F#2 pointer aligning and hence locates ?(F#2s. S#2, S#2 8#X# S7(9 facilitates lower level cross connections and also does the S7( :rotection 8Sub 7etwor! (onnection :rotection or Bedicated :ath @ing :rotection9. S#2 anal ses the :O. of ?(F#2s. E#2 is the ph sical termination of tributaries. E#2 @es nc. is an optional variant when the tributar is to be res nchroni/ed to the s stem cloc!.

The transport s stem of AB=# of A(# is such that it can be equipped with two aggregates, that is the line signals from both the sides, and 2# or 32 or %< 2=b,s tributaries. 1i2. Cross Connection Function in t e >$,C The cross connection options available are as given below6 S12C (evel 12 ,bFs +rib (evel2C An incoming ?(F#2 of AggrF# can be connected to an An incoming ?(F#2 of AggrF# can be connected to an An incoming ?(F#2 of AggrF2 can be connected to an An incoming ?(F#2 of AggrF2 can be connected to an

going ?(F#2 of AggrF#. going ?(F#2 of AggrF2. going ?(F#2 of AggrF#. going ?(F#2 of AggrF2.

An ?(F#2 of AggrF# or F2 can be dropped 8connected to the tributar function9, but broadcast is not possible. This onl means that a ?(F#2 can be connected onl to one destination at a time, either to a ?(F#2 of a AggrF# or F2 or to a tributar not with two or more at a time. Section (evel 1>ggregate (evel2C *ocal loops can be given for the aggregates. Output aggregate of one cannot be looped to the input of the other. 1ii2. Protection Function in t e >$,C The AB=# performs #X# S7(,I protection of ?(F#2 signals. This inherentl monitored Subnetwor! (onnection :rotection is based on *oss of :ointer and AIS in S3,S#2 functions. In this scheme, an 2 =b,s streams can be protected in a full dedicated manner b an other 2=b,s slot which is free between the originating and terminating stations. Protection Sc emesC #X# =ultiple5er Section :rotection 8=S:9 =ultiple5er Section Shared :rotection @ing 8=SFS:@I7-9 Equipment :rotection :ath :rotection o Sub 7etwor! (onnection :rotection 8S7(,I9. o Sub 7etwor! (onnection :rotection 8S7(,79. ?( Trail :rotection.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 13C S$0 E3uipment 1*-

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

1iii2. ,o#ularit'C Figure 13.11 illustrates the modularit of the equipment. The core of the transport s stem and of the A(# products in general is the AB= module. This one module holds a complete AddFBrop =ultiple5er, that is, the entire functional diagram shown in Figure #<.#& with 2# 5 2 =b,s tributar interfaces 8e5cluding the Q@es ncL t pe9. Bepending on the selection of components for the module in the production phase, the module can appear in a number of variants. One group of these is the T= module, which is basicall an AB= module with onl one aggregate interface mounted. Aggregate interfaces can be all optical, all electrical or one of each. If more than 2# tributaries are needed, this can be obtained b connecting +ributar' E/tension 1+E\9 modules on the +;S; 1+ributar' ;nternal Section ;nterface2 of the AB= module. A TEO module adds e5tra 2# tributaries. Thus, with < modules in total an AB=# dropping the entire pa load of one ST=F# 1Figure 13.11K>2 or a complete T=# 1Figure 13.11K <2 can be created. Bepending on the equipment practice the TISI signals are cabled from AB=,T= module to TEO module or are routed in a motherboard. .ence, this AB=# when used as T= along with 2 TEO cards can drop all %< numbers of 2 =bps tributaries. \\\\C Interconnecting the aggregate interface b three OOOO modules 8with opticalF electrical, electricalFOOOO, opticalFelectrical aggregate interfaces9, it is possible to create an AB= dropping %< 5 2 =b,s signals without a TEO module 1Figure 13.11KC2. In combination with OOOO protection, this configuration provides the best availabilit figures for the individual 2 =b,s connection.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1-% Section 13C S$0 E3uipment

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure 13.11C ,o#ularit' of >C?1 E3uipment 1iv2. S'nc roni4ation ,et o#sC The S'nc roni4ation E3uipment Cloc9 1SEC2 generates the S'stem Cloc9 1+%2 which is used for s nchroni/ation in internal processing and for all out going SB. signals and res nchroni/ed. E#2 8tributar 9 outputs The SE( uses one of the four sources mentioned below as references to generate the +%. Two ST=F# inputs 8This reference is !nown as T# @ef.9. An two 2 =b,s inputs 8T2 @ef.9 Two E5ternal 2 =b,s @ef. 8T< @ef.9 Internal Oscillator

13.3.3 ,anagement S'stem


1i2. ;nterfaces an# ProtocolsC The =anagement S stem can be accessed b either an FF Interface or through Ethernet. The FFInterface is a serial interface b which a single networ! element 8e.g. one AB=& can be accessed at a time b using the (raft Terminal 8which is a :( loaded with the :roprietar Application Software of the compan 9 after specif ing the address of the 7E. The ET.E@7ET uses a parallel interface and allows monitoring,managing man networ! elements at a time.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 13C S$0 E3uipment 1-1

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The Embedded (ommunication (hannels 8E((9 are the channels selected for the e5change,transmission of management information. This is usuall the B#FB< b tes of @SO. and B3FB#2 of =SO. as stated earlier. The data e5change is done through ZB2 protocol, which is as per the SISA, a Specification. Supervisor and Information S stem for *ocal and @emote Areas. SISA is a standardi/ed data transmission protocol and information model. This protocol is based on the IT1FT @ecommendation for protocol stac!s for ZFInterfaces used for transmission of management information -.00<. In the A(# s stem, AB= houses the master controller, and TEO modules, if an , will have slave modules. The master has the application software loaded in it in a nonFvolatile memor and can store two versions of the software at the same time. This facilitates upgradation of software while the s stem is in service. 1ii2. E/ternal ;nterfaceC =anagement,supervision from an Operations S stem 8OS9 is possible via 3 t pes of interfaces6 FFinterface 8(raft terminal interface9. Ethernet Embedded (ommunication (hannel 8E((9. ZB2 interface according to SISA specification. As to the E(( channels, one channel per ST=F# interface is available. The E(( ma be transferred in6 B((@ b tes 8B#FB<9 of regenerator section overhead. B((= b tes 8B3FB#29 of multiple5er section overhead. The pa load of a selectable ?(F#2. The A(# s stem provides a gatewa function for an internal Zecb channel running the 7=:2 protocol 87=:2 is a proprietar BS( protocol9. The Zecb channel is used to control the :ower Suppl 8:S9 directl from the OS in rear cable access s stems. The OS can then adapt power suppl and other modules into one QvirtualL networ! element. The power suppl has an e5ternal Zecc interface accessible via the Zecb. The Zecc interface is t picall used to control primar rate multiple5ers interfacing to the A(# s stem. 1iii2. ;nternal ,anagementC Internall the A(# s stem is managed b means of a master controller on the AB=,T= module and slave controllers on the TEO modules. The master controller contains a nonFvolatile memor for the application S> of the networ! element. This memor can contain two complete versions of the S> and download of new S> while in service is possible. Internal management communication between modules ta!es place via the (F+us. An e5ception is the power suppl module, which is either controlled 8monitored9 via the Zecb channel or via the :SFfault interface 8in front access s stems9.

13.3.4 Po7er Suppl' S'stem


The :ower Suppl module 8:S9 converts secondar supplies to XA,&,FA ? tertiar power. The power suppl automaticall switches from the main suppl to the protection suppl , if the main suppl is below <%?. The switching is completed within A&& microsec, after the main suppl has fallen below <%?. The switching is revertive, that is the input switch selects the main suppl again, if the voltage on the main suppl increases to more than 3&?.
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1-2 Section 13C S$0 E3uipment

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

=ore power suppl modules can wor! in parallel. Enough power supplies must be used to meet the total power consumption specifications of the modules in the s stem. =ore power supplies can be added to provide power suppl redundanc 8#X# or 7X# protection9.

13.4
here.

>C?4 Famil' of S$0 E3uipment


The ph sical and technical features of A(3 range of equipments are briefl outlined @e' FeaturesC (ompact and modular design 8One AB=F#% in a single subFrac!9 E5tensive support of latest SB. management features o S nchroni/ation 8SS=9. o :erformance monitoring. o =anagement routing 8T:F3, ISFIS9. :rotection 8=S S:@ing, =SF+S.@, S7(F#9. (oncatenated A1F3 8%22 =b,s AT=9. Integrated optical amplifiers. @emote software download. @ange of management s stems 8local craft, element manager and networ! management s stem9. Eas to install and to maintain. Overhead Access, BT=FFEO>. Traffic and equipment protection. 6CK4 connectivit'C Full ?(F3 connectivit between all ports6 A--@FT@I+, A--@FA--@ and T@I+FT@I+. :erformance monitoring on all paths. Full 3; ports crossFconnect. +iFdirectional connections. (oncatenated A13s. ;nputFOutput ,o#ulesC S;,1&C Optical ST=F#% transceiver 8Includes 3; port crossFconnect9. S;,4C Optical ST=F3 transceiver 8Includes 3; port crossFconnect9. SP;,C 3 electrical ST=F#,#3& =b,s interfaces 8T pe is per channel software configurable9. SP;,2C 2 electrical ST=F#,2 optical ST=F#,#3& =b,s interfaces

>#vantages of ;ntegrate# OF> S'stemC =anageable from SB. management s stem. Improved and vendor documented performance. o Transmitter including booster amplifier factor tested with dispersion. o @eceiver factor tested with preFamplifier.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 13C S$0 E3uipment 1-3

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Improved reliabilit o o

(ommon units 8power suppl , processor9. 7o human access to internal interfaces.

>#vantages using Optical >mplifiersC Installation cost reduction o Equipment o .ousing 8green field installations9. =aintenance cost reduction o .igh equipment reliabilit . o Simplified networ! management. o Future proof installations. Service improvement o Traffic availabilit

The FO(1S A(3FAB= s stem is an optical fibre transmission s stem with line signals in SB. format in accordance with IT1FT -.0&0. It provides the functions of addFdrop multiple5ing, terminal multiple5ing, higher order crossFconnection and line regeneration for ST=F#% and ST=F3. The nominal bit rates for ST=F#%,ST=F3 are 23;;.<2& and %22.&;& =b,s, respectivel . The tributar interfaces are partitioned in four groups each containing four data signals. The individual interfaces can process signals with a #<$.2%3 =b,s line rate that conform to IT1F T -.0&< or signals with #AA.A2& =b,s line rate into one ST=F# frame in accordance with IT1FT -.0&0. An ST=F3 signal will also constitute one tributar group. The s stem can also operate with a partial configuration, i.e., equipment without all the interface groups. Transmission is implemented via single mode optical fibres with a wavelength range of #<&& nm or #AA& nm. The s stem includes maintenance and monitoring facilities. (haracteristic for this s stem is the integration of connection, multiple5ingF, lineF, and service facilities. The FO(1S A(3FAB= S stem operates from a 3;? to %&? voltage suppl . The A(3 s stem can be classified into the following four categories6 8i9. =echanical 8ii9. Transport 8signal processing stages9. 8iii9. =anagement 8Fault, (onfiguration, Alarms, :erformance, Securit P F(A:S9. 8iv9. :ower Suppl .

13.4.1 ,ec anical S'stem


The mechanical s stem ta!es care of @ac!s Subrac!s, @ac! (onnection Fields 8@(Fs9, etc. The rac! conforms to ETSI standards 8ETSI F European Telecom Standards Institute9 and has a dimension of 22&& mm 5 %&& mm 5 <&& mm 8.eight, >idth, Bepth9. In this four SI subrac!s can be mounted. +oth the sides of the rac! are having provision for connecting Anti Static bracelets which has to be worn while doing installation, testing and operation. The upper part of the rac! is reserved for the @ac! (onnection Field 8@(F9. .ere, the station alarms and the power for the subrac!s are connected. There is provision for connecting ; Subrac!s 8four if protection power suppl is used, which is normall not available in our stations9. The Alarm *EBs, :ower suppl filters and circuit brea!ers are also located in the
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1-4 Section 13C S$0 E3uipment

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

@(F. The station power suppl connected to the subrac!s.

is connected to the input terminal bloc! and the output is

13.4.2 +ransport S'stem


In an SB. transport s stem, in the receiver path of an ST=F7 Interface 823;;,%22,#AA =b,s line rate9 the signal is converted from optical to electrical signal 8or from (=I coded to 7@] coded signal if ST=F# electrical&, and after regeneration and descrambling split up in 7 signals. These are s nchroni/ed to the networ! element cloc! using pointer ad"ustments and freel connected to an other interface. @eceived electrical as nchronous #3& =b,s tributar input signals are (=I decoded, mapped and overhead information is added to form s nchronous #AA =b,s signalsN which can be freel connected to an other interface. In the transmit part of an ST=F7 interface, the 7 signals are interleaved b teFb Fb te. After scrambling and electroFoptical conversion 8or (=I coding if ST=F# electrical9, the signal is coupled into the single mode optical fibre of the transmission path. If the transmit part of a #3& =b,s interface, the overhead b tes are removed and the signal is demapped, and finall (=I encoded. Signals from an interface can be connected to an other interface without limitations. The regenerator performs the same functions for both transmission directions. The incoming optical signal at >ggr. in is converted, amplified, and regenerated into an electrical signal for both directions. The processed electrical signal is converted into optical signal and coupled into optical line. 1i2. ProtectionC The A(3FAB= can perform #X# S7(,I protection of the ?(F3 signals. It can also perform protection of the ph sical signals6 E3 using ?(F3'path protection and the ST=F3 and ST=F#% optical sections using #X# =S protection. Furthermore, two'fibre selfFhealing ring protection 8=SF+S.@,29 is possible in AB=F3 and AB=F#% configurations. S7(,I protection 8inherentl monitored SubF7etwor! (onnection :rotection9 is based upon *oss of :ointer and AIS detection in the TTF. ?(F3 path protection is based upon *oss of :ointer and AIS detection in the TTF and the status of the terminated ?(F3 8+I: F errors, connectivit errors9. #X# =S and =SF+S.@,2 protection is based upon *oss of Frame and =SFAIS detection in the TTF. +able 13.3 CProtection Connectivit' ;ncoming signals Protecte# signal 8or9ing Protection An incoming An other An S3 signal S3 incoming S3 An E3 signal Aggr. # or 2 All Tributar signals

Protection Sc eme S3 S7( S3 :ath #X# =S =SF+S.@,2

1ii2. Connection FunctionC In AB=, T= and SBO( 3,3 a full bidirectional connection function is performed at the A1F3 level. Full equipped it is a 3; b 3; nonFbloc!ing crossFconnect. In a regenerator the connection function is a null function. The connection function ma be used for remote electronic control of the connections made in the S(F, i.e. to rearrange the connections in the S(F electronicall . Its configuration is controlled from one of the s stem management interfaces.
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 13C S$0 E3uipment 1-"

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

In the AB= or T= or in the SBO( 3,3 all the ST=F# signals available 83; nos. in total 6 #% contained in Aggr. #, #% in Aggr.2 and #% from tributar direction from the four tributar 8S:I=9 modules9 can be cross connected. The regenerator does not have an connection functions. 1iii2. ,o#ularit'C > s'stem can be configure# asC AddFBrop multiple5er with aggregate rates of ST=F#% or ST=F3. Terminal multiple5er with aggregate rates of ST=F#% or ST=F3. @egenerator at ST=F#% or ST=F3 8res nchroni/ed9. .igher Order (rossF(onnect with aggregate rates of ST=F#% and ST=F3. A number of upgrade paths are provided for the user to meet the changing networ! requirements. The upgrade paths are facilitated b the SB. section and path interface modules, which ma be added or replaced for new functionalit or e5tra capacit . In #AA& nm s stems, the distance bridged can be increased b use of optical fibre amplifier technolog . 1iv2. Protection Sc emesC #X# =ultiple5er Section :rotection 8=S:9. =ultiple5er Section Shared :rotection @ing 8=SFS:@I7-9. Equipment :rotection. :ath :rotection o Sub 7etwor! (onnection :rotection 8S7(,I9. o Sub 7etwor! (onnection :rotection 8S7(,79. ?( Trail :rotection. 1v2. S'nc roni4ationC The multiple5er, crossFconnect and regenerators are s nchroni/ed via a networ! s nchroni/ation interface, either a dedicated interface 82&3; )./9 or an ST=F7 interface, to an e5ternal timing source in accordance with prETS<&& 3%2 part A. The characteristics of the SETS is in accordance with prETS<&& 3%2 part A.The 2.&3; =./ cloc! output 8S nc. out9 can be configured to be derived from6 an ST=F7 signal input. or from the internal cloc!. The S nchronous Equipment (loc! 8SE(9 generates the s stem cloc! T& used for s nchroni/ation of internal processing and of all outgoing SB. signals and also generates the outgoing s nchroni/ation signals T3 8which can be used for s nchroni/ation of other equipment or for further filtering in an SS19. The source for the internal timing reference T& is derived from6 An ST=F7 inputs 8T# reference9. An #3& =b,s :B. inputs 8T2 reference9. Four e5ternal 2.&3; =./ reference timing sources 8T< references9. Internal oscillator. The T3 outputs are individuall derived from6 An ST=F7 input 8T# reference9, freel selectable T& Two s nchroni/ation reference outputs T3 are available. All ST=F7 interface modules contain an oscillator with stabilit better than 2& ppm, to generate a =SFAIS signal in failure situations. The S:I= module 8E3 interfaces9 contains an
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1-& Section 13C S$0 E3uipment

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

oscillator with a stabilit better than #A ppm, to generate an E3. To improve s stem reliabilit and availabilit , two SS7(# modules ma be installed. Initiall , the module in slot position #& becomes the master. It controls s nchroni/ation and drives the S nc.out T3 signals. A protection state machine on each module monitors the module and the SS7(#FSS7(# interface. If the master module fails or is removed, the slave module will automaticall ta!e over the s nchroni/ation functions.

13.4.3 ,anagement S'stem


The management s stem ma!es it possible to control and monitor the behavior of the FO(1S A(3FAB= s stem M the associated transport signals. 1i2. ;nterfaces an# Protocols6 The =anagement S stem can be accessed b either an FF Interface or through Ethernet. The FFInterface is a serial interface b which a single networ! element 8e.g. One AB=9 can be accessed at a time b using the (raft Terminal 8which is a :( loaded with the :roprietar Application Software of the (ompan 9 after specif ing the address of the 7E. The ET.E@7ET uses a parallel interface and allows monitoring,managing man networ! elements at a time. The Embedded (ommunication (hannels 8E((s9 are the channels selected for the e5change,transmission of management information. This is usuall carried in the B#FB< b tes of @SO. and B3FB#2 of =SO. as stated earlier. In the A(3 s stem the (entral =anagement and (ommunications (ontrol =odule 8(=((I9 does all these functions. This also has two internal buses 8@S3;A buses I7T. (O= A and +9. These are for controlling all the other modules in the rac!,subrac!. I7T (O= A is for management information and I7T (O= + is for management information in transit 8between the E(( channels, etc.9. In case of brea! down of one, the other can function as both as well. The (=((# has the application software loaded in A :(=(#A card 8having nonvolatile memor 9 mounted on it and can store two versions of the software at the same time. This facilitates upgradation of software while the s stem is in service. 1ii2. ,anagement S'stem FunctionsC The functions provided b the management s stem can be divided into the following groups6 Fault ,anagementC The management s stem is capable of issuing alarms upon detection of faults, such as the loss of a line signal. A number of generic alarm functions are provided, covering e.g. alarm severit level, alarm reporting, alarm suppression and alarm histor 8log9 management. Performance ,anagementC :erformance management implies collection of performance data, i.e. the event counts associated with each monitored point, e.g. parit errors 8(?, ES, SES, 1AS9 derived from an near end and far end anomalies 8+#,+2,+< +I:Ferrors, @EI, @BI9 detected within the aggregate and,or tributar transport signals. E3uipment an# S'stem FunctionsC All handling of information covering the basic configuration and operation of the s stem, i.e. the modules included, their ph sical location and operational status, hardware and software identification, s stem cloc!, etc.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 13C S$0 E3uipment 1-!

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

+ransport Net7or9 FunctionsC All handling of information covering the transport networ! functions are supported b the management s stem. The functions rel heavil on the 8generic9 fault management and performance management functions provided. The include miscellaneous configuration and monitor functions such as setting of Qsignal degradeL defect threshold, setting of path trace IB to be transmitted, forced start of laser and measuring level of signal. Net7or9 Communication FunctionsC All handling of information related to the networ! communications on the F.Z and E(( interfaces, e.g. 7E addresses allocated and identification of the :(s currentl logged in.

:ser C annelsC Overhead b tes in the Section Overhead 8SO.9 and in the :ath Over' .ead 8:O.9 are used in agreement with recommendations -.0&0. :art of the overhead b tes is made available to the user for his specific use. The user ma choose to access,process overhead b tes in the ST=F7 sections or in the paths terminating in the s stem. The overhead b tes to be accessed ma be selected from an of the sections or paths terminating in the s stem. The channels thus made available are transparent, i.e. no processing of the channel communication is performed b the management s stem. Overhead b tes ma be accessed d namicall as transparent n 5 %3 !b,s channels. Overhead b tes for d namic access are accessed in a specific O.Faccess 8O.A9 module. This module ma be customi/ed to the particular needs of an administration. >:\ >larmsC The Au5iliar Alarms interface provides eight alarms that can be configured individuall to be inputs or outputs and active high or low. *ogical levels are standard XA? .(=OS relative to the subFrac! ground. Section ;nterface ,o#ule 1S;,2C The SI= contains one optical transmitter and receiver. The SI=#% is for ST=#% and SI=3 is for ST=3. =odules are available with #AA& nm interface for long haul operation. The SI= module does. =ultiple5ing,Bemultiple5ing between the aggregate interface 8ST=#% or ST=39 and the s stem parallel tributar signals 8ST=#s9. The processing of =SO. and @SO.. ?(3 path overhead monitoring for performance monitoring and protection switching. 3; port cross connect switching function. (aser OperationC In case of discontinued operation caused b cable fault etc., ever 0& seconds the optical signal is switched on for 2 seconds, until the optical connection is restored. Therefore, the ma5imum dela in restoration of service after the path is reconnected will be limited to 0& seconds. +ut in case of power up the laser is momentaril switched on. This automatic restart facilit can be enabled or disabled through the management s stem. There is a provision for forced start of the laser for 2 seconds,$& seconds. Section Pat ;nterface ,o#ule 1SP;,2C The S:I= contains four transmitters and receivers for tributar signals. The tributaries can be selected through management s stem as (=I #<$.2%3 =bps or (=I #AA.A2 =bps 8ST=F#9. The SB. processing of the four tributaries which includes the :O. and SO. processing for #3& =b,s interfaces and SO. processing for ST=F# interfaces.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1-* Section 13C S$0 E3uipment

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

C,CC1C The (=((# forms the hardware platform for the A(3 management s stem. It provides interfaces for Z, :(, S stem Alarms and interfaces for s stem service. It performs configuration management, performance management, fault management and communication functions via s stemFe5ternal 8Z,:(9 and s stemFinternal interfaces 8I7T (O= AM+9. The (=((# module holds the application software for the whole networ! element in a permanent storage medium 8:(=(IA card9. All other modules will load software from the (=((# module. The hardware and the embedded application software are regarded as separate items and in the ordering situation both items must be purchased to obtain an operational s stem. The s stem is not able to perform the desired s stem function until :(=(IA card, comprising the application software is inserted. O0> 1C The O.A# module provides EO> access to two of the #; ST=Fn connections in an A(3 S# subrac!. The O.A# module is configured b using the #2 BI: switches located on the card. Each of the two EO> channels consist of a %3 !b,s EO> voice and a %3 !b,s EO> management channel. ?ia the BI: switches it is possible to locate the EO> channel either in the regenerator or in the multiple5er section of the ST=Fn SO.. If the EO> channel is located in the regenerator section the E# and the SO. b te preceding F# are used for EO> voice and EO> management respectivel . If the EO> channel is located in the multiple5 section the E2 and SO. the b te succeeding S# are used for EO> voice and EO> management respectivel . >hen a ST=F 3,#% connection is used for carr ing EO>, the voice and management channels are located in a ST=F# _# SO.. The O.A A1O panel is an e5tension to the A(3 S(F. It contains four #AFpin BFsub connectors providing overhead access and one $Fpin BFsub connector for #2& s nchroni/ation interface.

13.4.4 Po7er Suppl' s'stem


The A(3 s stem has a provision for connecting a protection input suppl 8which is normall not available in +S7* stations9. >hen it is provided in case of failure or the level of the normal suppl falls below <%? in the normal input the s stem will change over to the protection within # msec and will be restored when the normal comes bac! to 3#?. Surge filters and (ircuit brea!ers are also provided. The operating range is F<%? to F02?. A XA? output is available as suppl for e5ternal circuitr . The power suppl is current limited to #&& mA.

13."

(et us Sum up

The advent of SB. technolog has paved the wa for migration from :B. to SB.. The SB. s stems are being used in both the local and the long distance networ! which will consist of ST=F#, ST=F3 and ST=F#% equipments. 7e5t -eneration SB. enables new t pes of services with more efficient networ! usage to be easil implemented b utili/ing e5isting infrastructure. The !nowledge of SB. networ! elements and A(# and A(3 famil of SB. equipments is essential in understanding the future developments in SB. networ! technologies.

13."
8i9. 8ii9.

@e' 8or#s F >bbreviations


S$0 =egenerators terminate and regenerate the optical signals. The (ine +erminal ,ultiple/er will ta!e a range of input tributaries, either 2, <3, #3& =b,s or ST=F# and multiple5 them onto a high rate optical carrier, i.e. ST=F3 or ST=F #%.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 13C S$0 E3uipment 1--

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8iii9.

>##F$rop ,:\ 1>$,2 is a 7etwor! Element, which allows configurable add,drop of a subset of a pa load 8e.g. 2 =b,s traffic channels9 transfer from a higher rate data stream 8e.g. #AA =b,s ST=F# traffic 8iv9. S'nc ronous $\C can function as semiFpermanent switche for transmission channels and can switch at an level from %3 )b,s up to ST=F#. 8v9. The >C1 pro#uct famil' consists of S+,K1 and S+,K4 equipments. 8vi9. >C4 t'pe of e3uipments have S+,K4 and S+,K1& equipments. 8vii9. The mec anical s'stem ta!es care of @ac!s, Subrac!s, @ac! (onnection Fields 8@(Fs9, Subrac! (onnection Fields 8S@(Fs9, etc. 1viii2. >bbreviationsC +E\ C +ributar' E/tension modules +;S;C +ributar' ;nternal Section ;nterface SECC S'nc roni4ation E3uipment Cloc9 ECCC Embe##e# Communication C annel ,SPC ,ultiple/er Section Protection ,SKSP=;N.C ,ultiple/er Section S are# Protection =ing SNCC Sub Net7or9 Connection Protection C,CCC Communications Control ,o#ule SP;,C Section Pat ;nterface ,o#ule

13.!

=eference
ttpCFFen.7i9ipe#ia.orgF7i9iF<roa#ban#M;nternetMaccess

13.*

Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 'our Progress

A1. 8rite +=:E 1+2 or F>(SE 1F2 against follo7ing statementsC 8i9. 8ii9. 8iii9. The farther the signal has to go, the greater the transmitted power and the more sensitive the receivers have to be. J K The Embedded (ommunication (hannels 8E((9 are the channels selected for the e5change,transmission of management information. J K All ST=F7 interface modules contain an oscillator with stabilit better than 2& ppm, to generate a =SFAIS signal in failure situations. J K

8iv9. The =anagement S stem can be accessed b either an FFInterface or through Ethernet. . J K 8v9. :erformance management implies collection of performance data, i.e. the event counts associated with each monitored point, J K

8vi9. Internall the A(# s stem is managed b means of a master controller on the AB=,T= module and slave controllers on the TEO modules. J K 8vii9. The management s stem ma!es it possible to control and monitor the behavior of the FO(1S A(3FAB= s stem M the associated transport signals. J K
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2%% Section 13C S$0 E3uipment

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8viii9. In case of discontinued operation caused b cable fault etc., ever 0& seconds the optical signal is switched on for 2 sec, until the optical connection is restored. J K 8i59. The S:I= contains four transmitters and receivers for tributar signals. 859. J K K

The (=((# forms the hardware platform for the A(3 management s stem. J >ns7ersC >ll are +=:E. 555555555555555555555555

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 13C S$0 E3uipment 2%1

423.14 *
Para No. 14.% 14.1 14.2

S$0 SBNC0=ON;S>+;ON 5 S:=6;6><;(;+B

Subject Objectives ;ntro#uction Net7or9 topologies in S$0 14.2.1 Point K to K Point +opolog' 14.2.2 (inier or <us +opolog' 14.2.3 =ing topolog' 14.2.4 ,es topolog' 14.2." Star topolog' 14.2.& ,es an# =ingsK + e :ltimate Configuration Survivabilit' 14.3.1. (inear 14.3.2. ,es 6 14.3.3. =ing S'nc roni4ation in S$0 Net7or9 14.4.1 Slips 14.4.2 S'nc roni4ation Net7or9 =eference C ain 14.4.3 ,et o# of +iming $istribution 14.4.4 S'nc roni4ation Suppl' :nit 1SS:2 14.4." +iming of S$0 ring 14.4.& +iming (oops (et :s Sum :p @e' 8or#s Auestions 5 >ns7ers to C ec9 Bour Progress

Page No.

14.3

14.4

14." 14.& 14.!

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 14C S$0 S'nc roni4ation 5 Survivabilit' 2%2

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

423.14 S$0 SBNC0=ON;O>+;ON 5 S:=6;6><;(;+B


14.% Objectives

This Section includes details about the 7etwor! topologies of S nchronous Bigital .ierarch 8SB.9 7etwor!, different t pes of protection arrangements and methods of S nchroni/ation and Survivabilit of SB. s stems. After going through this Section, ou will be able to understand various Topologies possible in SB. networ!s, identif different t pes of protection arrangements in SB. 7etwor! s stems and the methods of s nchroni/ation M survivabilit available.

14.1

;ntro#uction

In the SB. networ!, networ! elements such as Terminal =ultiple5ers, Add M Brop =ultiple5er and Bigital (ross'(onnects have similar functions to the e5tent that the provide interface for transportation of tributar signals. These elements can be used in a number of configurations. In other words, the wa the are connected in a networ! is !nown as net7or9 topolog' 1Figure 14.12.

. Figure 14.1C S$0 Net7or9 +opologies

14.2

Net7or9 +opologies in S$0


Following are some commonl used topologies in SB. networ! s stems6 :ointFtoFpoint lin! +us Topolog @ing Topolog o (ollapsed ring o 7ested ring =esh Topolog Star Topolog

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications 2%3

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

=esh M @ing Topolog

14.2.1 Point K to K Point +opolog'


In point F to F point topolog 1Figure 14.22 two *ine Terminal =ultiple5ers 8*T=s9 are directl connected. It is no doubt simple and cost effective, but lac!s the benefits of other topologies.

Figure 14.2C Point to Point +opolog' The two terminals will be connected with number of regenerators en route depending on the distance between the terminals. The distance between the terminals intern depend on the @eceiver sensitivit and B namic range of the Terminal, regenerator. @eceive sensitivit is the minimum power level that is required b the terminal , regenerator to regenerate the signal with out errors. B namic range is the power level range between the minimum required and the ma5imum that can be accepted b the receiver. The process of determining the power levels and the spacing is generall !nown as power budgeting.

14.2.4 (inier or <us +opolog'

Figure 14.3C (iner or <us +opolog' A point'to'multipoint 8linear or bus9 architecture includes adding and dropping circuits along the wa . SB. 7Es are "oined to form the *inear networ! as shown in Figure 14.3. The 7etwor! has *T= which mar!s the start of the SB. networ! and in between there can be add drop offices. The line protection can be given with the standb line for failure against fibre. The pa load can be an of the :B. rate or the SB. line lower rate.

14.2." =ing topolog'

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2%4 Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The definition of the AddFBrop =ultiple5er function ma!es SB. special because it allows operators to ma!e rings of AB=s, which can add and drop channels at an node. @ings are great because the give greater fle5ibilit in the allocation of bandwidth to the different users and the allow rerouting of traffic should a lin! fail. 1nder normal operation, a 2 =b,s tributar is sent round the ring in both the directions UFigure 14.4 1a2V. The AB= assigned to drop the 2 =b,s tributar monitors the two SB. signals for errors and delivers the one with better performance. This is !nown as pat s7itc ing.

Figure 14.4 1a2C =ing +opolog' >hen a catastrophic failure occurs, for e5ample, when the fibre is cut b a road digger, the nodes either side of the failure loop the cloc!wise ring to the anticloc!wise ring, allowing traffic to avoid the failed ring segment. This forms an e5tended ring, which carries all the traffic to each node in the ring, allowing service to continue. S$0 =ing +opolog' UFigure 14.4 1b2VC .ighl survivable in nature. (ost benefits6 :oint to :oint. Fibre Installation ma be costlier. 7umber of 7Es will be less compared to :ointFtoF:oint lin!s. =odified 7Es are building bloc!s.

Figure 14.4 1b2C S$0 =ing +'pes of =ing Configurations Single fibre rings.
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications 2%"

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Two fibre uniFdirectional rings. Two fibre biFdirectional rings. Four fibre biFdirectional rings.

Single Fibre =ings 7o protection possible in case of *in!,Equipment failure. Total traffic handling capabilit cannot e5ceed %< for 2.&3; =bps or < for <3.<%; =bps. Onl uniFdirectional operation supported. Self?0ealing =ing 1S0=2C Apart from the facilit of ma!ing drop and insert possible at ever AB= locations, this topolog provides a special feature called Tself healingU. This feature protects the traffic carried b the ring automaticall against equipment, fibre failureN and hence most commonl used topolog . (ollection of nodes forming a closed loop. Each node is connected b duple5 communication facilit . <enefitsC 1ses redundant bandwidth and,or equipment to restore disrupted services automaticall .

14.2.4 ,es topolog'


The meshed networ! architecture accommodates une5pected growth and change more easil than simple point'to'point networ!s. A cross'connect function concentrates traffic at a central site and allows eas re'provisioning of the circuits 8see Figure 14."9. There are following two possible implementations of this t pe of networ! function6 8i9. (ross'connection at higher'order path levels, for e5ample, using A1'3 granularit in the switching matri5 and 8ii9. (ross'connection at lower'order path levels, for e5ample, using T1'#2 granularit in the switching matri5.

Figure 14."C ,es +opolog'


??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2%& Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

14.2." Star topolog'


In the star topolog configuration will be as shown in Figure 14.&.

Figure 14.&C Star +opolog'

14.2.& ,es an# =ingsK + e :ltimate Configuration


>hen ou add rings of AB=s to the T=eshU structure of the networ! bac!bone, ou have the ultimate fle5ibilit of an SB. networ!. @oute diversit will ensure networ! protection and survivabilit . Fle5ible software control of networ! elements will speed up new service provisioning and bandwidth management. The telecommunications networ! is becoming more and more software dependent. The reliabilit of the SB. management and control software will be paramount. Testing to eliminate software TbugsU will be essential to ensure networ! integrit .

14.3. Survivabilit'
Survivabilit' is the abilit of a networ! to reroute the interrupted traffic affected b the failure of some of the networ! elements via the spare capacit that is reserved for that purpose. :ossible failure scenarios such as ph sical fibre optic lin! cut, transmission s stem or node brea!down can occur as the result of natural disasters or as the result of human action or even b une5pected failures in software or control s stems. In recent ears, the survivabilit issue has become a ma"or factor since the telecommunication industr deplo s ver high capacit fibre networ!s in order to respond to the e5plosion of demand. Since the node or lin! failures cannot be avoided in real world and the result in loss of revenue, the networ!s have to be designed to handle failures. The survivabilit is supplied b installing spare capacit over the networ!, so in case of a failure, the interrupted traffic can be diverted to the reserve capacit . Besigning such survivable networ!s has also an ob"ective of minimi/ing the spare capacit costs and becomes a difficult problem. There are two main approaches to achieve survivabilit 6 protection, which uses dedicated capacit in the ring and mesh networ!s to restore the traffic when a failure occurs, and restoration, a d namic re'routing algorithm for handling the interrupted traffic using paths available in the mesh networ!s. Bifferent telecommunications services ma use different survivable architectures due to economics and demand distribution and networ! planners have a great concern of reducing networ! protection cost while suppl ing an acceptable level of survivabilit . The architectures to suppl survivable networ!s are protection and restoration. Protection is pre'assigned capacities between an two nodes in a networ! in order to recover a failure, used in both ring and mesh networ!s.
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications 2%!

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

=estoration ma or ma not use an pre'assigned capacit . If no pre'assigned capacit is used, d namic re'routing algorithms are used to find a transport path to recover an interrupted capacit . This technique is used generall in mesh networ!s. There are different protection,restoration possibilities having different recover time, granularit and fault coverage specifications that result in different survivabilit performance. A well'designed networ! should be able to recover quic!l against line or equipment failures. The time for restoration is ver important. Few e5amples of the effect of restoration time on customer services are6 "% ms to 2%%msC *ess than AH probabilit of a telephone calls disconnection. =inimum impact on ((S'0 signaling and cell rela services. +an! teller machine services M large financial trading companies require less than A&ms 2sC (onnection dropping threshold. 1%sC All sessions including O.2A 8pac!et switched connections9 disconnect. " minutes6 Severe congestion ma occur for switches. 7ow we shall stud the different protection mechanism available in various topologies.

14.3.1. (inear
A #X#dedicated protection is resorted to for point F to F point and bus networ!s. The normal channel carries the traffic, while a hot standb protection channel ta!es over in failure condition. It is possible to use the same two fibres with two O*Ts sharing them or with four fibres being used with one pair for normal channel and the other for the protection channel. It ma also be possible to share a protection channel with more traffic channels in a #Xn configuration. >hile #X# schemes can be revertive 8i.e. the traffic reverts bac! to normal channel after repair of fault9 or non revertive 8i.e. the traffic remains on protection channel until it fails, when it will change over to normal channel if the same is available9, #Xn is alwa s revertive. 7ormall these networ!s provide protection against equipment failures but protection against cable failures can be provided if the protection channel is routed through a different ph sical route, duplicating the line repeaters.

14.3.2. ,es 6
In a mesh networ!, the traffic is protected against both lin! failures and equipment failures bu re'routing the traffic through the other nodes as all the nodes are interconnected. .owever it involves higher intelligence for the networ! elements and a good strateg prewritten for themN hence it is quite comple5 and e5pensive. Also as the failures are to be monitored and anal /ed before action ta!en, it involves more restoration time. This is generall preferred for +ac!bone or 7ational routes.

14.3.3. =ing

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2%* Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

A ring is formed b connecting all the nodes in a c clical order to form a closed chain. The self'healing rings can be broadl classified as in Figure 14.!. Apart from this classification, the 3 fibre rings are called #e#icate# protection rings and 2 fibre rings are called s are# protection rings. A survivable ring provides networ! protection against circuit pac! failures, cable cuts, and catastrophic failures of AB= sites. The multiple5 section is onl between the two terminals including the repeaters in between them.

Figure 14.!C Classification of =ings ;. Pat S7itc e# =ings 1PS=2C 1a2. :ni#irectional Pat S7itc e# =ing6 This is a traditional implementation of ring structure, in which the traffic routed between source and destination nodes is also routed over the alternate path, which runs inversel to the main path.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications 2%-

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure 14.* 1>2C Pat S7itc e# =ing 1Normal Case2 As shown in the Figure 14.* 1>2 for traffic between A'( the -O signal traverse through A'+'(, while @ET1@7 signals traverse ('B'A path. Similarl the protection for A'( travel in the reverse direction, i.e. the -O signals travel through A'B'( and @ET1@7 signals via ('+'A. As the signals traverse on a single fibre and in the same direction throughout, the are referred to as :ni#irectional =ings. Therefore, if a failure occurs on the main path, a selection can be made at the destination node to switch to the alternate path i.e. even when both sides of a node does not suffer a fibre cut, the traffic fails and has to be switched to protection channelN which means the switching ta!es place at path origination node and path termination nodeN .ence this t pe is called Pat S7itc e# =ing.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 21% Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure 14.* 1<2C Pat S7itc e# =ing 1Cable Cut Case2 It can be seen from the Figure 14.* 1<2 that all spans around the ring carr the same amount of wor!ing and dedicated protection traffic. The sum of the wor!ing traffic cannot e5ceed the capacit provided b the transmission capacit provided b the terminal equipment on an given span. This leads to severe capacit disadvantage and planning comple5it . For e5ample, in a dedicated protected ring a ST='3 ring can provide onl a capacit of a total to 3 5 #3& =+,s 8or #AA=+,s9 for all the nodes. 1b2. <i?#irectional Pat S7itc e# =ing 1<PS=2C A small variation of the above dedicated unidirectional path switched ring is +i'directional :ath Switched @ing 1Figure 14.-2. The capacit of the transmission equipment should be S879XS8=9 i.e. the :rotection traffic is on dedicated slots and the switching ta!es place at the path terminals.

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications 211

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Figure 14.-C <i?#irectional Pat S7itc e# =ing 1<PS=2 ;;. ,ultiple/ Section S7itc e# ringsC

These rings, as their names indicate, protect the traffic between the two multiple5 sections where the cable has been cut and the switching ta!es place at these nodes. The path Originator and Terminator ma not be involved in traffic protection. Also as the protection channels are shared b different multiple5 sections of a ring onl at the time of failure, these schemes are called S are# Protection =ings 1S0P=2. 1a2. Four Fibre <i?#irectional ,S S7itc e# =ingC In this ring, two pairs are used, one for 7ormal and the other for :rotection.

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 212 Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

1b2. +7o Fibre <i?#irectional ,S S7itc e# =ing 1Figure 14.1%2C This is same as the previous one e5cept that instead of additional fibre for :rotection traffic, it uses half of available time slots for :rotectionN consequentl the capacit between ad"acent, nodes is halved.

Figure 14.1%C +7o Fibre <i?#irectional ,S S7itc e# =ing The two fibres interconnecting the nodes carr 7,2 timeslots of wor!ing traffic and 7,2 timeslots reserved for the shared protection. Buring normal operation, the, traffic traveling along an optical lin! occupies the wor!ing timeslots on that lin!. In the event, of a failure of the lin!, the traffic is switched into the protection timeslots around the opposite side of the ring. ;;;. Protection S7itc ing The ring AB=s initiate switching on detection of6
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications 213

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Signal Failure *oss of signal 8*OS9 *oss of Frame 8*OF9 =ultiple5 Section AIS Signal Begrade 81ser Threshold9 +E@4#&'3 to #&'#& 8default #&'%9

The event is reported 8b each AB=, called 7etwor! Element to 7etwor! =anager. Each 7E 8AB=9 contains the node map of the ring. The node map6 Befines the order of AB= nodes Assigns each node a unique A:S'IB apart from 7etwor! Element Identifier 87E'IB9 The AB= activates the A:S b tes in the SO. and automatic switching occur whenever an AB= within the ring detects a loss of signal or signal degradation. A wait to restore period of the order of <&&ms is provided for revertive action when the fault is cleared. The 7etwor! =anager monitors the protection status of all nodes on a scheduled basis and reports event logs. It also audits the node map, circuit provisioning, and ST='I connections to ensure consistenc of provisioning. The above shared ring architecture provides a capacit advantage over traditional ring implementations in different traffic patterns. This advantage is due to the survivable ringDs abilit to share the protection bandwidth on a per multiple5 section basis. The multiple5 section la er is the transmission span between ad"acent ring AB=s. >ith a shared :rotection ring, wor!ing and protection traffic is not sent simultaneousl around both sides of the ring. Instead, if a failure occurs on a given line, the self' healing capabilit provided invo!es a protection switch at the two AB=s that bound the failure. + sharing the protection bandwidth, more efficient use of the available bandwidth is made. For e5ample, for a simple node F to F node ad"acent traffic distribution, a Shared :rotection ring can support a traffic capacit which equals the total capacit per span 87,2 for an ST='7 ring9 times the number of nodes. As the number of nodes increases, the traffic capacit increasesN whereas the traffic capacit provided b a dedicated ring remains constant irrespective of number of nodes.

14.4

S'nc roni4ation in S$0

There are usuall man 7OBES in the telecommunication networ!. A 7ode ma be a Switch, transmission equipment 8AB= is a node9 or a @adio base station etc. In Bigital world of communication each node is having a cloc!. If the node cloc!s operate as nchronousl , the Transmit and @eceive rates of telecommunication s stems in each node would be different to other nodes. In this case, the input buffers of the s stem would frequentl overflow or underflow causing data errors commonl referred to as Slips. The impact of slips are given under, 6oice serviceC Impact is less. Occasional audible T(lic!ingU sound F>\ service6 *oss of scan lines 6oice?<an# $ataC (an cause several seconds of drop out $igital $ataC @etransmission required 8Becreases throughput9 $igital 6i#eo6 Slips can free/e frames for several seconds The s nchroni/ation of SB. ring and networ! is essential to ensure the timing of the s stem for integrit and smooth flow of data without causing an slips. S nchronous Bigital .ierarch 8SB.9 is an international standard for transmission b the IT1'T. SB. is designed to
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 214 Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

carr :lesiochronous Bigital .ierarch 8:B.9, As nchronous Transfer =ode 8AT=9 and I: data.

and future transmission signals

li!e

A significant advantage of SB. over :B. is that the As nchronous traffic signals can be directl dropped , inserted at an level of the multiple5ing and demultiple5ing equipment. To compensate the phase and frequenc differences between the As nchronous input signals to SB. equipment, a pointer ad"ustment mechanism is used. .owever, each pointer action introduces low phase , frequenc variation to the associated traffic signal. To minimi/e the occurrence of the pointer actions, add to maintain the performance of the SB. networ!, it is necessar to slave all the S'nc ronous E3uipment cloc9s 1SECs2 to one Primar' =eference Cloc9 1P=C2 or a number of -.;## master cloc!s.

14.4.1 Slips
Slip is a bit error occurring as a result of a difference between the incoming signal cloc! rate and the node cloc! rate. 1ncontrolled slip occurs when such a bit'error causes loss of framing, thus leading to disastrous consequences. On the other hand, slip, which is controlled in such a wa that no loss of framing results is called, controlled slip. The minimum fre3uenc' accurac' for a P=C is 1%?11. Therefore ma5imum slip rate between two :@( s nchroni/ed 8sub9 networ!s is # slip in 2.3 months for ;) frames per second signals, e.g. %3)b,s and 2=b,s signals. For traffic performanceD t e ma/imum slip rate allo7e# is " slips per #a' in 24 oursD for greater t an -*.-c of time.

14.4.2 S'nc roni4ation Net7or9 =eference C ain


In general, the qualit of timing will deteriorate as the number of s nchroni/ed cloc!s in tandem increases and hence for practical s nchroni/ation networ! design 1Figure 14.112D the number of networ! elements in tandem should be minimi/ed. +ased on theoretical calculations it is recommended that the longest chain should not e5ceed #& S nchroni/ation Suppl 1nits 8SS1s9 and 2& S nchronous Equipment cloc!s 8SE(s9 interconnecting an SS1s with restriction that the total number of SE(s is limited to %&. It is preferable that all SS1s and SE(s are able to recover timing from at least two s nchroni/ation trails. The slave cloc! shall reconfigure to recover timing from an alternative trail if the original trail fails. >here possible s nchroni/ation trails should be provided over diversel routed paths. In the event of a failure of s nchroni/ation distribution, all networ! elements will see! to recover timing from the highest hierarchical level cloc! source available. To effect this, both SS1s and SE(s ma have to reconfigure and recover timing from one of their alternate s nchroni/ation trails. SS= and squelching ma be used on SB. trails for correct reference transfer between the SS1s. The use of SS= also ma!es it possible to recover timing for the SE( cloc!s in the chain from the opposite direction if the signal in the original direction fails. A general procedure in planning the s nchroni/ation networ! ma be as follows. ;f t e s'nc ronous met o# is use#C Find out the connections to the national :@('s stem :lan the locations for SS1s :lan the s nchroni/ation trails ;f t e pseu#o?s'nc ronous met o# is use#C :lan the :@( s stem :lan the locations for SS1s

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications 21"

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

:lan the s nchroni/ation trails

>hen planning the placing for SS1s the importance of the node locations for the traffic networ!s to be s nchroni/ed and the s nchroni/ation networ! itself is considered. The ma5imum number of SE( cloc!s between two SS1s has also to be ta!en into account. >hen planning the s nchroni/ation trails first the transmission s stems for the transfer of s nchroni/ation are selected. Secondl the timing configuration of the selected s stems is planned in detail.

Figure 14.11C S'nc roni4ation Net7or9 =eference C ain After the detailed planning for the s nchroni/ation of a sub'networ! is finished the presence of potential timing loops is chec!ed. A simple method for that is to follow through all
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 21& Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

ph sical loops 8cloc!wise and counter'cloc!wise9 and ma!e sure that the reference signal loop is not closed. The priorities of the references are ignored in the chec!ing procedure.

14.4.3 ,et o# of +iming $istribution


The distribution of timing between hierarchical nod cloc!s in a networ! 1Figure 14.122 must be done b a method, which avoids intermediate pointer processing. One wa is to conve the timing through a :B. trail. An alternative method would then be to recover the timing signal from a received ST='7 signal.

Figure 14.12C $istribution of timing bet7een ierarc ical No#e cloc9s in a net7or9 =ing #istributionC

>hen networ! timing has to be distributed along a ring structure 1Figure 14.132 the ring AB=s are considered to belong to a s nchroni/ation trail rather than the node cloc!s where the are located. This wa , e5cessive cascading of SS1s is prevented. All other equipment from each node ma be timed from the local SS1.

Figure 14.13C =ing $istribution

14.4.4 S'nc roni4ation Suppl' :nit 1SS:2


???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications 21!

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

From the :rimar @eference (loc! 8:@(9, which sits at the top of the S nchroni/ation : ramid, SB. rings shall be driven b the two t pes of cloc!ing, vi/N -.;#2 compliance cloc!, which shall be provisioned b the SS1s and, -.;#< compliance cloc!, which shall be built in cloc! of an AB=. The SS1 1Figure 14.142 is an equipment to be used to minimi/e the e5cessive "itter and the accumulated wander in the networ! due to cascading of SB. 7etwor! element and provide -.;#2 cloc! to the ne5t node in the networ!. The SB. networ! is prone to wander and "itter accumulation, which in turn generate the pointer actions in the SB. pa load, due to which some times the originating or the terminating node looses the S nchroni/ation. The SS1s shall be suitabl deplo ed at strategic sites to ensure smooth and efficient wor!ing of SB. lin!s. The SS1 can accept multiple cloc! inputs reference and switches from one to the ne5t in priorit in case of the failure of earlier reference. Also the SS1 provides multiple outputs at 2=b,s and,or 2=./ needed for the switches. The equipment is full supporting the compliance to SS=+ of the SB. technolog . The equipment is 7=S based for the efficient ease of maintenance.

Figure 14.14C S'nc ronous Suppl' :nit

14.4." +iming of S$0 ring


In the normal course of wor!ing a SB. shall be timed from a :@(,SS1,-:S receiver , SE(.,2=b,s :B. timings. One or more nodes of the ring shall be time fed from these SS1,-:s
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 21* Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

receiver or from :@( via different routes. The timing distribution shall be ensured on the primar ring meeting over the protection ring traceable to the same standard of cloc!. Figure 14.1" gives e5ample of timing provisioning to a SB. ring.

Figure 14.1"C +iming of S$0 =ing

14.4.& +iming (oops


+iming loop is a networ! condition where a slave cloc! providing s nchroni/ation becomes loc!ed to its own signal. It is generall created when the slave cloc! timing information is looped bac! to its own input, ether directl or via other networ! equipment.

Figure 14.1&C +iming (oop ;mpact of +iming (oopsC

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications 21-

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The cloc!s in the timing loop condition will swiftl begin to operate in the cloc! pull 'out range, This will result in the cloc! e5hibiting performance man times worse than its free running mode. Therefore it should be ensured that no combination of primar ,secondar reference should result the timing loops. The E5ample shown in Figure 14.1& indicates the timing distribution to a ring from a single SS1. 7E_# is getting timing from local SS1 and all other 7Es are line timed 7es. The fibre route shown in continuous line indicates the normal wor!ing of the ring and the fibre route shown in dashed line represents the protection wor!ing of the ring. 7ow ta!e the case of brea! in the fibre at point RAR. 7E_< whose status is *ine Timed 7E shall get failure of its input timing from 7E_2. As a chain reaction further, all the 7Es in the direction of transmission will face the condition of Timing failure and will go on holdover mode for a short period one after another e5cept 7E_# which gets Timing from local SS1. The self'healing ring will restore the timing via protection ring mar!ed with dashed lines. The 7Es that were in the holdover mode will come out of holdover one b one. This will result into two'phase transients and pointer actions. It ma be noticed that in the process of restoration of Timing via alternative path to the same reference have developed the timing loop as shown in the Figure 14.1&. So sufficient care should be ta!en to avoid such timing loops.

14."

(et :s Sum :p

The SB. 7etwor! consisting of the Terminal =ultiple5ers, the Add,Brop =ultiple5ers and the @egenerators required to implement various networ! topologies, i.e. point to point, bus, ring, star or a combination thereof. Onl two'fibre application as against 3 fibre is envisaged. In the initial planning the ST=F#% equipment is proposed to be used for the national bac!bone rings and ST=F3 for regional routes. The ST=F# equipment is proposed for low traffic routes. In future, ST=F#% rings would be e5tensivel used for regional routes and local networ!s in the metro and ma"or cities depending upon the traffic requirement. The !nowledge of SB. 7etwor! topolog and S nchroni/ation and Survivabilit is therefore essential in understanding the future developments in Optical Fibre communications.

14.&
8i9.

@e' 8or#s

The wa the SB. 7etwor! Elements are connected in a networ! is !nown as net7or9 topolog'. 8ii9. In point K to K point topolog' two *ine Terminal =ultiple5ers 8*T=s9 are directl connected. 8iii9. Survivabilit' is the abilit of a networ! to reroute the interrupted traffic affected b the failure of some of the networ! elements via the spare capacit that is reserved for that purpose. 8iv9. There are two main approaches to achieve survivabilit 6 protection, which uses dedicated capacit in the ring and mesh networ!s to restore the traffic when a failure occurs, and restoration, a d namic re'routing algorithm for handling the interrupted traffic using paths available in the mesh networ!s. 8v9. As the signals traverse on a single fibre and in the same direction throughout, the are referred to as :ni#irectional =ings. 8vi9. ,ultiple/ Section S7itc e# rings as their name indicates, protect the traffic between the two multiple5 sections where the cable has been cut and the switching ta!es place at these nodes. 8vii9. Slip is a bit error occurring as a result of a difference between the incoming signal cloc! rate and the node cloc! rate.
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 22% Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications

423. Optical Fibre Communications ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8viii9. +iming loop is a networ! condition where a slave cloc! providing s nchroni/ation becomes loc!ed to its own signal. It is generall created when the slave cloc! timing information is looped bac! to its own input, ether directl or via other networ! equipment. 8i59. SECC S'nc ronous E3uipment cloc9. 859. P=CC Primar' =eference Cloc9 85i9. SS:C S'nc roni4ation Suppl' :nit

14.!

Auestions 5 >ns7er +o C ec9 Bour Progress E/ercise

A1. 8rite +=:E 1+2 or F>(SE 1F2 against follo7ing statementsC 8i9. 8ii9. =eceive sensitivit' is the minimum power level that is required b the terminal , regenerator to regenerate the signal with out errors. J K $'namic range is the power level range between the minimum required and the ma5imum that can be accepted b the receiver. J K

8iii9. >hen ou add rings of AB=s to the T=eshU structure of the networ! bac!bone, ou have the ultimate fle5ibilit of an SB. networ!. J K 8iv9. The survivabilit is supplied b installing spare capacit over the networ!, so in case of a failure, the interrupted traffic can be diverted to the reserve capacit . . J K 8v9. . The architectures to suppl survivable networ!s are protection and restoration. J K

8vi9. A ring is formed b connection all the nodes in a c clical order to form a closed chain. J K 8vii9. The AB= activates the A:S b tes in the SO. and automatic switching occur whenever an AB= within the ring detects a loss of signal or signal degradation. J K 8viii9. S nchronous Bigital .ierarch 8SB.9 is an international standard for transmission b the IT1'T. SB. is designed to carr :lesiochronous Bigital .ierarch 8:B.9, and future transmission signals li!e As nchronous Transfer =ode 8AT=9 and I: data. J K 8i59. The minimum frequenc accurac for a :@( is #&'##. 859. J K

For traffic performance, the ma5imum slip rate allowed is A slips per da in 23 hours, for greater than $;.$H of time. J K

>ns7ersC >ll are +=:E. 555555555555555555555555

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Section 1*C (atest +ren#s in Optical Communications 221

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