350 BC

HISTORY OF ANIMALS by Aristotle translated by DArcy Wentworth Thompson Book I 1 OF the parts of animals some are simple: to wit all s!ch as di"ide into parts !niform with themsel"es as flesh into flesh# others are composite s!ch as di"ide into parts not !niform with themsel"es as for instance the hand does not di"ide into hands nor the face into faces$ And of s!ch as these some are called not parts merely b!t limbs or members$ %!ch are those parts that while entire in themsel"es ha"e within themsel"es other di"erse parts: as for instance the head foot hand the arm as a whole the chest# for these are all in themsel"es entire parts and there are other di"erse parts belon&in& to them$ All those parts that do not s!bdi"ide into parts !niform with themsel"es are composed of parts that do so s!bdi"ide for instance hand is composed of flesh sinews and bones$ Of animals some resemble one another in all their parts while others ha"e parts wherein they differ$ %ometimes the parts are identical in form or species as for instance one mans nose or eye resembles another mans nose or eye flesh flesh and bone bone# and in like manner with a horse and with all other animals which we reckon to be of one and the same species: for as the whole is to the whole so each to each are the parts se"erally$ In other cases the parts are identical sa"e only for a difference in the way of e'cess or defect as is the case in s!ch animals as are of one and the same &en!s$ By (&en!s I mean for instance Bird or Fish for each of these is s!b)ect to difference in respect of its &en!s and there are many species of fishes and of birds$ Within the limits of &enera most of the parts as a r!le e'hibit differences thro!&h contrast of the property or accident s!ch as colo!r and shape to which they are s!b)ect: in that some are more and some in a less de&ree the s!b)ect of the same property or accident# and also in the way of m!ltit!de or fewness ma&nit!de or par"it!de in short in the way of e'cess or defect$ Th!s in some the te't!re of the flesh is soft in others firm# some ha"e a lon& bill others a short one# some ha"e ab!ndance of feathers others ha"e only a small *!antity$ It happens f!rther that some ha"e parts that others ha"e not: for instance some ha"e sp!rs and others not some ha"e crests and others not# b!t as a &eneral r!le most parts and those that &o to make !p the b!lk of the body are either identical with one another or differ from one another in the way of contrast and of e'cess and defect$ For (the more and (the less may be represented as (e'cess or (defect$ Once a&ain we may ha"e to do with animals whose parts are neither identical in form nor yet identical sa"e for differences in the way of e'cess or defect: b!t they are the same only in the way of analo&y as for instance bone is only analo&o!s to fish+bone nail to hoof hand to claw and scale to feather# for what the feather is in a bird the scale is in a fish$ The parts then which animals se"erally possess are di"erse from or identical with one another in the fashion abo"e described$ And they are so f!rthermore in the way of local disposition: for many

animals ha"e identical or&ans that differ in position# for instance some ha"e teats in the breast others close to the thi&hs$ Of the s!bstances that are composed of parts !niform ,or homo&eneo!s- with themsel"es some are soft and moist others are dry and solid$ The soft and moist are s!ch either absol!tely or so lon& as they are in their nat!ral conditions as for instance blood ser!m lard s!et marrow sperm &all milk in s!ch as ha"e it flesh and the like# and also in a different way the s!perfl!ities as phle&m and the e'cretions of the belly and the bladder$ The dry and solid are s!ch as sinew skin "ein hair bone &ristle nail horn ,a term which as applied to the part in"ol"es an ambi&!ity since the whole also by "irt!e of its form is desi&nated horn- and s!ch parts as present an analo&y to these$ Animals differ from one another in their modes of s!bsistence in their actions in their habits and in their parts$ .oncernin& these differences we shall first speak in broad and &eneral terms and s!bse*!ently we shall treat of the same with close reference to each partic!lar &en!s$ Differences are manifested in modes of s!bsistence in habits in actions performed$ For instance some animals li"e in water and others on land$ And of those that li"e in water some do so in one way and some in another: that is to say some li"e and feed in the water take in and emit water and cannot li"e if depri"ed of water as is the case with the &reat ma)ority of fishes# others &et their food and spend their days in the water b!t do not take in water b!t air nor do they brin& forth in the water$ /any of these creat!res are f!rnished with feet as the otter the bea"er and the crocodile# some are f!rnished with win&s as the di"er and the &rebe# some are destit!te of feet as the water+snake$ %ome creat!res &et their li"in& in the water and cannot e'ist o!tside it: b!t for all that do not take in either air or water as for instance the sea+nettle and the oyster$ And of creat!res that li"e in the water some li"e in the sea some in ri"ers some in lakes and some in marshes as the fro& and the newt$ Of animals that li"e on dry land some take in air and emit it which phenomena are termed (inhalation and (e'halation# as for instance man and all s!ch land animals as are f!rnished with l!n&s$ Others a&ain do not inhale air yet li"e and find their s!stenance on dry land# as for instance the wasp the bee and all other insects$ And by (insects I mean s!ch creat!res as ha"e nicks or notches on their bodies either on their bellies or on both backs and bellies$ And of land animals many as has been said deri"e their s!bsistence from the water# b!t of creat!res that li"e in and inhale water not a sin&le one deri"es its s!bsistence from dry land$ %ome animals at first li"e in water and by and by chan&e their shape and li"e o!t of water as is the case with ri"er worms for o!t of these the &adfly de"elops$ F!rthermore some animals are stationary and some are erratic$ %tationary animals are fo!nd in water b!t no s!ch creat!re is fo!nd on dry land$ In the water are many creat!res that li"e in close adhesion to an e'ternal ob)ect as is the case with se"eral kinds of oyster$ And by the way the spon&e appears to be endowed with a certain sensibility: as a proof of which it is alle&ed that the diffic!lty in detachin& it from its moorin&s is increased if the mo"ement to detach it be not co"ertly applied$ Other creat!res adhere at one time to an ob)ect and detach themsel"es from it at other times as is the case with a species of the so+called sea+nettle# for some of these creat!res seek their food in the ni&ht+time loose and !nattached$ /any creat!res are !nattached b!t motionless as is the case with oysters and the so+called holoth!ria$ %ome can swim as for instance fishes moll!scs and cr!staceans s!ch as the crawfish$

B!t some of these last mo"e by walkin& as the crab for it is the nat!re of the creat!re tho!&h it li"es in water to mo"e by walkin&$ Of land animals some are f!rnished with win&s s!ch as birds and bees and these are so f!rnished in different ways one from another# others are f!rnished with feet$ Of the animals that are f!rnished with feet some walk some creep and some wri&&le$ B!t no creat!re is able only to mo"e by flyin& as the fish is able only to swim for the animals with leathern win&s can walk# the bat has feet and the seal has imperfect feet$ %ome birds ha"e feet of little power and are therefore called Apodes$ This little bird is powerf!l on the win&# and as a r!le birds that resemble it are weak+footed and stron& win&ed s!ch as the swallow and the drepanis or ,0- Alpine swift# for all these birds resemble one another in their habits and in their pl!ma&e and may easily be mistaken one for another$ ,The ap!s is to be seen at all seasons b!t the drepanis only after rainy weather in s!mmer# for this is the time when it is seen and capt!red tho!&h as a &eneral r!le it is a rare bird$A&ain some animals mo"e by walkin& on the &ro!nd as well as by swimmin& in water$ F!rthermore the followin& differences are manifest in their modes of li"in& and in their actions$ %ome are &re&ario!s some are solitary whether they be f!rnished with feet or win&s or be fitted for a life in the water# and some partake of both characters the solitary and the &re&ario!s$ And of the &re&ario!s some are disposed to combine for social p!rposes others to li"e each for its own self$ 1re&ario!s creat!res are amon& birds s!ch as the pi&eon the crane and the swan# and by the way no bird f!rnished with crooked talons is &re&ario!s$ Of creat!res that li"e in water many kinds of fishes are &re&ario!s s!ch as the so+called mi&rants the t!nny the pelamys and the bonito$ /an by the way presents a mi't!re of the two characters the &re&ario!s and the solitary$ %ocial creat!res are s!ch as ha"e some one common ob)ect in "iew# and this property is not common to all creat!res that are &re&ario!s$ %!ch social creat!res are man the bee the wasp the ant and the crane$ A&ain of these social creat!res some s!bmit to a r!ler others are s!b)ect to no &o"ernance: as for instance the crane and the se"eral sorts of bee s!bmit to a r!ler whereas ants and n!mero!s other creat!res are e"ery one his own master$ And a&ain both of &re&ario!s and of solitary animals some are attached to a fi'ed home and others are erratic or nomad$ Also some are carni"oro!s some &ramini"oro!s some omni"oro!s: whilst some feed on a pec!liar diet as for instance the bees and the spiders for the bee li"es on honey and certain other sweets and the spider li"es by catchin& flies# and some creat!res li"e on fish$ A&ain some creat!res catch their food others treas!re it !p# whereas others do not so$ %ome creat!res pro"ide themsel"es with a dwellin& others &o witho!t one: of the former kind are the mole the mo!se the ant the bee# of the latter kind are many insects and *!adr!peds$ F!rther in respect to locality of dwellin& place some creat!res dwell !nder &ro!nd as the li2ard and the snake# others li"e on the s!rface of the &ro!nd as the horse and the do&$ make to themsel"es holes others do not

%ome are noct!rnal as the owl and the bat# others li"e in the dayli&ht$ /oreo"er some creat!res are tame and some are wild: some are at all times tame as man and the m!le# others are at all times sa"a&e as the leopard and the wolf# and some creat!res can be rapidly tamed as the elephant$ A&ain we may re&ard animals in another li&ht$ For whene"er a race of animals is fo!nd domesticated the same is always to be fo!nd in a wild condition# as we find to be the case with horses kine swine ,men- sheep &oats and do&s$ F!rther some animals emit so!nd while others are m!te and some are endowed with "oice: of these latter some ha"e artic!late speech while others are inartic!late# some are &i"en to contin!al chirpin& and twitterin& some are prone to silence# some are m!sical and some !nm!sical# b!t all animals witho!t e'ception e'ercise their power of sin&in& or chatterin& chiefly in conne'ion with the interco!rse of the se'es$ A&ain some creat!res li"e in the fields as the c!shat# some on the mo!ntains as the hoopoe# some fre*!ent the abodes of men as the pi&eon$ %ome a&ain are pec!liarly salacio!s as the partrid&e the barn+door cock and their con&eners# others are inclined to chastity as the whole tribe of crows for birds of this kind ind!l&e b!t rarely in se'!al interco!rse$ Of marine animals a&ain some li"e in the open seas some near the shore some on rocks$ F!rthermore some are combati"e !nder offence# others are pro"ident for defence$ Of the former kind are s!ch as act as a&&ressors !pon others or retaliate when s!b)ected to ill !sa&e and of the latter kind are s!ch as merely ha"e some means of &!ardin& themsel"es a&ainst attack$ Animals also differ from one another in re&ard to character in the followin& respects$ %ome are &ood+tempered sl!&&ish and little prone to ferocity as the o'# others are *!ick tempered ferocio!s and !nteachable as the wild boar# some are intelli&ent and timid as the sta& and the hare# others are mean and treachero!s as the snake# others are noble and co!ra&eo!s and hi&h+bred as the lion# others are thoro!&h+bred and wild and treachero!s as the wolf: for by the way an animal is hi&hbred if it come from a noble stock and an animal is thoro!&h+bred if it does not deflect from its racial characteristics$ F!rther some are crafty and mischie"o!s as the fo'# some are spirited and affectionate and fawnin& as the do&# others are easy+tempered and easily domesticated as the elephant# others are ca!tio!s and watchf!l as the &oose# others are )ealo!s and self+conceited as the peacock$ B!t of all animals man alone is capable of deliberation$ /any animals ha"e memory and are capable of instr!ction# b!t no other creat!re e'cept man can recall the past at will$ With re&ard to the se"eral &enera of animals partic!lars as to their habits of life and modes of e'istence will be disc!ssed more f!lly by and by$ 3 .ommon to all animals are the or&ans whereby they take food and the or&ans where into they take it# and these are either identical with one another or are di"erse in the ways abo"e specified: to wit either identical in form or "aryin& in respect of e'cess or defect or resemblin& one another analo&ically or differin& in position$

F!rthermore the &reat ma)ority of animals ha"e other or&ans besides these in common whereby they dischar&e the resid!!m of their food: I say the &reat ma)ority for this statement does not apply to all$ And by the way the or&an whereby food is taken in is called the mo!th and the or&an whereinto it is taken the belly# the remainder of the alimentary system has a &reat "ariety of names$ 4ow the resid!!m of food is twofold in kind wet and dry and s!ch creat!res as ha"e or&ans recepti"e of wet resid!!m are in"ariably fo!nd with or&ans recepti"e of dry resid!!m# b!t s!ch as ha"e or&ans recepti"e of dry resid!!m need not possess or&ans recepti"e of wet resid!!m$ In other words an animal has a bowel or intestine if it ha"e a bladder# b!t an animal may ha"e a bowel and be witho!t a bladder$ And by the way I may here remark that the or&an recepti"e of wet resid!!m is termed (bladder and the or&an recepti"e of dry resid!!m (intestine or (bowel$ 5 Of animals otherwise a &reat many ha"e besides the or&ans abo"e+mentioned an or&an for e'cretion of the sperm: and of animals capable of &eneration one secretes into another and the other into itself$ The latter is termed (female and the former (male# b!t some animals ha"e neither male nor female$ .onse*!ently the or&ans connected with this f!nction differ in form for some animals ha"e a womb and others an or&an analo&o!s thereto$ The abo"e+mentioned or&ans then are the most indispensable parts of animals# and with some of them all animals witho!t e'ception and with others animals for the most part m!st needs be pro"ided$ One sense and one alone is common to all animals+the sense of to!ch$ .onse*!ently there is no special name for the or&an in which it has its seat# for in some &ro!ps of animals the or&an is identical in others it is only analo&o!s$ 6 7"ery animal is s!pplied with moist!re and if the animal be depri"ed of the same by nat!ral ca!ses or artificial means death ens!es: f!rther e"ery animal has another part in which the moist!re is contained$ These parts are blood and "ein and in other animals there is somethin& to correspond# b!t in these latter the parts are imperfect bein& merely fibre and ser!m or lymph$ To!ch has its seat in a part !niform and homo&eneo!s as in the flesh or somethin& of the kind and &enerally with animals s!pplied with blood in the parts char&ed with blood$ In other animals it has its seat in parts analo&o!s to the parts char&ed with blood# b!t in all cases it is seated in parts that in their te't!re are homo&eneo!s$ The acti"e fac!lties on the contrary are seated in the parts that are hetero&eneo!s: as for instance the b!siness of preparin& the food is seated in the mo!th and the office of locomotion in the feet the win&s or in or&ans to correspond$ A&ain some animals are s!pplied with blood as man the horse and all s!ch animals as are when f!ll+&rown either destit!te of feet or two+footed or fo!r+footed# other animals are bloodless s!ch as the bee and the wasp and of marine animals the c!ttle+fish the crawfish and all s!ch animals as ha"e more than fo!r feet$ 8 A&ain some animals are "i"iparo!s others o"iparo!s others "ermiparo!s or (&r!b+bearin&$ %ome are "i"iparo!s s!ch as man the horse the seal and all other animals that are hair+coated and of

marine animals the cetaceans as the dolphin and the so+called %elachia$ ,Of these latter animals some ha"e a t!b!lar air+passa&e and no &ills as the dolphin and the whale: the dolphin with the air+ passa&e &oin& thro!&h its back the whale with the air+passa&e in its forehead# others ha"e !nco"ered &ills as the %elachia the sharks and rays$What we term an e&& is a certain completed res!lt of conception o!t of which the animal that is to be de"elops and in s!ch a way that in respect to its primiti"e &erm it comes from part only of the e&& while the rest ser"es for food as the &erm de"elops$ A (&r!b on the other hand is a thin& o!t of which in its entirety the animal in its entirety de"elops by differentiation and &rowth of the embryo$ Of "i"iparo!s animals some hatch e&&s in their own interior as creat!res of the shark kind# others en&ender in their interior a li"e foet!s as man and the horse$ When the res!lt of conception is perfected with some animals a li"in& creat!re is bro!&ht forth with others an e&& is bro!&ht to li&ht with others a &r!b$ Of the e&&s some ha"e e&&+shells and are of two different colo!rs within s!ch as birds e&&s# others are soft+skinned and of !niform colo!r as the e&&s of animals of the shark kind$ Of the &r!bs some are from the first capable of mo"ement others are motionless$ 9owe"er with re&ard to these phenomena we shall speak precisely hereafter when we come to treat of 1eneration$ F!rthermore some animals ha"e feet and some are destit!te thereof$ Of s!ch as ha"e feet some animals ha"e two as is the case with men and birds and with men and birds only# some ha"e fo!r as the li2ard and the do&# some ha"e more as the centipede and the bee# b!t allsoe"er that ha"e feet ha"e an e"en n!mber of them$ Of swimmin& creat!res that are destit!te of feet some ha"e win&lets or fins as fishes: and of these some ha"e fo!r fins two abo"e on the back two below on the belly as the &ilthead and the basse# some ha"e two only +to wit s!ch as are e'ceedin&ly lon& and smooth as the eel and the con&er# some ha"e none at all as the m!raena b!t !se the sea )!st as snakes !se dry &ro!nd+and by the way snakes swim in water in )!st the same way$ Of the shark+kind some ha"e no fins s!ch as those that are flat and lon&+tailed as the ray and the stin&+ray b!t these fishes swim act!ally by the !nd!latory motion of their flat bodies# the fishin& fro& howe"er has fins and so likewise ha"e all s!ch fishes as ha"e not their flat s!rfaces thinned off to a sharp ed&e$ Of those swimmin& creat!res that appear to ha"e feet as is the case with the moll!scs these creat!res swim by the aid of their feet and their fins as well and they swim most rapidly backwards in the direction of the tr!nk as is the case with the c!ttle+fish or sepia and the calamary# and by the way neither of these latter can walk as the po!lpe or octop!s can$ The hard+skinned or cr!staceo!s animals like the crawfish swim by the instr!mentality of their tail+parts# and they swim most rapidly tail foremost by the aid of the fins de"eloped !pon that member$ The newt swims by means of its feet and tail# and its tail resembles that of the sheatfish to compare little with &reat$ Of animals that can fly some are f!rnished with feathered win&s as the ea&le and the hawk# some are f!rnished with membrano!s win&s as the bee and the cockchafer# others are f!rnished with leathern win&s as the flyin& fo' and the bat$ All flyin& creat!res possessed of blood ha"e feathered win&s or leathern win&s# the bloodless creat!res ha"e membrano!s win&s as insects$ The creat!res that ha"e feathered win&s or leathern win&s ha"e either two feet or no feet at all: for there are said to be certain flyin& serpents in 7thiopia that are destit!te of feet$

.reat!res that ha"e feathered win&s are classed as a &en!s !nder the name of (bird# the other two &enera the leathern+win&ed and membrane+win&ed are as yet witho!t a &eneric title$ Of creat!res that can fly and are bloodless some are coleoptero!s or sheath+win&ed for they ha"e their win&s in a sheath or shard like the cockchafer and the d!n&+beetle# others are sheathless and of these latter some are diptero!s and some tetraptero!s: tetraptero!s s!ch as are comparati"ely lar&e or ha"e their stin&s in the tail diptero!s s!ch as are comparati"ely small or ha"e their stin&s in front$ The coleoptera are witho!t e'ception de"oid of stin&s# the diptera ha"e the stin& in front as the fly the horsefly the &adfly and the &nat$ Bloodless animals as a &eneral r!le are inferior in point of si2e to blooded animals# tho!&h by the way there are fo!nd in the sea some few bloodless creat!res of abnormal si2e as in the case of certain moll!scs$ And of these bloodless &enera those are the lar&est that dwell in milder climates and those that inhabit the sea are lar&er than those li"in& on dry land or in fresh water$ All creat!res that are capable of motion mo"e with fo!r or more points of motion# the blooded animals with fo!r only: as for instance man with two hands and two feet birds with two win&s and two feet *!adr!peds and fishes se"erally with fo!r feet and fo!r fins$ .reat!res that ha"e two win&lets or fins or that ha"e none at all like serpents mo"e all the same with not less than fo!r points of motion# for there are fo!r bends in their bodies as they mo"e or two bends to&ether with their fins$ Bloodless and many footed animals whether f!rnished with win&s or feet mo"e with more than fo!r points of motion# as for instance the dayfly mo"es with fo!r feet and fo!r win&s: and I may obser"e in passin& this creat!re is e'ceptional not only in re&ard to the d!ration of its e'istence whence it recei"es its name b!t also beca!se tho!&h a *!adr!ped it has win&s also$ All animals mo"e alike fo!r+footed and many+footed# in other words they all mo"e cross+corner+ wise$ And animals in &eneral ha"e two feet in ad"ance# the crab alone has fo!r$ : ;ery e'tensi"e &enera of animals into which other s!bdi"isions fall are the followin&: one of birds# one of fishes# and another of cetaceans$ 4ow all these creat!res are blooded$ There is another &en!s of the hard+shell kind which is called oyster# another of the soft+shell kind not as yet desi&nated by a sin&le term s!ch as the spiny crawfish and the "ario!s kinds of crabs and lobsters# and another of moll!scs as the two kinds of calamary and the c!ttle+fish# that of insects is different$ All these latter creat!res are bloodless and s!ch of them as ha"e feet ha"e a &oodly n!mber of them# and of the insects some ha"e win&s as well as feet$ Of the other animals the &enera are not e'tensi"e$ For in them one species does not comprehend many species# b!t in one case as man the species is simple admittin& of no differentiation while other cases admit of differentiation b!t the forms lack partic!lar desi&nations$ %o for instance creat!res that are *!dapedal and !npro"ided with win&s are blooded witho!t e'ception b!t some of them are "i"iparo!s and some o"iparo!s$ %!ch as are "i"iparo!s are hair+ coated and s!ch as are o"iparo!s are co"ered with a kind of tessellated hard s!bstance# and the tessellated bits of this s!bstance are as it were similar in re&ard to position to a scale$ An animal that is blooded and capable of mo"ement on dry land b!t is nat!rally !npro"ided with feet belon&s to the serpent &en!s# and animals of this &en!s are coated with the tessellated horny s!bstance$ %erpents in &eneral are o"iparo!s# the adder an e'ceptional case is "i"iparo!s: for not all "i"iparo!s animals are hair+coated and some fishes also are "i"iparo!s$

All animals howe"er that are hair+coated are "i"iparo!s$ For by the way one m!st re&ard as a kind of hair s!ch prickly hairs as hed&eho&s and porc!pines carry# for these spines perform the office of hair and not of feet as is the case with similar parts of sea+!rchins$ In the &en!s that combines all "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds are many species b!t !nder no common appellation$ They are only named as it were one by one as we say man lion sta& horse do& and so on# tho!&h by the way there is a sort of &en!s that embraces all creat!res that ha"e b!shy manes and b!shy tails s!ch as the horse the ass the m!le the )ennet and the animals that are called 9emioni in %yria +from their e'ternally resemblin& m!les tho!&h they are not strictly of the same species$ And that they are not so is pro"ed by the fact that they mate with and breed from one another$ For all these reasons we m!st take animals species by species and disc!ss their pec!liarities se"erally These precedin& statements then ha"e been p!t forward th!s in a &eneral way as a kind of foretaste of the n!mber of s!b)ects and of the properties that we ha"e to consider in order that we may first &et a clear notion of distincti"e character and common properties$ By and by we shall disc!ss these matters with &reater min!teness$ After this we shall pass on to the disc!ssion of ca!ses$ For to do this when the in"esti&ation of the details is complete is the proper and nat!ral method and that whereby the s!b)ects and the premisses of o!r ar&!ment will afterwards be rendered plain$ In the first place we m!st look to the constit!ent parts of animals$ For it is in a way relati"e to these parts first and foremost that animals in their entirety differ from one another: either in the fact that some ha"e this or that while they ha"e not that or this# or by pec!liarities of position or of arran&ement# or by the differences that ha"e been pre"io!sly mentioned dependin& !pon di"ersity of form or e'cess or defect in this or that partic!lar on analo&y or on contrasts of the accidental *!alities$ To be&in with we m!st take into consideration the parts of /an$ For )!st as each nation is wont to reckon by that monetary standard with which it is most familiar so m!st we do in other matters$ And of co!rse man is the animal with which we are all of !s the most familiar$ 4ow the parts are ob"io!s eno!&h to physical perception$ 9owe"er with the "iew of obser"in& d!e order and se*!ence and of combinin& rational notions with physical perception we shall proceed to en!merate the parts: firstly the or&anic and afterwards the simple or non+composite$ < The chief parts into which the body as a whole is s!bdi"ided are the head the neck the tr!nk ,e'tendin& from the neck to the pri"y parts- which is called the thora' two arms and two le&s$ Of the parts of which the head is composed the hair+co"ered portion is called the (sk!ll$ The front portion of it is termed (bre&ma or (sincip!t de"eloped after birth+for it is the last of all the bones in the body to ac*!ire solidity +the hinder part is termed the (occip!t and the part inter"enin& between the sincip!t and the occip!t is the (crown$ The brain lies !nderneath the sincip!t# the occip!t is hollow$ The sk!ll consists entirely of thin bone ro!nded in shape and contained within a wrapper of fleshless skin$

The sk!ll has s!t!res: one of circ!lar form in the case of women# in the case of men as a &eneral r!le three meetin& at a point$ Instances ha"e been known of a mans sk!ll de"oid of s!t!re alto&ether$ In the sk!ll the middle line where the hair parts is called the crown or "erte'$ In some cases the partin& is do!ble# that is to say some men are do!ble crowned not in re&ard to the bony sk!ll b!t in conse*!ence of the do!ble fall or set of the hair$ = The part that lies !nder the sk!ll is called the (face: b!t in the case of man only for the term is not applied to a fish or to an o'$ In the face the part below the sincip!t and between the eyes is termed the forehead$ When men ha"e lar&e foreheads they are slow to mo"e# when they ha"e small ones they are fickle# when they ha"e broad ones they are apt to be distra!&ht# when they ha"e foreheads ro!nded or b!l&in& o!t they are *!ick+tempered$ > ?nderneath the forehead are two eyebrows$ %trai&ht eyebrows are a si&n of softness of disposition# s!ch as c!r"e in towards the nose of harshness# s!ch as c!r"e o!t towards the temples of h!mo!r and dissim!lation# s!ch as are drawn in towards one another of )ealo!sy$ ?nder the eyebrows come the eyes$ These are nat!rally two in n!mber$ 7ach of them has an !pper and a lower eyelid and the hairs on the ed&es of these are termed (eyelashes$ The central part of the eye incl!des the moist part whereby "ision is effected termed the (p!pil and the part s!rro!ndin& it called the (black# the part o!tside this is the (white$ A part common to the !pper and lower eyelid is a pair of nicks or corners one in the direction of the nose and the other in the direction of the temples$ When these are lon& they are a si&n of bad disposition# if the side toward the nostril be fleshy and comb+like they are a si&n of dishonesty$ All animals as a &eneral r!le are pro"ided with eyes e'ceptin& the ostracoderms and other imperfect creat!res# at all e"ents all "i"iparo!s animals ha"e eyes with the e'ception of the mole$ And yet one mi&ht assert that tho!&h the mole has not eyes in the f!ll sense yet it has eyes in a kind of a way$ For in point of absol!te fact it cannot see and has no eyes "isible e'ternally# b!t when the o!ter skin is remo"ed it is fo!nd to ha"e the place where eyes are !s!ally sit!ated and the black parts of the eyes ri&htly sit!ated and all the place that is !s!ally de"oted on the o!tside to eyes: showin& that the parts are st!nted in de"elopment and the skin allowed to &row o"er$ 1@ Of the eye the white is pretty m!ch the same in all creat!res# b!t what is called the black differs in "ario!s animals$ %ome ha"e the rim black some distinctly bl!e some &reyish+bl!e some &reenish# and this last colo!r is the si&n of an e'cellent disposition and is partic!larly well adapted for sharpness of "ision$ /an is the only or nearly the only creat!re that has eyes of di"erse colo!rs$ Animals as a r!le ha"e eyes of one colo!r only$ %ome horses ha"e bl!e eyes$ Of eyes some are lar&e some small some medi!m+si2ed# of these the medi!m+si2ed are the best$ /oreo"er eyes sometimes protr!de sometimes recede sometimes are neither protr!din& nor recedin&$ Of these the recedin& eye is in all animals the most ac!te# b!t the last kind are the si&n of the best disposition$ A&ain eyes are sometimes inclined to wink !nder obser"ation sometimes to remain open and starin& and sometimes are disposed neither to wink nor stare$ The last kind are the si&n of the best nat!re and of the others the latter kind indicates imp!dence and the former indecision$

11 F!rthermore there is a portion of the head whereby an animal hears a part incapable of breathin& the (ear$ I say (incapable of breathin& for Alcmaeon is mistaken when he says that &oats inspire thro!&h their ears$ Of the ear one part is !nnamed the other part is called the (lobe# and it is entirely composed of &ristle and flesh$ The ear is constr!cted internally like the tr!mpet+shell and the innermost bone is like the ear itself and into it at the end the so!nd makes its way as into the bottom of a )ar$ This receptacle does not comm!nicate by any passa&e with the brain b!t does so with the palate and a "ein e'tends from the brain towards it$ The eyes also are connected with the brain and each of them lies at the end of a little "ein$ Of animals possessed of ears man is the only one that cannot mo"e this or&an$ Of creat!res possessed of hearin& some ha"e ears whilst others ha"e none b!t merely ha"e the passa&es for ears "isible as for e'ample feathered animals or animals coated with horny tessellates$ ;i"iparo!s animals with the e'ception of the seal the dolphin and those others which after a similar fashion to these are cetaceans are all pro"ided with ears# for by the way the shark+kind are also "i"iparo!s$ 4ow the seal has the passa&es "isible whereby it hears# b!t the dolphin can hear b!t has no ears nor yet any passa&es "isible$ B!t man alone is !nable to mo"e his ears and all other animals can mo"e them$ And the ears lie with man in the same hori2ontal plane with the eyes and not in a plane abo"e them as is the case with some *!adr!peds$ Of ears some are fine some are coarse and some are of medi!m te't!re# the last kind are best for hearin& b!t they ser"e in no way to indicate character$ %ome ears are lar&e some small some medi!m+si2ed# a&ain some stand o!t far some lie in close and ti&ht and some take !p a medi!m position# of these s!ch as are of medi!m si2e and of medi!m position are indications of the best disposition while the lar&e and o!tstandin& ones indicate a tendency to irrele"ant talk or chatterin&$ The part intercepted between the eye the ear and the crown is termed the (temple$ A&ain there is a part of the co!ntenance that ser"es as a passa&e for the breath the (nose$ For a man inhales and e'hales by this or&an and snee2in& is effected by its means: which last is an o!tward r!sh of collected breath and is the only mode of breath !sed as an omen and re&arded as s!pernat!ral$ Both inhalation and e'halation &o ri&ht on from the nose towards the chest# and with the nostrils alone and separately it is impossible to inhale or e'hale owin& to the fact that the inspiration and respiration take place from the chest alon& the windpipe and not by any portion connected with the head# and indeed it is possible for a creat!re to li"e witho!t !sin& this process of nasal respiration$ A&ain smellin& takes place by means of the nose +smellin& or the sensible discrimination of odo!r$ And the nostril admits of easy motion and is not like the ear intrinsically immo"able$ A part of it composed of &ristle constit!tes a sept!m or partition and part is an open passa&e# for the nostril consists of two separate channels$ The nostril ,or nose- of the elephant is lon& and stron& and the animal !ses it like a hand# for by means of this or&an it draws ob)ects towards it and takes hold of them and introd!ces its food into its mo!th whether li*!id or dry food and it is the only li"in& creat!re that does so$ F!rthermore there are two )aws# the front part of them constit!tes the chin and the hinder part the cheek$ All animals mo"e the lower )aw with the e'ception of the ri"er crocodile# this creat!re mo"es the !pper )aw only$ 4e't after the nose come two lips composed of flesh and facile of motion$ The mo!th lies inside the )aws and lips$ Aarts of the mo!th are the roof or palate and the pharyn'$

The part that is sensible of taste is the ton&!e$ The sensation has its seat at the tip of the ton&!e# if the ob)ect to be tasted be placed on the flat s!rface of the or&an the taste is less sensibly e'perienced$ The ton&!e is sensiti"e in all other ways wherein flesh in &eneral is so: that is it can appreciate hardness or warmth and cold in any part of it )!st as it can appreciate taste$ The ton&!e is sometimes broad sometimes narrow and sometimes of medi!m width# the last kind is the best and the clearest in its discrimination of taste$ /oreo"er the ton&!e is sometimes loosely h!n& and sometimes fastened: as in the case of those who m!mble and who lisp$ The ton&!e consists of flesh soft and spon&y and the so+called (epi&lottis is a part of this or&an$ That part of the mo!th that splits into two bits is called the (tonsils# that part that splits into many bits the (&!ms$ Both the tonsils and the &!ms are composed of flesh$ In the &!ms are teeth composed of bone$ Inside the mo!th is another part shaped like a b!nch of &rapes a pillar streaked with "eins$ If this pillar &ets rela'ed and inflamed it is called (!"!la or (b!nch of &rapes and it then has a tendency to brin& abo!t s!ffocation$ 13 The neck is the part between the face and the tr!nk$ Of this the front part is the laryn' land the back part the !r The front part composed of &ristle thro!&h which respiration and speech is effected is termed the (windpipe# the part that is fleshy is the oesopha&!s inside )!st in front of the chine$ The part to the back of the neck is the epomis or (sho!lder+point$ These then are the parts to be met with before yo! come to the thora'$ To the tr!nk there is a front part and a back part$ 4e't after the neck in the front part is the chest with a pair of breasts$ To each of the breasts is attached a teat or nipple thro!&h which in the case of females the milk percolates# and the breast is of a spon&y te't!re$ /ilk by the way is fo!nd at times in the male# b!t with the male the flesh of the breast is to!&h with the female it is soft and poro!s$ 15 4e't after the thora' and in front comes the (belly and its root the (na"el$ ?nderneath this root the bilateral part is the (flank: the !ndi"ided part below the na"el the (abdomen the e'tremity of which is the re&ion of the (p!bes# abo"e the na"el the (hypochondri!m# the ca"ity common to the hypochondri!m and the flank is the &!t+ca"ity$ %er"in& as a brace &irdle to the hinder parts is the pel"is and hence it &ets its name ,osph!s- for it is symmetrical ,isoph!es- in appearance# of the f!ndament the part for restin& on is termed the (r!mp and the part whereon the thi&h pi"ots is termed the (socket ,or acetab!l!m-$ The (womb is a part pec!liar to the female# and the (penis is pec!liar to the male$ This latter or&an is e'ternal and sit!ated at the e'tremity of the tr!nk# it is composed of two separate parts: of which the e'treme part is fleshy does not alter in si2e and is called the &lans# and ro!nd abo!t it is a skin de"oid of any specific title which inte&!ment if it be c!t as!nder ne"er &rows to&ether a&ain any more than does the )aw or the eyelid$ And the conne'ion between the latter and the &lans is called the fren!m$ The remainin& part of the penis is composed of &ristle# it is easily s!sceptible of enlar&ement# and it protr!des and recedes in the re"erse directions to what is obser"able in the identical or&an in cats$ ?nderneath the penis are two (testicles and the inte&!ment of these is a skin that is termed the (scrot!m$

Testicles are not identical with flesh and are not alto&ether di"erse from it$ B!t by and by we shall treat in an e'ha!sti"e way re&ardin& all s!ch parts$ 16 The pri"y part of the female is in character opposite to that of the male$ In other words the part !nder the p!bes is hollow or recedin& and not like the male or&an protr!din&$ F!rther there is an (!rethra o!tside the womb# which or&an ser"es as a passa&e for the sperm of the male and as an o!tlet for li*!id e'cretion to both se'es-$ The part common to the neck and chest is the (throat# the (armpit is common to side arm and sho!lder# and the (&roin is common to thi&h and abdomen$ The part inside the thi&h and b!ttocks is the (perine!m and the part o!tside the thi&h and b!ttocks is the (hypo&l!tis$ The front parts of the tr!nk ha"e now been en!merated$ The part behind the chest is termed the (back$ 18 Aarts of the back are a pair of (sho!lderblades the (back+bone and !nderneath on a le"el with the belly in the tr!nk the (loins$ .ommon to the !pper and lower part of the tr!nk are the (ribs ei&ht on either side for as to the so+called se"en+ribbed Bi&yans we ha"e not recei"ed any tr!stworthy e"idence$ /an then has an !pper and a lower part a front and a back part a ri&ht and a left side$ 4ow the ri&ht and the left side are pretty well alike in their parts and identical thro!&ho!t e'cept that the left side is the weaker of the two# b!t the back parts do not resemble the front ones neither do the lower ones the !pper: only that these !pper and lower parts may be said to resemble one another th!s far that if the face be pl!mp or mea&re the abdomen is pl!mp or mea&re to correspond# and that the le&s correspond to the arms and where the !pper arm is short the thi&h is !s!ally short also and where the feet are small the hands are small correspondin&ly$ Of the limbs one set formin& a pair is (arms$ To the arm belon& the (sho!lder (!pper+arm (elbow (fore+arm and (hand$ To the hand belon& the (palm and the fi"e (fin&ers$ The part of the fin&er that bends is termed (kn!ckle the part that is infle'ible is termed the (phalan'$ The bi& fin&er or th!mb is sin&le+)ointed the other fin&ers are do!ble )ointed$ The bendin& both of the arm and of the fin&er takes place from witho!t inwards in all cases# and the arm bends at the elbow$ The inner part of the hand is termed the palm and is fleshy and di"ided by )oints or lines: in the case of lon&+li"ed people by one or two e'tendin& ri&ht across in the case of the short+li"ed by two not so e'tendin&$ The )oint between hand and arm is termed the (wrist$ The o!tside or back of the hand is sinewy and has no specific desi&nation$ There is another d!plicate limb the (le&$ Of this limb the do!ble+knobbed part is termed the (thi&h+bone the slidin& part of the (kneecap the do!ble+boned part the (le&# the front part of this latter is termed the (shin and the part behind it the (calf wherein the flesh is sinewy and "eno!s in some cases drawn !pwards towards the hollow behind the knee as in the case of people with lar&e hips and in other cases drawn downwards$ The lower e'tremity of the shin is the (ankle d!plicate in either le&$ The part of the limb that contains a m!ltiplicity of bones is the (foot$ The hinder part of the foot is the (heel# at the front of it the di"ided part consists of (toes fi"e in n!mber# the fleshy part !nderneath is the (ball# the !pper part or back of the foot is sinewy and has no partic!lar appellation# of the toe one portion is the (nail and another the ()oint and the nail is

in all cases at the e'tremity# and toes are witho!t e'ception sin&le )ointed$ /en that ha"e the inside or sole of the foot cl!msy and not arched that is that walk restin& on the entire !nder+s!rface of their feet are prone to ro&!ery$ The )oint common to thi&h and shin is the (knee$ These then are the parts common to the male and the female se'$ The relati"e position of the parts as to !p and down or to front and back or to ri&ht and left all this as re&ards e'ternals mi&ht safely be left to mere ordinary perception$ B!t for all that we m!st treat of them for the same reason as the one pre"io!sly bro!&ht forward# that is to say we m!st refer to them in order that a d!e and re&!lar se*!ence may be obser"ed in o!r e'position and in order that by the en!meration of these ob"io!s facts d!e attention may be s!bse*!ently &i"en to those parts in men and other animals that are di"erse in any way from one another$ In man abo"e all other animals the terms (!pper and (lower are !sed in harmony with their nat!ral positions# for in him !pper and lower ha"e the same meanin& as when they are applied to the !ni"erse as a whole$ In like manner the terms (in front (behind (ri&ht and (left are !sed in accordance with their nat!ral sense$ B!t in re&ard to other animals in some cases these distinctions do not e'ist and in others they do so b!t in a "a&!e way$ For instance the head with all animals is !p and abo"e in respect to their bodies# b!t man alone as has been said has in mat!rity this part !ppermost in respect to the material !ni"erse$ 4e't after the head comes the neck and then the chest and the back: the one in front and the other behind$ 4e't after these come the belly the loins the se'!al parts and the ha!nches# then the thi&h and shin# and lastly the feet$ The le&s bend frontwards in the direction of act!al pro&ression and frontwards also lies that part of the foot which is the most effecti"e of motion and the fle'!re of that part# b!t the heel lies at the back and the anklebones lie laterally earwise$ The arms are sit!ated to ri&ht and left and bend inwards: so that the con"e'ities formed by bent arms and le&s are practically face to face with one another in the case of man$ As for the senses and for the or&ans of sensation the eyes the nostrils and the ton&!e all alike are sit!ated frontwards# the sense of hearin& and the or&an of hearin& the ear is sit!ated sideways on the same hori2ontal plane with the eyes$ The eyes in man are in proportion to his si2e nearer to one another than in any other animal$ Of the senses man has the sense of to!ch more refined than any animal and so also b!t in less de&ree the sense of taste# in the de"elopment of the other senses he is s!rpassed by a &reat n!mber of animals$ 1: The parts then that are e'ternally "isible are arran&ed in the way abo"e stated and as a r!le ha"e their special desi&nations and from !se and wont are known familiarly to all# b!t this is not the case with the inner parts$ For the fact is that the inner parts of man are to a "ery &reat e'tent !nknown and the conse*!ence is that we m!st ha"e reco!rse to an e'amination of the inner parts of other animals whose nat!re in any way resembles that of man$ In the first place then the brain lies in the front part of the head$ And this holds alike with all animals possessed of a brain# and all blooded animals are possessed thereof and by the way moll!scs as well$ B!t takin& si2e for si2e of animal the lar&est brain and the moistest is that of man$ Two membranes enclose it: the stron&er one near the bone of the sk!ll# the inner one ro!nd

the brain itself is finer$ The brain in all cases is bilateral$ Behind this ri&ht at the back comes what is termed the (cerebell!m differin& in form from the brain as we may both feel and see$ The back of the head is with all animals empty and hollow whate"er be its si2e in the different animals$ For some creat!res ha"e bi& heads while the face below is small in proportion as is the case with ro!nd+faced animals# some ha"e little heads and lon& )aws as is the case witho!t e'ception amon& animals of the mane+and+tail species$ The brain in all animals is bloodless de"oid of "eins and nat!rally cold to the to!ch# in the &reat ma)ority of animals it has a small hollow in its centre$ The brain+ca!l aro!nd it is retic!lated with "eins# and this brain+ca!l is that skin+like membrane which closely s!rro!nds the brain$ Abo"e the brain is the thinnest and weakest bone of the head which is termed or (sincip!t$ From the eye there &o three d!cts to the brain: the lar&est and the medi!m+si2ed to the cerebell!m the least to the brain itself# and the least is the one sit!ated nearest to the nostril$ The two lar&est ones then r!n side by side and do not meet# the medi!m+si2ed ones meet+and this is partic!larly "isible in fishes +for they lie nearer than the lar&e ones to the brain# the smallest pair are the most widely separate from one another and do not meet$ Inside the neck is what is termed the oesopha&!s ,whose other name is deri"ed oesopha&!s from its len&th and narrowness- and the windpipe$ The windpipe is sit!ated in front of the oesopha&!s in all animals that ha"e a windpipe and all animals ha"e one that are f!rnished with l!n&s$ The windpipe is made !p of &ristle is sparin&ly s!pplied with blood and is streaked all ro!nd with n!mero!s min!te "eins# it is sit!ated in its !pper part near the mo!th below the apert!re formed by the nostrils into the mo!th+an apert!re thro!&h which when men in drinkin& inhale any of the li*!id this li*!id finds its way o!t thro!&h the nostrils$ In betwi't the two openin&s comes the so+called epi&lottis an or&an capable of bein& drawn o"er and co"erin& the orifice of the windpipe comm!nicatin& with the mo!th# the end of the ton&!e is attached to the epi&lottis$ In the other direction the windpipe e'tends to the inter"al between the l!n&s and here!pon bif!rcates into each of the two di"isions of the l!n&# for the l!n& in all animals possessed of the or&an has a tendency to be do!ble$ In "i"iparo!s animals howe"er the d!plication is not so plainly discernible as in other species and the d!plication is least discernible in man$ And in man the or&an is not split into many parts as is the case with some "i"ipara neither is it smooth b!t its s!rface is !ne"en$ In the case of the o"ipara s!ch as birds and o"iparo!s *!adr!peds the two parts of the or&an are separated to a distance from one another so that the creat!res appear to be f!rnished with a pair of l!n&s# and from the windpipe itself sin&le there branch off two separate parts e'tendin& to each of the two di"isions of the l!n&$ It is attached also to the &reat "ein and to what is desi&nated the (aorta$ When the windpipe is char&ed with air the air passes on to the hollow parts of the l!n&$ These parts ha"e di"isions composed of &ristle which meet at an ac!te an&le# from the di"isions r!n passa&es thro!&h the entire l!n& &i"in& off smaller and smaller ramifications$ The heart also is attached to the windpipe by conne'ions of fat &ristle and sinew# and at the point of )!nct!re there is a hollow$ When the windpipe is char&ed with air the entrance of the air into the heart tho!&h imperceptible in some animals is perceptible eno!&h in the lar&er ones$ %!ch are the properties of the windpipe and it takes in and throws o!t air only and takes in nothin& else either dry or li*!id or else it ca!ses yo! pain !ntil yo! shall ha"e co!&hed !p whate"er may ha"e &one down$ The oesopha&!s comm!nicates at the top with the mo!th close to the windpipe and is attached to the backbone and the windpipe by membrano!s li&aments and at last finds its way thro!&h the

midriff into the belly$ It is composed of flesh+like s!bstance and is elastic both len&thways and breadthways$ The stomach of man resembles that of a do&# for it is not m!ch bi&&er than the bowel b!t is somewhat like a bowel of more than !s!al width# then comes the bowel sin&le con"ol!ted moderately wide$ The lower part of the &!t is like that of a pi&# for it is broad and the part from it to the b!ttocks is thick and short$ The ca!l or &reat oment!m is attached to the middle of the stomach and consists of a fatty membrane as is the case with all other animals whose stomachs are sin&le and which ha"e teeth in both )aws$ The mesentery is o"er the bowels# this also is membrano!s and broad and t!rns to fat$ It is attached to the &reat "ein and the aorta and there r!n thro!&h it a n!mber of "eins closely packed to&ether e'tendin& towards the re&ion of the bowels be&innin& abo"e and endin& below$ %o m!ch for the properties of the oesopha&!s the windpipe and the stomach$ 1< The heart has three ca"ities and is sit!ated abo"e the l!n& at the di"ision of the windpipe and is pro"ided with a fatty and thick membrane where it fastens on to the &reat "ein and the aorta$ It lies with its taperin& portion !pon the aorta and this portion is similarly sit!ated in relation to the chest in all animals that ha"e a chest$ In all animals alike in those that ha"e a chest and in those that ha"e none the ape' of the heart points forwards altho!&h this fact mi&ht possibly escape notice by a chan&e of position !nder dissection$ The ro!nded end of the heart is at the top$ The ape' is to a &reat e'tent fleshy and close in te't!re and in the ca"ities of the heart are sinews$ As a r!le the heart is sit!ated in the middle of the chest in animals that ha"e a chest and in man it is sit!ated a little to the left+hand side leanin& a little way from the di"ision of the breasts towards the left breast in the !pper part of the chest$ The heart is not lar&e and in its &eneral shape it is not elon&ated# in fact it is somewhat ro!nd in form: only be it remembered it is sharp+pointed at the bottom$ It has three ca"ities as has been said: the ri&ht+hand one the lar&est of the three the left+hand one the least and the middle one intermediate in si2e$ All these ca"ities e"en the two small ones are connected by passa&es with the l!n& and this fact is rendered *!ite plain in one of the ca"ities$ And below at the point of attachment in the lar&est ca"ity there is a conne'ion with the &reat "ein ,near which the mesentery lies-# and in the middle one there is a conne'ion with the aorta$ .anals lead from the heart into the l!n& and branch off )!st as the windpipe does r!nnin& all o"er the l!n& parallel with the passa&es from the windpipe$ The canals from the heart are !ppermost# and there is no common passa&e b!t the passa&es thro!&h their ha"in& a common wall recei"e the breath and pass it on to the heart# and one of the passa&es con"eys it to the ri&ht ca"ity and the other to the left$ With re&ard to the &reat "ein and the aorta we shall by and by treat of them to&ether in a disc!ssion de"oted to them and to them alone$ In all animals that are f!rnished with a l!n& and that are both internally and e'ternally "i"iparo!s the l!n& is of all or&ans the most richly s!pplied with blood# for the l!n& is thro!&ho!t spon&y in te't!re and alon& by e"ery sin&le pore in it &o branches from the &reat "ein$ Those who ima&ine it to be empty are alto&ether mistaken# and they are led into their error by their obser"ation of l!n&s remo"ed from animals !nder dissection o!t of which or&ans the blood had all escaped immediately after death$

Of the other internal or&ans the heart alone contains blood$ And the l!n& has blood not in itself b!t in its "eins b!t the heart has blood in itself# for in each of its three ca"ities it has blood b!t the thinnest blood is what it has in its central ca"ity$ ?nder the l!n& comes the thoracic diaphra&m or midriff attached to the ribs the hypochondria and the backbone with a thin membrane in the middle of it$ It has "eins r!nnin& thro!&h it# and the diaphra&m in the case of man is thicker in proportion to the si2e of his frame than in other animals$ ?nder the diaphra&m on the ri&ht+hand side lies the (li"er and on the left+hand side the (spleen alike in all animals that are pro"ided with these or&ans in an ordinary and not preternat!ral way# for be it obser"ed in some *!adr!peds these or&ans ha"e been fo!nd in a transposed position$ These or&ans are connected with the stomach by the ca!l$ To o!tward "iew the spleen of man is narrow and lon& resemblin& the self+same or&an in the pi&$ The li"er in the &reat ma)ority of animals is not pro"ided with a (&all+bladder# b!t the latter is present in some$ The li"er of a man is ro!nd+shaped and resembles the same or&an in the o'$ And by the way the absence abo"e referred to of a &all+bladder is at times met with in the practice of a!&!ry$ For instance in a certain district of the .halcidic settlement in 7!boea the sheep are de"oid of &all+bladders# and in 4a'os nearly all the *!adr!peds ha"e one so lar&e that forei&ners when they offer sacrifice with s!ch "ictims are bewildered with fri&ht !nder the impression that the phenomenon is not d!e to nat!ral ca!ses b!t bodes some mischief to the indi"id!al offerers of the sacrifice$ A&ain the li"er is attached to the &reat "ein b!t it has no comm!nication with the aorta# for the "ein that &oes off from the &reat "ein &oes ri&ht thro!&h the li"er at a point where are the so+called (portals of the li"er$ The spleen also is connected only with the &reat "ein for a "ein e'tends to the spleen off from it$ After these or&ans come the (kidneys and these are placed close to the backbone and resemble in character the same or&an in kine$ In all animals that are pro"ided with this or&an the ri&ht kidney is sit!ated hi&her !p than the other$ It has also less fatty s!bstance than the left+hand one and is less moist$ And this phenomenon also is obser"able in all the other animals alike$ F!rthermore passa&es or d!cts lead into the kidneys both from the &reat "ein and from the aorta only not into the ca"ity$ For by the way there is a ca"ity in the middle of the kidney bi&&er in some creat!res and less in others# b!t there is none in the case of the seal$ This latter animal has kidneys resemblin& in shape the identical or&an in kine b!t in its case the or&ans are more solid than in any other known creat!re$ The d!cts that lead into the kidneys lose themsel"es in the s!bstance of the kidneys themsel"es# and the proof that they e'tend no farther rests on the fact that they contain no blood nor is any clot fo!nd therein$ The kidneys howe"er ha"e as has been said a small ca"ity$ From this ca"ity in the kidney there lead two considerable d!cts or !reters into the bladder# and others sprin& from the aorta stron& and contin!o!s$ And to the middle of each of the two kidneys is attached a hollow sinewy "ein stretchin& ri&ht alon& the spine thro!&h the narrows# by and by these "eins are lost in either loin and a&ain become "isible e'tendin& to the flank$ And these off+branchin&s of the "eins terminate in the bladder$ For the bladder lies at the e'tremity and is held in position by the d!cts stretchin& from the kidneys alon& the stalk that e'tends to the !rethra# and pretty well all ro!nd it is fastened by fine sinewy membranes that resemble to some e'tent the thoracic diaphra&m$ The bladder in man is proportionately to his si2e tolerably lar&e$

To the stalk of the bladder the pri"ate part is attached the e'ternal orifices coalescin&# b!t a little lower down one of the openin&s comm!nicates with the testicles and the other with the bladder$ The penis is &ristly and sinewy in its te't!re$ With it are connected the testicles in male animals and the properties of these or&ans we shall disc!ss in o!r &eneral acco!nt of the said or&an$ All these or&ans are similar in the female# for there is no difference in re&ard to the internal or&ans e'cept in respect to the womb and with reference to the appearance of this or&an I m!st refer the reader to dia&rams in my (Anatomy$ The womb howe"er is sit!ated o"er the bowel and the bladder lies o"er the womb$ B!t we m!st treat by and by in o!r pa&es of the womb of all female animals "iewed &enerally$ For the wombs of all female animals are not identical neither do their local dispositions coincide$ These are the or&ans internal and e'ternal of man and s!ch is their nat!re and s!ch their local disposition$

Book II
1 With re&ard to animals in &eneral some parts or or&ans are common to all as has been said and some are common only to partic!lar &enera# the parts moreo"er are identical with or different from one another on the lines already repeatedly laid down$ For as a &eneral r!le all animals that are &enerically distinct ha"e the ma)ority of their parts or or&ans different in form or species# and some of them they ha"e only analo&ically similar and di"erse in kind or &en!s while they ha"e others that are alike in kind b!t specifically di"erse# and many parts or or&ans e'ist in some animals b!t not in others$ For instance "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds ha"e all a head and a neck and all the parts or or&ans of the head b!t they differ each from other in the shapes of the parts$ The lion has its neck composed of one sin&le bone instead of "ertebrae# b!t when dissected the animal is fo!nd in all internal characters to resemble the do&$ The *!adr!pedal "i"ipara instead of arms ha"e forele&s$ This is tr!e of all *!adr!peds b!t s!ch of them as ha"e toes ha"e practically speakin& or&ans analo&o!s to hands# at all e"ents they !se these fore+limbs for many p!rposes as hands$ And they ha"e the limbs on the left+hand side less distinct from those on the ri&ht than man$ The fore+limbs then ser"e more or less the p!rpose of hands in *!adr!peds with the e'ception of the elephant$ This latter animal has its toes somewhat indistinctly defined and its front le&s are m!ch bi&&er than its hinder ones# it is fi"e+toed and has short ankles to its hind feet$ B!t it has a nose s!ch in properties and s!ch in si2e as to allow of its !sin& the same for a hand$ For it eats and drinks by liftin& !p its food with the aid of this or&an into its mo!th and with the same or&an it lifts !p articles to the dri"er on its back# with this or&an it can pl!ck !p trees by the roots and when walkin& thro!&h water it spo!ts the water !p by means of it# and this or&an is capable of bein& crooked or coiled at the tip b!t not of fle'in& like a )oint for it is composed of &ristle$ Of all animals man alone can learn to make e*!al !se of both hands$ All animals ha"e a part analo&o!s to the chest in man b!t not similar to his# for the chest in man is broad b!t that of all other animals is narrow$ /oreo"er no other animal b!t man has breasts in front# the elephant certainly has two breasts not howe"er in the chest b!t near it$

/oreo"er also animals ha"e the fle'ions of their fore and hind limbs in directions opposite to one another and in directions the re"erse of those obser"ed in the arms and le&s of man# with the e'ception of the elephant$ In other words with the "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds the front le&s bend forwards and the hind ones backwards and the conca"ities of the two pairs of limbs th!s face one another$ The elephant does not sleep standin& as some were wont to assert b!t it bends its le&s and settles down# only that in conse*!ence of its wei&ht it cannot bend its le& on both sides sim!ltaneo!sly b!t falls into a rec!mbent position on one side or the other and in this position it &oes to sleep$ And it bends its hind le&s )!st as a man bends his le&s$ In the case of the o"ipara as the crocodile and the li2ard and the like both pairs of le&s fore and hind bend forwards with a sli&ht swer"e on one side$ The fle'ion is similar in the case of the m!ltipeds# only that the le&s in between the e'treme ends always mo"e in a manner intermediate between that of those in front and those behind and accordin&ly bend sideways rather than backwards or forwards$ B!t man bends his arms and his le&s towards the same point and therefore in opposite ways: that is to say he bends his arms backwards with )!st a sli&ht inclination inwards and his le&s frontwards$ 4o animal bends both its fore+limbs and hind+limbs backwards# b!t in the case of all animals the fle'ion of the sho!lders is in the opposite direction to that of the elbows or the )oints of the forele&s and the fle'!re in the hips to that of the knees of the hind+le&s: so that since man differs from other animals in fle'ion those animals that possess s!ch parts as these mo"e them contrariwise to man$ Birds ha"e the fle'ions of their limbs like those of the *!adr!peds# for altho!&h bipeds they bend their le&s backwards and instead of arms or front le&s ha"e win&s which bend frontwards$ The seal is a kind of imperfect or crippled *!adr!ped# for )!st behind the sho!lder+blade its front feet are placed resemblin& hands like the front paws of the bear# for they are f!rnished with fi"e toes and each of the toes has three fle'ions and a nail of inconsiderable si2e$ The hind feet are also f!rnished with fi"e toes# in their fle'ions and nails they resemble the front feet and in shape they resemble a fishs tail$ The mo"ements of animals *!adr!ped and m!ltiped are crosswise or in dia&onals and their e*!ilibri!m in standin& post!re is maintained crosswise# and it is always the limb on the ri&ht+hand side that is the first to mo"e$ The lion howe"er and the two species of camels both the Bactrian and the Arabian pro&ress by an amble# and the action so called is when the animal ne"er o"erpasses the ri&ht with the left b!t always follows close !pon it$ Whate"er parts men ha"e in front these parts *!adr!peds ha"e below in or on the belly# and whate"er parts men ha"e behind these parts *!adr!peds ha"e abo"e on their backs$ /ost *!adr!peds ha"e a tail# for e"en the seal has a tiny one resemblin& that of the sta&$ Ce&ardin& the tails of the pithecoids we m!st &i"e their distincti"e properties by and by animal All "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds are hair+coated whereas man has only a few short hairs e'ceptin& on the head b!t so far as the head is concerned he is hairier than any other animal$ F!rther of hair+ coated animals the back is hairier than the belly which latter is either comparati"ely "oid of hair or smooth and "oid of hair alto&ether$ With man the re"erse is the case$

/an also has !pper and lower eyelashes and hair !nder the armpits and on the p!bes$ 4o other animal has hair in either of these localities or has an !nder eyelash# tho!&h in the case of some animals a few stra&&lin& hairs &row !nder the eyelid$ Of hair+coated *!adr!peds some are hairy all o"er the body as the pi& the bear and the do&# others are especially hairy on the neck and all ro!nd abo!t it as is the case with animals that ha"e a sha&&y mane s!ch as the lion# others a&ain are especially hairy on the !pper s!rface of the neck from the head as far as the withers namely s!ch as ha"e a crested mane as in the case with the horse the m!le and amon& the !ndomesticated horned animals the bison$ The so+called hippelaph!s also has a mane on its withers and the animal called pardion in either case a thin mane e'tendin& from the head to the withers# the hippelaph!s has e'ceptionally a beard by the laryn'$ Both these animals ha"e horns and are clo"en+footed# the female howe"er of the hippelaph!s has no horns$ This latter animal resembles the sta& in si2e# it is fo!nd in the territory of the Arachotae where the wild cattle also are fo!nd$ Wild cattle differ from their domesticated con&eners )!st as the wild boar differs from the domesticated one$ That is to say they are black stron& lookin& with a hook+nosed m!22le and with horns lyin& more o"er the back$ The horns of the hippelaph!s resemble those of the &a2elle$ The elephant by the way is the least hairy of all *!adr!peds$ With animals as a &eneral r!le the tail corresponds with the body as re&ards thickness or thinness of hair+coatin&# that is with animals that ha"e lon& tails for some creat!res ha"e tails of alto&ether insi&nificant si2e$ .amels ha"e an e'ceptional or&an wherein they differ from all other animals and that is the so+ called (h!mp on their back$ The Bactrian camel differs from the Arabian# for the former has two h!mps and the latter only one tho!&h it has by the way a kind of a h!mp below like the one abo"e on which when it kneels the wei&ht of the whole body rests$ The camel has fo!r teats like the cow a tail like that of an ass and the pri"y parts of the male are directed backwards$ It has one knee in each le& and the fle'!res of the limb are not manifold as some say altho!&h they appear to be so from the constricted shape of the re&ion of the belly$ It has a h!ckle+bone like that of kine b!t mea&re and small in proportion to its b!lk$ It is clo"en+footed and has not &ot teeth in both )aws# and it is clo"en footed in the followin& way: at the back there is a sli&ht cleft e'tendin& as far !p as the second )oint of the toes# and in front there are small hoo"es on the tip of the first )oint of the toes# and a sort of web passes across the cleft as in &eese$ The foot is fleshy !nderneath like that of the bear# so that when the animal &oes to war they protect its feet when they &et sore with sandals$ The le&s of all *!adr!peds are bony sinewy and fleshless# and in point of fact s!ch is the case with all animals that are f!rnished with feet with the e'ception of man$ They are also !nf!rnished with b!ttocks# and this last point is plain in an especial de&ree in birds$ It is the re"erse with man# for there is scarcely any part of the body in which man is so fleshy as in the b!ttock the thi&h and the calf# for the part of the le& called &astroenemia or is fleshy$ Of blooded and "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds some ha"e the foot clo"en into many parts as is the case with the hands and feet of man ,for some animals by the way are many+toed as the lion the do& and the pard-# others ha"e feet clo"en in twain and instead of nails ha"e hoo"es as the sheep the &oat the deer and the hippopotam!s# others are !nclo"en of foot s!ch for instance as the solid+ hoo"ed animals the horse and the m!le$ %wine are either clo"en+footed or !nclo"en+footed# for there are in Illyria and in Aaeonia and elsewhere solid+hoo"ed swine$ The clo"en+footed animals ha"e two clefts behind# in the solid+hoo"ed this part is contin!o!s and !ndi"ided$

F!rthermore of animals some are horned and some are not so$ The &reat ma)ority of the horned animals are clo"en+footed as the o' the sta& the &oat# and a solid+hoo"ed animal with a pair of horns has ne"er yet been met with$ B!t a few animals are known to be sin&led+horned and sin&le+ hoo"ed as the Indian ass# and one to wit the ory' is sin&le horned and clo"en+hoo"ed$ Of all solid+hoo"ed animals the Indian ass alone has an astra&al!s or h!ckle+bone# for the pi& as was said abo"e is either solid+hoo"ed or clo"en+footed and conse*!ently has no well+formed h!ckle+bone$ Of the clo"en footed many are pro"ided with a h!ckle+bone$ Of the many+fin&ered or many+toed no sin&le one has been obser"ed to ha"e a h!ckle+bone none of the others any more than man$ The lyn' howe"er has somethin& like a hemiastra&al and the lion somethin& resemblin& the sc!lptors (labyrinth$ All the animals that ha"e a h!ckle+bone ha"e it in the hinder le&s$ They ha"e also the bone placed strai&ht !p in the )oint# the !pper part o!tside# the lower part inside# the sides called .oa t!rned towards one another the sides called .hia o!tside and the keraiae or (horns on the top$ This then is the position of the h!cklebone in the case of all animals pro"ided with the part$ %ome animals are at one and the same time f!rnished with a mane and f!rnished also with a pair of horns bent in towards one another as is the bison ,or a!rochs- which is fo!nd in Aaeonia and /aedica$ B!t all animals that are horned are *!adr!pedal e'cept in cases where a creat!re is said metaphorically or by a fi&!re of speech to ha"e horns# )!st as the 7&yptians describe the serpents fo!nd in the nei&hbo!rhood of Thebes while in point of fact the creat!res ha"e merely prot!berances on the head s!fficiently lar&e to s!&&est s!ch an epithet$ Of horned animals the deer alone has a horn or antler hard and solid thro!&ho!t$ The horns of other animals are hollow for a certain distance and solid towards the e'tremity$ The hollow part is deri"ed from the skin b!t the core ro!nd which this is wrapped+the hard part+is deri"ed from the bones# as is the case with the horns of o'en$ The deer is the only animal that sheds its horns and it does so ann!ally after reachin& the a&e of two years and a&ain renews them$ All other animals retain their horns permanently !nless the horns be dama&ed by accident$ A&ain with re&ard to the breasts and the &enerati"e or&ans animals differ widely from one another and from man$ For instance the breasts of some animals are sit!ated in front either in the chest or near to it and there are in s!ch cases two breasts and two teats as is the case with man and the elephant as pre"io!sly stated$ For the elephant has two breasts in the re&ion of the a'illae# and the female elephant has two breasts insi&nificant in si2e and in no way proportionate to the b!lk of the entire frame in fact so insi&nificant as to be in"isible in a sideways "iew# the males also ha"e breasts like the females e'ceedin&ly small$ The she+bear has fo!r breasts$ %ome animals ha"e two breasts b!t sit!ated near the thi&hs and teats likewise two in n!mber as the sheep# others ha"e fo!r teats as the cow$ %ome ha"e breasts neither in the chest nor at the thi&hs b!t in the belly as the do& and pi&# and they ha"e a considerable n!mber of breasts or d!&s b!t not all of e*!al si2e$ Th!s the shepard has fo!r d!&s in the belly the lioness two and others more$ The she+camel also has two d!&s and fo!r teats like the cow$ Of solid+hoo"ed animals the males ha"e no d!&s e'ceptin& in the case of males that take after the mother which phenomenon is obser"able in horses$ Of male animals the &enitals of some are e'ternal as is the case with man the horse and most other creat!res# some are internal as with the dolphin$ With those that ha"e the or&an e'ternally placed the or&an in some cases is sit!ated in front as in the cases already mentioned and of these some ha"e the or&an detached both penis and testicles as man# others ha"e penis and testicles

closely attached to the belly some more closely some less# for this or&an is not detached in the wild boar nor in the horse$ The penis of the elephant resembles that of the horse# compared with the si2e of the animal it is disproportionately small# the testicles are not "isible b!t are concealed inside in the "icinity of the kidneys# and for this reason the male speedily &i"es o"er in the act of interco!rse$ The &enitals of the female are sit!ated where the !dder is in sheep# when she is in heat she draws the or&an back and e'poses it e'ternally to facilitate the act of interco!rse for the male# and the or&an opens o!t to a considerable e'tent$ With most animals the &enitals ha"e the position abo"e assi&ned# b!t some animals dischar&e their !rine backwards as the lyn' the lion the camel and the hare$ /ale animals differ from one another as has been said in this partic!lar b!t all female animals are retromin&ent: e"en the female elephant like other animals tho!&h she has the pri"y part below the thi&hs$ In the male or&an itself there is a &reat di"ersity$ For in some cases the or&an is composed of flesh and &ristle as in man# in s!ch cases the fleshy part does not become inflated b!t the &ristly part is s!b)ect to enlar&ement$ In other cases the or&an is composed of fibro!s tiss!e as with the camel and the deer# in other cases it is bony as with the fo' the wolf the marten and the weasel# for this or&an in the weasel has a bone$ When man has arri"ed at mat!rity his !pper part is smaller than the lower one b!t with all other blooded animals the re"erse holds &ood$ By the (!pper part we mean all e'tendin& from the head down to the parts !sed for e'cretion of resid!!m and by the (lower part else$ With animals that ha"e feet the hind le&s are to be rated as the lower part in o!r comparison of ma&nit!des and with animals de"oid of feet the tail and the like$ When animals arri"e at mat!rity their properties are as abo"e stated# b!t they differ &reatly from one another in their &rowth towards mat!rity$ For instance man when yo!n& has his !pper part lar&er than the lower b!t in co!rse of &rowth he comes to re"erse this condition# and it is owin& to this circ!mstance that+an e'ceptional instance by the way+he does not pro&ress in early life as he does at mat!rity b!t in infancy creeps on all fo!rs# b!t some animals in &rowth retain the relati"e proportion of the parts as the do&$ %ome animals at first ha"e the !pper part smaller and the lower part lar&er and in co!rse of &rowth the !pper part &ets to be the lar&er as is the case with the b!shy+tailed animals s!ch as the horse# for in their case there is ne"er s!bse*!ently to birth any increase in the part e'tendin& from the hoof to the ha!nch$ A&ain in respect to the teeth animals differ &reatly both from one another and from man$ All animals that are *!adr!pedal blooded and "i"iparo!s are f!rnished with teeth# b!t to be&in with some are do!ble+toothed ,or f!lly f!rnished with teeth in both )aws- and some are not$ For instance horned *!adr!peds are not do!ble+toothed# for they ha"e not &ot the front teeth in the !pper )aw# and some hornless animals also are not do!ble toothed as the camel$ %ome animals ha"e t!sks like the boar and some ha"e not$ F!rther some animals are saw+toothed s!ch as the lion the pard and the do&# and some ha"e teeth that do not interlock b!t ha"e flat opposin& crowns as the horse and the o'# and by (saw+toothed we mean s!ch animals as interlock the sharp+ pointed teeth in one )aw between the sharp+pointed ones in the other$ 4o animal is there that possesses both t!sks and horns nor yet do either of these str!ct!res e'ist in any animal possessed of (saw+teeth$ The front teeth are !s!ally sharp and the back ones bl!nt$ The seal is saw+toothed thro!&ho!t inasm!ch as he is a sort of link with the class of fishes# for fishes are almost all saw+ toothed$

4o animal of these &enera is pro"ided with do!ble rows of teeth$ There is howe"er an animal of the sort if we are to belie"e .tesias$ 9e ass!res !s that the Indian wild beast called the (martichoras has a triple row of teeth in both !pper and lower )aw# that it is as bi& as a lion and e*!ally hairy and that its feet resemble those of the lion# that it resembles man in its face and ears# that its eyes are bl!e and its colo!r "ermilion# that its tail is like that of the land+scorpion# that it has a stin& in the tail and has the fac!lty of shootin& off arrow+wise the spines that are attached to the tail# that the so!nd of its "oice is a somethin& between the so!nd of a pan+pipe and that of a tr!mpet# that it can r!n as swiftly as deer and that it is sa"a&e and a man+eater$ /an sheds his teeth and so do other animals as the horse the m!le and the ass$ And man sheds his front teeth# b!t there is no instance of an animal that sheds its molars$ The pi& sheds none of its teeth at all$ 3 With re&ard to do&s some do!bts are entertained as some contend that they shed no teeth whate"er and others that they shed the canines b!t those alone# the fact bein& that they do shed their teeth like man b!t that the circ!mstance escapes obser"ation owin& to the fact that they ne"er shed them !ntil e*!i"alent teeth ha"e &rown within the &!ms to take the place of the shed ones$ We shall be )!stified in s!pposin& that the case is similar with wild beasts in &eneral# for they are said to shed their canines only$ Do&s can be distin&!ished from one another the yo!n& from the old by their teeth# for the teeth in yo!n& do&s are white and sharp+pointed# in old do&s black and bl!nt$ 5 In this partic!lar the horse differs entirely from animals in &eneral: for &enerally speakin& as animals &row older their teeth &et blacker b!t the horses teeth &row whiter with a&e$ The so+called (canines come in between the sharp teeth and the broad or bl!nt ones partakin& of the form of both kinds# for they are broad at the base and sharp at the tip$ /ales ha"e more teeth than females in the case of men sheep &oats and swine# in the case of other animals obser"ations ha"e not yet been made: b!t the more teeth they ha"e the more lon&+li"ed are they as a r!le while those are short+li"ed in proportion that ha"e teeth fewer in n!mber and thinly set$ 6 The last teeth to come in man are molars called (wisdom+teeth which come at the a&e of twenty years in the case of both se'es$ .ases ha"e been known in women !pwards$ of ei&hty years old where at the "ery close of life the wisdom+teeth ha"e come !p ca!sin& &reat pain in their comin&# and cases ha"e been known of the like phenomenon in men too$ This happens when it does happen in the case of people where the wisdom+teeth ha"e not come !p in early years$ 8 The elephant has fo!r teeth on either side by which it m!nches its food &rindin& it like so m!ch barley+meal and *!ite apart from these it has its &reat teeth or t!sks two in n!mber$ In the male these t!sks are comparati"ely lar&e and c!r"ed !pwards# in the female they are comparati"ely small and point in the opposite direction# that is they look downwards towards the &ro!nd$ The elephant is f!rnished with teeth at birth b!t the t!sks are not then "isible$ :

The ton&!e of the elephant is e'ceedin&ly small and sit!ated far back in the mo!th so that it is diffic!lt to &et a si&ht of it$ < F!rthermore animals differ from one another in the relati"e si2e of their mo!ths$ In some animals the mo!th opens wide as is the case with the do& the lion and with all the saw+toothed animals# other animals ha"e small mo!ths as man# and others ha"e mo!ths of medi!m capacity as the pi& and his con&eners$ ,The 7&yptian hippopotam!s has a mane like a horse is clo"en+footed like an o' and is sn!b+ nosed$ It has a h!ckle+bone like clo"en+footed animals and t!sks )!st "isible# it has the tail of a pi& the nei&h of a horse and the dimensions of an ass$ The hide is so thick that spears are made o!t of it$ In its internal or&ans it resembles the horse and the ass$= %ome animals share the properties of man and the *!adr!peds as the ape the monkey and the baboon$ The monkey is a tailed ape$ The baboon resembles the ape in form only that it is bi&&er and stron&er more like a do& in face and is more sa"a&e in its habits and its teeth are more do&+ like and more powerf!l$ Apes are hairy on the back in keepin& with their *!adr!pedal nat!re and hairy on the belly in keepin& with their h!man form+for as was said abo"e this characteristic is re"ersed in man and the *!adr!ped+only that the hair is coarse so that the ape is thickly coated both on the belly and on the back$ Its face resembles that of man in many respects# in other words it has similar nostrils and ears and teeth like those of man both front teeth and molars$ F!rther whereas *!adr!peds in &eneral are not f!rnished with lashes on one of the two eyelids this creat!re has them on both only "ery thinly set especially the !nder ones# in fact they are "ery insi&nificant indeed$ And we m!st bear in mind that all other *!adr!peds ha"e no !nder eyelash at all$ The ape has also in its chest two teats !pon poorly de"eloped breasts$ It has also arms like man only co"ered with hair and it bends these le&s like man with the con"e'ities of both limbs facin& one another$ In addition it has hands and fin&ers and nails like man only that all these parts are somewhat more beast+like in appearance$ Its feet are e'ceptional in kind$ That is they are like lar&e hands and the toes are like fin&ers with the middle one the lon&est of all and the !nder part of the foot is like a hand e'cept for its len&th and stretches o!t towards the e'tremities like the palm of the hand# and this palm at the after end is !n!s!ally hard and in a cl!msy obsc!re kind of way resembles a heel$ The creat!re !ses its feet either as hands or feet and do!bles them !p as one do!bles a fist$ Its !pper+arm and thi&h are short in proportion to the forearm and the shin$ It has no pro)ectin& na"el b!t only a hardness in the ordinary locality of the na"el$ Its !pper part is m!ch lar&er than its lower part as is the case with *!adr!peds# in fact the proportion of the former to the latter is abo!t as fi"e to three$ Owin& to this circ!mstance and to the fact that its feet resemble hands and are composed in a manner of hand and of foot: of foot in the heel e'tremity of the hand in all else+for e"en the toes ha"e what is called a (palm:+for these reasons the animal is oftener to be fo!nd on all fo!rs than !pri&ht$ It has neither hips inasm!ch as it is a *!adr!ped nor yet a tail inasm!ch as it is a biped e'cept nor yet a tal by the way that it has a tail as small as small can be )!st a sort of indication of a tail$ The &enitals of the female resemble those of the female in the h!man species# those of the male are more like those of a do& than are those of a man$ >

The monkey as has been obser"ed is f!rnished with a tail$ In all s!ch creat!res the internal or&ans are fo!nd !nder dissection to correspond to those of man$ %o m!ch then for the properties of the or&ans of s!ch animals as brin& forth their yo!n& into the world ali"e$ 1@ O"iparo!s and blooded *!adr!peds+and by the way no terrestrial blooded animal is o"iparo!s !nless it is *!adr!pedal or is de"oid of feet alto&ether+are f!rnished with a head a neck a back !pper and !nder parts the front le&s and hind le&s and the part analo&o!s to the chest all as in the case of "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds and with a tail !s!ally lar&e in e'ceptional cases small$ And all these creat!res are many+toed and the se"eral toes are clo"en apart$ F!rthermore they all ha"e the ordinary or&ans of sensation incl!din& a ton&!e with the e'ception of the 7&yptian crocodile$ This latter animal by the way resembles certain fishes$ For as a &eneral r!le fishes ha"e a prickly ton&!e not free in its mo"ements# tho!&h there are some fishes that present a smooth !ndifferentiated s!rface where the ton&!e sho!ld be !ntil yo! open their mo!ths wide and make a close inspection$ A&ain o"iparo!s blooded *!adr!peds are !npro"ided with ears b!t possess only the passa&e for hearin&# neither ha"e they breasts nor a cop!latory or&an nor e'ternal testicles b!t internal ones only# neither are they hair coated b!t are in all cases co"ered with scaly plates$ /oreo"er they are witho!t e'ception saw+toothed$ Ci"er crocodiles ha"e pi&s eyes lar&e teeth and t!sks and stron& nails and an impenetrable skin composed of scaly plates$ They see b!t poorly !nder water b!t abo"e the s!rface of it with remarkable ac!teness$ As a r!le they pass the day+time on land and the ni&httime in the water# for the temperat!re of the water is at ni&ht+time more &enial than that of the open air$ 11 The chameleon resembles the li2ard in the &eneral confi&!ration of its body b!t the ribs stretch downwards and meet to&ether !nder the belly as is the case with fishes and the spine sticks !p as with the fish$ Its face resembles that of the baboon$ Its tail is e'ceedin&ly lon& terminates in a sharp point and is for the most part coiled !p like a strap of leather$ It stands hi&her off the &ro!nd than the li2ard b!t the fle'!re of the le&s is the same in both creat!res$ 7ach of its feet is di"ided into two parts which bear the same relation to one another that the th!mb and the rest of the hand bear to one another in man$ 7ach of these parts is for a short distance di"ided after a fashion into toes# on the front feet the inside part is di"ided into three and the o!tside into two on the hind feet the inside part into two and the o!tside into three# it has claws also on these parts resemblin& those of birds of prey$ Its body is ro!&h all o"er like that of the crocodile$ Its eyes are sit!ated in a hollow recess and are "ery lar&e and ro!nd and are en"eloped in a skin resemblin& that which co"ers the entire body# and in the middle a sli&ht apert!re is left for "ision thro!&h which the animal sees for it ne"er co"ers !p this apert!re with the c!taneo!s en"elope$ It keeps twistin& its eyes ro!nd and shiftin& its line of "ision in e"ery direction and th!s contri"es to &et a si&ht of any ob)ect that it wants to see$ The chan&e in its colo!r takes place when it is inflated with air# it is then black not !nlike the crocodile or &reen like the li2ard b!t black+spotted like the pard$ This chan&e of colo!r takes place o"er the whole body alike for the eyes and the tail come alike !nder its infl!ence$ In its mo"ements it is "ery sl!&&ish like the tortoise$ It ass!mes a &reenish h!e in dyin& and retains this h!e after death$ It resembles the li2ard in the position of the oesopha&!s and the

windpipe$ It has no flesh anywhere e'cept a few scraps of flesh on the head and on the )aws and near to the root of the tail$ It has blood only ro!nd abo!t the heart the eyes the re&ion abo"e the heart and in all the "eins e'tendin& from these parts# and in all these there is b!t little blood after all$ The brain is sit!ated a little abo"e the eyes b!t connected with them$ When the o!ter skin is drawn aside from off the eye a somethin& is fo!nd s!rro!ndin& the eye that &leams thro!&h like a thin rin& of copper$ /embranes e'tend well ni&h o"er its entire frame n!mero!s and stron& and s!rpassin& in respect of n!mber and relati"e stren&th those fo!nd in any other animal$ After bein& c!t open alon& its entire len&th it contin!es to breathe for a considerable time# a "ery sli&ht motion &oes on in the re&ion of the heart and while contraction is especially manifested in the nei&hbo!rhood of the ribs a similar motion is more or less discernible o"er the whole body$ It has no spleen "isible$ It hibernates like the li2ard$ 13 Birds also in some parts resemble the abo"e mentioned animals# that is to say they ha"e in all cases a head a neck a back a belly and what is analo&o!s to the chest$ The bird is remarkable amon& animals as ha"in& two feet like man# only by the way it bends them backwards as *!adr!peds bend their hind le&s as was noticed pre"io!sly$ It has neither hands nor front feet b!t win&s+an e'ceptional str!ct!re as compared with other animals$ Its ha!nch+bone is lon& like a thi&h and is attached to the body as far as the middle of the belly# so like to a thi&h is it that when "iewed separately it looks like a real one while the real thi&h is a separate str!ct!re betwi't it and the shin$ Of all birds those that ha"e crooked talons ha"e the bi&&est thi&hs and the stron&est breasts$ All birds are f!rnished with many claws and all ha"e the toes separated more or less as!nder# that is to say in the &reater part the toes are clearly distinct from one another for e"en the swimmin& birds altho!&h they are web+footed ha"e still their claws f!lly artic!lated and distinctly differentiated from one another$ Birds that fly hi&h in air are in all cases fo!r+toed: that is the &reater part ha"e three toes in front and one behind in place of a heel# some few ha"e two in front and two behind as the wryneck$ This latter bird is somewhat bi&&er than the chaffinch and is mottled in appearance$ It is pec!liar in the arran&ement of its toes and resembles the snake in the str!ct!re of its ton&!e# for the creat!re can protr!de its ton&!e to the e'tent of fo!r fin&er+breadths and then draw it back a&ain$ /oreo"er it can twist its head backwards while keepin& all the rest of its body still like the serpent$ It has bi& claws somewhat resemblin& those of the woodpecker$ Its note is a shrill chirp$ Birds are f!rnished with a mo!th b!t with an e'ceptional one for they ha"e neither lips nor teeth b!t a beak$ 4either ha"e they ears nor a nose b!t only passa&es for the sensations connected with these or&ans: that for the nostrils in the beak and that for hearin& in the head$ Bike all other animals they all ha"e two eyes and these are de"oid of lashes$ The hea"y+bodied ,or &allinaceo!s- birds close the eye by means of the lower lid and all birds blink by means of a skin e'tendin& o"er the eye from the inner corner# the owl and its con&eners also close the eye by means of the !pper lid$ The same phenomenon is obser"able in the animals that are protected by horny sc!tes as in the li2ard and its con&eners# for they all witho!t e'ception close the eye with the lower lid b!t they do not blink like birds$ F!rther birds ha"e neither sc!tes nor hair b!t feathers# and the feathers are in"ariably f!rnished with *!ills$ They ha"e no tail b!t a r!mp with tail+feathers short in s!ch as are lon&+le&&ed and web+footed lar&e in others$ These latter kinds of birds fly with their feet t!cked !p close to the belly# b!t the small r!mped or short+tailed birds fly with their le&s stretched o!t at f!ll len&th$ All are f!rnished with a ton&!e b!t the or&an is "ariable bein& lon& in some birds and broad in others$ .ertain species of birds abo"e all other animals and ne't after man

possess the fac!lty of !tterin& artic!late so!nds# and this fac!lty is chiefly de"eloped in broad+ ton&!ed birds$ 4o o"iparo!s creat!re has an epi&lottis o"er the windpipe b!t these animals so mana&e the openin& and sh!ttin& of the windpipe as not to allow any solid s!bstance to &et down into the l!n&$ %ome species of birds are f!rnished additionally with sp!rs b!t no bird with crooked talons is fo!nd so pro"ided$ The birds with talons are amon& those that fly well b!t those that ha"e sp!rs are amon& the hea"y+bodied$ A&ain some birds ha"e a crest$ As a &eneral r!le the crest sticks !p and is composed of feathers only# b!t the crest of the barn+door cock is e'ceptional in kind for whereas it is not )!st e'actly flesh at the same time it is not easy to say what else it is$ 15 Of water animals the &en!s of fishes constit!tes a sin&le &ro!p apart from the rest and incl!din& many di"erse forms$ In the first place the fish has a head a back a belly in the nei&hbo!rhood of which last are placed the stomach and "iscera# and behind it has a tail of contin!o!s !ndi"ided shape b!t not by the way in all cases alike$ 4o fish has a neck or any limb or testicles at all within or witho!t or breasts$ B!t by the way this absence of breasts may predicated of all non+"i"iparo!s animals# and in point of fact "i"iparo!s animals are not in all cases pro"ided with the or&an e'ceptin& s!ch as are directly "i"iparo!s witho!t bein& first o"iparo!s$ Th!s the dolphin is directly "i"iparo!s and accordin&ly we find it f!rnished with two breasts not sit!ated hi&h !p b!t in the nei&hbo!rhood of the &enitals$ And this creat!re is not pro"ided like *!adr!peds with "isible teats b!t has two "ents one on each flank from which the milk flows# and its yo!n& ha"e to follow after it to &et s!ckled and this phenomenon has been act!ally witnessed$ Fishes then as has been obser"ed ha"e no breasts and no passa&e for the &enitals "isible e'ternally$ B!t they ha"e an e'ceptional or&an in the &ills whereby after takin& the water in the mo!th they dischar&e it a&ain# and in the fins of which the &reater part ha"e fo!r and the lanky ones two as for instance the eel and these two sit!ated near to the &ills$ In like manner the &rey m!llet+as for instance the m!llet fo!nd in the lake at %iphae+ha"e only two fins# and the same is the case with the fish called Cibbon+fish$ %ome of the lanky fishes ha"e no fins at all s!ch as the m!raena nor &ills artic!lated like those of other fish$ And of those fish that are pro"ided with &ills some ha"e co"erin&s for this or&an whereas all the selachians ha"e the or&an !nprotected by a co"er$ And those fishes that ha"e co"erin&s or operc!la for the &ills ha"e in all cases their &ills placed sideways# whereas amon& selachians the broad ones ha"e the &ills down below on the belly as the torpedo and the ray while the lanky ones ha"e the or&an placed sideways as is the case in all the do&+fish$ The fishin&+fro& has &ills placed sideways and co"ered not with a spiny operc!l!m as in all b!t the selachian fishes b!t with one of skin$ /ore"er with fishes f!rnished with &ills the &ills in some cases are simple in others d!plicate# and the last &ill in the direction of the body is always simple$ And a&ain some fishes ha"e few &ills and others ha"e a &reat n!mber# b!t all alike ha"e the same n!mber on both sides$ Those that ha"e the least n!mber ha"e one &ill on either side and this one d!plicate like the boar+fish# others ha"e two on either side one simple and the other d!plicate like the con&er and the scar!s# others ha"e fo!r on either side simple as the elops the syna&ris the m!raena and the eel# others ha"e fo!r all

with the e'ception of the hindmost one in do!ble rows as the wrasse the perch the sheat+fish and the carp$ The do&+fish ha"e all their &ills do!ble fi"e on a side# and the sword+fish has ei&ht do!ble &ills$ %o m!ch for the n!mber of &ills as fo!nd in fishes$ A&ain fishes differ from other animals in more ways than as re&ards the &ills$ For they are not co"ered with hairs as are "i"iparo!s land animals nor as is the case with certain o"iparo!s *!adr!peds with tessellated sc!tes nor like birds with feathers# b!t for the most part they are co"ered with scales$ %ome few are ro!&h+skinned while the smooth+skinned are "ery few indeed$ Of the %elachia some are ro!&h+skinned and some smooth+skinned# and amon& the smooth+skinned fishes are incl!ded the con&er the eel and the t!nny$ All fishes are saw+toothed e'ceptin& the scar!s# and the teeth in all cases are sharp and set in many rows and in some cases are placed on the ton&!e$ The ton&!e is hard and spiny and so firmly attached that fishes in many instances seem to be de"oid of the or&an alto&ether$ The mo!th in some cases is wide+stretched as it is with some "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds$$$$ With re&ard to or&ans of sense all sa"e eyes fishes possess none of them neither the or&ans nor their passa&es neither ears nor nostrils# b!t all fishes are f!rnished with eyes and the eyes de"oid of lids tho!&h the eyes are not hard# with re&ard to the or&ans connected with the other senses hearin& and smell they are de"oid alike of the or&ans themsel"es and of passa&es indicati"e of them$ Fishes witho!t e'ception are s!pplied with blood$ %ome of them are o"iparo!s and some "i"iparo!s# scaly fish are in"ariably o"iparo!s b!t cartila&ino!s fishes are all "i"iparo!s with the sin&le e'ception of the fishin&+fro&$ 16 Of blooded animals there now remains the serpent &en!s$ This &en!s is common to both elements for while most species comprehended therein are land animals a small minority to wit the a*!atic species pass their li"es in fresh water$ There are also sea+serpents in shape to a &reat e'tent resemblin& their con&eners of the land with this e'ception that the head in their case is somewhat like the head of the con&er# and there are se"eral kinds of sea+serpent and the different kinds differ in colo!r# these animals are not fo!nd in "ery deep water$ %erpents like fish are de"oid of feet$ There are also sea+scolopendras resemblin& in shape their land con&eners b!t somewhat less in re&ard to ma&nit!de$ These creat!res are fo!nd in the nei&hbo!rhood of rocks# as compared with their land con&eners they are redder in colo!r are f!rnished with feet in &reater n!mbers and with le&s of more delicate str!ct!re$ And the same remark applies to them as to the sea+serpents that they are not fo!nd in "ery deep water$ Of fishes whose habitat is in the "icinity of rocks there is a tiny one which some call the 7cheneis or (ship+holder and which is by some people !sed as a charm to brin& l!ck in affairs of law and lo"e$ The creat!re is !nfit for eatin&$ %ome people assert that it has feet b!t this is not the case: it appears howe"er to be f!rnished with feet from the fact that its fins resemble those or&ans$ %o m!ch then for the e'ternal parts of blooded animals as re&ards their n!mbers their properties and their relati"e di"ersities$ 18 As for the properties of the internal or&ans these we m!st first disc!ss in the case of the animals that are s!pplied with blood$ For the principal &enera differ from the rest of animals in that the

former are s!pplied with blood and the latter are not# and the former incl!de man "i"iparo!s and o"iparo!s *!adr!peds birds fishes cetaceans and all the others that come !nder no &eneral desi&nation by reason of their not formin& &enera b!t &ro!ps of which simply the specific name is predicable as when we say (the serpent the (crocodile$ All "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds then are f!rnished with an oesopha&!s and a windpipe sit!ated as in man# the same statement is applicable to o"iparo!s *!adr!peds and to birds only that the latter present di"ersities in the shapes of these or&ans$ As a &eneral r!le all animals that take !p air and breathe it in and o!t are f!rnished with a l!n& a windpipe and an oesopha&!s with the windpipe and oesopha&!s not admittin& of di"ersity in sit!ation b!t admittin& of di"ersity in properties and with the l!n& admittin& of di"ersity in both these respects$ F!rther all blooded animals ha"e a heart and a diaphra&m or midriff# b!t in small animals the e'istence of the latter or&an is not so ob"io!s owin& to its delicacy and min!te si2e$ In re&ard to the heart there is an e'ceptional phenomenon obser"able in o'en$ In other words there is one species of o' where tho!&h not in all cases a bone is fo!nd inside the heart$ And by the way the horses heart also has a bone inside it$ The &enera referred to abo"e are not in all cases f!rnished with a l!n&: for instance the fish is de"oid of the or&an as is also e"ery animal f!rnished with &ills$ All blooded animals are f!rnished with a li"er$ As a &eneral r!le blooded animals are f!rnished with a spleen# b!t with the &reat ma)ority of non+"i"iparo!s b!t o"iparo!s animals the spleen is so small as all b!t to escape obser"ation# and this is the case with almost all birds as with the pi&eon the kite the falcon the owl: in point of fact the ae&ocephal!s is de"oid of the or&an alto&ether$ With o"iparo!s *!adr!peds the case is m!ch the same as with the "i"iparo!s# that is to say they also ha"e the spleen e'ceedin&ly min!te as the tortoise the freshwater tortoise the toad the li2ard the crocodile and the fro&$ %ome animals ha"e a &all+bladder close to the li"er and others ha"e not$ Of "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds the deer is witho!t the or&an as also the roe the horse the m!le the ass the seal and some kinds of pi&s$ Of deer those that are called Achainae appear to ha"e &all in their tail b!t what is so called does resemble &all in colo!r tho!&h it is not so completely fl!id and the or&an internally resembles a spleen$ 9owe"er witho!t any e'ception sta&s are fo!nd to ha"e ma&&ots li"in& inside the head and the habitat of these creat!res is in the hollow !nderneath the root of the ton&!e and in the nei&hbo!rhood of the "ertebra to which the head is attached$ These creat!res are as lar&e as the lar&est &r!bs# they &row all to&ether in a cl!ster and they are !s!ally abo!t twenty in n!mber$ Deer then as has been obser"ed are witho!t a &all+bladder# their &!t howe"er is so bitter that e"en ho!nds ref!se to eat it !nless the animal is e'ceptionally fat$ With the elephant also the li"er is !nf!rnished with a &all+bladder b!t when the animal is c!t in the re&ion where the or&an is fo!nd in animals f!rnished with it there oo2es o!t a fl!id resemblin& &all in &reater or less *!antities$ Of animals that take in sea+water and are f!rnished with a l!n& the dolphin is !npro"ided with a &all+ bladder$ Birds and fishes all ha"e the or&an as also o"iparo!s *!adr!peds all to a &reater or a lesser e'tent$ B!t of fishes some ha"e the or&an close to the li"er as the do&fishes the sheat+fish the rhine or an&el+fish the smooth skate the torpedo and of the lanky fishes the eel the pipe+fish and the hammer+headed shark$ The callionym!s also has the &all+bladder close to the li"er and in no other fish does the or&an attain so &reat a relati"e si2e$ Other fishes ha"e the or&an close to the &!t attached to the li"er by certain e'tremely fine d!cts$ The bonito has the &all+bladder stretched

alon&side the &!t and e*!allin& it in len&th and often a do!ble fold of it$ others ha"e the or&an in the re&ion of the &!t# in some cases far off in others near# as the fishin&+fro& the elops the syna&ris the m!raena and the sword+fish$ Often animals of the same species show this di"ersity of position# as for instance some con&ers are fo!nd with the or&an attached close to the li"er and others with it detached from and below it$ The case is m!ch the same with birds: that is some ha"e the &all+bladder close to the stomach and others close to the &!t as the pi&eon the ra"en the *!ail the swallow and the sparrow# some ha"e it near at once to the li"er and to the stomach as the ae&ocephal!s# others ha"e it near at once to the li"er and the &!t as the falcon and the kite$ 1: A&ain all "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds are f!rnished with kidneys and a bladder$ Of the o"ipara that are not *!adr!pedal there is no instance known of an animal whether fish or bird pro"ided with these or&ans$ Of the o"ipara that are *!adr!pedal the t!rtle alone is pro"ided with these or&ans of a ma&nit!de to correspond with the other or&ans of the animal$ In the t!rtle the kidney resembles the same or&an in the o'# that is to say it looks one sin&le or&an composed of a n!mber of small ones$ ,The bison also resembles the o' in all its internal parts-$ 1< With all animals that are f!rnished with these parts the parts are similarly sit!ated and with the e'ception of man the heart is in the middle# in man howe"er as has been obser"ed the heart is placed a little to the left+hand side$ In all animals the pointed end of the heart t!rns frontwards# only in fish it wo!ld at first si&ht seem otherwise for the pointed end is t!rned not towards the breast b!t towards the head and the mo!th$ And ,in fish- the ape' is attached to a t!be )!st where the ri&ht and left &ills meet to&ether$ There are other d!cts e'tendin& from the heart to each of the &ills &reater in the &reater fish lesser in the lesser# b!t in the lar&e fishes the d!ct at the pointed end of the heart is a t!be white+colo!red and e'ceedin&ly thick$ Fishes in some few cases ha"e an oesopha&!s as the con&er and the eel# and in these the or&an is small$ In fishes that are f!rnished with an !ndi"ided li"er the or&an lies entirely on the ri&ht side# where the li"er is clo"en from the root the lar&er half of the or&an is on the ri&ht side: for in some fishes the two parts are detached from one another witho!t any coalescence at the root as is the case with the do&fish$ And there is also a species of hare in what is named the Fi& district near Bake Bolbe and elsewhere which animal mi&ht be taken to ha"e two li"ers owin& to the len&th of the connectin& d!cts similar to the str!ct!re in the l!n& of birds$ The spleen in all cases when normally placed is on the left+hand side and the kidneys also lie in the same position in all creat!res that possess them$ There ha"e been known instances of *!adr!peds !nder dissection where the spleen was on the ri&ht hand and the li"er on the left# b!t all s!ch cases are re&arded as s!pernat!ral$ In all animals the wind+pipe e'tends to the l!n& and the manner how we shall disc!ss hereafter# and the oesopha&!s in all that ha"e the or&an e'tends thro!&h the midriff into the stomach$ For by the way as has been obser"ed most fishes ha"e no oesopha&!s b!t the stomach is !nited directly with the mo!th so that in some cases when bi& fish are p!rs!in& little ones the stomach t!mbles forward into the mo!th$ All the afore+mentioned animals ha"e a stomach and one similarly sit!ated that is to say sit!ated directly !nder the midriff# and they ha"e a &!t connected therewith and closin& at the o!tlet of the resid!!m and at what is termed the (rect!m$ 9owe"er animals present di"ersities in the str!ct!re

of their stomachs$ In the first place of the "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds s!ch of the horned animals as are not e*!ally f!rnished with teeth in both )aws are f!rnished with fo!r s!ch chambers$ These animals by the way are those that are said to chew the c!d$ In these animals the oesopha&!s e'tends from the mo!th downwards alon& the l!n& from the midriff to the bi& stomach ,or pa!nch-# and this stomach is ro!&h inside and semi+partitioned$ And connected with it near to the entry of the oesopha&!s is what from its appearance is termed the (retic!l!m ,or honeycomb ba&-# for o!tside it is like the stomach b!t inside it resembles a netted cap# and the retic!l!m is a &reat deal smaller than the stomach$ .onnected with this is the (echin!s ,or many+plies- ro!&h inside and laminated and of abo!t the same si2e as the retic!l!m$ 4e't after this comes what is called the (enystr!m ,or abomas!m- lar&er an lon&er than the echin!s f!rnished inside with n!mero!s folds or rid&es lar&e and smooth$ After all this comes the &!t$ %!ch is the stomach of those *!adr!peds that are horned and ha"e an !nsymmetrical dentition# and these animals differ one from another in the shape and si2e of the parts and in the fact of the oesopha&!s reachin& the stomach centralwise in some cases and sideways in others$ Animals that are f!rnished e*!ally with teeth in both )aws ha"e one stomach# as man the pi& the do& the bear the lion the wolf$ ,The Thos by the by has all its internal or&ans similar to the wolfs$All these then ha"e a sin&le stomach and after that the &!t# b!t the stomach in some is comparati"ely lar&e as in the pi& and bear and the stomach of the pi& has a few smooth folds or rid&es# others ha"e a m!ch smaller stomach not m!ch bi&&er than the &!t as the lion the do& and man$ In the other animals the shape of the stomach "aries in the direction of one or other of those already mentioned# that is the stomach in some animals resembles that of the pi&# in others that of the do& alike with the lar&er animals and the smaller ones$ In all these animals di"ersities occ!r in re&ard to the si2e the shape the thickness or the thinness of the stomach and also in re&ard to the place where the oesopha&!s opens into it$ There is also a difference in str!ct!re in the &!t of the two &ro!ps of animals abo"e mentioned ,those with !nsymmetrical and those with symmetrical dentition- in si2e in thickness and in foldin&s$ The intestines in those animals whose )aws are !ne*!ally f!rnished with teeth are in all cases the lar&er for the animals themsel"es are lar&er than those in the other cate&ory# for "ery few of them are small and no sin&le one of the horned animals is "ery small$ And some possess appenda&es ,or caeca- to the &!t b!t no animal that has not incisors in both )aws has a strai&ht &!t$ The elephant has a &!t constricted into chambers so constr!cted that the animal appears to ha"e fo!r stomachs# in it the food is fo!nd b!t there is no distinct and separate receptacle$ Its "iscera resemble those of the pi& only that the li"er is fo!r times the si2e of that of the o' and the other "iscera in like proportion while the spleen is comparati"ely small$ /!ch the same may be predicated of the properties of the stomach and the &!t in o"iparo!s *!adr!peds as in the land tortoise the t!rtle the li2ard both crocodiles and in fact in all animals of the like kind# that is to say their stomach is one and simple resemblin& in some cases that of the pi& and in other cases that of the do&$ The serpent &en!s is similar and in almost all respects f!rnished similarly to the sa!rians amon& land animals if one co!ld only ima&ine these sa!rians to be increased in len&th and to be de"oid of le&s$ That is to say the serpent is coated with tessellated sc!tes and resembles the sa!rian in its back and belly# only by the way it has no testicles b!t like fishes has two d!cts con"er&in& into

one and an o"ary lon& and bif!rcate$ The rest of its internal or&ans are identical with those of the sa!rians e'cept that owin& to the narrowness and len&th of the animal the "iscera are correspondin&ly narrow and elon&ated so that they are apt to escape reco&nition from the similarities in shape$ Th!s the windpipe of the creat!re is e'ceptionally lon& and the oesopha&!s is lon&er still and the windpipe commences so close to the mo!th that the ton&!e appears to be !nderneath it# and the windpipe seems to pro)ect o"er the ton&!e owin& to the fact that the ton&!e draws back into a sheath and does not remain in its place as in other animals$ The ton&!e moreo"er is thin and lon& and black and can be protr!ded to a &reat distance$ And both serpents and sa!rians ha"e this alto&ether e'ceptional property in the ton&!e that it is forked at the o!ter e'tremity and this property is the more marked in the serpent for the tips of his ton&!e are as thin as hairs$ The seal also by the way has a split ton&!e$ The stomach of the serpent is like a more spacio!s &!t resemblin& the stomach of the do&# then comes the &!t lon& narrow and sin&le to the end$ The heart is sit!ated close to the pharyn' small and kidney+shaped# and for this reason the or&an mi&ht in some cases appear not to ha"e the pointed end t!rned towards the breast$ Then comes the l!n& sin&le and artic!lated with a membrano!s passa&e "ery lon& and *!ite detached from the heart$ The li"er is lon& and simple# the spleen is short and ro!nd: as is the case in both respects with the sa!rians$ Its &all resembles that of the fish# the water+snakes ha"e it beside the li"er and the other snakes ha"e it !s!ally beside the &!t$ These creat!res are all saw+toothed$ Their ribs are as n!mero!s as the days of the month# in other words they are thirty in n!mber$ %ome affirm that the same phenomenon is obser"able with serpents as with swallow chicks# in other words they say that if yo! prick o!t a serpents eyes they will &row a&ain$ And f!rther the tails of sa!rians and of serpents if they be c!t off will &row a&ain$ With fishes the properties of the &!t and stomach are similar# that is they ha"e a stomach sin&le and simple b!t "ariable in shape accordin& to species$ For in some cases the stomach is &!t+ shaped as with the scar!s or parrot+fish# which fish by the way appears to be the only fish that chews the c!d$ And the whole len&th of the &!t is simple and if it ha"e a red!plication or kink it loosens o!t a&ain into a simple form$ An e'ceptional property in fishes and in birds for the most part is the bein& f!rnished with &!t+ appenda&es or caeca$ Birds ha"e them low down and few in n!mber$ Fishes ha"e them hi&h !p abo!t the stomach and sometimes n!mero!s as in the &oby the &aleos the perch the scorpaena the cithar!s the red m!llet and the spar!s# the cestre!s or &rey m!llet has se"eral of them on one side of the belly and on the other side only one$ %ome fish possess these appenda&es b!t only in small n!mbers as the hepat!s and the &la!c!s# and by the way they are few also in the dorado$ These fishes differ also from one another within the same species for in the dorado one indi"id!al has many and another few$ %ome fishes are entirely witho!t the part as the ma)ority of the selachians$ As for all the rest some of them ha"e a few and some a &reat many$ And in all cases where the &!t+appenda&es are fo!nd in fish they are fo!nd close !p to the stomach$ In re&ard to their internal parts birds differ from other animals and from one another$ %ome birds for instance ha"e a crop in front of the stomach as the barn+door cock the c!shat the pi&eon and the partrid&e# and the crop consists of a lar&e hollow skin into which the food first enters and where it lies in&ested$ D!st where the crop lea"es the oesopha&!s it is somewhat narrow# by and by it broadens o!t b!t where it comm!nicates with the stomach it narrows down a&ain$ The stomach ,or &i22ard- in most birds is fleshy and hard and inside is a stron& skin which comes away from the

fleshy part$ Other birds ha"e no crop b!t instead of it an oesopha&!s wide and roomy either all the way or in the part leadin& to the stomach as with the daw the ra"en and the carrion+crow$ The *!ail also has the oesopha&!s widened o!t at the lower e'tremity and in the ae&ocephal!s and the owl the or&an is sli&htly broader at the bottom than at the top$ The d!ck the &oose the &!ll the catarrhactes and the &reat b!stard ha"e the oesopha&!s wide and roomy from one end to the other and the same applies to a &reat many other birds$ In some birds there is a portion of the stomach that resembles a crop as in the kestrel$ In the case of small birds like the swallow and the sparrow neither the oesopha&!s nor the crop is wide b!t the stomach is lon&$ %ome few ha"e neither a crop nor a dilated oesopha&!s b!t the latter is e'ceedin&ly lon& as in lon& necked birds s!ch as the porphyrio and by the way in the case of all these birds the e'crement is !n!s!ally moist$ The *!ail is e'ceptional in re&ard to these or&ans as compared with other birds# in other words it has a crop and at the same time its oesopha&!s is wide and spacio!s in front of the stomach and the crop is at some distance relati"ely to its si2e from the oesopha&!s at that part$ F!rther in most birds the &!t is thin and simple when loosened o!t$ The &!t+appenda&es or caeca in birds as has been obser"ed are few in n!mber and are not sit!ated hi&h !p as in fishes b!t low down towards the e'tremity of the &!t$ Birds then ha"e caeca+not all b!t the &reater part of them s!ch as the barn+door cock the partrid&e the d!ck the ni&ht+ra"en ,the local!s - the ascalaph!s the &oose the swan the &reat b!stard and the owl$ %ome of the little birds also ha"e these appenda&es# b!t the caeca in their case are e'ceedin&ly min!te as in the sparrow$

Book III
1 4ow that we ha"e stated the ma&nit!des the properties and the relati"e differences of the other internal or&ans it remains for !s to treat of the or&ans that contrib!te to &eneration$ These or&ans in the female are in all cases internal# in the male they present n!mero!s di"ersities$ In the blooded animals some males are alto&ether de"oid of testicles and some ha"e the or&an b!t sit!ated internally# and of those males that ha"e the or&an internally sit!ated some ha"e it close to the loin in the nei&hbo!rhood of the kidney and others close to the belly$ Other males ha"e the or&an sit!ated e'ternally$ In the case of these last the penis is in some cases attached to the belly whilst in others it is loosely s!spended as is the case also with the testicles# and in the cases where the penis is attached to the belly the attachment "aries accordin&ly as the animal is emprosth!retic or opisth!retic$ 4o fish is f!rnished with testicles nor any other creat!re that has &ills nor any serpent whate"er: nor in short any animal de"oid of feet sa"e s!ch only as are "i"iparo!s within themsel"es$ Birds are f!rnished with testicles b!t these are internally sit!ated close to the loin$ The case is similar with o"iparo!s *!adr!peds s!ch as the li2ard the tortoise and the crocodile# and amon& the "i"iparo!s animals this pec!liarity is fo!nd in the hed&eho&$ Others amon& those creat!res that ha"e the or&an internally sit!ated ha"e it close to the belly as is the case with the dolphin amon&st animals de"oid of feet and with the elephant amon& "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds$ In other cases these or&ans are e'ternally conspic!o!s$ We ha"e already all!ded to the di"ersities obser"ed in the attachment of these or&ans to the belly and the ad)acent re&ion# in other words we ha"e stated that in some cases the testicles are ti&htly fastened back as in the pi& and its allies and that in others they are freely s!spended as in man$

Fishes then are de"oid of testicles as has been stated and serpents also$ They are f!rnished howe"er with two d!cts connected with the midriff and r!nnin& on to either side of the backbone coalescin& into a sin&le d!ct abo"e the o!tlet of the resid!!m and by (abo"e the o!tlet I mean the re&ion near to the spine$ These d!cts in the r!ttin& season &et filled with the &enital fl!id and if the d!cts be s*!ee2ed the sperm oo2es o!t white in colo!r$ As to the differences obser"ed in male fishes of di"erse species the reader sho!ld cons!lt my treatise on Anatomy and the s!b)ect will be hereafter more f!lly disc!ssed when we describe the specific character in each case$ The males of o"iparo!s animals whether biped or *!adr!ped are in all cases f!rnished with testicles close to the loin !nderneath the midriff$ With some animals the or&an is whitish in others somewhat of a sallow h!e# in all cases it is entirely en"eloped with min!te and delicate "eins$ From each of the two testicles e'tends a d!ct and as in the case of fishes the two d!cts coalesce into one abo"e the o!tlet of the resid!!m$ This constit!tes the penis which or&an in the case of small o"ipara is inconspic!o!s# b!t in the case of the lar&er o"ipara as in the &oose and the like the or&an becomes *!ite "isible )!st after cop!lation$ The d!cts in the case of fishes and in biped and *!adr!ped o"ipara are attached to the loin !nder the stomach and the &!t in betwi't them and the &reat "ein from which d!cts or blood+"essels e'tend one to each of the two testicles$ And )!st as with fishes the male sperm is fo!nd in the seminal d!cts and the d!cts become plainly "isible at the r!ttin& season and in some instances become in"isible after the season is passed so also is it with the testicles of birds# before the breedin& season the or&an is small in some birds and *!ite in"isible in others b!t d!rin& the season the or&an in all cases is &reatly enlar&ed$ This phenomenon is remarkably ill!strated in the rin&+ do"e and the partrid&e so m!ch so that some people are act!ally of opinion that these birds are de"oid of the or&an in the winter+time$ Of male animals that ha"e their testicles placed frontwards some ha"e them inside close to the belly as the dolphin# some ha"e them o!tside e'posed to "iew close to the lower e'tremity of the belly$ These animals resemble one another th!s far in respect to this or&an# b!t they differ from one another in this fact that some of them ha"e their testicles sit!ated separately by themsel"es while others which ha"e the or&an sit!ated e'ternally ha"e them en"eloped in what is termed the scrot!m$ A&ain in all "i"iparo!s animals f!rnished with feet the followin& properties are obser"ed in the testicles themsel"es$ From the aorta there e'tend "ein+like d!cts to the head of each of the testicles and another two from the kidneys# these two from the kidneys are s!pplied with blood while the two from the aorta are de"oid of it$ From the head of the testicle alon&side of the testicle itself is a d!ct thicker and more sinewy than the other )!st all!ded to+a d!ct that bends back a&ain at the end of the testicle to its head# and from the head of each of the two testicles the two d!cts e'tend !ntil they coalesce in front at the penis$ The d!ct that bends back a&ain and that which is in contact with the testicle are en"eloped in one and the same membrane so that !ntil yo! draw aside the membrane they present all the appearance of bein& a sin&le !ndifferentiated d!ct$ F!rther the d!ct in contact with the testicle has its moist content *!alified by blood b!t to a comparati"ely less e'tent than in the case of the d!cts hi&her !p which are connected with the aorta# in the d!cts that bend back towards the t!be of the penis the li*!id is white+colo!red$ There also r!ns a d!ct from the bladder openin& into the !pper part of the canal aro!nd which lies sheathwise what is called the (penis$

All these descripti"e partic!lars may be re&arded by the li&ht of the accompanyin& dia&ram# wherein the letter A marks the startin&+point of the d!cts that e'tend from the aorta# the letters EE mark the heads of the testicles and the d!cts descendin& there!nto# the d!cts e'tendin& from these alon& the testicles are marked //# the d!cts t!rnin& back in which is the white fl!id are marked BB# the penis D# the bladder 7# and the testicles FF$ ,By the way when the testicles are c!t off or remo"ed the d!cts draw !pwards by contraction$ /oreo"er when male animals are yo!n& their owner sometimes destroys the or&an in them by attrition# sometimes they castrate them at a later period$ And I may here add that a b!ll has been known to ser"e a cow immediately after castration and act!ally to impre&nate her$%o m!ch then for the properties of testicles in male animals$ In female animals f!rnished with a womb the womb is not in all cases the same in form or endowed with the same properties b!t both in the "i"ipara and the o"ipara &reat di"ersities present themsel"es$ In all creat!res that ha"e the womb close to the &enitals the womb is two+horned and one horn lies to the ri&ht+hand side and the other to the left# its commencement howe"er is sin&le and so is the orifice resemblin& in the case of the most n!mero!s and lar&est animals a t!be composed of m!ch flesh and &ristle$ Of these parts one is termed the hystera or delphys whence is deri"ed the word adelphos and the other part the t!be or orifice is termed metra$ In all biped or *!adr!ped "i"ipara the womb is in all cases below the midriff as in man the do& the pi& the horse and the o'# the same is the case also in all horned animals$ At the e'tremity of the so+called ceratia or horns the wombs of most animals ha"e a twist or con"ol!tion$ In the case of those o"ipara that lay e&&s e'ternally the wombs are not in all cases similarly sit!ated$ Th!s the wombs of birds are close to the midriff and the wombs of fishes down below )!st like the wombs of biped and *!adr!ped "i"ipara only that in the case of the fish the wombs are delicately formed membrano!s and elon&ated# so m!ch so that in e'tremely small fish each of the two bif!rcated parts looks like a sin&le e&& and those fishes whose e&& is described as cr!mblin& wo!ld appear to ha"e inside them a pair of e&&s whereas in reality each of the two sides consists not of one b!t of many e&&s and this acco!nts for their breakin& !p into so many particles$ The womb of birds has the lower and t!b!lar portion fleshy and firm and the part close to the midriff membrano!s and e'ceedin&ly thin and fine: so thin and fine that the e&&s mi&ht seem to be o!tside the womb alto&ether$ In the lar&er birds the membrane is more distinctly "isible and if inflated thro!&h the t!be lifts and swells o!t# in the smaller birds all these parts are more indistinct$ The properties of the womb are similar in o"iparo!s *!adr!peds as the tortoise the li2ard the fro& and the like# for the t!be below is sin&le and fleshy and the cleft portion with the e&&s is at the top close to the midriff$ With animals de"oid of feet that are internally o"iparo!s and "i"iparo!s e'ternally as is the case with the do&fish and the other so+called %elachians ,and by this title we desi&nate s!ch creat!res destit!te of feet and f!rnished with &ills as are "i"iparo!s- with these animals the womb is bif!rcate and be&innin& down below it e'tends as far as the midriff as in the case of birds$ There is also a narrow part between the two horns r!nnin& !p as far as the midriff and the e&&s are en&endered here and abo"e at the ori&in of the midriff# afterwards they pass into the wider space and t!rn from e&&s into yo!n& animals$ 9owe"er the differences in respect to the wombs of these fishes as compared with others of their own species or with fishes in &eneral wo!ld be more satisfactorily st!died in their "ario!s forms in specimens !nder dissection$

The members of the serpent &en!s also present di"er&encies either when compared with the abo"e+ mentioned creat!res or with one another$ %erpents as a r!le are o"iparo!s the "iper bein& the only "i"iparo!s member of the &en!s$ The "iper is pre"io!sly to e'ternal part!rition o"iparo!s internally# and owin& to this perc!liarity the properties of the womb in the "iper are similar to those of the womb in the selachians$ The womb of the serpent is lon& in keepin& with the body and startin& below from a sin&le d!ct e'tends contin!o!sly on both sides of the spine so as to &i"e the impression of th!s bein& a separate d!ct on each side of the spine !ntil it reaches the midriff where the e&&s are en&endered in a row# and these e&&s are laid not one by one b!t all str!n& to&ether$ ,And all animals that are "i"iparo!s both internally and e'ternally ha"e the womb sit!ated abo"e the stomach and all the o"ipara !nderneath near to the loin$ Animals that are "i"iparo!s e'ternally and internally o"iparo!s present an intermediate arran&ement# for the !nderneath portion of the womb in which the e&&s are is placed near to the loin b!t the part abo!t the orifice is abo"e the &!t$F!rther there is the followin& di"ersity obser"able in wombs as compared with one another: namely that the females of horned nonambidental animals are f!rnished with cotyledons in the womb when they are pre&nant and s!ch is the case amon& ambidentals with the hare the mo!se and the bat# whereas all other animals that are ambidental "i"iparo!s and f!rnished with feet ha"e the womb *!ite smooth and in their case the attachment of the embryo is to the womb itself and not to any cotyledon inside it$ The parts then in animals that are not homo&eneo!s with themsel"es and !niform in their te't!re both parts e'ternal and parts internal ha"e the properties abo"e assi&ned to them$ 3 In san&!ineo!s animals the homo&eneo!s or !niform part most !ni"ersally fo!nd is the blood and its habitat the "ein# ne't in de&ree of !ni"ersality their analo&!es lymph and fibre and that which chiefly constit!tes the frame of animals flesh and whatsoe"er in the se"eral parts is analo&o!s to flesh# then bone and parts that are analo&o!s to bone as fish+bone and &ristle# and then a&ain skin membrane sinew hair nails and whate"er corresponds to these# and f!rthermore fat s!et and the e'cretions: and the e'cretions are d!n& phle&m yellow bile and black bile$ 4ow as the nat!re of blood and the nat!re of the "eins ha"e all the appearance of bein& primiti"e we m!st disc!ss their properties first of all and all the more as some pre"io!s writers ha"e treated them "ery !nsatisfactorily$ And the ca!se of the i&norance th!s manifested is the e'treme diffic!lty e'perienced in the way of obser"ation$ For in the dead bodies of animals the nat!re of the chief "eins is !ndisco"erable owin& to the fact that they collapse at once when the blood lea"es them# for the blood po!rs o!t of them in a stream like li*!id o!t of a "essel since there is no blood separately sit!ated by itself e'cept a little in the heart b!t it is all lod&ed in the "eins$ In li"in& animals it is impossible to inspect these parts for of their "ery nat!re they are sit!ated inside the body and o!t of si&ht$ For this reason anatomists who ha"e carried on their in"esti&ations on dead bodies in the dissectin& room ha"e failed to disco"er the chief roots of the "eins while those who ha"e narrowly inspected bodies of li"in& men red!ced to e'treme

atten!ation ha"e arri"ed at concl!sions re&ardin& the ori&in of the "eins from the manifestations "isible e'ternally$ Of these in"esti&ators %yennesis the physician of .ypr!s writes as follows:+ (The bi& "eins r!n th!s:+from the na"el across the loins alon& the back past the l!n& in !nder the breasts# one from ri&ht to left and the other from left to ri&ht# that from the left thro!&h the li"er to the kidney and the testicle that from the ri&ht to the spleen and kidney and testicle and from thence to the penis$ Dio&enes of Apollonia writes th!s:+ (The "eins in man are as follows:+There are two "eins pre+eminent in ma&nit!de$ These e'tend thro!&h the belly alon& the backbone one to ri&ht one to left# either one to the le& on its own side and !pwards to the head past the collar bones thro!&h the throat$ From these "eins e'tend all o"er the body from that on the ri&ht hand to the ri&ht side and from that on the left hand to the left side# the most important ones two in n!mber to the heart in the re&ion of the backbone# other two a little hi&her !p thro!&h the chest in !nderneath the armpit each to the hand on its side: of these two one bein& termed the "ein splenitis and the other the "ein hepatitis$ 7ach of the pair splits at its e'tremity# the one branches in the direction of the th!mb and the other in the direction of the palm# and from these r!n off a n!mber of min!te "eins branchin& off to the fin&ers and to all parts of the hand$ Other "eins more min!te e'tend from the main "eins# from that on the ri&ht towards the li"er from that on the left towards the spleen and the kidneys$ The "eins that r!n to the le&s split at the )!nct!re of the le&s with the tr!nk and e'tend ri&ht down the thi&h$ The lar&est of these &oes down the thi&h at the back of it and can be discerned and traced as a bi& one# the second one r!ns inside the thi&h not *!ite as bi& as the one )!st mentioned$ After this they pass on alon& the knee to the shin and the foot ,as the !pper "eins were described as passin& towards the hands- and arri"e at the sole of the foot and from thence contin!e to the toes$ /oreo"er many delicate "eins separate off from the &reat "eins towards the stomach and towards the ribs$ (The "eins that r!n thro!&h the throat to the head can be discerned and traced in the neck as lar&e ones# and from each one of the two where it terminates there branch off a n!mber of "eins to the head# some from the ri&ht side towards the left and some from the left side towards the ri&ht# and the two "eins terminate near to each of the two ears$ There is another pair of "eins in the neck r!nnin& alon& the bi& "ein on either side sli&htly less in si2e than the pair )!st spoken of and with these the &reater part of the "eins in the head are connected$ This other pair r!ns thro!&h the throat inside# and from either one of the two there e'tend "eins in !nderneath the sho!lder blade and towards the hands# and these appear alon&side the "eins splenitis and hepatitis as another pair of "eins smaller in si2e$ When there is a pain near the s!rface of the body the physician lances these two latter "eins# b!t when the pain is within and in the re&ion of the stomach he lances the "eins splenitis and hepatitis$ And from these other "eins depart to r!n below the breasts$ (There is also another pair r!nnin& on each side thro!&h the spinal marrow to the testicles thin and delicate$ There is f!rther a pair r!nnin& a little !nderneath the c!ticle thro!&h the flesh to the kidneys and these with men terminate at the testicle and with women at the womb$ These "eins are termed the spermatic "eins$ The "eins that lea"e the stomach are comparati"ely broad )!st as they lea"e# b!t they become &rad!ally thinner !ntil they chan&e o"er from ri&ht to left and from left to ri&ht$ (Blood is thickest when it is imbibed by the fleshy parts# when it is transmitted to the or&ans abo"e+ mentioned it becomes thin warm and frothy$

5 %!ch are the acco!nts &i"en by %yennesis and Dio&enes$ Aolyb!s writes to the followin& effect:+ (There are fo!r pairs of "eins$ The first e'tends from the back of the head thro!&h the neck on the o!tside past the backbone on either side !ntil it reaches the loins and passes on to the le&s after which it &oes on thro!&h the shins to the o!ter side of the ankles and on to the feet$ And it is on this acco!nt that s!r&eons for pains in the back and loin bleed in the ham and in the o!ter side of the ankle$ Another pair of "eins r!ns from the head past ears thro!&h the neck# which "eins are termed the )!&!lar "eins$ This pair &oes on inside alon& the backbone past the m!scles of the loins on to the testicles and onwards to the thi&hs and thro!&h the inside of the hams and thro!&h the shins down to the inside of the ankles and to the feet# and for this reason s!r&eons for pains in the m!scles of the loins and in the testicles bleed on the hams and the inner side of the ankles$ The third pair e'tends from the temples thro!&h the neck in !nderneath the sho!lder+blades into the l!n&# those from ri&ht to left &oin& in !nderneath the breast and on to the spleen and the kidney# those from left to ri&ht r!nnin& from the l!n& in !nderneath the breast and into the li"er and the kidney# and both terminate in the f!ndament$ The fo!rth pair e'tend from the front part of the head and the eyes in !nderneath the neck and the collar+bones# from thence they stretch on thro!&h the !pper part of the !pper arms to the elbows and then thro!&h the fore+arms on to the wrists and the )ointin&s of the fin&ers and also thro!&h the lower part of the !pper+arms to the armpits and so on keepin& abo"e the ribs !ntil one of the pair reaches the spleen and the other reaches the li"er# and after this they both pass o"er the stomach and terminate at the penis$ The abo"e *!otations s!m !p pretty well the statements of all pre"io!s writers$ F!rthermore there are some writers on 4at!ral 9istory who ha"e not "ent!red to lay down the law in s!ch precise terms as re&ards the "eins b!t who all alike a&ree in assi&nin& the head and the brain as the startin&+point of the "eins$ And in this opinion they are mistaken$ The in"esti&ation of s!ch a s!b)ect as has been remarked is one fra!&ht with diffic!lties# b!t if any one be keenly interested in the matter his best plan will be to allow his animals to star"e to emaciation then to stran&le them on a s!dden and there!pon to prosec!te his in"esti&ations$ We now proceed to &i"e partic!lars re&ardin& the properties and f!nctions of the "eins$ There are two blood+"essels in the thora' by the backbone and lyin& to its inner side# and of these two the lar&er one is sit!ated to the front and the lesser one is to the rear of it# and the lar&er is sit!ated rather to the ri&ht hand side of the body and the lesser one to the left# and by some this "ein is termed the (aorta from the fact that e"en in dead bodies part of it is obser"ed to be f!ll of air$ These blood+"essels ha"e their ori&ins in the heart for they tra"erse the other "iscera in whate"er direction they happen to r!n witho!t in any way losin& their distincti"e characteristic as blood+ "essels whereas the heart is as it were a part of them ,and that too more in respect to the frontward and lar&er one of the two- owin& to the fact that these two "eins are abo"e and below with the heart lyin& midway$ The heart in all animals has ca"ities inside it$ In the case of the smaller animals e"en the lar&est of the chambers is scarcely discernible# the second lar&er is scarcely discernible in animals of medi!m si2e# b!t in the lar&est animals all three chambers are distinctly seen$ In the heart then ,with its pointed end directed frontwards as has been obser"ed- the lar&est of the three chambers is on the ri&ht+hand side and hi&hest !p# the least one is on the left+hand side# and the medi!m+si2ed one lies

in betwi't the other two# and the lar&est one of the three chambers is a &reat deal lar&er than either of the two others$ All three howe"er are connected with passa&es leadin& in the direction of the l!n& b!t all these comm!nications are indistinctly discernible by reason of their min!teness e'cept one$ The &reat blood+"essel then is attached to the bi&&est of the three chambers the one that lies !ppermost and on the ri&ht+hand side# it then e'tends ri&ht thro!&h the chamber comin& o!t as blood+"essel a&ain# )!st as tho!&h the ca"ity of the heart were a part of the "essel in which the blood broadens its channel as a ri"er that widens o!t in a lake$ The aorta is attached to the middle chamber# only by the way it is connected with it by m!ch narrower pipe$ The &reat blood+"essel then passes thro!&h the heart ,and r!ns from the heart into the aorta-$ The &reat "essel looks as tho!&h made of membrane or skin while the aorta is narrower than it and is "ery sinewy# and as it stretches away to the head and to the lower parts it becomes e'ceedin&ly narrow and sinewy$ First of all then !pwards from the heart there stretches a part of the &reat blood+"essel towards the l!n& and the attachment of the aorta a part consistin& of a lar&e !ndi"ided "essel$ B!t there split off from it two parts# one towards the l!n& and the other towards the backbone and the last "ertebra of the neck$ The "essel then that e'tends to the l!n& as the l!n& itself is d!plicate di"ides at first into two# and then e'tends alon& by e"ery pipe and e"ery perforation &reater alon& the &reater ones lesser alon& the less so contin!o!sly that it is impossible to discern a sin&le part wherein there is not perforation and "ein# for the e'tremities are indistin&!ishable from their min!teness and in point of fact the whole l!n& appears to be filled with blood$ The branches of the blood+"essels lie abo"e the t!bes that e'tend from the windpipe$ And that "essel which e'tends to the "ertebra of the neck and the backbone stretches back a&ain alon& the backbone# as 9omer represents in the lines:+ ,Antiloch!s as Thoon t!rned him ro!ndTranspiercd his back with a dishonest wo!nd# The hollow "ein that to the neck e'tends Alon& the chine the ea&er )a"elin rends$ From this "essel there e'tend small blood+"essels at each rib and each "ertebra# and at the "ertebra abo"e the kidneys the "essel bif!rcates$ And in the abo"e way the parts branch off from the &reat blood+"essel$ B!t !p abo"e all these from that part which is connected with the heart the entire "ein branches off in two directions$ For its branches e'tend to the sides and to the collarbones and then pass on in men thro!&h the armpits to the arms in *!adr!peds to the forele&s in birds to the win&s and in fishes to the !pper or pectoral fins$ ,%ee dia&ram$- The tr!nks of these "eins where they first branch off are called the ()!&!lar "eins# and where they branch off to the neck the &reat "ein r!n alon&side the windpipe# and occasionally if these "eins are pressed e'ternally men tho!&h not act!ally choked become insensible sh!t their eyes and fall flat on the &ro!nd$ 7'tendin& in the way described and keepin& the windpipe in betwi't them they pass on !ntil they reach the ears at the )!nction of the lower )aw with the sk!ll$ 9ence a&ain they branch off into fo!r "eins of which

one bends back and descends thro!&h the neck and the sho!lder and meets the pre"io!s branchin& off of the "ein at the bend of the arm while the rest of it terminates at the hand and fin&ers$ ,%ee dia&ram$7ach "ein of the other pair stretches from the re&ion of the ear to the brain and branches off in a n!mber of fine and delicate "eins into the so+called menin' or membrane which s!rro!nds the brain$ The brain itself in all animals is destit!te of blood and no "ein &reat or small holds its co!rse therein$ B!t of the remainin& "eins that branch off from the last mentioned "ein some en"elop the head others close their co!rses in the or&ans of sense and at the roots of the teeth in "eins e'ceedin&ly fine and min!te$ 6 And in like manner the parts of the lesser one of the two chief blood+"essels desi&nated the aorta branch off accompanyin& the branches from the bi& "ein# only that in re&ard to the aorta the passa&es are less in si2e and the branches "ery considerably less than are those of the &reat "ein$ %o m!ch for the "eins as obser"ed in the re&ions abo"e the heart$ The part of the &reat "ein that lies !nderneath the heart e'tends freely s!spended ri&ht thro!&h the midriff and is !nited both to the aorta and the backbone by slack membrano!s comm!nications$ From it one "ein short and wide e'tends thro!&h the li"er and from it a n!mber of min!te "eins branch off into the li"er and disappear$ From the "ein that passes thro!&h the li"er two branches separate off of which one terminates in the diaphra&m or so+called midriff and the other r!ns !p a&ain thro!&h the armpit into the ri&ht arm and !nites with the other "eins at the inside of the bend of the arm# and it is in conse*!ence of this local conne'ion that when the s!r&eon opens this "ein in the forearm the patient is relie"ed of certain pains in the li"er# and from the left+hand side of it there e'tends a short b!t thick "ein to the spleen and the little "eins branchin& off it disappear in that or&an$ Another part branches off from the left+hand side of the &reat "ein and ascends by a co!rse similar to the co!rse recently described into the left arm# only that the ascendin& "ein in the one case is the "ein that tra"erses the li"er while in this case it is distinct from the "ein that r!ns into the spleen$ A&ain other "eins branch off from the bi& "ein# one to the oment!m and another to the pancreas from which "ein r!n a n!mber of "eins thro!&h the mesentery$ All these "eins coalesce in a sin&le lar&e "ein alon& the entire &!t and stomach to the oesopha&!s# abo!t these parts there is a &reat ramification of branch "eins$ As far as the kidneys each of the two remainin& !ndi"ided the aorta and the bi& "ein e'tend# and here they &et more closely attached to the backbone and branch off each of the two into a A shape and the bi& "ein &ets to the rear of the aorta$ B!t the chief attachment of the aorta to the backbone takes place in the re&ion of the heart# and the attachment is effected by means of min!te and sinewy "essels$ The aorta )!st as it draws off from the heart is a t!be of considerable "ol!me b!t as it ad"ances in its co!rse it &ets narrower and more sinewy$ And from the aorta there e'tend "eins to the mesentery )!st like the "eins that e'tend thither from the bi& "ein only that the branches in the case of the aorta are considerably less in ma&nit!de# they are indeed narrow and fibrillar and they end in delicate hollow fibre+like "einlets$ There is no "essel that r!ns from the aorta into the li"er or the spleen$ From each of the two &reat blood+"essels there e'tend branches to each of the two flanks and both branches fasten on to the bone$ ;essels also e'tend to the kidneys from the bi& "ein and the aorta# only that they do not open into the ca"ity of the or&an b!t their ramifications penetrate into its

s!bstance$ From the aorta r!n two other d!cts to the bladder firm and contin!o!s# and there are other d!cts from the hollow of the kidneys in no way comm!nicatin& with the bi& "ein$ From the centre of each of the two kidneys sprin&s a hollow sinewy "ein r!nnin& alon& the backbone ri&ht thro!&h the loins# by and by each of the two "eins first disappears in its own flank and soon afterwards reappears stretchin& in the direction of the flank$ The e'tremities of these attach to the bladder and also in the male to the penis and in the female to the womb$ From the bi& "ein no "ein e'tends to the womb b!t the or&an is connected with the aorta by "eins n!mero!s and closely packed$ F!rthermore from the aorta and the &reat "ein at the points of di"arication there branch off other "eins$ %ome of these r!n to the &roins+lar&e hollow "eins+and then pass on down thro!&h the le&s and terminate in the feet and toes$ And a&ain another set r!n thro!&h the &roins and the thi&hs cross+&arter fashion from ri&ht to left and from left to ri&ht and !nite in the hams with the other "eins$ In the abo"e description we ha"e thrown li&ht !pon the co!rse of the "eins and their points of depart!re$ In all san&!ineo!s animals the case stands as here set forth in re&ard to the points of depart!re and the co!rses of the chief "eins$ B!t the description does not hold e*!ally &ood for the entire "ein+ system in all these animals$ For in point of fact the or&ans are not identically sit!ated in them all# and what is more some animals are f!rnished with or&ans of which other animals are destit!te$ At the same time while the description so far holds &ood the proof of its acc!racy is not e*!ally easy in all cases b!t is easiest in the case of animals of considerable ma&nit!de and s!pplied ab!ndantly with blood$ For in little animals and those scantily s!pplied with blood either from nat!ral and inherent ca!ses or from a pre"alence of fat in the body thoro!&h acc!racy in in"esti&ation is not e*!ally attainable# for in the latter of these creat!res the passa&es &et clo&&ed like water+channels choked with sl!sh# and the others ha"e a few min!te fibres to ser"e instead of "eins$ B!t in all cases the bi& "ein is plainly discernible e"en in creat!res of insi&nificant si2e$ 8 The sinews of animals ha"e the followin& properties$ For these also the point of ori&in is the heart# for the heart has sinews within itself in the lar&est of its three chambers and the aorta is a sinew+ like "ein# in fact at its e'tremity it is act!ally a sinew for it is there no lon&er hollow and is stretched like the sinews where they terminate at the )ointin&s of the bones$ Be it remembered howe"er that the sinews do not proceed in !nbroken se*!ence from one point of ori&in as do the blood+"essels$ For the "eins ha"e the shape of the entire body like a sketch of a mannikin# in s!ch a way that the whole frame seems to be filled !p with little "eins in atten!ated s!b)ects+for the space occ!pied by flesh in fat indi"id!als is filled with little "eins in thin ones+whereas the sinews are distrib!ted abo!t the )oints and the fle'!res of the bones$ 4ow if the sinews were deri"ed in !nbroken se*!ence from a common point of depart!re this contin!ity wo!ld be discernible in atten!ated specimens$ In the ham or the part of the frame bro!&ht into f!ll play in the effort of leapin& is an important system of sinews# and another sinew a do!ble one is that called (the tendon and others are those bro!&ht into play when a &reat effort of physical stren&th is re*!ired# that is to say the epitonos or back+stay and the sho!lder+sinews$ Other sinews de"oid of specific desi&nation are sit!ated in the

re&ion of the fle'!res of the bones# for all the bones that are attached to one another are bo!nd to&ether by sinews and a &reat *!antity of sinews are placed in the nei&hbo!rhood of all the bones$ Only by the way in the head there is no sinew# b!t the head is held to&ether by the s!t!res of the bones$ %inew is fissile len&thwise b!t crosswise it is not easily broken b!t admits of a considerable amo!nt of hard tension$ In conne'ion with sinews a li*!id m!c!s is de"eloped white and &l!tino!s and the or&an in fact is s!stained by it and appears to be s!bstantially composed of it$ 4ow "ein may be s!bmitted to the act!al ca!tery b!t sinew when s!bmitted to s!ch action shri"els !p alto&ether# and if sinews be c!t as!nder the se"ered parts will not a&ain cohere$ A feelin& of n!mbness is incidental only to parts of the frame where sinew is sit!ated$ There is a "ery e'tensi"e system of sinews connected se"erally with the feet the hands the ribs the sho!lder+blades the neck and the arms$ All animals s!pplied with blood are f!rnished with sinews# b!t in the case of animals that ha"e no fle'!res to their limbs b!t are in fact destit!te of either feet or hands the sinews are fine and inconspic!o!s# and so as mi&ht ha"e been anticipated the sinews in the fish are chiefly discernible in conne'ion with the fin$ : The ines ,or fibro!s connecti"e tiss!e- are a somethin& intermediate between sinew and "ein$ %ome of them are s!pplied with fl!id the lymph# and they pass from sinew to "ein and from "ein to sinew$ There is another kind of ines or fibre that is fo!nd in blood b!t not in the blood of all animals alike$ If this fibre be left in the blood the blood will coa&!late# if it be remo"ed or e'tracted the blood is fo!nd to be incapable of coa&!lation$ While howe"er this fibro!s matter is fo!nd in the blood of the &reat ma)ority of animals it is not fo!nd in all$ For instance we fail to find it in the blood of the deer the roe the antelope and some other animals# and owin& to this deficiency of the fibro!s tiss!e the blood of these animals does not coa&!late to the e'tent obser"ed in the blood of other animals$ The blood of the deer coa&!lates to abo!t the same e'tent as that of the hare: that is to the blood in either case coa&!lates b!t not into a stiff or )elly+like s!bstance like the blood of ordinary animals b!t only into a flaccid consistency like that of milk which is not s!b)ected to the action of rennet$ The blood of the antelope admits of a firmer consistency in coa&!lation# for in this respect it resembles or only comes a little short of the blood of sheep$ %!ch are the properties of "ein sinew and fibro!s tiss!e$ < The bones in animals are all connected with one sin&le bone and are interconnected like the "eins in one !nbroken se*!ence# and there is no instance of a bone standin& apart by itself$ In all animals f!rnished with bones the spine or backbone is the point of ori&in for the entire osseo!s system$ The spine is composed of "ertebrae and it e'tends from the head down to the loins$ The "ertebrae are all perforated and abo"e the bony portion of the head is connected with the topmost "ertebrae and is desi&nated the (sk!ll$ And the serrated lines on the sk!ll are termed (s!t!res$ The sk!ll is not formed alike in all animals$ In some animals the sk!ll consists of one sin&le !ndi"ided bone as in the case of the do&# in others it is composite in str!ct!re as in man# and in the h!man species the s!t!re is circ!lar in the female while in the male it is made !p of three separate s!t!res !nitin& abo"e in three+corner fashion# and instances ha"e been known of a mans sk!ll bein& de"oid of s!t!re alto&ether$ The sk!ll is composed not of fo!r bones b!t of si'# two of these

are in the re&ion of the ears small in comparison with the other fo!r$ From the sk!ll e'tend the )aws constit!ted of bone$ ,Animals in &eneral mo"e the lower )aw# the ri"er crocodile is the only animal that mo"es the !pper one$- In the )aws is the tooth+system# and the teeth are constit!ted of bone and are half+way perforated# and the bone in *!estion is the only kind of bone which it is fo!nd impossible to &ra"e with a &ra"in& tool$ On the !pper part of the co!rse of the backbone are the collar+bones and the ribs$ The chest rests on ribs# and these ribs meet to&ether whereas the others do not# for no animal has bone in the re&ion of the stomach$ Then come the sho!lder+bones or blade+bones and the arm+bones connected with these and the bones in the hands connected with the bones of the arms$ With animals that ha"e forele&s the osseo!s system of the forele& resembles that of the arm in man$ Below the le"el of the backbone after the ha!nch+bone comes the hip+socket# then the le&+bones those in the thi&hs and those in the shins which are termed colenes or limb+bones a part of which is the ankle while a part of the same is the so+called (plectr!m in those creat!res that ha"e an ankle# and connected with these bones are the bones in the feet$ 4ow with all animals that are s!pplied with blood and f!rnished with feet and are at the same time "i"iparo!s the bones do not differ &reatly one from another b!t only in the way of relati"e hardness softness or ma&nit!de$ A f!rther difference by the way is that in one and the same animal certain bones are s!pplied with marrow while others are destit!te of it$ %ome animals mi&ht on cas!al obser"ation appear to ha"e no marrow whatsoe"er in their bones: as is the case with the lion owin& to his ha"in& marrow only in small amo!nt poor and thin and in "ery few bones# for marrow is fo!nd in his thi&h and armbones$ The bones of the lion are e'ceptionally hard# so hard in fact that if they are r!bbed hard a&ainst one another they emit sparks like flint+stones$ The dolphin has bones and not fish+spine$ Of the other animals s!pplied with blood some differ b!t little as is the case with birds# others ha"e systems analo&o!s as fishes# for "i"iparo!s fishes s!ch as the cartila&ino!s species are &ristle+spined while the o"ipara ha"e a spine which corresponds to the backbone in *!adr!peds$ This e'ceptional property has been obser"ed in fishes that in some of them there are fo!nd delicate spines scattered here and there thro!&ho!t the fleshy parts$ The serpent is similarly constr!cted to the fish# in other words his backbone is spino!s$ With o"iparo!s *!adr!peds the skeleton of the lar&er ones is more or less osseo!s# of the smaller ones more or less spino!s$ B!t all san&!ineo!s animals ha"e a backbone of either one kind or other: that is composed either of bone or of spine$ The other portions of the skeleton are fo!nd in some animals and not fo!nd in others b!t the presence or the absence of this and that part carries with it as a matter of co!rse the presence or the absence of the bones or the spines correspondin& to this or that part$ For animals that are destit!te of arms and le&s cannot be f!rnished with limb+bones: and in like manner with animals that ha"e the same parts b!t yet ha"e them !nlike in form# for in these animals the correspondin& bones differ from one another in the way of relati"e e'cess or relati"e defect or in the way of analo&y takin& the place of identity$ %o m!ch for the osseo!s or spino!s systems in animals$ = 1ristle is of the same nat!re as bone b!t differs from it in the way of relati"e e'cess or relati"e defect$ And )!st like bone cartila&e also if c!t does not &row a&ain$ In terrestrial "i"iparo!s san&!inea the &ristle formations are !nperforated and there is no marrow in them as there is in bones# in the selachia howe"erGfor be it obser"ed they are &ristle+spinedGthere is fo!nd in the

case of the flat space in the re&ion of the backbone a &ristle+like s!bstance analo&o!s to bone and in this &ristle+like s!bstance there is a li*!id resemblin& marrow$ In "i"iparo!s animals f!rnished with feet &ristle formations are fo!nd in the re&ion of the ears in the nostrils and aro!nd certain e'tremities of the bones$ > F!rthermore there are parts of other kinds neither identical with nor alto&ether di"erse from the parts abo"e en!merated: s!ch as nails hoo"es claws and horns# and also by the way beaks s!ch as birds are f!rnished with+all in the se"eral animals that are f!rnished therewithal$ All these parts are fle'ible and fissile# b!t bone is neither fle'ible nor fissile b!t fran&ible$ And the colo!rs of horns and nails and claw and hoof follow the colo!r of the skin and the hair$ For accordin& as the skin of an animal is black or white or of medi!m h!e so are the horns the claws or the hoo"es as the case may be of h!e to match$ And it is the same with nails$ The teeth howe"er follow after the bones$ Th!s in black men s!ch as the Aethiopians and the like the teeth and bones are white b!t the nails are black like the whole of the skin$ 9orns in &eneral are hollow at their point of attachment to the bone which )!ts o!t from the head inside the horn b!t they ha"e a solid portion at the tip and they are simple and !ndi"ided in str!ct!re$ In the case of the sta& alone of all animals the horns are solid thro!&ho!t and ramify into branches ,or antlers-$ And whereas no other animal is known to shed its horns the deer sheds its horns ann!ally !nless it has been castrated# and with re&ard to the effects of castration in animals we shall ha"e m!ch to say hereafter$ 9orns attach rather to the skin than to the bone# which will acco!nt for the fact that there are fo!nd in Ahry&ia and elsewhere cattle that can mo"e their horns as freely as their ears$ Of animals f!rnished with nails+and by the way all animals ha"e nails that ha"e toes and toes that ha"e feet e'cept the elephant# and the elephant has toes !ndi"ided and sli&htly artic!lated b!t has no nails whatsoe"erGof animals f!rnished with nails some are strai&ht+nailed like man# others are crooked nailed as the lion amon& animals that walk and the ea&le amon& animals that fly$ 1@ The followin& are the properties of hair and of parts analo&o!s to hair and of skin or hide$ All "i"iparo!s animals f!rnished with feet ha"e hair# all o"iparo!s animals f!rnished with feet ha"e horn+like tessellates# fishes and fishes only ha"e scales+that is s!ch o"iparo!s fishes as ha"e the cr!mblin& e&& or roe$ For of the lanky fishes the con&er has no s!ch e&& nor the m!raena and the eel has no e&& at all$ The hair differs in the way of thickness and fineness and of len&th accordin& to the locality of the part in which it is fo!nd and accordin& to the *!ality of skin or hide on which it &rows$ For as a &eneral r!le the thicker the hide the harder and the thicker is the hair# and the hair is inclined to &row in ab!ndance and to a &reat len&th in localities of the bodies hollow and moist if the localities be fitted for the &rowth of hair at all$ The facts are similar in the case of animals whether coated with scales or with tessellates$ With soft+haired animals the hair &ets harder with &ood feedin& and with hard+haired or bristly animals it &ets softer and scantier from the same ca!se$ 9air differs in *!ality also accordin& to the relati"e heat or warmth of the locality: )!st as the hair in man is hard in warm places and soft in cold ones$ A&ain strai&ht hair is inclined to be soft and c!rly hair to be bristly$ 11

9air is nat!rally fissile and in this respect it differs in de&ree in di"erse animals$ In some animals the hair &oes on &rad!ally hardenin& into bristle !ntil it no lon&er resembles hair b!t spine as in the case of the hed&eho&$ And in like manner with the nails# for in some animals the nail differs as re&ards solidity in no way from bone$ Of all animals man has the most delicate skin: that is if we take into consideration his relati"e si2e$ In the skin or hide of all animals there is a m!co!s li*!id scanty in some animals and plentif!l in others as for instance in the hide of the o'# for men man!fact!re &l!e o!t of it$ ,And by the way in some cases &l!e is man!fact!red from fishes also$- The skin when c!t is in itself de"oid of sensation# and this is especially the case with the skin on the head owin& to there bein& no flesh between it and the sk!ll$ And where"er the skin is *!ite by itself if it be c!t as!nder it does not &row to&ether a&ain as is seen in the thin part of the )aw in the prep!ce and the eyelid$ In all animals the skin is one of the parts that e'tends contin!o!s and !nbroken and it comes to a stop only where the nat!ral d!cts po!r o!t their contents and at the mo!th and nails$ All san&!ineo!s animals then ha"e skin# b!t not all s!ch animals ha"e hair sa"e only !nder the circ!mstances described abo"e$ The hair chan&es its colo!r as animals &row old and in man it t!rns white or &rey$ With animals in &eneral the chan&e takes place b!t not "ery ob"io!sly or not so ob"io!sly as in the case of the horse$ 9air t!rns &rey from the point backwards to the roots$ B!t in the ma)ority of cases &rey hairs are white from the be&innin&# and this is a proof that &reyness of hair does not as some belie"e to be the case imply witherin& or decrepit!de for no part is bro!&ht into e'istence in a withered or decrepit condition$ In the er!pti"e malady called the white+sickness all the hairs &et &rey# and instances ha"e been known where the hair became &rey while the patients were ill of the malady whereas the &rey hairs shed off and black ones replaced them on their reco"ery$ ,9air is more apt to t!rn &rey when it is kept co"ered than when e'posed to the action of the o!ter air$- In men the hair o"er the temples is the first to t!rn &rey and the hair in the front &rows &rey sooner than the hair at the back# and the hair on the p!bes is the last to chan&e colo!r$ %ome hairs are con&enital others &row after the mat!rity of the animal# b!t this occ!rs in man only$ The con&enital hairs are on the head the eyelids and the eyebrows# of the later &rowths the hairs on the p!bes are the first to come then those !nder the armpits and thirdly those on the chin# for sin&!larly eno!&h the re&ions where con&enital &rowths and the s!bse*!ent &rowths are fo!nd are e*!al in n!mber$ The hair on the head &rows scanty and sheds o!t to a &reater e'tent and sooner than all the rest$ B!t this remark applies only to hair in front# for no man e"er &ets bald at the back of his head$ %moothness on the top of the head is termed (baldness b!t smoothness on the eyebrows is denoted by a special term which means (forehead+baldness# and neither of these conditions of baldness s!per"enes in a man !ntil he shall ha"e come !nder the infl!ence of se'!al passion$ For no boy e"er &ets bald no woman and no castrated man$ In fact if a man be castrated before reachin& p!berty the later &rowths of hair ne"er come at all# and if the operation take place s!bse*!ently the after&rowths and these only shed off# or rather two of the &rowths shed off b!t not that on the p!bes$ Women do not &row hairs on the chin# e'cept that a scanty beard &rows on some women after the monthly co!rses ha"e stopped# and similar phenomenon is obser"ed at times in priestesses in .aria b!t these cases are looked !pon as portento!s with re&ard to comin& e"ents$ The other after+ &rowths are fo!nd in women b!t more scanty and sparse$ /en and women are at times born

constit!tionally and con&enitally incapable of the after+&rowths# and indi"id!als that are destit!te e"en of the &rowth !pon the p!bes are constit!tionally impotent$ 9air as a r!le &rows more or less in len&th as the wearer &rows in a&e# chiefly the hair on the head then that in the beard and fine hair &rows lon&est of all$ With some people as they &row old the eyebrows &row thicker to s!ch an e'tent that they ha"e to be c!t off# and this &rowth is owin& to the fact that the eyebrows are sit!ated at a con)!nct!re of bones and these bones as a&e comes on draw apart and e'!de a &rad!al increase of moist!re or rhe!m$ The eyelashes do not &row in si2e b!t they shed when the wearer comes first !nder the infl!ence of se'!al feelin&s and shed all the *!icker as this infl!ence is the more powerf!l# and these are the last hairs to &row &rey$ 9airs if pl!cked o!t before mat!rity &row a&ain# b!t they do not &row a&ain if pl!cked o!t afterwards$ 7"ery hair is s!pplied with a m!co!s moist!re at its root and immediately after bein& pl!cked o!t it can lift li&ht articles if it to!ch them with this m!c!s$ Animals that admit of di"ersity of colo!r in the hair admit of a similar di"ersity to start with in the skin and in the c!ticle of the ton&!e$ In some cases amon& men the !pper lip and the chin is thickly co"ered with hair and in other cases these parts are smooth and the cheeks are hairy# and by the way smooth+chinned men are less inclined than bearded men to baldness$ The hair is inclined to &row in certain diseases especially in cons!mption and in old a&e and after death# and !nder these circ!mstances the hair hardens concomitantly with its &rowth and the same d!plicate phenomenon is obser"able in respect of the nails$ In the case of men of stron& se'!al passions the con&enital hairs shed the sooner while the hairs of the after+&rowths are the *!icker to come$ When men are afflicted with "aricose "eins they are less inclined to take on baldness# and if they be bald when they become th!s afflicted they ha"e a tendency to &et their hair a&ain$ If a hair be c!t it does not &row at the point of section# b!t it &ets lon&er by &rowin& !pward from below$ In fishes the scales &row harder and thicker with a&e and when the amimal &ets emaciated or is &rowin& old the scales &row harder$ In *!adr!peds as they &row old the hair in some and the wool in others &ets deeper b!t scantier in amo!nt: and the hoo"es or claws &et lar&er in si2e# and the same is the case with the beaks of birds$ The claws also increase in si2e as do also the nails$ 13 With re&ard to win&ed animals s!ch as birds no creat!re is liable to chan&e of colo!r by reason of a&e e'ceptin& the crane$ The win&s of this bird are ash+colo!red at first b!t as it &rows old the win&s &et black$ A&ain owin& to special climatic infl!ences as when !n!s!al frost pre"ails a chan&e is sometimes obser"ed to take place in birds whose pl!ma&e is of one !niform colo!r# th!s birds that ha"e d!sky or downri&ht black pl!ma&e t!rn white or &rey as the ra"en the sparrow and the swallow# b!t no case has e"er yet been known of a chan&e of colo!r from white to black$ ,F!rther most birds chan&e the colo!r of their pl!ma&e at different seasons of the year so m!ch so that a man i&norant of their habits mi&ht be mistaken as to their identity$- %ome animals chan&e the colo!r of their hair with a chan&e in their drinkin&+water for in some co!ntries the same species of animal is fo!nd white in one district and black in another$ And in re&ard to the commerce of the se'es water in many places is of s!ch pec!liar *!ality that rams if they ha"e interco!rse with the female after drinkin& it be&et black lambs as is the case with the water of the Asychr!s ,so+called from its coldness- a ri"er in the district of Assyritis in the .halcidic Aenins!la on the coast of

Thrace# and in Antandria there are two ri"ers of which one makes the lambs white and the other black$ The ri"er %camander also has the rep!tation of makin& lambs yellow and that is the reason they say why 9omer desi&nates it the (Hellow Ci"er$ Animals as a &eneral r!le ha"e no hair on their internal s!rfaces and in re&ard to their e'tremities they ha"e hair on the !pper b!t not on the lower side$ The hare or dasypod is the only animal known to ha"e hair inside its mo!th and !nderneath its feet$ F!rther the so+called mo!sewhale instead of teeth has hairs in its mo!th resemblin& pi&s bristles$ 9airs after bein& c!t &row at the bottom b!t not at the top# if feathers be c!t off they &row neither at top nor bottom b!t shed and fall o!t$ F!rther the bees win& will not &row a&ain after bein& pl!cked off nor will the win& of any creat!re that has !ndi"ided win&s$ 4either will the stin& &row a&ain if the bee lose it b!t the creat!re will die of the loss$ 15 In all san&!ineo!s animals membranes are fo!nd$ And membrane resembles a thin close+te't!red skin b!t its *!alities are different as it admits neither of clea"a&e nor of e'tension$ /embrane en"elops each one of the bones and each one of the "iscera both in the lar&er and the smaller animals# tho!&h in the smaller animals the membranes are indiscernible from their e'treme ten!ity and min!teness$ The lar&est of all the membranes are the two that s!rro!nd the brain and of these two the one that lines the bony sk!ll is stron&er and thicker than the one that en"elops the brain# ne't in order of ma&nit!de comes the membrane that encloses the heart$ If membrane be bared and c!t as!nder it will not &row to&ether a&ain and the bone th!s stripped of its membrane mortifies$ 16 The oment!m or ca!l by the way is membrane$ All san&!ineo!s animals are f!rnished with this or&an# b!t in some animals the or&an is s!pplied with fat and in others it is de"oid of it$ The oment!m has both its startin&+point and its attachment with ambidental "i"ipara in the centre of the stomach where the stomach has a kind of s!t!re# in non+ambidental "i"ipara it has its startin&+ point and attachment in the chief of the r!minatin& stomachs$ 18 The bladder also is of the nat!re of membrane b!t of membrane pec!liar in kind for it is e'tensile$ The or&an is not common to all animals b!t while it is fo!nd in all the "i"ipara the tortoise is the only o"iparo!s animal that is f!rnished therewithal$ The bladder like ordinary membrane if c!t as!nder will not &row to&ether a&ain !nless the section be )!st at the commencement of the !rethra: e'cept indeed in "ery rare cases for instances of healin& ha"e been known to occ!r$ After death the or&an passes no li*!id e'cretion# b!t in life in addition to the normal li*!id e'cretion it passes at times dry e'cretion also which t!rns into stones in the case of s!fferers from that malady$ Indeed instances ha"e been known of concretions in the bladder so shaped as closely to resemble cockleshells$ %!ch are the properties then of "ein sinew and skin of fibre and membrane of hair nail claw and hoof of horns of teeth of beak of &ristle of bones and of parts that are analo&o!s to any of the parts here en!merated$ 1:

Flesh and that which is by nat!re akin to it in san&!ineo!s animals is in all cases sit!ated in between the skin and the bone or the s!bstance analo&o!s to bone# for )!st as spine is a co!nterpart of bone so is the flesh+like s!bstance of animals that are constr!cted a spino!s system the co!nterpart of the flesh of animals constr!cted on an osseo!s one$ Flesh can be di"ided as!nder in any direction not len&thwise only as is the case with sinew and "ein$ When animals are s!b)ected to emaciation the flesh disappears and the creat!res become a mass of "eins and fibres# when they are o"er fed fat takes the place of flesh$ Where the flesh is ab!ndant in an animal its "eins are somewhat small and the blood abnormally red# the "iscera also and the stomach are dimin!ti"e# whereas with animals whose "eins are lar&e the blood is somewhat black the "iscera and the stomach are lar&e and the flesh is somewhat scanty$ And animals with small stomachs are disposed to take on flesh$ 1< A&ain fat and s!et differ from one another$ %!et is fran&ible in all directions and con&eals if s!b)ected to e'treme cold whereas fat can melt b!t cannot free2e or con&eal# and so!ps made of the flesh of animals s!pplied with fat do not con&eal or coa&!late as is fo!nd with horse+flesh and pork# b!t so!ps made from the flesh of animals s!pplied with s!et do coa&!late as is seen with m!tton and &oats flesh$ F!rther fat and s!et differ as to their localities: for fat is fo!nd between the skin and flesh b!t s!et is fo!nd only at the limit of the fleshy parts$ Also in animals s!pplied with fat the oment!m or ca!l is s!pplied with fat and it is s!pplied with s!et in animals s!pplied with s!et$ /oreo"er ambidental animals are s!pplied with fat and non+ambidentals with s!et$ Of the "iscera the li"er in some animals becomes fatty as amon& fishes is the case with the selachia by the meltin& of whose li"ers an oil is man!fact!red$ These cartila&ino!s fish themsel"es ha"e no free fat at all in conne'ion with the flesh or with the stomach$ The s!et in fish is fatty and does not solidify or con&eal$ All animals are f!rnished with fat either intermin&led with their flesh or apart$ %!ch as ha"e no free or separate fat are less fat than others in stomach and oment!m as the eel# for it has only a scanty s!pply of s!et abo!t the oment!m$ /ost animals take on fat in the belly especially s!ch animals as are little in motion$ The brains of animals s!pplied with fat are oily as in the pi&# of animals s!pplied with s!et parched and dry$ B!t it is abo!t the kidneys more than any other "iscera that animals are inclined to take on fat# and the ri&ht kidney is always less s!pplied with fat than the left kidney and be the two kidneys e"er so fat there is always a space de"oid of fat in between the two$ Animals s!pplied with s!et are specially apt to ha"e it abo!t the kidneys and especially the sheep# for this animal is apt to die from its kidneys bein& entirely en"eloped$ Fat or s!et abo!t the kidney is s!perind!ced by o"erfeedin& as is fo!nd at Beontini in %icily# and conse*!ently in this district they defer dri"in& o!t sheep to past!re !ntil the day is well on with the "iew of limitin& their food by c!rtailment of the ho!rs of past!re$ 1= The part aro!nd the p!pil of the eye is fatty in all animals and this part resembles s!et in all animals that possess s!ch a part and that are not f!rnished with hard eyes$ Fat animals whether male or female are more or less !nfitted for breedin& p!rposes$ Animals are disposed to take on fat more when old than when yo!n& and especially when they ha"e attained their f!ll breadth and their f!ll len&th and are be&innin& to &row depthways$ 1>

And now to proceed to the consideration of the blood$ In san&!ineo!s animals blood is the most !ni"ersal and the most indispensable part# and it is not an ac*!ired or ad"entitio!s part b!t it is a cons!bstantial part of all animals that are not corr!pt or morib!nd$ All blood is contained in a "asc!lar system to wit the "eins and is fo!nd nowhere else e'ceptin& in the heart$ Blood is not sensiti"e to to!ch in any animal any more than the e'cretions of the stomach# and the case is similar with the brain and the marrow$ When flesh is lacerated blood e'!des if the animal be ali"e and !nless the flesh be &an&rened$ Blood in a healthy condition is nat!rally sweet to the taste and red in colo!r blood that deteriorates from nat!ral decay or from disease more or less black$ Blood at its best before it !nder&oes deterioration from either nat!ral decay or from disease is neither "ery thick nor "ery thin$ In the li"in& animal it is always li*!id and warm b!t on iss!in& from the body it coa&!lates in all cases e'cept in the case of the deer the roe and the like animals# for as a &eneral r!le blood coa&!lates !nless the fibres be e'tracted$ B!lls blood is the *!ickest to coa&!late$ Animals that are internally and e'ternally "i"iparo!s are more ab!ndantly s!pplied with blood than the san&!ineo!s o"ipara$ Animals that are in &ood condition either from nat!ral ca!ses or from their health ha"in& been attended to ha"e the blood neither too ab!ndant+as creat!res )!st after drinkin& ha"e the li*!id inside them in ab!ndance+nor a&ain "ery scanty as is the case with animals when e'ceedin&ly fat$ For animals in this condition ha"e p!re blood b!t "ery little of it and the fatter an animal &ets the less becomes its s!pply of blood# for whatsoe"er is fat is destit!te of blood$ A fat s!bstance is incorr!ptible b!t blood and all thin&s containin& it corr!pt rapidly and this property characteri2es especially all parts connected with the bones$ Blood is finest and p!rest in man# and thickest and blackest in the b!ll and the ass of all "i"ipara$ In the lower and the hi&her parts of the body blood is thicker and blacker than in the central parts$ Blood beats or palpitates in the "eins of all animals alike all o"er their bodies and blood is the only li*!id that permeates the entire frames of li"in& animals witho!t e'ception and at all times as lon& as life lasts$ Blood is de"eloped first of all in the heart of animals before the body is differentiated as a whole$ If blood be remo"ed or if it escape in any considerable *!antity animals fall into a faint or swoon# if it be remo"ed or if it escape in an e'ceedin&ly lar&e *!antity they die$ If the blood &et e'ceedin&ly li*!id animals fall sick# for the blood then t!rns into somethin& like ichor or a li*!id so thin that it at times has been known to e'!de thro!&h the pores like sweat$ In some cases blood when iss!in& from the "eins does not coa&!late at all or only here and there$ Whilst animals are sleepin& the blood is less ab!ndantly s!pplied near the e'terior s!rfaces so that if the sleepin& creat!re be pricked with a pin the blood does not iss!e as copio!sly as it wo!ld if the creat!re were awake$ Blood is de"eloped o!t of ichor by coction and fat in like manner o!t of blood$ If the blood &et diseased haemorrhoids may ens!e in the nostril or at the an!s or the "eins may become "aricose$ Blood if it corr!pt in the body has a tendency to t!rn into p!s and p!s may t!rn into a solid concretion$ Blood in the female differs from that in the male for s!pposin& the male and female to be on a par as re&ards a&e and &eneral health the blood in the female is thicker and blacker than in the male# and with the female there is a comparati"e s!perab!ndance of it in the interior$ Of all female animals the female in man is the most richly s!pplied with blood and of all female animals the menstr!o!s dischar&es are the most copio!s in woman$ The blood of these dischar&es !nder disease t!rns into fl!'$ Apart from the menstr!al dischar&es the female in the h!man species is less s!b)ect to diseases of the blood than the male$

Women are seldom afflicted with "aricose "eins with haemorrhoids or with bleedin& at the nose and if any of these maladies s!per"ene the menses are imperfectly dischar&ed$ Blood differs in *!antity and appearance accordin& to a&e# in "ery yo!n& animals it resembles ichor and is ab!ndant in the old it is thick and black and scarce and in middle+a&ed animals its *!alities are intermediate$ In old animals the blood coa&!lates rapidly e"en blood at the s!rface of the body# b!t this is not the case with yo!n& animals$ Ichor is in fact nothin& else b!t !nconcocted blood: either blood that has not yet been concocted or that has become fl!id a&ain$ 3@ We now proceed to disc!ss the properties of marrow# for this is one of the li*!ids fo!nd in certain san&!ineo!s animals$ All the nat!ral li*!ids of the body are contained in "essels: as blood in "eins marrow in bones other moist!res in membrano!s str!ct!res of the skin In yo!n& animals the marrow is e'ceedin&ly san&!ineo!s b!t as animals &row old it becomes fatty in animals s!pplied with fat and s!et+like in animals with s!et$ All bones howe"er are not s!pplied with marrow b!t only the hollow ones and not all of these$ For of the bones in the lion some contain no marrow at all and some are only scantily s!pplied therewith# and that acco!nts as was pre"io!sly obser"ed for the statement made by certain writers that the lion is marrowless$ In the bones of pi&s it is fo!nd in small *!antities# and in the bones of certain animals of this species it is not fo!nd at all$ These li*!ids then are nearly always con&enital in animals b!t milk and sperm come at a later time$ Of these latter that which whensoe"er it is present is secreted in all cases ready+made is the milk# sperm on the other hand is not secreted o!t in all cases b!t in some only as in the case of what are desi&nated thori in fishes$ Whate"er animals ha"e milk ha"e it in their breasts$ All animals ha"e breasts that are internally and e'ternally "i"iparo!s as for instance all animals that ha"e hair as man and the horse# and the cetaceans as the dolphin the porpoise and the whale+for these animals ha"e breasts and are s!pplied with milk$ Animals that are o"iparo!s or only e'ternally "i"iparo!s ha"e neither breasts nor milk as the fish and the bird$ All milk is composed of a watery ser!m called (whey and a consistent s!bstance called c!rd ,or cheese-# and the thicker the milk the more ab!ndant the c!rd$ The milk then of non+ambidentals coa&!lates and that is why cheese is made of the milk of s!ch animals !nder domestication# b!t the milk of ambidentals does not coa&!late nor their fat either and the milk is thin and sweet$ 4ow the camels milk is the thinnest and that of the h!man species ne't after it and that of the ass ne't a&ain b!t cows milk is the thickest$ /ilk does not coa&!late !nder the infl!ence of cold b!t rather r!ns to whey# b!t !nder the infl!ence of heat it coa&!lates and thickens$ As a &eneral r!le milk only comes to animals in pre&nancy$ When the animal is pre&nant milk is fo!nd b!t for a while it is !nfit for !se and then after an inter"al of !sef!lness it becomes !nfit for !se a&ain$ In the case of female animals not pre&nant a small *!antity of milk has been proc!red by the employment of special food and cases ha"e been act!ally known where women ad"anced in years on bein& s!bmitted to the process of milkin& ha"e prod!ced milk and in some cases ha"e prod!ced it in s!fficient *!antities to enable them to s!ckle an infant$

The people that li"e on and abo!t /o!nt Oeta take s!ch she+&oats as decline the male and r!b their !dders hard with nettles to ca!se an irritation amo!ntin& to pain# here!pon they milk the animals proc!rin& at first a li*!id resemblin& blood then a li*!id mi'ed with p!r!lent matter and e"ent!ally milk as freely as from females s!bmittin& to the male$ As a &eneral r!le milk is not fo!nd in the male of man or of any other animal tho!&h from time to time it has been fo!nd in a male# for instance once in Bemnos a he+&oat was milked by its d!&s ,for it has by the way two d!&s close to the penis- and was milked to s!ch effect that cheese was made of the prod!ce and the same phenomenon was repeated in a male of its own be&ettin&$ %!ch occ!rrences howe"er are re&arded as s!pernat!ral and fra!&ht with omen as to f!t!rity and in point of fact when the Bemnian owner of the animal in*!ired of the oracle the &od informed him that the portent foreshadowed the ac*!isition of a fort!ne$ With some men after p!berty milk can be prod!ced by s*!ee2in& the breasts# cases ha"e been known where on their bein& s!b)ected to a prolon&ed milkin& process a considerable *!antity of milk has been ed!ced$ In milk there is a fatty element which in clotted milk &ets to resemble oil$ 1oats milk is mi'ed with sheeps milk in %icily and where"er sheeps milk is ab!ndant$ The best milk for clottin& is not only that where the cheese is most ab!ndant b!t that also where the cheese is driest$ 4ow some animals prod!ce not only eno!&h milk to rear their yo!n& b!t a s!perfl!o!s amo!nt for &eneral !se for cheese+makin& and for stora&e$ This is especially the case with the sheep and the &oat and ne't in de&ree with the cow$ /ares milk by the way and milk of the she+ass are mi'ed in with Ahry&ian cheese$ And there is more cheese in cows milk than in &oats milk# for &ra2iers tell !s that from nine &allons of &oats milk they can &et nineteen cheeses at an obol apiece and from the same amo!nt of cows milk thirty$ Other animals &i"e only eno!&h of milk to rear their yo!n& withal and no s!perfl!o!s amo!nt and none fitted for cheese+makin& as is the case with all animals that ha"e more than two breasts or d!&s# for with none of s!ch animals is milk prod!ced in s!perab!ndance or !sed for the man!fact!re of cheese$ The )!ice of the fi& and rennet are employed to c!rdle milk$ The fi&+)!ice is first s*!ee2ed o!t into wool# the wool is then washed and rinsed and the rinsin& p!t into a little milk and if this be mi'ed with other milk it c!rdles Cennet is a kind of milk for it is fo!nd in the stomach of the animal while it is yet s!cklin&$ 31 Cennet then consists of milk with an admi't!re of fire which comes from the nat!ral heat of the animal as the milk is concocted$ All r!minatin& animals prod!ce rennet and of ambidentals the hare$ Cennet impro"es in *!ality the lon&er it is kept# and cows rennet after bein& kept a &ood while and also hares rennet is &ood for diarrhoea and the best of all rennet is that of the yo!n& deer$ In milk+prod!cin& animals the comparati"e amo!nt of the yield "aries with the si2e of the animal and the di"ersities of past!ra&e$ For instance there are in Ahasis small cattle that in all cases &i"e a copio!s s!pply of milk and the lar&e cows in 7pir!s yield each one daily some nine &allons of milk and half of this from each pair of teats and the milker has to stand erect stoopin& forward a little as otherwise if he were seated he wo!ld be !nable to reach !p to the teats$ B!t with the e'ception of the ass all the *!adr!peds in 7pir!s are of lar&e si2e and relati"ely the cattle and the do&s are the lar&est$ 4ow lar&e animals re*!ire ab!ndant past!re and this co!ntry s!pplies )!st s!ch past!ra&e and also s!pplies di"erse past!re &ro!nds to s!it the di"erse seasons of the year$

The cattle are partic!larly lar&e and likewise the sheep of the so+called Ayrrhic breed the name bein& &i"en in hono!r of Ein& Ayrrh!s$ %ome past!re *!enches milk as /edian &rass or l!cerne and that especially in r!minants# other feedin& renders it copio!s as cytis!s and "etch# only by the way cytis!s in flower is not recommended as it has b!rnin& properties and "etch is not &ood for pre&nant kine as it ca!ses increased diffic!lty in part!rition$ 9owe"er beasts that ha"e access to &ood feedin& as they are benefited thereby in re&ard to pre&nancy so also bein& well no!rished prod!ce milk in plenty$ %ome of the le&!mino!s plants brin& milk in ab!ndance as for instance a lar&e feed of beans with the ewe the common she+&oat the cow and the small she+&oat# for this feedin& makes them drop their !dders$ And by the way the pointin& of the !dder to the &ro!nd before part!rition is a si&n of there bein& plenty of milk comin&$ /ilk remains for a lon& time in the female if she be kept from the male and be properly fed and of *!adr!peds this is especially tr!e of the ewe# for the ewe can be milked for ei&ht months$ As a &eneral r!le r!minatin& animals &i"e milk in ab!ndance and milk fitted for cheese man!fact!re$ In the nei&hbo!rhood of Torone cows r!n dry for a few days before cal"in& and ha"e milk all the rest of the time$ In women milk of a li"id colo!r is better than white for n!rsin& p!rposes# and swarthy women &i"e healthier milk than fair ones$ /ilk that is richest in cheese is the most n!tritio!s b!t milk with a scanty s!pply of cheese is the more wholesome for children$ 33 All san&!ineo!s animals e)ect sperm$ As to what and how it contrib!tes to &eneration these *!estions will be disc!ssed in another treatise$ Takin& the si2e of his body into acco!nt man emits more sperm than any other animal$ In hairy+coated animals the sperm is sticky b!t in other animals it is not so$ It is white in all cases and 9erodot!s is !nder a misapprehension when he states that the Aethiopians e)ect black sperm$ %perm iss!es from the body white and consistent if it be healthy and after *!ittin& the body becomes thin and black$ In frosty weather it does not coa&!late b!t &ets e'ceedin&ly thin and watery both in colo!r and consistency# b!t it coa&!lates and thickens !nder the infl!ence of heat$ If it be lon& in the womb before iss!in& o!t it comes more than !s!ally thick# and sometimes it comes o!t dry and compact$ %perm capable of impre&natin& or of fr!ctification sinks in water# sperm incapable Of prod!cin& that res!lt dissol"es away$ B!t there is no tr!th in what .tesias has written abo!t the sperm of the elephant$

Book IV
1 We ha"e now treated in re&ard to blooded animals of the parts they ha"e in common and of the parts pec!liar to this &en!s or that and of the parts both composite and simple whether witho!t or within$ We now proceed to treat of animals de"oid of blood$ These animals are di"ided into se"eral &enera$ One &en!s consists of so+called (moll!scs# and by the term (moll!sc we mean an animal that bein& de"oid of blood has its flesh+like s!bstance o!tside and any hard str!ct!re it may happen to ha"e inside+in this respect resemblin& the red+blooded animals s!ch as the &en!s of the c!ttle+fish$

Another &en!s is that of the malacostraca$ These are animals that ha"e their hard str!ct!re o!tside and their soft or fleshlike s!bstance inside and the hard s!bstance belon&in& to them has to be cr!shed rather than shattered# and to this &en!s belon&s the crawfish and the crab$ A third &en!s is that of the ostracoderms or (testaceans$ These are animals that ha"e their hard s!bstance o!tside and their flesh+like s!bstance within and their hard s!bstance can be shattered b!t not cr!shed# and to this &en!s belon& the snail and the oyster$ The fo!rth &en!s is that of insects# and this &en!s comprehends n!mero!s and dissimilar species$ Insects are creat!res that as the name implies ha"e nicks either on the belly or on the back or on both belly and back and ha"e no one part distinctly osseo!s and no one part distinctly fleshy b!t are thro!&ho!t a somethin& intermediate between bone and flesh# that is to say their body is hard all thro!&h inside and o!tside$ %ome insects are win&less s!ch as the i!l!s and the centipede# some are win&ed as the bee the cockchafer and the wasp# and the same kind is in some cases both win&ed and win&less as the ant and the &low+worm$ In moll!scs the e'ternal parts are as follows: in the first place the so+called feet# secondly and attached to these the head# thirdly the mantle+sac containin& the internal parts and incorrectly desi&nated by some writers the head# and fo!rthly fins ro!nd abo!t the sac$ ,%ee dia&ram$- In all moll!scs the head is fo!nd to be between the feet and the belly$ All moll!scs are f!rnished with ei&ht feet and in all cases these feet are se"erally f!rnished with a do!ble row of s!ckers with the e'ception of one sin&le species of po!lpe or octop!s$ The sepia the small calamary and the lar&e calamary ha"e an e'ceptional or&an in a pair of lon& arms or tentacles ha"in& at their e'tremities a portion rendered ro!&h by the presence of two rows of s!ckers# and with these arms or tentacles they apprehend their food and draw it into their mo!ths and in stormy weather they clin& by them to a rock and sway abo!t in the ro!&h water like ships lyin& at anchor$ They swim by the aid of the fins that they ha"e abo!t the sac$ In all cases their feet are f!rnished with s!ckers$ The octop!s by the way !ses his feelers either as feet or hands# with the two which stand o"er his mo!th he draws in food and the last of his feelers he employs in the act of cop!lation# and this last one by the way is e'tremely sharp is e'ceptional as bein& of a whitish colo!r and at its e'tremity is bif!rcate# that is to say it has an additional somethin& on the rachis and by rachis is meant the smooth s!rface or ed&e of the arm on the far side from the s!ckers$ ,%ee dia&ram$In front of the sac and o"er the feelers they ha"e a hollow t!be by means of which they dischar&e any sea+water that they may ha"e taken into the sac of the body in the act of recei"in& food by the mo!th$ They can shift the t!be from side to side and by means of it they dischar&e the black li*!id pec!liar to the animal$ %tretchin& o!t its feet it swims obli*!ely in the direction of the so+called head and by this mode of swimmin& it can see in front for its eyes are at the top and in this attit!de it has its mo!th at the rear$ The (head while the creat!re is ali"e is hard and looks as tho!&h it were inflated$ It apprehends and retains ob)ects by means of the !nder+s!rface of its arms and the membrane in between its feet is kept at f!ll tension# if the animal &et on to the sand it can no lon&er retain its hold$ There is a difference between the octop!s and the other moll!scs abo"e mentioned: the body of the octop!s is small and his feet are lon& whereas in the others the body is lar&e and the feet short# so short in fact that they cannot walk on them$ .ompared with one another the te!this or calamary is lon&+shaped and the sepia flat+shaped# and of the calamaries the so+called te!th!s is m!ch bi&&er

than the te!this# for te!thi ha"e been fo!nd as m!ch as fi"e ells lon&$ %ome sepiae attain a len&th of two ells and the feelers of the octop!s are sometimes as lon& or e"en lon&er$ The species te!th!s is not a n!mero!s one# the te!th!s differs from the te!this in shape# that is the sharp e'tremity of the te!th!s is broader than that of the other and f!rther the encirclin& fin &oes all ro!nd the tr!nk whereas it is in part lackin& in the te!this# both animals are pela&ic$ In all cases the head comes after the feet in the middle of the feet that are called arms or feelers$ There is here sit!ated a mo!th and two teeth in the mo!th# and abo"e these two lar&e eyes and betwi't the eyes a small cartila&e enclosin& a small brain# and within the mo!th it has a min!te or&an of a fleshy nat!re and this it !ses as a ton&!e for no other ton&!e does it possess$ 4e't after this on the o!tside is what looks like a sac# the flesh of which it is made is di"isible not in lon& strai&ht strips b!t in ann!lar flakes# and all moll!scs ha"e a c!ticle aro!nd this flesh$ 4e't after or at the back of the mo!th comes a lon& and narrow oesopha&!s and close after that a crop or craw lar&e and spherical like that of a bird# then comes the stomach like the fo!rth stomach in r!minants# and the shape of it resembles the spiral con"ol!tion in the tr!mpet+shell# from the stomach there &oes back a&ain in the direction of the mo!th thin &!t and the &!t is thicker than the oesopha&!s$ ,%ee dia&ram$/oll!scs ha"e no "iscera b!t they ha"e what is called a mytis and on it a "essel containin& a thick black )!ice# in the sepia or c!ttle+fish this "essel is the lar&est and this )!ice is most ab!ndant$ All moll!scs when fri&htened dischar&e s!ch a )!ice b!t the dischar&e is most copio!s in the c!ttle+ fish$ The mytis then is sit!ated !nder the mo!th and the oesopha&!s r!ns thro!&h it# and down below at the point to which the &!t e'tends is the "esicle of the black )!ice and the animal has the "esicle and the &!t en"eloped in one and the same membrane and by the same membrane same orifice dischar&es both the black )!ice and the resid!!m$ The animals ha"e also certain hair+like or f!rry &rowths in their bodies$ In the sepia the te!this and the te!th!s the hard parts are within towards the back of the body# those parts are called in one the sepi!m and in the other the (sword$ They differ from one another for the sepi!m in the c!ttle+fish and te!th!s is hard and flat bein& a s!bstance intermediate between bone and fishbone with ,in part- a cr!mblin& spon&y te't!re b!t in the te!this the part is thin and somewhat &ristly$ These parts differ from one another in shape as do also the bodies of the animals$ The octop!s has nothin& hard of this kind in its interior b!t it has a &ristly s!bstance ro!nd the head which if the animal &rows old becomes hard$ The females differ from the males$ The males ha"e a d!ct in !nder the oesopha&!s e'tendin& from the mantle+ca"ity to the lower portion of the sac and there is an or&an to which it attaches resemblin& a breast# ,see dia&ram- in the female there are two of these or&ans sit!ated hi&her !p# ,see dia&ram- with both se'es there are !nderneath these or&ans certain red formations$ The e&& of the octop!s is sin&le !ne"en on its s!rface and of lar&e si2e# the fl!id s!bstance within is all !niform in colo!r smooth and in colo!r white# the si2e of the e&& is so &reat as to fill a "essel lar&er than the creat!res head$ The sepia has two sacs and inside them a n!mber of e&&s like in appearance to white hailstones$ For the disposition of these parts I m!st refer to my anatomical dia&rams$ The males of all these animals differ from the females and the difference between the se'es is most marked in the sepia# for the back of the tr!nk which is blacker than the belly is ro!&her in the male than in the female and in the male the back is striped and the r!mp is more sharply pointed$

There are se"eral species of the octop!s$ One keeps close to the s!rface and is the lar&est of them all and near the shore the si2e is lar&er than in deep water# and there are others small "arie&ated in colo!r which are not articles of food$ There are two others one called the heledone which differs from its con&eners in the len&th of its le&s and in ha"in& one row of s!ckers+all the rest of the moll!scs ha"in& two +the other nicknamed "ario!sly the bolitaina or the (onion and the o2olis or the (stinkard$ There are two others fo!nd in shells resemblin& those of the testaceans$ One of them is nicknamed by some persons the na!til!s or the pontil!s or by others the (polyp!s e&&# and the shell of this creat!re is somethin& like a separate "al"e of a deep scallop+shell$ This polyp!s li"es "ery often near to the shore and is apt to be thrown !p hi&h and dry on the beach# !nder these circ!mstances it is fo!nd with its shell detached and dies by and by on dry land$ These polypods are small and are shaped as re&ards the form of their bodies like the bolbidia$ There is another polyp!s that is placed within a shell like a snail# it ne"er comes o!t of the shell b!t li"es inside the shell like the snail and from time to time protr!des its feelers$ %o m!ch for moll!scs$ 3 With re&ard to the /alacostraca or cr!staceans one species is that of the crawfish and a second resemblin& the first is that of the lobster# the lobster differin& from the crawfish in ha"in& claws and in a few other respects as well$ Another species is that of the carid and another is that of the crab and there are many kinds both of carid and of crab$ Of carids there are the so+called cyphae or (h!nch+backs the cran&ons or s*!illae and the little kind or shrimps and the little kind do not de"elop into a lar&er kind$ Of the crab the "arieties are indefinite and incalc!lable$ The lar&est of all crabs is one nicknamed /aia a second "ariety is the pa&ar!s and the crab of 9eracleotis and a third "ariety is the fresh+ water crab# the other "arieties are smaller in si2e and destit!te of special desi&nations$ In the nei&hbo!rhood of Ahoenice there are fo!nd on the beach certain crabs that are nicknamed the (horsemen from their r!nnin& with s!ch speed that it is diffic!lt to o"ertake them# these crabs when opened are !s!ally fo!nd empty and this emptiness may be p!t down to ins!fficiency of n!triment$ ,There is another "ariety small like the crab b!t resemblin& in shape the lobster$- All these animals as has been stated ha"e their hard and shelly part o!tside where the skin is in other animals and the fleshy part inside# and the belly is more or less pro"ided with lamellae or little flaps and the female here deposits her spawn$ The crawfishes ha"e fi"e feet on either side incl!din& the claws at the end# and in like manner the crabs ha"e ten feet in all incl!din& the claws$ Of the carids the h!nch+backed or prawns ha"e fi"e feet on either side which are sharp+pointed+those towards the head# and fi"e others on either side in the re&ion of the belly with their e'tremities flat# they are de"oid of flaps on the !nder side s!ch as the crawfish has b!t on the back they resemble the crawfish$ ,%ee dia&ram$-It is "ery different with the cran&on or s*!illa# it has fo!r front le&s on either side then three thin ones close behind on either side and the rest of the body is for the most part de"oid of feet$ ,%ee dia&ram$- Of all these animals the feet bend o!t obli*!ely as is the case with insects# and the claws where claws are fo!nd t!rn inwards$ The crawfish has a tail and fi"e fins on it# and the ro!nd+backed carid has a tail and fo!r fins# the s*!illa also has fins at the tail on either side$ In the case of both the h!mp+ backed carid and the s*!illa the middle art of the tail is spino!s: only that in the s*!illa the part is

flattened and in the carid it is sharp+pointed$ Of all animals of this &en!s the crab is the only one de"oid of a r!mp# and while the body of the carid and the crawfish is elon&ated that of the crab is rot!nd$ In the crawfish the male differs from the female: in the female the first foot is bif!rcate in the male it is !ndi"ided# the belly+fins in the female are lar&e and o"erlappin& on the neck while in the male they are smaller and do not o"erlap# and f!rther on the last feet of the male there are sp!r+like pro)ections lar&e and sharp which pro)ections in the female are small and smooth$ Both male and female ha"e two antennae in front of the eyes lar&e and ro!&h and other antennae !nderneath small and smooth$ The eyes of all these creat!res are hard and beady and can mo"e either to the inner or to the o!ter side$ The eyes of most crabs ha"e a similar facility of mo"ement or rather in the crab this facility is de"eloped in a hi&her de&ree$ ,%ee dia&ram$The lobster is all o"er &rey+colo!red with a mottlin& of black$ Its !nder or hinder feet !p to the bi& feet or claws are ei&ht in n!mber# then come the bi& feet far lar&er and flatter at the tips than the same or&ans in the crawfish# and these bi& feet or claws are e'ceptional in their str!ct!re for the ri&ht claw has the e'treme flat s!rface lon& and thin while the left claw has the correspondin& s!rface thick and ro!nd$ 7ach of the two claws di"ided at the end like a pair of )aws has both below and abo"e a set of teeth: only that in the ri&ht claw they are all small and saw+shaped while in the left claw those at the ape' are saw+shaped and those within are molar+shaped these latter bein& in the !nder part of the cleft claw fo!r teeth close to&ether and in the !pper part three teeth not close to&ether$ Both ri&ht and left claws ha"e the !pper part mobile and brin& it to bear a&ainst the lower one and both are c!r"ed like bandy+le&s bein& thereby adapted for apprehension and constriction$ Abo"e the two lar&e claws come two others co"ered with hair a little !nderneath the mo!th# and !nderneath these the &ill+like formations in the re&ion of the mo!th hairy and n!mero!s$ These or&ans the animal keeps in perpet!al motion# and the two hairy feet it bends and draws in towards its mo!th$ The feet near the mo!th are f!rnished also with delicate o!t&rowin& appenda&es$ Bike the crawfish the lobster has two teeth or mandibles and abo"e these teeth are its antennae lon& b!t shorter and finer by far than those of the crawfish and then fo!r other antennae similar in shape b!t shorter and finer than the others$ O"er these antennae come the eyes small and short not lar&e like the eyes of the crawfish$ O"er the eyes is a peaky ro!&h pro)ection like a forehead lar&er than the same part in the crawfish# in fact the frontal part is more pointed and the thora' is m!ch broader in the lobster than in the crawfish and the body in &eneral is smoother and more f!ll of flesh$ Of the ei&ht feet fo!r are bif!rcate at the e'tremities and fo!r are !ndi"ided$ The re&ion of the so+called neck is o!twardly di"ided into fi"e di"isions and si'thly comes the flattened portion at the end and this portion has fi"e flaps or tail+fins# and the inner or !nder parts into which the female drops her spawn are fo!r in n!mber and hairy and on each of the aforesaid parts is a spine t!rned o!twards short and strai&ht$ The body in &eneral and the re&ion of the thora' in partic!lar are smooth not ro!&h as in the crawfish# b!t on the lar&e claws the o!ter portion has lar&er spines$ There is no apparent difference between the male and female for they both ha"e one claw whiche"er it may be lar&er than the other and neither male nor female is e"er fo!nd with both claws of the same si2e$ All cr!staceans take in water close by the mo!th$ The crab dischar&es it closin& !p as it does so a small portion of the same and the crawfish dischar&es it by way of the &ills# and by the way the &ill+shaped or&ans in the crawfish are "ery n!mero!s$ The followin& properties are common to all cr!staceans: they ha"e in all cases two teeth or mandibles ,for the front teeth in the crawfish are two in n!mber- and in all cases there is in the

mo!th a small fleshy str!ct!re ser"in& for a ton&!e# and the stomach is close to the mo!th only that the crawfish has a little oesopha&!s in front of the stomach and there is a strai&ht &!t attached to it$ This &!t in the crawfish and its con&eners and in the carids e'tends in a strai&ht line to the tail and terminates where the animal dischar&es the resid!!m and where the female deposits her spawn# in the crab it terminates where the flap is sit!ated and in the centre of the flap$ ,And by the way in all these animals the spawn is deposited o!tside$- F!rther the female has the place for the spawn r!nnin& alon& the &!t$ And a&ain all these animals ha"e more or less an or&an termed the (mytis or (poppy)!ice$ We m!st now proceed to re"iew their se"eral differentiae$ The crawfish then as has been said has two teeth lar&e and hollow in which is contained a )!ice resemblin& the mytis and in between the teeth is a fleshy s!bstance shaped like a ton&!e$ After the mo!th comes a short oesopha&!s and then a membrano!s stomach attached to the oesopha&!s and at the orifice Of the stomach are three teeth two facin& one another and a third standin& by itself !nderneath$ .omin& off at a bend from the stomach is a &!t simple and of e*!al thickness thro!&ho!t the entire len&th of the body !ntil it reaches the anal "ent$ These are all common properties of the crawfish the carid and the crab# for the crab be it remembered has two teeth$ A&ain the crawfish has a d!ct attached all the way from the chest to the anal "ent# and this d!ct is connected with the o"ary in the female and with the seminal d!cts in the male$ This passa&e is attached to the conca"e s!rface of the flesh in s!ch a way that the flesh is in betwi't the d!ct and the &!t# for the &!t is related to the con"e'ity and this d!ct to the conca"ity pretty m!ch as is obser"ed in *!adr!peds$ And the d!ct is identical in both the se'es# that is to say the d!ct in both is thin and white and char&ed with a sallow+colo!red moist!re and is attached to the chest$ ,The followin& are the properties of the e&& and of the con"ol!tes in the carid$The male by the way differs from the female in re&ard to its flesh in ha"in& in conne'ion with the chest two separate and distinct white s!bstances resemblin& in colo!r and conformation the tentacles of the c!ttle+fish and they are con"ol!ted like the (poppy or *!asi+li"er of the tr!mpet+ shell$ These or&ans ha"e their startin&+point in (cotyledons or papillae which are sit!ated !nder the hindmost feet# and hereabo!ts the flesh is red and blood+colo!red b!t is slippery to the to!ch and in so far !nlike flesh$ Off from the con"ol!te or&an at the chest branches off another coil abo!t as thick as ordinary twine# and !nderneath there are two &ran!lar seminal bodies in )!'ta+position with the &!t$ These are the or&ans of the male$ The female has red+colo!red e&&s which are ad)acent to the stomach and to each side of the &!t all alon& to the fleshy parts bein& en"eloped in a thin membrane$ %!ch are the parts internal and e'ternal of the carid$ 5 The inner or&ans of san&!ineo!s animals happen to ha"e specific desi&nations# for these animals ha"e in all cases the inner "iscera b!t this is not the case with the bloodless animals b!t what they ha"e in common with red+blooded animals is the stomach the oesopha&!s and the &!t$ With re&ard to the crab it has already been stated that it has claws and feet and their position has been set forth# f!rthermore for the most part they ha"e the ri&ht claw bi&&er and stron&er than the left$ It has also been stated that in &eneral the eyes of the crab look sideways$ F!rther the tr!nk of

the crabs body is sin&le and !ndi"ided incl!din& its head and any other part it may possess$ %ome crabs ha"e eyes placed sideways on the !pper part immediately !nder the back and standin& a lon& way apart and some ha"e their eyes in the centre and close to&ether like the crabs of 9eracleotis and the so+called (&rannies$ The mo!th lies !nderneath the eyes and inside it there are two teeth as is the case with the crawfish only that in the crab the teeth are not ro!nded b!t lon&# and o"er the teeth are two lids and in betwi't them are str!ct!res s!ch as the crawfish has besides its teeth$ The crab takes in water near by the mo!th !sin& the lids as a check to the inflow and dischar&es the water by two passa&es abo"e the mo!th closin& by means of the lids the way by which it entered# and the two passa&e+ways are !nderneath the eyes$ When it has taken in water it closes its mo!th by means of both lids and e)ects the water in the way abo"e described$ 4e't after the teeth comes the oesopha&!s "ery short so short in fact that the stomach seems to come strai&htway after the mo!th$ 4e't after the oesopha&!s comes the stomach two+horned to the centre of which is attached a simple and delicate &!t# and the &!t terminates o!twards at the operc!l!m as has been pre"io!sly stated$ ,The crab has the parts in between the lids in the nei&hbo!rhood of the teeth similar to the same parts in the crawfish$- Inside the tr!nk is a sallow )!ice and some few little bodies lon& and white and others spotted red$ The male differs from the female in si2e and breadth and in respect of the "entral flap# for this is lar&er in the female than in the male and stands o!t f!rther from the tr!nk and is more hairy ,as is the case also with the female in the crawfish-$ %o m!ch then for the or&ans of the malacostraca or cr!stacea$ 6 With the ostracoderma or testaceans s!ch as the land+snails and the sea+snails and all the (oysters so+called and also with the sea+!rchin &en!s the fleshy part in s!ch as ha"e flesh is similarly sit!ated to the fleshy part in the cr!staceans# in other words it is inside the animal and the shell is o!tside and there is no hard s!bstance in the interior$ As compared with one another the testaceans present many di"ersities both in re&ard to their shells and to the flesh within$ %ome of them ha"e no flesh at all as the sea+!rchin# others ha"e flesh b!t it is inside and wholly hidden e'cept the head as in the land+snails and the so+called cocalia and amon& pela&ic animals in the p!rple m!re' the cery' or tr!mpet+shell the sea+snail and the spiral+shaped testaceans in &eneral$ Of the rest some are bi"al"ed and some !ni"al"ed# and by (bi"al"es I mean s!ch as are enclosed within two shells and by (!ni"al"ed s!ch as are enclosed within a sin&le shell and in these last the fleshy part is e'posed as in the case of the limpet$ Of the bi"al"es some can open o!t like the scallop and the m!ssel# for all s!ch shells are &rown to&ether on one side and are separate on the other so as to open and sh!t$ Other bi"al"es are closed on both sides alike like the solen or ra2or+fish$ %ome testaceans there are that are entirely en"eloped in shell and e'pose no portion of their flesh o!tside as the tethya or ascidians$ A&ain in re&ard to the shells themsel"es the testaceans present differences when compared with one another$ %ome are smooth+shelled like the solen the m!ssel and some clams "i2$ those that are nicknamed (milkshells while others are ro!&h+shelled s!ch as the pool+oyster or edible oyster the pinna and certain species of cockles and the tr!mpet shells# and of these some are ribbed s!ch as the scallop and a certain kind of clam or cockle and some are de"oid of ribs as the pinna and another species of clam$ Testaceans also differ from one another in re&ard to the thickness or thinness of their shell both as re&ards the shell in its entirety and as re&ards specific parts of the shell for instance the lips# for some ha"e thin+lipped shells like the m!ssel and others ha"e thick+ lipped shells like the oyster$ A property common to the abo"e mentioned and in fact to all

testaceans is the smoothness of their shells inside$ %ome also are capable of motion like the scallop and indeed some a"er that scallops can act!ally fly owin& to the circ!mstance that they often )!mp ri&ht o!t of the apparat!s by means of which they are ca!&ht# others are incapable of motion and are attached fast to some e'ternal ob)ect as is the case with the pinna$ All the spiral+ shaped testaceans can mo"e and creep and e"en the limpet rela'es its hold to &o in *!est of food$ In the case of the !ni"al"es and the bi"al"es the fleshy s!bstance adheres to the shell so tenacio!sly that it can only be remo"ed by an effort# in the case of the stromboids it is more loosely attached$ And a pec!liarity of all the stromboids is the spiral twist of the shell in the part farthest away from the head# they are also f!rnished from birth with an operc!l!m$ And f!rther all stromboid testaceans ha"e their shells on the ri&ht hand side and mo"e not in the direction of the spire b!t the opposite way$ %!ch are the di"ersities obser"ed in the e'ternal parts of these animals$ The internal str!ct!re is almost the same in all these creat!res and in the stromboids especially# for it is in si2e that these latter differ from one another and in accidents of the nat!re of e'cess or defect$ And there is not m!ch difference between most of the !ni"al"es and bi"al"es# b!t while those that open and sh!t differ from one another b!t sli&htly they differ considerably from s!ch as are incapable of motion$ And this will be ill!strated more satisfactorily hereafter$ The spiral+shaped testaceans are all similarly constr!cted b!t differ from one another as has been said in the way of e'cess or defect ,for the lar&er species ha"e lar&er and more conspic!o!s or&ans and the smaller ha"e smaller and less conspic!o!s- and f!rthermore in relati"e hardness or softness and in other s!ch accidents or properties$ All the stromboids for instance ha"e the flesh that e'tr!des from the mo!th of the shell hard and stiff# some more and some less$ From the middle of this protr!des the head and two horns and these horns are lar&e in the lar&e species b!t e'ceedin&ly min!te in the smaller ones$ The head protr!des from them all in the same way# and if the animal be alarmed the head draws in a&ain$ %ome of these creat!res ha"e a mo!th and teeth as the snail# teeth sharp and small and delicate$ They ha"e also a proboscis )!st like that of the fly# and the proboscis is ton&!e+shaped$ The cery' and the p!rple m!re' ha"e this or&an firm and solid# and )!st as the myops or horse+fly and the oestr!s or &adfly can pierce the skin of a *!adr!ped so is that proboscis proportionately stron&er in these testaceans# for they bore ri&ht thro!&h the shells of other shell+fish on which they prey$ The stomach follows close !pon the mo!th and by the way this or&an in the snail resembles a birds crop$ ?nderneath come two white firm formations mastoid or papillary in form# and similar formations are fo!nd in the c!ttle+fish also only that they are of a firmer consistency in the c!ttle+fish$ After the stomach comes an oesopha&!s simple and lon& e'tendin& to the poppy or *!asi+li"er which is in the innermost recess of the shell$ All these statements may be "erified in the case of the p!rple m!re' and the cery' by obser"ation within the whorl of the shell$ What comes ne't to the oesopha&!s is the &!t# in fact the &!t is contin!o!s with the oesopha&!s and r!ns its whole len&th !ncomplicated to the o!tlet of the resid!!m$ The &!t has its point of ori&in in the re&ion of the coil of the mecon or so+ called (poppy and is wider hereabo!ts ,for remember the mecon is for the most part a sort of e'cretion in all testaceans-# it then takes a bend and r!ns !p a&ain towards the fleshy part and terminates by the side of the head where the animal dischar&es its resid!!m# and this holds &ood in the case of all stromboid testaceans whether terrestrial or marine$ From the stomach there is drawn in a parallel direction with the oesopha&!s in the lar&er snails a lon& white d!ct en"eloped in a membrane resemblin& in colo!r the mastoid formations hi&her !p# and in it are nicks or interr!ptions as in the e&&+mass of the crawfish only by the way the d!ct of which we are treatin& is white and the e&&+mass of the crawfish is red$ This formation has no o!tlet nor d!ct b!t is en"eloped in a thin membrane with a narrow ca"ity in its interior$ And from the &!t downward

e'tend black and ro!&h formations in close conne'ion somethin& like the formations in the tortoise only not so black$ /arine snails also ha"e these formations and the white ones only that the formations are smaller in the smaller species$ The non+spiral !ni"al"es and bi"al"es are in some respect similar in constr!ction and in some respects dissimilar to the spiral testaceans$ They all ha"e a head and horns and a mo!th and the or&an resemblin& a ton&!e# b!t these or&ans in the smaller species are indiscernible owin& to the min!teness of these animals and some are indiscernible e"en in the lar&er species when dead or when at rest and motionless$ They all ha"e the mecon or poppy b!t not all in the same place nor of e*!al si2e nor similarly open to obser"ation# th!s the limpets ha"e this or&an deep down in the bottom of the shell and the bi"al"es at the hin&e connectin& the two "al"es$ They also ha"e in all cases the hairy &rowths or beards in a circ!lar form as in the scallops$ And with re&ard to the so+ called (e&& in those that ha"e it when they ha"e it it is sit!ated in one of the semi+circles of the periphery as is the case with the white formation in the snail# for this white formation in the snail corresponds to the so+called e&& of which we are speakin&$ B!t all these or&ans as has been stated are distinctly traceable in the lar&er species while in the small ones they are in some cases almost and in others alto&ether indiscernible$ 9ence they are most plainly "isible in the lar&e scallops# and these are the bi"al"es that ha"e one "al"e flat+shaped like the lid of a pot$ The o!tlet of the e'cretion is in all these animals ,sa"e for the e'ception to be afterwards related- on one side# for there is a passa&e whereby the e'cretion passes o!t$ ,And remember the mecon or poppy as has been stated is an e'cretion in all these animals+an e'cretion en"eloped in a membrane$- The so+ called e&& has no o!tlet in any of these creat!res b!t is merely an e'crescence in the fleshy mass# and it is not sit!ated in the same re&ion with the &!t b!t the (e&& is sit!ated on the ri&ht+hand side and the &!t on the left$ %!ch are the relations of the anal "ent in most of these animals# b!t in the case of the wild limpet ,called by some the (sea+ear- the resid!!m iss!es beneath the shell for the shell is perforated to &i"e an o!tlet$ In this partic!lar limpet the stomach is seen comin& after the mo!th and the e&&+shaped formations are discernible$ B!t for the relati"e positions of these parts yo! are referred to my Treatise on Anatomy$ The so+called carcini!m or hermit crab is in a way intermediate between the cr!staceans and the testaceans$ In its nat!re it resembles the crawfish kind and it is born simple of itself b!t by its habit of introd!cin& itself into a shell and li"in& there it resembles the testaceans and so appears to partake of the characters of both kinds$ In shape to &i"e a simple ill!stration it resembles a spider only that the part below the head and thora' is lar&er in this creat!re than in the spider$ It has two thin red horns and !nderneath these horns two lon& eyes not retreatin& inwards nor t!rnin& sideways like the eyes of the crab b!t protr!din& strai&ht o!t# and !nderneath these eyes the mo!th and ro!nd abo!t the mo!th se"eral hair+like &rowths and ne't after these two bif!rcate le&s or claws whereby it draws in ob)ects towards itself and two other le&s on either side and a third small one$ All below the thora' is soft and when opened in dissection is fo!nd to be sallow+ colo!red within$ From the mo!th there r!ns a sin&le passa&e ri&ht on to the stomach b!t the passa&e for the e'cretions is not discernible$ The le&s and the thora' are hard b!t not so hard as the le&s and the thora' of the crab$ It does not adhere to its shell like the p!rple m!re' and the cery' b!t can easily slip o!t of it$ It is lon&er when fo!nd in the shell of the stromboids than when fo!nd in the shell of the neritae$ And by the way the animal fo!nd in the shell of the neritae is a separate species like to the other in most respects# b!t of its bif!rcate feet or claws the ri&ht+hand one is small and the left+hand one is lar&e and it pro&resses chiefly by the aid of this latter and lar&er one$ ,In the shells of these

animals and in certain others there is fo!nd a parasite whose mode of attachment is similar$ The partic!lar one which we ha"e )!st described is named the cyllar!s$The nerites has a smooth lar&e ro!nd shell and resembles the cery' in shape only the poppy+)!ice is in its case not black b!t red$ It clin&s with &reat force near the middle$ In calm weather then they &o free afield b!t when the wind blows the carcinia take shelter a&ainst the rocks: the neritae themsel"es clin& fast like limpets# and the same is the case with the haemorrhoid or aporrhaid and all others of the like kind$ And by the way they clin& to the rock when they t!rn back their operc!l!m for this operc!l!m seems like a lid# in fact this str!ct!re represents the one part in the stromboids of that which in the bi"al"es is a d!plicate shell$ The interior of the animal is fleshy and the mo!th is inside$ And it is the same with the haemorrhoid the p!rple m!re' and all s!chlike animals$ %!ch of the little crabs as ha"e the left foot or claw the bi&&er of the two are fo!nd in the neritae b!t not in the stromboids$ are some snail+shells which ha"e inside them creat!res resemblin& those little crayfish that are also fo!nd in fresh water$ These creat!res howe"er differ in ha"in& the part inside the shells B!t as to the characters yo! are referred to my Treatise on Anatomy$ 8 The !rchins are de"oid of flesh and this is a character pec!liar to them# and while they are in all cases empty and de"oid of any flesh within they are in all cases f!rnished with the black formations$ There are se"eral species of the !rchin and one of these is that which is made !se of for food# this is the kind in which are fo!nd the so+called e&&s lar&e and edible in the lar&er and smaller specimens alike# for e"en when as yet "ery small they are pro"ided with them$ There are two other species the spatan&!s and the so+called bryss!s these animals are pela&ic and scarce$ F!rther there are the echinometrae or (mother+!rchins the lar&est in si2e of all the species$ In addition to these there is another species small in si2e b!t f!rnished with lar&e hard spines# it li"es in the sea at a depth of se"eral fathoms# and is !sed by some people as a specific for cases of stran&!ry$ In the nei&hbo!rhood of Torone there are sea+!rchins of a white colo!r shells spines e&&s and all and that are lon&er than the ordinary sea+!rchin$ The spine in this species is not lar&e nor stron& b!t rather limp# and the black formations in conne'ion with the mo!th are more than !s!ally n!mero!s and comm!nicate with the e'ternal d!ct b!t not with one another# in point of fact the animal is in a manner di"ided !p by them$ The edible !rchin mo"es with &reatest freedom and most often# and this is indicated by the fact that these !rchins ha"e always somethin& or other on their spines$ All !rchins are s!pplied with e&&s b!t in some of the species the e&&s are e'ceedin&ly small and !nfit for food$ %in&!larly eno!&h the !rchin has what we may call its head and mo!th down below and a place for the iss!e of the resid!!m !p abo"e# ,and this same property is common to all stromboids and to limpets-$ For the food on which the creat!re li"es lies down below# conse*!ently the mo!th has a position well adapted for &ettin& at the food and the e'cretion is abo"e near to the back of the shell$ The !rchin has also fi"e hollow teeth inside and in the middle of these teeth a fleshy s!bstance ser"in& the office of a ton&!e$ 4e't to this comes the oesopha&!s and then the stomach di"ided into fi"e parts and filled with e'cretion all the fi"e parts !nitin& at the anal "ent where the shell is perforated for an o!tlet$ ?nderneath the stomach in another membrane are the so+called e&&s identical in n!mber in all cases and that n!mber is always an odd n!mber to wit fi"e$ ?p abo"e the black formations are attached to the startin&+point of the teeth and they are bitter to the taste and !nfit for food$ A similar or at least an analo&o!s formation is fo!nd in many

animals# as for instance in the tortoise the toad the fro& the stromboids and &enerally in the moll!scs# b!t the formation "aries here and there in colo!r and in all cases is alto&ether !neatable or more or less !npalatable$ In reality the mo!th+apparat!s of the !rchin is contin!o!s from one end to the other b!t to o!tward appearance it is not so b!t looks like a horn lantern with the panes of horn left o!t$ The !rchin !ses its spines as feet# for it rests its wei&ht on these and then mo"in& shifts from place to place$ : The so+called tethy!m or ascidian has of all these animals the most remarkable characteristics$ It is the only moll!sc that has its entire body concealed within its shell and the shell is a s!bstance intermediate between hide and shell so that it c!ts like a piece of hard leather$ It is attached to rocks by its shell and is pro"ided with two passa&es placed at a distance from one another "ery min!te and hard to see whereby it admits and dischar&es the sea+water# for it has no "isible e'cretion ,whereas of shell fish in &eneral some resemble the !rchin in this matter of e'cretion and others are pro"ided with the so+called mecon or poppy+)!ice-$ If the animal be opened it is fo!nd to ha"e in the first place a tendino!s membrane r!nnin& ro!nd inside the shell+like s!bstance and within this membrane is the flesh+like s!bstance of the ascidian not resemblin& that in other moll!scs# b!t this flesh to which I now all!de is the same in all ascidia$ And this s!bstance is attached in two places to the membrane and the skin obli*!ely# and at the point of attachment the space is narrowed from side to side where the fleshy s!bstance stretches towards the passa&es that lead o!twards thro!&h the shell# and here it dischar&es and admits food and li*!id matter )!st as it wo!ld if one of the passa&es were a mo!th and the other an anal "ent# and one of the passa&es is somewhat wider than the other Inside it has a pair of ca"ities one on either side a small partition separatin& them# and one of these two ca"ities contains the li*!id$ The creat!re has no other or&an whether motor or sensory nor as was said in the case of the others is it f!rnished with any or&an connected with e'cretion as other shell+fish are$ The colo!r of the ascidian is in some cases sallow and in other cases red$ There is f!rthermore the &en!s of the sea+nettles pec!liar in its way$ The sea+nettle or sea+ anemone clin&s to rocks like certain of the testaceans b!t at times rela'es its hold$ It has no shell b!t its entire body is fleshy$ It is sensiti"e to to!ch and if yo! p!t yo!r hand to it it will sei2e and clin& to it as the c!ttlefish wo!ld do with its feelers and in s!ch a way as to make the flesh of yo!r hand swell !p$ Its mo!th is in the centre of its body and it li"es adherin& to the rock as an oyster to its shell$ If any little fish come !p a&ainst it it it clin&s to it# in fact )!st as I described it abo"e as doin& to yo!r hand so it does to anythin& edible that comes in its way# and it feeds !pon sea+ !rchins and scallops$ Another species of the sea+nettle roams freely abroad$ The sea+nettle appears to be de"oid alto&ether of e'cretion and in this respect it resembles a plant$ Of sea+nettles there are two species the lesser and more edible and the lar&e hard ones s!ch as are fo!nd in the nei&hbo!rhood of .halcis$ In winter time their flesh is firm and accordin&ly they are so!&ht after as articles of food b!t in s!mmer weather they are worthless for they become thin and watery and if yo! catch at them they break at once into bits and cannot be taken off the rocks entire# and bein& oppressed by the heat they tend to slip back into the cre"ices of the rocks$ %o m!ch for the e'ternal and the internal or&ans of moll!scs cr!staceans and testaceans$ <

We now proceed to treat of insects in like manner$ This &en!s comprises many species and tho!&h se"eral kinds are clearly related to one another these are not classified !nder one common desi&nation as in the case of the bee the drone the wasp and all s!ch insects and a&ain as in the case of those that ha"e their win&s in a sheath or shard like the cockchafer the carab!s or sta&+ beetle the cantharis or blister+beetle and the like$ Insects ha"e three parts common to them all# the head the tr!nk containin& the stomach and a third part in betwi't these two correspondin& to what in other creat!res embraces chest and back$ In the ma)ority of insects this intermediate part is sin&le# b!t in the lon& and m!ltipedal insects it has practically the same n!mber of se&ments as of nicks$ All insects when c!t in two contin!e to li"e e'ceptin& s!ch as are nat!rally cold by nat!re or s!ch as from their min!te si2e chill rapidly# tho!&h by the way wasps notwithstandin& their small si2e contin!e li"in& after se"erance$ In con)!nction with the middle portion either the head or the stomach can li"e b!t the head cannot li"e by itself$ Insects that are lon& in shape and many+footed can li"e for a lon& while after bein& c!t in twain and the se"ered portions can mo"e in either direction backwards or forwards# th!s the hinder portion if c!t off can crawl either in the direction of the section or in the direction of the tail as is obser"ed in the scolopendra$ All insects ha"e eyes b!t no other or&an of sense discernible e'cept that some insects ha"e a kind of a ton&!e correspondin& to a similar or&an common to all testaceans# and by this or&an s!ch insects taste and imbibe their food$ In some insects this or&an is soft# in other insects it is firm# as it is by the way in the p!rple+fish amon& testaceans$ In the horsefly and the &adfly this or&an is hard and indeed it is hard in most insects$ In point of fact s!ch insects as ha"e no stin& in the rear !se this or&an as a weapon ,and by the way s!ch insects as are pro"ided with this or&an are !npro"ided with teeth with the e'ception of a few insects-# the fly by a to!ch can draw blood with this or&an and the &nat can prick or stin& with it$ .ertain insects are f!rnished with prickers or stin&s$ %ome insects ha"e the stin& inside as the bee and the wasp others o!tside as the scorpion# and by the way this is the only insect f!rnished with a lon& tail$ And f!rther the scorpion is f!rnished with claws as is also the creat!re resemblin& a scorpion fo!nd within the pa&es of books$ In addition to their other or&ans flyin& insects are f!rnished with win&s$ %ome insects are diptero!s or do!ble+win&ed as the fly# others are tetraptero!s or f!rnished with fo!r win&s as the bee# and by the way no insect with only two win&s has a stin& in the rear$ A&ain some win&ed insects ha"e a sheath or shard for their win&s as the cockchafer# whereas in others the win&s are !nsheathed as in the bee$ B!t in the case of all alike fli&ht is in no way modified by tail+steera&e and the win& is de"oid of *!ill+str!ct!re or di"ision of any kind$ A&ain some insects ha"e antennae in front of their eyes as the b!tterfly and the horned beetle$ %!ch of them as ha"e the power of )!mpin& ha"e the hinder le&s the lon&er# and these lon& hind+ le&s whereby they )!mp bend backwards like the hind+le&s of *!adr!peds$ All insects ha"e the belly different from the back# as in fact is the case with all animals$ The flesh of an insects body is neither shell+like nor is it like the internal s!bstance of shell+co"ered animals nor is it like flesh in the ordinary sense of the term# b!t it is a somethin& intermediate in *!ality$ Wherefore they ha"e nor spine nor bone nor sepia+bone nor en"elopin& shell# b!t their body by its hardness is its own protection and re*!ires no e'traneo!s s!pport$ 9owe"er insects ha"e a skin# b!t the skin is e'ceedin&ly thin$ These and s!ch+like are the e'ternal or&ans of insects$

Internally ne't after the mo!th comes a &!t in the ma)ority of cases strai&ht and simple down to the o!tlet of the resid!!m: b!t in a few cases the &!t is coiled$ 4o insect is pro"ided with any "iscera or is s!pplied with fat# and these statements apply to all animals de"oid of blood$ %ome ha"e a stomach also and attached to this the rest of the &!t either simple or con"ol!ted as in the case of the acris or &rasshopper$ The tetti' or cicada alone of s!ch creat!res ,and in fact alone of all creat!res- is !npro"ided with a mo!th b!t it is pro"ided with the ton&!e+like formation fo!nd in insects f!rnished with frontward stin&s# and this formation in the cicada is lon& contin!o!s and de"oid of any split# and by the aid of this the creat!re feeds on dew and on dew only and in its stomach no e'cretion is e"er fo!nd$ Of the cicada there are se"eral kinds and they differ from one another in relati"e ma&nit!de and in this respect that the achetes or chirper is pro"ided with a cleft or apert!re !nder the hypo2oma and has in it a membrane *!ite discernible whilst the membrane is indiscernible in the tetti&onia$ F!rthermore there are some stran&e creat!res to be fo!nd in the sea which from their rarity we are !nable to classify$ 7'perienced fishermen affirm some that they ha"e at times seen in the sea animals like sticks black ro!nded and of the same thickness thro!&ho!t# others that they ha"e seen creat!res resemblin& shields red in colo!r and f!rnished with fins packed close to&ether# and others that they ha"e seen creat!res resemblin& the male or&an in shape and si2e with a pair of fins in the place of the testicles and they a"er that on one occasion a creat!re of this description was bro!&ht !p on the end of a ni&htline$ %o m!ch then for the parts e'ternal and internal e'ceptional and common of all animals$ = We now proceed to treat of the senses# for there are di"ersities in animals with re&ard to the senses seein& that some animals ha"e the !se of all the senses and others the !se of a limited n!mber of them$ The total n!mber of the senses ,for we ha"e no e'perience of any special sense not here incl!ded- is fi"e: si&ht hearin& smell taste and to!ch$ /an then and all "i"ipara that ha"e feet and f!rther all red+blooded o"ipara appear to ha"e the !se of all the fi"e senses e'cept where some isolated species has been s!b)ected to m!tilation as in the case of the mole$ For this animal is depri"ed of si&ht# it has no eyes "isible b!t if the skin+a thick one by the way+be stripped off the head abo!t the place in the e'terior where eyes !s!ally are the eyes are fo!nd inside in a st!nted condition f!rnished with all the parts fo!nd in ordinary eyes# that is to say we find there the black rim and the fatty part s!rro!ndin& it# b!t all these parts are smaller than the same parts in ordinary "isible eyes$ There is no e'ternal si&n of the e'istence of these or&ans in the mole owin& to the thickness of the skin drawn o"er them so that it wo!ld seem that the nat!ral co!rse of de"elopment were con&enitally arrested# ,for e'tendin& from the brain at its )!nction with the marrow are two stron& sinewy d!cts r!nnin& past the sockets of the eyes and terminatin& at the !pper eye+teeth-$ All the other animals of the kinds abo"e mentioned ha"e a perception of colo!r and of so!nd and the senses of smell and taste# the fifth sense that namely of to!ch is common to all animals whatsoe"er$ In some animals the or&ans of sense are plainly discernible# and this is especially the case with the eyes$ For animals ha"e a special locality for the eyes and also a special locality for hearin&: that is to say some animals ha"e ears while others ha"e the passa&e for so!nd discernible$ It is the same with the sense of smell# that is to say some animals ha"e nostrils and others ha"e only the passa&es for smell s!ch as birds$ It is the same also with the or&an of taste the ton&!e$ Of a*!atic

red+blooded animals fishes possess the or&an of taste namely the ton&!e b!t it is in an imperfect and amorpho!s form in other words it is osseo!s and !ndetached$ In some fish the palate is fleshy as in the fresh+water carp so that by an inattenti"e obser"er it mi&ht be mistaken for a ton&!e$ There is no do!bt b!t that fishes ha"e the sense of taste for a &reat n!mber of them deli&ht in special fla"o!rs# and fishes freely take the hook if it be baited with a piece of flesh from a t!nny or from any fat fish ob"io!sly en)oyin& the taste and the eatin& of food of this kind$ Fishes ha"e no "isible or&ans for hearin& or for smell# for what mi&ht appear to indicate an or&an for smell in the re&ion of the nostril has no comm!nication with the brain$ These indications in fact in some cases lead nowhere like blind alleys and in other cases lead only to the &ills# b!t for all this fishes !ndo!btedly hear and smell$ For they are obser"ed to r!n away from any lo!d noise s!ch as wo!ld be made by the rowin& of a &alley so as to become easy of capt!re in their holes# for by the way tho!&h a so!nd be "ery sli&ht in the open air it has a lo!d and alarmin& resonance to creat!res that hear !nder water$ And this is shown in the capt!re of the dolphin# for when the h!nters ha"e enclosed a shoal of these fishes with a rin& of their canoes they set !p from inside the canoes a lo!d splashin& in the water and by so doin& ind!ce the creat!res to r!n in a shoal hi&h and dry !p on the beach and so capt!re them while st!pefied with the noise$ And yet for all this the dolphin has no or&an of hearin& discernible$ F!rthermore when en&a&ed in their craft fishermen are partic!larly caref!l to make no noise with oar or net# and after they ha"e spied a shoal they let down their nets at a spot so far off that they co!nt !pon no noise bein& likely to reach the shoal occasioned either by oar or by the s!r&in& of their boats thro!&h the water# and the crews are strictly en)oined to preser"e silence !ntil the shoal has been s!rro!nded$ And at times when they want the fish to crowd to&ether they adopt the strata&em of the dolphin+h!nter# in other words they clatter stones to&ether that the fish may in their fri&ht &ather close into one spot and so they en"elop them within their nets$ ,Before s!rro!ndin& them then they preser"e silence as was said# b!t after hemmin& the shoal in they call on e"ery man to sho!t o!t alo!d and make any kind of noise# for on hearin& the noise and h!bb!b the fish are s!re to t!mble into the nets from sheer fri&ht$- F!rther when fishermen see a shoal of fish feedin& at a distance disportin& themsel"es in calm bri&ht weather on the s!rface of the water if they are an'io!s to descry the si2e of the fish and to learn what kind of a fish it is they may s!cceed in comin& !pon the shoal whilst yet baskin& at the s!rface if they sail !p witho!t the sli&htest noise b!t if any man make a noise pre"io!sly the shoal will be seen to sc!rry away in alarm$ A&ain there is a small ri"er+fish called the cott!s or b!llhead# this creat!re b!rrows !nder a rock and fishers catch it by clatterin& stones a&ainst the rock and the fish bewildered at the noise darts o!t of its hidin&+place$ From these facts it is *!ite ob"io!s that fishes can hear# and indeed some people from li"in& near the sea and fre*!ently witnessin& s!ch phenomena affirm that of all li"in& creat!res the fish is the *!ickest of hearin&$ And by the way of all fishes the *!ickest of hearin& are the cestre!s or m!llet the chremps the labra' or basse the salpe or sa!pe the chromis or sciaena and s!ch like$ Other fishes are less *!ick of hearin& and as mi&ht be e'pected are more apt to be fo!nd li"in& at the bottom of the sea$ The case is similar in re&ard to the sense of smell$ Th!s as a r!le fishes will not to!ch a bait that is not fresh neither are they all ca!&ht by one and the same bait b!t they are se"erally ca!&ht by baits s!ited to their se"eral likin&s and these baits they distin&!ish by their sense of smell# and by the way some fishes are attracted by malodoro!s baits as the sa!pe for instance is attracted by e'crement$ A&ain a n!mber of fishes li"e in ca"es# and accordin&ly fishermen when they want to entice them o!t smear the mo!th of a ca"e with stron&+smellin& pickles and the fish are %oon attracted to the smell$ And the eel is ca!&ht in a similar way# for the fisherman lays down an

earthen pot that has held pickles after insertin& a (weel in the neck thereof$ As a &eneral r!le fishes are especially attracted by sa"o!ry smells$ For this reason fishermen roast the fleshy parts of the c!ttle+fish and !se it as bait on acco!nt of its smell for fish are pec!liarly attracted by it# they also bake the octop!s and bait their fish+baskets or weels with it entirely as they say on acco!nt of its smell$ F!rthermore &re&ario!s fishes if fish washin&s or bil&e+water be thrown o"erboard are obser"ed to sc!d off to a distance from apparent dislike of the smell$ And it is asserted that they can at once detect by smell the presence of their own blood# and this fac!lty is manifested by their h!rryin& off to a &reat distance whene"er fish+blood is spilt in the sea$ And as a &eneral r!le if yo! bait yo!r weel with a stinkin& bait the fish ref!se to enter the weel or e"en to draw near# b!t if yo! bait the weel with a fresh and sa"o!ry bait they come at once from lon& distances and swim into it$ And all this is partic!larly manifest in the dolphin# for as was stated it has no "isible or&an of hearin& and yet it is capt!red when st!pefied with noise# and so while it has no "isible or&an for smell it has the sense of smell remarkably keen$ It is manifest then that the animals abo"e mentioned are in possession of all the fi"e senses$ All other animals may with "ery few e'ceptions be comprehended within fo!r &enera: to wit moll!scs cr!staceans testaceans and insects$ Of these fo!r &enera the moll!sc the cr!stacean and the insect ha"e all the senses: at all e"ents they ha"e si&ht smell and taste$ As for insects both win&ed and win&less they can detect the presence of scented ob)ects afar off as for instance bees and snipes detect the presence of honey at a distance# and do so reco&ni2in& it by smell$ /any insects are killed by the smell of brimstone# ants if the apert!res to their dwellin&s be smeared with powdered ori&an!m and brimstone *!it their nests# and most insects may be banished with b!rnt harts horn or better still by the b!rnin& of the &!m styra'$ The c!ttle+fish the octop!s and the crawfish may be ca!&ht by bait$ The octop!s in fact clin&s so ti&htly to the rocks that it cannot be p!lled off b!t remains attached e"en when the knife is employed to se"er it# and yet if yo! apply fleabane to the creat!re it drops off at the "ery smell of it$ The facts are similar in re&ard to taste$ For the food that insects &o in *!est of is of di"erse kinds and they do not all deli&ht in the same fla"o!rs: for instance the bee ne"er settles on a withered or wilted flower b!t on fresh and sweet ones# and the conops or &nat settles only on acrid s!bstances and not on sweet$ The sense of to!ch by the way as has been remarked is common to all animals$ Testaceans ha"e the senses of smell and taste$ With re&ard to their possession of the sense of smell that is pro"ed by the !se of baits e$&$ in the case of the p!rple+fish# for this creat!re is enticed by baits of rancid meat which it percei"es and is attracted to from a &reat distance$ The proof that it possesses a sense of taste han&s by the proof of its sense of smell# for whene"er an animal is attracted to a thin& by percei"in& its smell it is s!re to like the taste of it$ F!rther all animals f!rnished with a mo!th deri"e pleas!re or pain from the to!ch of sapid )!ices$ With re&ard to si&ht and hearin& we cannot make statements with thoro!&h confidence or on irref!table e"idence$ 9owe"er the solen or ra2or+fish if yo! make a noise appears to b!rrow in the sand and to hide himself deeper when he hears the approach of the iron rod ,for the animal be it obser"ed )!ts a little o!t of its hole while the &reater part of the body remains within- +and scallops if yo! present yo!r fin&er near their open "al"es close them ti&ht a&ain as tho!&h they co!ld see what yo! were doin&$ F!rthermore when fishermen are layin& bait for neritae they always &et to leeward of them and ne"er speak a word while so en&a&ed !nder the firm impression that the animal can smell and hear# and they ass!re !s that if any one speaks alo!d the creat!re makes efforts to escape$ With re&ard to testaceans of the walkin& or creepin& species the !rchin appears to ha"e the least de"eloped sense of smell# and of the stationary species the ascidian and the barnacle$

%o m!ch for the or&ans of sense in the &eneral r!n of animals$ We now proceed to treat of "oice$ > ;oice and so!nd are different from one another# and lan&!a&e differs from "oice and so!nd$ The fact is that no animal can &i"e !tterance to "oice e'cept by the action of the pharyn' and conse*!ently s!ch animals as are de"oid of l!n& ha"e no "oice# and lan&!a&e is the artic!lation of "ocal so!nds by the instr!mentality of the ton&!e$ Th!s the "oice and laryn' can emit "ocal or "owel so!nds# non+"ocal or consonantal so!nds are made by the ton&!e and the lips# and o!t of these "ocal and non+"ocal so!nds lan&!a&e is composed$ .onse*!ently animals that ha"e no ton&!e at all or that ha"e a ton&!e not freely detached ha"e neither "oice nor lan&!a&e# altho!&h by the way they may be enabled to make noises or so!nds by other or&ans than the ton&!e$ Insects for instance ha"e no "oice and no lan&!a&e b!t they can emit so!nd by internal air or wind tho!&h not by the emission of air or wind# for no insects are capable of respiration$ B!t some of them make a h!mmin& noise like the bee and the other win&ed insects# and others are said to sin& as the cicada$ And all these latter insects make their special noises by means of the membrane that is !nderneath the (hypo2oma+those insects that is to say whose body is th!s di"ided# as for instance one species of cicada which makes the so!nd by means of the friction of the air$ Flies and bees and the like prod!ce their special noise by openin& and sh!ttin& their win&s in the act of flyin&# for the noise made is by the friction of air between the win&s when in motion$ The noise made by &rasshoppers is prod!ced by r!bbin& or re"erberatin& with their lon& hind+le&s$ 4o moll!sc or cr!stacean can prod!ce any nat!ral "oice or so!nd$ Fishes can prod!ce no "oice for they ha"e no l!n&s nor windpipe and pharyn'# b!t they emit certain inartic!late so!nds and s*!eaks which is what is called their ("oice as the lyra or &!rnard and the sciaena ,for these fishes make a &r!ntin& kind of noise- and the capr!s or boar+fish in the ri"er Achelo!s and the chalcis and the c!ckoo+fish# for the chalcis makes a sort pipin& so!nd and the c!ckoo+fish makes a so!nd &reatly like the cry of the c!ckoo and is nicknamed from the circ!mstance$ The apparent "oice in all these fishes is a so!nd ca!sed in some cases by a r!bbin& motion of their &ills which by the way are prickly or in other cases by internal parts abo!t their bellies# for they all ha"e air or wind inside them by r!bbin& and mo"in& which they prod!ce the so!nds$ %ome cartila&ino!s fish seem to s*!eak$ B!t in these cases the term ("oice is inappropriate# the more correct e'pression wo!ld be (so!nd$ For the scallop when it &oes alon& s!pportin& itself on the water which is technically called (flyin& makes a whi22in& so!nd# and so does the sea+swallow or flyin&+fish: for this fish flies in the air clean o!t of the water bein& f!rnished with fins broad and lon&$ D!st then as in the fli&ht of birds the so!nd made by their win&s is ob"io!sly not "oice so is it in the case of all these other creat!res$ The dolphin when taken o!t of the water &i"es a s*!eak and moans in the air b!t these noises do not resemble those abo"e mentioned$ For this creat!re has a "oice ,and can therefore !tter "ocal or "owel so!nds- for it is f!rnished with a l!n& and a windpipe# b!t its ton&!e is not loose nor has it lips so as to &i"e !tterance to an artic!late so!nd ,or a so!nd of "owel and consonant in combination$Of animals which are f!rnished with ton&!e and l!n& the o"iparo!s *!adr!peds prod!ce a "oice b!t a feeble one# in some cases a shrill pipin& so!nd like the serpent# in others a thin faint cry# in

others a low hiss like the tortoise$ The formation of the ton&!e in the fro& is e'ceptional$ The front part of the ton&!e which in other animals is detached is ti&htly fi'ed in the fro& as it is in all fishes# b!t the part towards the pharyn' is freely detached and may so to speak be spat o!twards and it is with this that it makes its pec!liar croak$ The croakin& that &oes on in the marsh is the call of the males to the females at r!ttin& time# and by the way all animals ha"e a special cry for the like end at the like season as is obser"ed in the case of &oats swine and sheep$ ,The b!ll+fro& makes its croakin& noise by p!ttin& its !nder )aw on a le"el with the s!rface of the water and e'tendin& its !pper )aw to its !tmost capacity$ The tension is so &reat that the !pper )aw becomes transparent and the animals eyes shine thro!&h the )aw like lamps# for by the way the commerce of the se'es takes place !s!ally in the ni&ht time$- Birds can !tter "ocal so!nds# and s!ch of them can artic!late best as ha"e the ton&!e moderately flat and also s!ch as ha"e thin delicate ton&!es$ In some cases the male and the female !tter the same note# in other cases different notes$ The smaller birds are more "ocal and &i"en to chirpin& than the lar&er ones# b!t in the pairin& season e"ery species of bird becomes partic!larly "ocal$ %ome of them call when fi&htin& as the *!ail others cry or crow when challen&in& to combat as the partrid&e or when "ictorio!s as the barn+ door cock$ In some cases cock+birds and hens sin& alike as is obser"ed in the ni&htin&ale only that the hen stops sin&in& when broodin& or rearin& her yo!n&# in other birds the cocks sin& more than the hens# in fact with barn+door fowls and *!ails the cock sin&s and the hen does not$ ;i"iparo!s *!adr!peds !tter "ocal so!nds of different kinds b!t they ha"e no power of con"erse$ In fact this power or lan&!a&e is pec!liar to man$ For while the capability of talkin& implies the capability of !tterin& "ocal so!nds the con"erse does not hold &ood$ /en that are born deaf are in all cases also d!mb# that is they can make "ocal so!nds b!t they cannot speak$ .hildren )!st as they ha"e no control o"er other parts so ha"e no control at first o"er the ton&!e# b!t it is so far imperfect and only frees and detaches itself by de&rees so that in the inter"al children for the most part lisp and st!tter$ ;ocal so!nds and modes of lan&!a&e differ accordin& to locality$ ;ocal so!nds are characteri2ed chiefly by their pitch whether hi&h or low and the kinds of so!nd capable of bein& prod!ced are identical within the limits of one and the same species# b!t artic!late so!nd that one mi&ht reasonably desi&nate (lan&!a&e differs both in "ario!s animals and also in the same species accordin& to di"ersity of locality# as for instance some partrid&es cackle and some make a shrill twitterin& noise$ Of little birds some sin& a different note from the parent birds if they ha"e been remo"ed from the nest and ha"e heard other birds sin&in&# and a mother+ni&htin&ale has been obser"ed to &i"e lessons in sin&in& to a yo!n& bird from which spectacle we mi&ht ob"io!sly infer that the son& of the bird was not e*!ally con&enital with mere "oice b!t was somethin& capable of modification and of impro"ement$ /en ha"e the same "oice or "ocal so!nds b!t they differ from one another in speech or lan&!a&e$ The elephant makes a "ocal so!nd of a windlike sort by the mo!th alone !naided by the tr!nk )!st like the so!nd of a man pantin& or si&hin&# b!t if it employ the tr!nk as well the so!nd prod!ced is like that of a hoarse tr!mpet$ 1@ With re&ard to the sleepin& and wakin& of animals all creat!res that are red+blooded and pro"ided with le&s &i"e sensible proof that they &o to sleep and that they waken !p from sleep# for as a matter of fact all animals that are f!rnished with eyelids sh!t them !p when they &o to sleep$ F!rthermore it wo!ld appear that not only do men dream b!t horses also and do&s and o'en# aye

and sheep and &oats and all "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds# and do&s show their dreamin& by barkin& in their sleep$ With re&ard to o"iparo!s animals we cannot be s!re that they dream b!t most !ndo!btedly they sleep$ And the same may be said of water animals s!ch as fishes moll!scs cr!staceans to wit crawfish and the like$ These animals sleep witho!t do!bt altho!&h their sleep is of "ery short d!ration$ The proof of their sleepin& cannot be &ot from the condition of their eyes+for none of these creat!res are f!rnished with eyelids+b!t can be obtained only from their motionless repose$ Apart from the irritation ca!sed by lice and what are nicknamed fleas fish are met with in a state so motionless that one mi&ht easily catch them by hand# and as a matter of fact these little creat!res if the fish remain lon& in one position will attack them in myriads and de"o!r them$ For these parasites are fo!nd in the depths of the sea and are so n!mero!s that they de"o!r any bait made of fishs flesh if it be left lon& on the &ro!nd at the bottom# and fishermen often draw !p a cl!ster of them all clin&in& on to the bait$ B!t it is from the followin& facts that we may more reasonably infer that fishes sleep$ ;ery often it is possible to take a fish off its &!ard so far as to catch hold of it or to &i"e it a blow !nawares# and all the while that yo! are preparin& to catch or strike it the fish is *!ite still b!t for a sli&ht motion of the tail$ And it is *!ite ob"io!s that the animal is sleepin& from its mo"ements if any dist!rbance be made d!rin& its repose# for it mo"es )!st as yo! wo!ld e'pect in a creat!re s!ddenly awakened$ F!rther owin& to their bein& asleep fish may be capt!red by torchli&ht$ The watchmen in the t!nny+fishery often take ad"anta&e of the fish bein& asleep to en"elop them in a circle of nets# and it is *!ite ob"io!s that they were th!s sleepin& by their lyin& still and allowin& the &listenin& !nder+parts of their bodies to become "isible while the capt!re is takin& Alace$ They sleep in the ni&ht+time more than d!rin& the day# and so so!ndly at ni&ht that yo! may cast the net witho!t makin& them stir$ Fish as a &eneral r!le sleep close to the &ro!nd or to the sand or to a stone at the bottom or after concealin& themsel"es !nder a rock or the &ro!nd$ Flat fish &o to sleep in the sand# and they can be distin&!ished by the o!tlines of their shapes in the sand and are ca!&ht in this position by bein& speared with pron&ed instr!ments$ The basse the chrysophrys or &ilt+head the m!llet and fish of the like sort are often ca!&ht in the daytime by the pron& owin& to their ha"in& been s!rprised when sleepin&# for it is scarcely probable that fish co!ld be pron&ed while awake$ .artila&ino!s fish sleep at times so so!ndly that they may be ca!&ht by hand$ The dolphin and the whale and all s!ch as are f!rnished with a blow+hole sleep with the blow+hole o"er the s!rface of the water and breathe thro!&h the blow+hole while they keep !p a *!iet flappin& of their fins# indeed some mariners ass!re !s that they ha"e act!ally heard the dolphin snorin&$ /oll!scs sleep like fishes and cr!staceans also$ It is plain also that insects sleep# for there can be no mistakin& their condition of motionless repose$ In the bee the fact of its bein& asleep is "ery ob"io!s# for at ni&ht+time bees are at rest and cease to h!m$ B!t the fact that insects sleep may be "ery well seen in the case of common e"ery+day creat!res# for not only do they rest at ni&ht+time from dimness of "ision ,and by the way all hard+eyed creat!res see b!t indistinctly- b!t e"en if a li&hted candle be presented they contin!e sleepin& *!ite as so!ndly$ Of all animals man is most &i"en to dreamin&$ .hildren and infants do not dream b!t in most cases dreamin& comes on at the a&e of fo!r or fi"e years$ Instances ha"e been known of f!ll+&rown men and women that ha"e ne"er dreamed at all# in e'ceptional cases of this kind it has been obser"ed that when a dream occ!rs in ad"anced life it pro&nosticates either act!al dissol!tion or a &eneral break+!p of the system$

%o m!ch then for sensation and for the phenomena of sleepin& and of awakenin&$ 11 With re&ard to se' some animals are di"ided into male and female b!t others are not so di"ided b!t can only be said in a comparati"e way to brin& forth yo!n& and to be pre&nant$ In animals that li"e confined to one spot there is no d!ality of se'# nor is there s!ch in fact in any testaceans$ In moll!scs and in cr!staceans we find male and female: and indeed in all animals f!rnished with feet biped or *!adr!ped# in short in all s!ch as by cop!lation en&ender either li"e yo!n& or e&& or &r!b$ In the se"eral &enera with howe"er certain e'ceptions there either absol!tely is or absol!tely is not a d!ality of se'$ Th!s in *!adr!peds the d!ality is !ni"ersal while the absence of s!ch d!ality is !ni"ersal in testaceans and of these creat!res as with plants some indi"id!als are fr!itf!l and some are not their lyin& still B!t amon& insects and fishes some cases are fo!nd wholly de"oid of this d!ality of se'$ For instance the eel is neither male nor female and can en&ender nothin&$ In fact those who assert that eels are at times fo!nd with hair+like or worm+like pro&eny attached make only random assertions from not ha"in& caref!lly noticed the locality of s!ch attachments$ For no eel nor animal of this kind is e"er "i"iparo!s !nless pre"io!sly o"iparo!s# and no eel was e"er yet seen with an e&&$ And animals that are "i"iparo!s ha"e their yo!n& in the womb and closely attached and not in the belly# for if the embryo were kept in the belly it wo!ld be s!b)ected to the process of di&estion like ordinary food$ When people rest d!ality of se' in the eel on the assertion that the head of the male is bi&&er and lon&er and the head of the female smaller and more sn!bbed they are takin& di"ersity of species for di"ersity of se'$ There are certain fish that are nicknamed the epitra&iae or capon+fish and by the way fish of this description are fo!nd in fresh water as the carp and the bala&r!s$ This sort of fish ne"er has either roe or milt# b!t they are hard and fat all o"er and are f!rnished with a small &!t# and these fish are re&arded as of s!per+e'cellent *!ality$ A&ain )!st as in testaceans and in plants there is what bears and en&enders b!t not what impre&nates so is it amon& fishes with the psetta the erythrin!s and the channe# for these fish are in all cases fo!nd f!rnished with e&&s$ As a &eneral r!le in red+blooded animals f!rnished with feet and not o"iparo!s the male is lar&er and lon&er+li"ed than the female ,e'cept with the m!le where the female is lon&er+li"ed and bi&&er than the male-# whereas in o"iparo!s and "ermiparo!s creat!res as in fishes and in insects the female is lar&er than the male# as for instance with the serpent the phalan&i!m or "enom+spider the &ecko and the fro&$ The same difference in si2e of the se'es is fo!nd in fishes as for instance in the smaller cartila&ino!s fishes in the &reater part of the &re&ario!s species and in all that li"e in and abo!t rocks$ The fact that the female is lon&er+li"ed than the male is inferred from the fact that female fishes are ca!&ht older than males$ F!rthermore in all animals the !pper and front parts are better stron&er and more thoro!&hly e*!ipped in the male than in the female whereas in the female those parts are the better that may be termed hinder+parts or !nderparts$ And this statement is applicable to man and to all "i"ipara that ha"e feet$ A&ain the female is less m!sc!lar and less compactly )ointed and more thin and delicate in the hair+that is where hair is fo!nd# and where

there is no hair less stron&ly f!rnished in some analo&o!s s!bstance$ And the female is more flaccid in te't!re of flesh and more knock+kneed and the shin+bones are thinner# and the feet are more arched and hollow in s!ch animals as are f!rnished with feet$ And with re&ard to "oice the female in all animals that are "ocal has a thinner and sharper "oice than the male# e'cept by the way with kine for the lowin& and bellowin& of the cow has a deeper note than that of the b!ll$ With re&ard to or&ans of defence and offence s!ch as teeth t!sks horns sp!rs and the like these in some species the male possesses and the female does not# as for instance the hind has no horns and where the cock+bird has a sp!r the hen is entirely destit!te of the or&an# and in like manner the sow is de"oid of t!sks$ In other species s!ch or&ans are fo!nd in both se'es b!t are more perfectly de"eloped in the male# as for instance the horn of the b!ll is more powerf!l than the horn of the cow$

Book V
1 As to the parts internal and e'ternal that all animals are f!rnished withal and f!rther as to the senses to "oice and sleep and the d!ality se' all these topics ha"e now been to!ched !pon$ It now remains for !s to disc!ss d!ly and in order their se"eral modes of propa&ation$ These modes are many and di"erse and in some respects are like and in other respects are !nlike to one another$ As we carried on o!r pre"io!s disc!ssion &en!s by &en!s so we m!st attempt to follow the same di"isions in o!r present ar&!ment# only that whereas in the former case we started with a consideration of the parts of man in the present case it beho"es !s to treat of man last of all beca!se he in"ol"es most disc!ssion$ We shall commence then with testaceans and then proceed to cr!staceans and then to the other &enera in d!e order# and these other &enera are se"erally moll!scs and insects then fishes "i"iparo!s and fishes o"iparo!s and ne't birds# and afterwards we shall treat of animals pro"ided with feet both s!ch as are o"iparo!s and s!ch as are "i"iparo!s and we may obser"e that some *!adr!peds are "i"iparo!s b!t that the only "i"iparo!s biped is man$ 4ow there is one property that animals are fo!nd to ha"e in common with plants$ For some plants are &enerated from the seed of plants whilst other plants are self+&enerated thro!&h the formation of some elemental principle similar to a seed# and of these latter plants some deri"e their n!triment from the &ro!nd whilst others &row inside other plants as is mentioned by the way in my treatise on Botany$ %o with animals some sprin& from parent animals accordin& to their kind whilst others &row spontaneo!sly and not from kindred stock# and of these instances of spontaneo!s &eneration some come from p!trefyin& earth or "e&etable matter as is the case with a n!mber of insects while others are spontaneo!sly &enerated in the inside of animals o!t of the secretions of their se"eral or&ans$ In animals where &eneration &oes by heredity where"er there is d!ality of se' &eneration is d!e to cop!lation$ In the &ro!p of fishes howe"er there are some that are neither male nor female and these while they are identical &enerically with other fish differ from them specifically# b!t there are others that stand alto&ether isolated and apart by themsel"es$ Other fishes there are that are always female and ne"er male and from them are concei"ed what correspond to the wind+e&&s in birds$ %!ch e&&s by the way in birds are all !nfr!itf!l# b!t it is their nat!re to be independently capable of &eneration !p to the e&&+sta&e !nless indeed there be some other mode than the one familiar to !s of interco!rse with the male# b!t concernin& these topics we shall treat more precisely

later on$ In the case of certain fishes howe"er after they ha"e spontaneo!sly &enerated e&&s these e&&s de"elop into li"in& animals# only that in certain of these cases de"elopment is spontaneo!s and in others is not independent of the male# and the method of proceedin& in re&ard to these matters will set forth by and by for the method is somewhat like to the method followed in the case of birds$ B!t whensoe"er creat!res are spontaneo!sly &enerated either in other animals in the soil or on plants or in the parts of these and when s!ch are &enerated male and female then from the cop!lation of s!ch spontaneo!sly &enerated males and females there is &enerated a somethin&+a somethin& ne"er identical in shape with the parents b!t a somethin& imperfect$ For instance the iss!e of cop!lation in lice is nits# in flies &r!bs# in fleas &r!bs e&&+like in shape# and from these iss!es the parent+species is ne"er reprod!ced nor is any animal prod!ced at all b!t the like nondescripts only$ First then we m!st proceed to treat of (co"erin& in re&ard to s!ch animals as co"er and are co"ered# and then after this to treat in d!e order of other matters both the e'ceptional and those of &eneral occ!rrence$ 3 Those animals then co"er and are co"ered in which there is a d!ality of se' and the modes of co"erin& in s!ch animals are not in all cases similar nor analo&o!s$ For the red+blooded animals that are "i"iparo!s and f!rnished with feet ha"e in all cases or&ans adapted for procreation b!t the se'es do not in all cases come to&ether in like manner$ Th!s opisth!retic animals cop!late with a rearward presentment as is the case with the lion the hare and the lyn'# tho!&h by the way in the case of the hare the female is often obser"ed to co"er the male$ The case is similar in most other s!ch animals# that is to say the ma)ority of *!adr!peds cop!late as best they can the male mo!ntin& the female# and this is the only method of cop!latin& adopted by birds tho!&h there are certain di"ersities of method obser"ed e"en in birds$ For in some cases the female s*!ats on the &ro!nd and the male mo!nts on top of her as is the case with the cock and hen b!stard and the barn+door cock and hen# in other cases the male mo!nts witho!t the female s*!attin& as with the male and female crane# for with these birds the male mo!nts on to the back of the female and co"ers her and like the cock+sparrow cons!mes b!t "ery little time in the operation$ Of *!adr!peds bears perform the operation lyin& prone on one another in the same way as other *!adr!peds do while standin& !p# that is to say with the belly of the male pressed to the back of the female$ 9ed&eho&s cop!late erect belly to belly$ With re&ard to lar&e+si2ed "i"ipara the hind only "ery rarely s!stains the mo!ntin& of the sta& to the f!ll concl!sion of the operation and the same is the case with the cow as re&ards the b!ll owin& to the ri&idity of the penis of the b!ll$ In point of fact the females of these animals elicit the sperm of the male in the act of withdrawin& from !nderneath him# and by the way this phenomenon has been obser"ed in the case of the sta& and hind domesticated of co!rse$ .o"erin& with the wolf is the same as with the do&$ .ats do not cop!late with a rearward presentment on the part of the female b!t the male stands erect and the female p!ts herself !nderneath him# and by the way the female cat is pec!liarly lechero!s and wheedles the male on to se'!al commerce and caterwa!ls d!rin& the operation$ .amels cop!late with the female in a sittin& post!re and the male straddles o"er and co"ers her not with the hinder presentment on the females part b!t like the other *!adr!peds mentioned abo"e and they pass the whole day lon& in the operation# when th!s en&a&ed they retire to lonely spots and none b!t their keeper dare approach them$ And be it obser"ed the penis of the camel is so sinewy that bow+strin&s are man!fact!red o!t of it$

7lephants also cop!late in lonely places and especially by ri"er+sides in their !s!al ha!nts# the female s*!ats down and straddles with her le&s and the male mo!nts and co"ers her$ The seal co"ers like all opisth!retic animals and in this species the cop!lation e'tends o"er a len&thened time as is the case with the do& and bitch# and the penis in the male seal is e'ceptionally lar&e$ 5 O"iparo!s *!adr!peds co"er one another in the same way$ That is to say in some cases the male mo!nts the female precisely as in the "i"iparo!s animals as is obser"ed in both the land and the sea tortoise$$$$And these creat!res ha"e an or&an in which the d!cts con"er&e and with which they perform the act of cop!lation as is also obser"ed in the toad the fro& and all other animals of the same &ro!p$ 6 Bon& animals de"oid of feet like serpents and m!raenae intertwine in coition belly to belly$ And in fact serpents coil ro!nd one another so ti&htly as to present the appearance of a sin&le serpent with a pair of heads$ The same mode is followed by the sa!rians# that is to say they coil ro!nd one another in the act of coition$ 8 All fishes with the e'ception of the flat selachians lie down side by side and cop!late belly to belly$ Fishes howe"er that are flat and f!rnished with tails+as the ray the try&on and the like+ cop!late not only in this way b!t also where the tail from its thinness is no impediment by mo!ntin& of the male !pon the female belly to back$ B!t the rhina or an&el+fish and other like fishes where the tail is lar&e cop!late only by r!bbin& a&ainst one another sideways belly to belly$ %ome men ass!re !s that they ha"e seen some of the selachia cop!latin& hindways do& and bitch$ In the cartila&ino!s species the female is lar&er than the male# and the same is the case with other fishes for the most part$ And amon& cartila&ino!s fishes are incl!ded besides those already named the bos the lamia the aetos the narce or torpedo the fishin&+fro& and all the &aleodes or sharks and do&fish$ .artila&ino!s fishes then of all kinds ha"e in many instances been obser"ed cop!latin& in the way abo"e mentioned# for by the way in "i"iparo!s animals the process of cop!lation is of lon&er d!ration than in the o"ipara$ It is the same with the dolphin and with all cetaceans# that is to say they come side by side male and female and cop!late and the act e'tends o"er a time which is neither short nor "ery lon&$ A&ain in cartila&ino!s fishes the male in some species differs from the female in the fact that he is f!rnished with two appenda&es han&in& down from abo!t the e'it of the resid!!m and that the female is not so f!rnished# and this distinction between the se'es is obser"ed in all the species of the sharks and do&+fish$ 4ow neither fishes nor any animals de"oid of feet are f!rnished with testicles b!t male serpents and male fishes ha"e a pair of d!cts which fill with milt or sperm at the r!ttin& season and dischar&e in all cases a milk+like )!ice$ These d!cts !nite as in birds# for birds by the way ha"e their testicles in their interior and so ha"e all o"ipara that are f!rnished with feet$ And this !nion of the d!cts is so far contin!ed and of s!ch e'tension as to enter the recepti"e or&an in the female$ In "i"iparo!s animals f!rnished with feet there is o!twardly one and the same d!ct for the sperm and the li*!id resid!!m# b!t there are separate d!cts internally as has been obser"ed in the differentiation of the or&ans$ And with s!ch animals as are not "i"iparo!s the same passa&e ser"es

for the dischar&e also of the solid resid!!m# altho!&h internally there are two passa&es separate b!t near to one another$ And these remarks apply to both male and female# for these animals are !npro"ided with a bladder e'cept in the case of the tortoise# and the she+tortoise tho!&h f!rnished with a bladder has only one passa&e# and tortoises by the way belon& to the o"ipara$ In the case of o"iparo!s fishes the process of coition is less open to obser"ation$ In point of fact some are led by the want of act!al obser"ation to s!rmise that the female becomes impre&nated by swallowin& the seminal fl!id of the male$ And there can be no do!bt that this proceedin& on the part of the female is often witnessed# for at the r!ttin& season the females follow the males and perform this operation and strike the males with their mo!ths !nder the belly and the males are thereby ind!ced to part with the sperm sooner and more plentif!lly$ And f!rther at the spawnin& season the males &o in p!rs!it of the females and as the female spawns the males swallow the e&&s# and the species is contin!ed in e'istence by the spawn that s!r"i"es this process$ On the coast of Ahoenicia they take ad"anta&e of these instincti"e propensities of the two se'es to catch both one and the other: that is to say by !sin& the male of the &rey m!llet as a decoy they collect and net the female and by !sin& the female the male$ The repeated obser"ation of this phenomenon has led to the notion that the process was e*!i"alent to coition b!t the fact is that a similar phenomenon is obser"able in *!adr!peds$ For at the r!ttin& seasons both the males and the females take to r!nnin& at their &enitals and the two se'es take to smellin& each other at those parts$ ,With partrid&es by the way if the female &ets to leeward of the male she becomes thereby impre&nated$ And often when they happen to be in heat she is affected in this wise by the "oice of the male or by his breathin& down on her as he flies o"erhead# and by the way both the male and the female partrid&e keep the mo!th wide open and protr!de the ton&!e in the process of coition$The act!al process of cop!lation on the part of o"iparo!s fishes is seldom acc!rately obser"ed owin& to the fact that they "ery soon fall aside and slip as!nder$ B!t for all that the process has been obser"ed to take place in the manner abo"e described$ : /oll!scs s!ch as the octop!s the sepia and the calamary ha"e se'!al interco!rse all in the same way# that is to say they !nite at the mo!th by an interlacin& of their tentacles$ When then the octop!s rests its so+called head a&ainst the &ro!nd and spreads abroad its tentacles the other se' fits into the o!tspreadin& of these tentacles and the two se'es then brin& their s!ckers into m!t!al conne'ion$ %ome assert that the male has a kind of penis in one of his tentacles the one in which are the lar&est s!ckers# and they f!rther assert that the or&an is tendino!s in character &rowin& attached ri&ht !p to the middle of the tentacle and that the latter enables it to enter the nostril or f!nnel of the female$ 4ow c!ttle+fish and calamaries swim abo!t closely intertwined with mo!ths and tentacles facin& one another and fittin& closely to&ether and swim th!s in opposite directions# and they fit their so+ called nostrils into one another and the one se' swims backwards and the other frontwards d!rin& the operation$ And the female lays its spawn by the so+called (blow+hole# and by the way some declare that it is at this or&an that the coition really takes place$ < .r!staceans cop!late as the crawfish the lobster the carid and the like )!st like the opisth!retic *!adr!peds when the one animal t!rns !p its tail and the other p!ts his tail on the others tail$

.op!lation takes place in the early sprin& near to the shore# and in fact the process has often been obser"ed in the case of all these animals$ %ometimes it takes place abo!t the time when the fi&s be&in to ripen$ Bobsters and carids cop!late in like manner$ .rabs cop!late at the front parts of one another belly to belly throwin& their o"erlappin& operc!la to meet one another: first the smaller crab mo!nts the lar&er at the rear# after he has mo!nted the lar&er one t!rns on one side$ 4ow the female differs in no respect from the male e'cept in the circ!mstance that its operc!l!m is lar&er more ele"ated and more hairy and into this operc!l!m it spawns its e&&s and in the same nei&hbo!rhood is the o!tlet of the resid!!m$ In the cop!lati"e process of these animals there is no protr!sion of a member from one animal into the other$ = Insects cop!late at the hinder end and the smaller indi"id!als mo!nt the lar&er# and the smaller indi"id!al is I I is the male$ The female p!shes from !nderneath her se'!al or&an into the body of the male abo"e this bein& the re"erse of the operation obser"ed in other creat!res# and this or&an in the case of some insects appears to be disproportionately lar&e when compared to the si2e of the body and that too in "ery min!te creat!res# in some insects the disproportion is not so strikin&$ This phenomenon may be witnessed if any one will p!ll as!nder flies that are cop!latin&# and by the way these creat!res are !nder the circ!mstances a"erse to separation# for the interco!rse of the se'es in their case is of lon& d!ration as may be obser"ed with common e"eryday insects s!ch as the fly and the cantharis$ They all cop!late in the manner abo"e described the fly the cantharis the sphondyle ,the phalan&i!m spider- any others of the kind that cop!late at all$ The phalan&ia+ that is to say s!ch of the species as spin webs+perform the operation in the followin& way: the female takes hold of the s!spended web at the middle and &i"es a p!ll and the male &i"es a co!nter p!ll# this operation they repeat !ntil they are drawn in to&ether and interlaced at the hinder ends# for by the way this mode of cop!lation s!its them in conse*!ence of the rot!ndity of their stomachs$ %o m!ch for the modes of se'!al interco!rse in all animals# b!t with re&ard to the same phenomenon there are definite laws followed as re&ards the season of the year and the a&e of the animal$ Animals in &eneral seem nat!rally disposed to this interco!rse at abo!t the same period of the year and that is when winter is chan&in& into s!mmer$ And this is the season of sprin& in which almost all thin&s that fly or walk or swim take to pairin&$ %ome animals pair and breed in a!t!mn also and in winter as is the case with certain a*!atic animals and certain birds$ /an pairs and breeds at all seasons as is the case also with domesticated animals owin& to the shelter and &ood feedin& they en)oy: that is to say with those whose period of &estation is also comparati"ely brief as the sow and the bitch and with those birds that breed fre*!ently$ /any animals time the season of interco!rse with a "iew to the ri&ht n!rt!re s!bse*!ently of their yo!n&$ In the h!man species the male is more !nder se'!al e'citement in winter and the female in s!mmer$ With birds the far &reater part as has been said pair and breed d!rin& the sprin& and early s!mmer with the e'ception of the halcyon$ The halcyon breeds at the season of the winter solstice$ Accordin&ly when this season is marked with calm weather the name of (halcyon days is &i"en to the se"en days precedin& and to as many followin& the solstice# as %imonides the poet says: 1od l!lls for fo!rteen days the winds to sleep

In winter# and this temperate interl!de /en call the 9oly %eason when the deep .radles the mother 9alcyon and her brood$ And these days are calm when so!therly winds pre"ail at the solstice northerly ones ha"in& been the accompaniment of the Aleiads$ The halcyon is said to take se"en days for b!ildin& her nest and the other se"en for layin& and hatchin& her e&&s$ In o!r co!ntry there are not always halcyon days abo!t the time of the winter solstice b!t in the %icilian seas this season of calm is almost periodical$ The bird lays abo!t fi"e e&&s$ > ,The aithyia or di"er and the lar!s or &!ll lay their e&&s on rocks borderin& on the sea two or three at a time# b!t the &!ll lays in the s!mmer and the di"er at the be&innin& of sprin& )!st after the winter solstice and it broods o"er its e&&s as birds do in &eneral$ And neither of these birds resorts to a hidin&+place$The halcyon is the most rarely seen of all birds$ It is seen only abo!t the time of the settin& of the Aleiads and the winter solstice$ When ships are lyin& at anchor in the roads it will ho"er abo!t a "essel and then disappear in a moment and %tesichor!s in one of his poems all!des to this pec!liarity$ The ni&htin&ale also breeds at the be&innin& of s!mmer and lays fi"e or si' e&&s# from a!t!mn !ntil sprin& it retires to a hidin&+place$ Insects cop!late and breed in winter also that is when the weather is fine and so!th winds pre"ail# s!ch I mean as do not hibernate as the fly and the ant$ The &reater part of wild animals brin& forth once and once only in the year e'cept in the case of animals like the hare where the female can become s!perfoetally impre&nated$ In like manner the &reat ma)ority of fishes breed only once a year like the shoal+fishes ,or in other words s!ch as are ca!&ht in nets- the t!nny the pelamys the &rey m!llet the chalcis the mackerel the sciaena the psetta and the like with the e'ception of the labra' or basse# for this fish ,alone amon&st those mentioned- breeds twice a year and the second brood is the weaker of the two$ The trichias and the rock+fishes breed twice a year# the red m!llet breeds thrice a year and is e'ceptional in this respect$ This concl!sion in re&ard to the red m!llet is inferred from the spawn# for the spawn of the fish may be seen in certain places at three different times of the year$ The scorpaena breeds twice a year$ The sar&!e breeds twice in the sprin& and in the a!t!mn$ The sa!pe breeds once a year only in the a!t!mn$ The female t!nny breeds only once a year b!t owin& to the fact that the fish in some cases spawn early and in others late it looks as tho!&h the fish bred twice o"er$ The first spawnin& takes place in December before the solstice and the latter spawnin& in the sprin&$ The male t!nny differs from the female in bein& !npro"ided with the fin beneath the belly which is called aphare!s$ 1@ Of cartila&ino!s fishes the rhina or an&elfish is the only one that breeds twice# for it breeds at the be&innin& of a!t!mn and at the settin& of the Aleiads: and of the two seasons it is in better condition in the a!t!mn$ It en&enders at a birth se"en or ei&ht yo!n&$ .ertain of the do&+fishes for e'ample the spotted do& seem to breed twice a month and this res!lts from the circ!mstance that the e&&s do not all reach mat!rity at the same time$

%ome fishes breed at all seasons as the m!raena$ This animal lays a &reat n!mber of e&&s at a time# and the yo!n& when hatched are "ery small b!t &row with &reat rapidity like the yo!n& of the hipp!r!s for these fishes from bein& dimin!ti"e at the o!tset &row with e'ceptional rapidity to an e'ceptional si2e$ ,Be it obser"ed that the m!raena breeds at all seasons b!t the hipp!r!s only in the sprin&$ The smyr!s differs from the smyraena# for the m!raena is mottled and weakly whereas the smyr!s is stron& and of one !niform colo!r and the colo!r resembles that of the pine+tree and the animal has teeth inside and o!t$ They say that in this case as in other similar ones the one is the male and the other the female of a sin&le species$ They come o!t on to the land and are fre*!ently ca!&ht$- Fishes then as a &eneral r!le attain their f!ll &rowth with &reat rapidity b!t this is especially the case amon& small fishes with the coracine or crow+fish: it spawns by the way near the shore in weedy and tan&led spots$ The orph!s also or sea+perch is small at first and rapidly attains a &reat si2e$ The pelamys and the t!nny breed in the 7!'ine and nowhere else$ The cestre!s or m!llet the chrysophrys or &ilt+head and the labra' or basse breed best where ri"ers r!n into the sea$ The orcys or lar&e+si2ed t!nny the scorpis and many other species spawn in the open sea$ 11 Fish for the most part breed some time or other d!rin& the three months between the middle of /arch and the middle of D!ne$ %ome few breed in a!t!mn: as for instance the sa!pe and the sar&!s and s!ch others of this sort as breed shortly before the a!t!mn e*!ino'# likewise the electric ray and the an&el+fish$ Other fishes breed both in winter and in s!mmer as was pre"io!sly obser"ed: as for instance in winter+time the basse the &rey m!llet and the belone or pipe+fish# and in s!mmer+time from the middle of D!ne to the middle of D!ly the female t!nny abo!t the time of the s!mmer solstice# and the t!nny lays a sac+like enclos!re in which are contained a n!mber of small e&&s$ The ryades or shoal+fishes breed in s!mmer$ Of the &rey m!llets the chelon be&ins to be in roe between the middle of 4o"ember and the middle of December# as also the sar&!e and the smy'on or my'on and the cephal!s# and their period of &estation is thirty days$ And by the way some of the &rey m!llet species are not prod!ced from cop!lation b!t &row spontaneo!sly from m!d and sand$ As a &eneral r!le then fishes are in roe in the sprin&+time# while some as has been said are so in s!mmer in a!t!mn or in winter$ B!t whereas the impre&nation in the sprin&+time follows a &eneral law impre&nation in the other seasons does not follow the same r!le either thro!&ho!t or within the limits of one &en!s# and f!rther conception in these "ariant seasons is not so prolific$ And indeed we m!st bear this in mind that )!st as with plants and *!adr!peds di"ersity of locality has m!ch to do not only with &eneral physical health b!t also with the comparati"e fre*!ency of se'!al interco!rse and &eneration so also with re&ard to fishes locality of itself has m!ch to do not only in re&ard to the si2e and "i&o!r of the creat!re b!t also in re&ard to its part!rition and its cop!lations ca!sin& the same species to breed oftener in one place and seldomer in another$ 13 The moll!scs also breed in sprin&$ Of the marine moll!scs one of the first to breed is the sepia$ It spawns at all times of the day and its period of &estation is fifteen days$ After the female has laid her e&&s the male comes and dischar&es the milt o"er the e&&s and the e&&s there!pon harden$ And the two se'es of this animal &o abo!t in pairs side by side# and the male is more mottled and more black on the back than the female$

The octop!s pairs in winter and breeds in sprin& lyin& hidden for abo!t two months$ Its spawn is shaped like a "ine+tendril and resembles the fr!it of the white poplar# the creat!re is e'traordinarily prolific for the n!mber of indi"id!als that come from the spawn is somethin& incalc!lable$ The male differs from the female in the fact that its head is lon&er and that the or&an called by the fishermen its penis in the tentacle is white$ The female after layin& her e&&s broods o"er them and in conse*!ence &ets o!t of condition by reason of not &oin& in *!est of food d!rin& the hatchin& period$ The p!rple m!re' breeds abo!t sprin&time and the cery' at the close of the winter$ And as a &eneral r!le the testaceans are fo!nd to be f!rnished with their so+called e&&s in sprin&+time and in a!t!mn with the e'ception of the edible !rchin# for this animal has the so+called e&&s in most ab!ndance in these seasons b!t at no season is !nf!rnished with them# and it is f!rnished with them in especial ab!ndance in warm weather or when a f!ll moon is in the sky$ Only by the way these remarks do not apply to the sea+!rchin fo!nd in the Ayrrhaean %traits for this !rchin is at its best for table p!rposes in the winter# and these !rchins are small b!t f!ll of e&&s$ %nails are fo!nd by obser"ations to become in all cases impre&nated abo!t the same season$ 15 ,Of birds the wild species as has been stated as a &eneral r!le pair and breed only once a year$ The swallow howe"er and the blackbird breed twice$ With re&ard to the blackbird howe"er its first brood is killed by inclemency of weather ,for it is the earliest of all birds to breed- b!t the second brood it !s!ally s!cceeds in rearin&$ Birds that are domesticated or that are capable of domestication breed fre*!ently )!st as the common pi&eon breeds all thro!&h the s!mmer and as is seen in the barn+door hen# for the barn+ door cock and hen ha"e interco!rse and the hen breeds at all seasons alike: e'ceptin& by the way d!rin& the days abo!t the winter solstice$ Of the pi&eon family there are many di"ersities# for the peristera or common pi&eon is not identical with the peleias or rock+pi&eon$ In other words the rock+pi&eon is smaller than the common pi&eon and is less easily domesticated# it is also black and small red+footed and ro!&h+footed# and in conse*!ence of these pec!liarities it is ne&lected by the pi&eon+fancier$ The lar&est of all the pi&eon species is the phatta or rin&+do"e# and the ne't in si2e is the oenas or stock+do"e# and the stock+do"e is a little lar&er than the common pi&eon$ The smallest of all the species is the t!rtle+ do"e$ Ai&eons breed and hatch at all seasons if they are f!rnished with a s!nny place and all re*!isites# !nless they are so f!rnished they breed only in the s!mmer$ The sprin& brood is the best or the a!t!mn brood$ At all e"ents witho!t do!bt the prod!ce of the hot season the s!mmer brood is the poorest of the three$16 F!rther animals differ from one another in re&ard to the time of life that is best adapted for se'!al interco!rse$ To be&in with in most animals the secretion of the seminal fl!id and its &enerati"e capacity are not phenomena sim!ltaneo!sly manifested b!t manifested s!ccessi"ely$ Th!s in all animals the earliest secretion of sperm is !nfr!itf!l or if it be fr!itf!l the iss!e is comparati"ely poor and small$ And this phenomenon is especially obser"able in man in "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds and in birds# for in the case of man and the *!adr!ped the offsprin& is smaller and in the case of the bird the e&&$

For animals that cop!late of one and the same species the a&e for mat!rity is in most species tolerably !niform !nless it occ!rs premat!rely by reason of abnormality or is postponed by physical in)!ry$ In man then mat!rity is indicated by a chan&e of the tone of "oice by an increase in si2e and an alteration in appearance of the se'!al or&ans as also in an increase of si2e and alteration in appearance of the breasts# and abo"e all in the hair+&rowth at the p!bes$ /an be&ins to possess seminal fl!id abo!t the a&e of fo!rteen and becomes &enerati"ely capable at abo!t the a&e of twenty+one years$ In other animals there is no hair+&rowth at the p!bes ,for some animals ha"e no hair at all and others ha"e none on the belly or less on the belly than on the back- b!t still in some animals the chan&e of "oice is *!ite ob"io!s# and in some animals other or&ans &i"e indication of the commencin& secretion of the sperm and the onset of &enerati"e capacity$ As a &eneral r!le the female is sharper+toned in "oice than the male and the yo!n& animal than the elder# for by the way the sta& has a m!ch deeper+toned bay than the hind$ /oreo"er the male cries chiefly at r!ttin& time and the female !nder terror and alarm# and the cry of the female is short and that of the male prolon&ed$ With do&s also as they &row old the tone of the bark &ets deeper$ There is a difference obser"able also in the nei&hin&s of horses$ That is to say the female foal has a thin small nei&h and the male foal a small nei&h yet bi&&er and deeper+toned than that of the female and a lo!der one as time &oes on$ And when the yo!n& male and female are two years old and take to breedin& the nei&hin& of the stallion becomes lo!d and deep and that of the mare lo!der and shriller than heretofore# and this chan&e &oes on !ntil they reach the a&e of abo!t twenty years# and after this time the nei&hin& in both se'es becomes weaker and weaker$ As a r!le then as was stated the "oice of the male differs from the "oice of the female in animals where the "oice admits of a contin!o!s and prolon&ed so!nd in the fact that the note in the male "oice is more deep and bass# not howe"er in all animals for the contrary holds &ood in the case of some as for instance in kine: for here the cow has a deeper note than the b!ll and the cal"es a deeper note than the cattle$ And we can th!s !nderstand the chan&e of "oice in animals that !nder&o &eldin&# for male animals that !nder&o this process ass!me the characters of the female$ The followin& are the a&es at which "ario!s animals become capacitated for se'!al commerce$ The ewe and the she+&oat are se'!ally mat!re when one year old and this statement is made more confidently in respect to the she+&oat than to the ewe# the ram and the he+&oat are se'!ally mat!re at the same a&e$ The pro&eny of "ery yo!n& indi"id!als amon& these animals differs from that of other males: for the males impro"e in the co!rse of the second year when they become f!lly mat!re$ The boar and the sow are capable of interco!rse when ei&ht months old and the female brin&s forth when one year old the difference correspondin& to her period of &estation$ The boar is capable of &eneration when ei&ht months old b!t with a sire !nder a year in a&e the litter is apt to be a poor one$ The a&es howe"er are not in"ariable# now and then the boar and the sow are capable of interco!rse when fo!r months old and are capable of prod!cin& a litter which can be reared when si' months old# b!t at times the boar be&ins to be capable of interco!rse when ten months$ 9e contin!es se'!ally mat!re !ntil he is three years old$ The do& and the bitch are as a r!le se'!ally capable and se'!ally recepti"e when a year old and sometimes when ei&ht months old# b!t the priority in date is more common with the do& than with the bitch$ The period of &estation with the bitch is si'ty days or si'ty+one or si'ty+two or si'ty+three at the !tmost# the period is ne"er !nder si'ty days or if it is the litter comes to no &ood$ The bitch after deli"erin& a

litter s!bmits to the male in si' months b!t not before$ The horse and the mare are at the earliest se'!ally capable and se'!ally mat!re when two years old# the iss!e howe"er of parents of this a&e is small and poor$ As a &eneral r!le these animals are se'!ally capable when three years old and they &row better for breedin& p!rposes !ntil they reach twenty years$ The stallion is se'!ally capable !p to the a&e of thirty+three years and the mare !p to forty so that in point of fact the animals are se'!ally capable all their li"es lon&# for the stallion as a r!le li"es for abo!t thirty+fi"e years and the mare for a little o"er forty# altho!&h by the way a horse has known to li"e to the a&e of se"enty+fi"e$ The ass and the she+ass are se'!ally capable when thirty months old# b!t as a r!le they are not &enerati"ely mat!re !ntil they are three years old or three years and a half$ An instance has been known of a she+ass bearin& and brin&in& forth a foal when only a year old$ A cow has been known to cal"e when only a year old and the calf &rew as bi& as mi&ht be e'pected b!t no more$ %o m!ch for the dates in time at which these animals attain to &enerati"e capacity$ In the h!man species the male is &enerati"e at the lon&est !p to se"enty years and the female !p to fifty# b!t s!ch e'tended periods are rare$ As a r!le the male is &enerati"e !p to the a&e of si'ty+ fi"e and to the a&e of forty+fi"e the female is capable of conception$ The ewe bears !p to ei&ht years and if she be caref!lly tended !p to ele"en years# in fact the ram and the ewe are se'!ally capable pretty well all their li"es lon&$ 9e+&oats if they be fat are more or less !nser"iceable for breedin&# and this by the way is the reason why co!ntry folk say of a "ine when it stops bearin& that it is (r!nnin& the &oat$ 9owe"er if an o"er+fat he+&oat be thinned down he becomes se'!ally capable and &enerati"e$ Cams sin&le o!t the oldest ewes for cop!lation and show no re&ard for the yo!n& ones$ And as has been stated the iss!e of the yo!n&er ewes is poorer than that of the older ones$ The boar is &ood for breedin& p!rposes !ntil he is three years of a&e# b!t after that a&e his iss!e deteriorates for after that a&e his "i&o!r is on the decline$ The boar is most capable after a &ood feed and with the first sow it mo!nts# if poorly fed or p!t to many females the cop!lation is abbre"iated and the litter is comparati"ely poor$ The first litter of the sow is the fewest in n!mber# at the second litter she is at her prime$ The animal as it &rows old contin!es to breed b!t the se'!al desire abates$ When they reach fifteen years they become !nprod!cti"e and are &ettin& old$ If a sow be hi&hly fed it is all the more ea&er for se'!al commerce whether old or yo!n&# b!t if it be o"er+fattened in pre&nancy it &i"es the less milk after part!rition$ With re&ard to the a&e of the parents the litter is the best when they are in their prime# b!t with re&ard to the seasons of the year the litter is the best that comes at the be&innin& of winter# and the s!mmer litter the poorest consistin& as it !s!ally does of animals small and thin and flaccid$ The boar if it be well fed is se'!ally capable at all ho!rs ni&ht and day# b!t otherwise is pec!liarly salacio!s early in the mornin&$ As it &rows old the se'!al passion dies away as we ha"e already remarked$ ;ery often a boar when more or less impotent from a&e or debility findin& itself !nable to accomplish the se'!al commerce with d!e speed and &rowin& fati&!ed with the standin& post!re will roll the sow o"er on the &ro!nd and the pair will concl!de the operation side by side of one another$ The sow is s!re of conception if it drops its l!&s in r!ttin& time# if the ears do not th!s drop it may ha"e to r!t a second time before impre&nation takes place$ Bitches do not s!bmit to the male thro!&ho!t their li"es b!t only !ntil they reach a certain mat!rity of years$ As a &eneral r!le they are se'!ally recepti"e and concepti"e !ntil they are twel"e years old# altho!&h by the way cases ha"e been known where do&s and bitches ha"e been respecti"ely

procreati"e and concepti"e to the a&es of ei&hteen and e"en of twenty years$ B!t as a r!le a&e diminishes the capability of &eneration and of conception with these animals as with all others$ The female of the camel is opisth!retic and s!bmits to the male in the way abo"e described# and the season for cop!lation in Arabia is abo!t the month of October$ Its period of &estation is twel"e months# and it is ne"er deli"ered of more than one foal at a time$ The female becomes se'!ally recepti"e and the male se'!ally capable at the a&e of three years$ After part!rition an inter"al of a year elapses before the female is a&ain recepti"e to the male$ The female elephant becomes se'!ally recepti"e when ten years old at the yo!n&est and when fifteen at the oldest# and the male is se'!ally capable when fi"e years old or si'$ The season for interco!rse is sprin&$ The male allows an inter"al of three years to elapse after commerce with a female: and after it has once impre&nated a female it has no interco!rse with her a&ain$ The period of &estation with the female is two years# and only one yo!n& animal is prod!ced at a time in other words it is !niparo!s$ And the embryo is the si2e of a calf two or three months old$ 18 %o m!ch for the cop!lations of s!ch animals as cop!late$ We now proceed to treat of &eneration both with respect to cop!latin& and non+cop!latin& animals and we shall commence with disc!ssin& the s!b)ect of &eneration in the case of the testaceans$ The testacean is almost the only &en!s that thro!&ho!t all its species is non+cop!lati"e$ The porphyrae or p!rple m!rices &ather to&ether to some one place in the sprin&+time and deposit the so+called (honeycomb$ This s!bstance resembles the comb only that it is not so neat and delicate# and looks as tho!&h a n!mber of h!sks of white chick+peas were all st!ck to&ether$ B!t none of these str!ct!res has any open passa&e and the porphyra does not &row o!t of them b!t these and all other testaceans &row o!t of m!d and decayin& matter$ The s!bstance is in fact an e'cretion of the porphyra and the cery'# for it is deposited by the cery' as well$ %!ch then of the testaceans as deposit the honeycomb are &enerated spontaneo!sly like all other testaceans b!t they certainly come in &reater ab!ndance in places where their con&eners ha"e been li"in& pre"io!sly$ At the commencement of the process of depositin& the honeycomb they throw off a slippery m!c!s and of this the h!sklike formations are composed$ These formations then all melt and deposit their contents on the &ro!nd and at this spot there are fo!nd on the &ro!nd a n!mber of min!te porphyrae and porphyrae are ca!&ht at times with these animalc!lae !pon them some of which are too small to be differentiated in form$ If the porphyrae are ca!&ht before prod!cin& this honey+comb they sometimes &o thro!&h the process in fishin&+creels not here and there in the baskets b!t &atherin& to some one spot all to&ether )!st as they do in the sea# and owin& to the narrowness of their new *!arters they cl!ster to&ether like a b!nch of &rapes$ There are many species of the p!rple m!re'# and some are lar&e as those fo!nd off %i&e!m and Bect!m# others are small as those fo!nd in the 7!rip!s and on the coast of .aria$ And those that are fo!nd in bays are lar&e and ro!&h# in most of them the pec!liar bloom from which their name is deri"ed is dark to blackness in others it is reddish and small in si2e# some of the lar&e ones wei&h !pwards of a mina apiece$ B!t the specimens that are fo!nd alon& the coast and on the rocks are small+si2ed and the bloom in their case is of a reddish h!e$ F!rther as a &eneral r!le in northern waters the bloom is blackish and in so!thern waters of a reddish h!e$ The m!re' is ca!&ht in the sprin&+time when en&a&ed in the constr!ction of the honeycomb# b!t it is not ca!&ht at any time abo!t the risin& of the do&+star for at that period it does not feed b!t conceals itself and b!rrows$

The bloom of the animal is sit!ated between the mecon ,or *!asi+li"er- and the neck and the co+ attachment of these is an intimate one$ In colo!r it looks like a white membrane and this is what people e'tract# and if it be remo"ed and s*!ee2ed it stains yo!r hand with the colo!r of the bloom$ There is a kind of "ein that r!ns thro!&h it and this *!asi+"ein wo!ld appear to be in itself the bloom$ And the *!alities by the way of this or&an are astrin&ent$ It is after the m!re' has constr!cted the honeycomb that the bloom is at its worst$ %mall specimens they break in pieces shells and all for it is no easy matter to e'tract the or&an# b!t in dealin& with the lar&er ones they first strip off the shell and then abstract the bloom$ For this p!rpose the neck and mecon are separated for the bloom lies in between them abo"e the so+called stomach# hence the necessity of separatin& them in abstractin& the bloom$ Fishermen are an'io!s always to break the animal in pieces while it is yet ali"e for if it die before the process is completed it "omits o!t the bloom# and for this reason the fishermen keep the animals in creels !ntil they ha"e collected a s!fficient n!mber and can attend to them at their leis!re$ Fishermen in past times !sed not to lower creels or attach them to the bait so that "ery often the animal &ot dropped off in the p!llin& !p# at present howe"er they always attach a basket so that if the animal fall off it is not lost$ The animal is more inclined to slip off the bait if it be f!ll inside# if it be empty it is diffic!lt to shake it off$ %!ch are the phenomena connected with the porphyra or m!re'$ The same phenomena are manifested by the cery' or tr!mpet+shell# and the seasons are the same in which the phenomena are obser"able$ Both animals also the m!re' and the cery' ha"e their operc!la similarly sit!ated+and in fact all the stromboids and this is con&enital with them all# and they feed by protr!din& the so+called ton&!e !nderneath the operc!l!m$ The ton&!e of the m!re' is bi&&er than ones fin&er and by means of it it feeds and perforates conchylia and the shells of its own kind$ Both the m!re' and the cery' are lon& li"ed$ The m!re' li"es for abo!t si' years# and the yearly increase is indicated by a distinct inter"al in the spiral con"ol!tion of the shell$ The m!ssel also constr!cts a honeycomb$ With re&ard to the limnostreae or la&oon oysters where"er yo! ha"e slimy m!d there yo! are s!re to find them be&innin& to &row$ .ockles and clams and ra2or+fishes and scallops row spontaneo!sly in sandy places$ The pinna &rows strai&ht !p from its t!ft of anchorin& fibres in sandy and slimy places# these creat!res ha"e inside them a parasite nicknamed the pinna+&!ard in some cases a small carid and in other cases a little crab# if the pinna be depri"ed of this pinna+&!ard it soon dies$ As a &eneral r!le then all testaceans &row by spontaneo!s &eneration in m!d differin& from one another accordin& to the differences of the material# oysters &rowin& in slime and cockles and the other testaceans abo"e mentioned on sandy bottoms# and in the hollows of the rocks the ascidian and the barnacle and common sorts s!ch as the limpet and the nerites$ All these animals &row with &reat rapidity especially the m!re' and the scallop# for the m!re' and the scallop attain their f!ll &rowth in a year$ In some of the testaceans white crabs are fo!nd "ery dimin!ti"e in si2e# they are most n!mero!s in the tro!&h shaped m!ssel$ In the pinna also is fo!nd the so+called pinna+&!ard$ They are fo!nd also in the scallop and in the oyster# these parasites ne"er appear to &row in si2e$ Fishermen declare that the parasite is con&enital with the lar&er animal$ ,%callops b!rrow for a time in the sand like the m!re'$,%hell+fish then &row in the way abo"e mentioned# and some of them &row in shallow water some on the sea+shore some in rocky places some on hard and stony &ro!nd and some in sandy places$%ome shift abo!t from place to place others remain permanent on one spot$ Of those that keep to

one spot the pinnae are rooted to the &ro!nd# the ra2or+fish and the clam keep to the same locality b!t are not so rooted# b!t still if forcibly remo"ed they die$ ,The star+fish is nat!rally so warm that whate"er it lays hold of is fo!nd when s!ddenly taken away from the animal to ha"e !nder&one a process like boilin&$ Fishermen say that the star+fish is a &reat pest in the %trait of Ayrrha$ In shape it resembles a star as seen in an ordinary drawin&$ The so+called (l!n&s are &enerated spontaneo!sly$ The shells that painters !se are a &ood deal thicker and the bloom is o!tside the shell on the s!rface$ These creat!res are mostly fo!nd on the coast of .aria$The hermit+crab &rows spontaneo!sly o!t of soil and slime and finds its way into !ntenanted shells$ As it &rows it shifts to a lar&er shell as for instance into the shell of the nerites or of the stromb!s or the like and "ery often into the shell of the small cery'$ After enterin& new shell it carries it abo!t and be&ins a&ain to feed and by and by as it &rows it shifts a&ain into another lar&er one$ 1: /oreo"er the animals that are !nf!rnished with shells &row spontaneo!sly like the testaceans as for instance the sea+nettles and the spon&es in rocky ca"es$ Of the sea+nettle or sea+anemone there are two species# and of these one species li"es in hollows and ne"er loosens its hold !pon the rocks and the other li"es on smooth flat reefs free and detached and shifts its position from time to time$ ,Bimpets also detach themsel"es and shift from place to place$In the chambered ca"ities of spon&es pinna+&!ards or parasites are fo!nd$ And o"er the chambers there is a kind of spiders web by the openin& and closin& of which they catch m!te fishes# that is to say they open the web to let the fish &et in and close it a&ain to entrap them$ Of spon&es there are three species# the first is of loose poro!s te't!re the second is close te't!red the third which is nicknamed (the spon&e of Achilles is e'ceptionally fine and close+te't!red and stron&$ This spon&e is !sed as a linin& to helmets and &rea"es for the p!rpose of deadenin& the so!nd of the blow# and this is a "ery scarce species$ Of the close te't!red spon&es s!ch as are partic!larly hard and ro!&h are nicknamed (&oats$ %pon&es &row spontaneo!sly either attached to a rock or on sea+beaches and they &et their n!triment in slime: a proof of this statement is the fact that when they are first sec!red they are fo!nd to be f!ll of slime$ This is characteristic of all li"in& creat!res that &et their n!triment by close local attachment$ And by the way the close+te't!red spon&es are weaker than the more openly poro!s ones beca!se their attachment e'tends o"er a smaller area$ It is said that the spon&e is sensiti"e# and as a proof of this statement they say that if the spon&e is made aware of an attempt bein& made to pl!ck it from its place of attachment it draws itself to&ether and it becomes a diffic!lt task to detach it$ It makes a similar contractile mo"ement in windy and boistero!s weather ob"io!sly with the ob)ect of ti&htenin& its hold$ %ome persons e'press do!bts as to the tr!th of this assertion# as for instance the people of Torone$ The spon&e breeds parasites worms and other creat!res on which if they be detached the rock+ fishes prey as they prey also on the remainin& st!mps of the spon&e# b!t if the spon&e be broken off it &rows a&ain from the remainin& st!mp and the place is soon as well co"ered as before$

The lar&est of all spon&es are the loose+te't!red ones and these are pec!liarly ab!ndant on the coast of Bycia$ The softest are the close+te't!red spon&es# for by the way the so+called spon&es of Achilles are harder than these$ As a &eneral r!le spon&es that are fo!nd in deep calm waters are the softest# for !s!ally windy and stormy weather has a tendency to harden them ,as it has to harden all similar &rowin& thin&s- and to arrest their &rowth$ And this acco!nts for the fact that the spon&es fo!nd in the 9ellespont are ro!&h and close+te't!red# and as a &eneral r!le spon&es fo!nd beyond or inside .ape /alea are respecti"ely comparati"ely soft or comparati"ely hard$ B!t by the way the habitat of the spon&e sho!ld not be too sheltered and warm for it has a tendency to decay like all similar "e&etable+like &rowths$ And this acco!nts for the fact that the spon&e is at its best when fo!nd in deep water close to shore# for owin& to the depth of the water they en)oy shelter alike from stormy winds and from e'cessi"e heat$ Whilst they are still ali"e and before they are washed and cleaned they are blackish in colo!r$ Their attachment is not made at one partic!lar spot nor is it made all o"er their bodies# for "acant pore+spaces inter"ene$ There is a kind of membrane stretched o"er the !nder parts# and in the !nder parts the points of attachment are the more n!mero!s$ On the top most of the pores are closed b!t fo!r or fi"e are open and "isible# and we are told by some that it is thro!&h these pores that the animal takes its food$ There is a partic!lar species that is named the (aplysia or the (!nwashable from the circ!mstance that it cannot be cleaned$ This species has the lar&e open and "isible pores b!t all the rest of the body is close+te't!red# and if it be dissected it is fo!nd to be closer and more &l!tino!s than the ordinary spon&e and in a word somethin& l!n& like in consistency$ And on all hands it is allowed that this species is sensiti"e and lon&+li"ed$ They are distin&!ished in the sea from ordinary spon&es from the circ!mstance that the ordinary spon&es are white while the slime is in them b!t that these spon&es are !nder any circ!mstances black$ And so m!ch with re&ard to spon&es and to &eneration in the testaceans$ 1< Of cr!staceans the female crawfish after cop!lation concei"es and retains its e&&s for abo!t three months from abo!t the middle of /ay to abo!t the middle of A!&!st# they then lay the e&&s into the folds !nderneath the belly and their e&&s &row like &r!bs$ This same phenomenon is obser"able in moll!scs also and in s!ch fishes as are o"iparo!s# for in all these cases the e&& contin!es to &row$ The spawn of the crawfish is of a loose or &ran!lar consistency and is di"ided into ei&ht parts# for correspondin& to each of the flaps on the side there is a &ristly formation to which the spawn is attached and the entire str!ct!re resembles a cl!ster of &rapes# for each &ristly formation is split into se"eral parts$ This is ob"io!s eno!&h if yo! draw the parts as!nder# b!t at first si&ht the whole appears to be one and indi"isible$ And the lar&est are not those nearest to the o!tlet b!t those in the middle and the farthest off are the smallest$ The si2e of the small e&&s is that of a small seed in a fi&# and they are not *!ite close to the o!tlet b!t placed middleways# for at both ends tailwards and tr!nkwards there are two inter"als de"oid of e&&s# for it is th!s that the flaps also &row$ The side flaps then cannot close b!t by placin& the end flap on them the animal can close !p all and this end+flap ser"es them for a lid$ And in the act of layin& its e&&s it seems to brin& them towards the &ristly formations by c!r"in& the flap of its tail and then s*!ee2in& the e&&s towards the said &ristly formations and maintainin& a bent post!re it performs the act of layin&$ The &ristly

formations at these seasons increase in si2e and become recepti"e of the e&&s# for the animal lays its e&&s into these formations )!st as the sepia lays its e&&s amon& twi&s and driftwood$ It lays its e&&s then in this manner and after hatchin& them for abo!t twenty days it rids itself of them all in one solid l!mp as is *!ite plain from o!tside$ And o!t of these e&&s crawfish form in abo!t fifteen days and these crawfish are ca!&ht at times less then a fin&ers breadth or se"en+ tenths of an inch in len&th$ The animal then lays its e&&s before the middle of %eptember and after the middle of that month throws off its e&&s in a l!mp$ With the h!mped carids or prawns the time for &estation is fo!r months or thereabo!ts$ .rawfish are fo!nd in ro!&h and rocky places lobsters in smooth places and neither crawfish nor lobsters are fo!nd in m!ddy ones# and this acco!nts for the fact that lobsters are fo!nd in the 9ellespont and on the coast of Thasos and crawfish in the nei&hbo!rhood of %i&e!m and /o!nt Athos$ Fishermen accordin&ly when they want to catch these "ario!s creat!res o!t at sea take bearin&s on the beach and elsewhere that tell them where the &ro!nd at the bottom is stony and where soft with slime$ In winter and sprin& these animals keep in near to land in s!mmer they keep in deep water# th!s at "ario!s times seekin& respecti"ely for warmth or coolness$ The so+called arct!s or bear+crab lays its e&&s at abo!t the same time as the crawfish# and conse*!ently in winter and in the sprin&+time before layin& their e&&s they are at their best and after layin& at their worst$ They cast their shell in the sprin&+time ,)!st as serpents shed their so+called (old+a&e or slo!&hboth directly after birth and in later life# this is tr!e both of crabs and crawfish$ And by the way all crawfish are lon& li"ed$ 1= /oll!scs after pairin& and cop!lation lay a white spawn# and this spawn as in the case of the testacean &ets &ran!lar in time$ The octop!s dischar&es into its hole or into a potsherd or into any similar ca"ity a str!ct!re resemblin& the tendrils of a yo!n& "ine or the fr!it of the white poplar as has been pre"io!sly obser"ed$ The e&&s when the female has laid them are cl!stered ro!nd the sides of the hole$ They are so n!mero!s that if they be remo"ed they s!ffice to fill a "essel m!ch lar&er than the animals body in which they were contained$ %ome fifty days later the e&&s b!rst and the little polyp!ses creep o!t like little spiders in &reat n!mbers# the characteristic form of their limbs is not yet to be discerned in detail b!t their &eneral o!tline is clear eno!&h$ And by the way they are so small and helpless that the &reater n!mber perish# it is a fact that they ha"e been seen so e'tremely min!te as to be absol!tely witho!t or&ani2ation b!t ne"ertheless when to!ched they mo"ed$ The e&&s of the sepia look like bi& black myrtle+berries and they are linked all to&ether like a b!nch of &rapes cl!stered ro!nd a centre and are not easily s!ndered from one another: for the male e'!des o"er them some moist &lairy st!ff which constit!tes the sticky &!m$ These e&&s increase in si2e# and they are white at the o!tset b!t black and lar&er after the sprinklin& of the male seminal fl!id$ When it has come into bein& the yo!n& sepia is first distinctly formed inside o!t of the white s!bstance and when the e&& b!rsts it comes o!t$ The inner part is formed as soon as the female lays the e&& somethin& like a hail+stone# and o!t of this s!bstance the yo!n& sepia &rows by a head+attachment )!st as yo!n& birds &row by a belly+attachment$ What is the e'act nat!re of the na"el+attachment has not yet been obser"ed e'cept that as the yo!n& sepia &rows the white s!bstance &rows less and less in si2e and at len&th as happens with the yolk in the case of birds

the white s!bstance in the case of the yo!n& sepia disappears$ In the case of the yo!n& sepia as in the case of the yo!n& of most animals the eyes at first seem "ery lar&e$ To ill!strate this by way of a fi&!re let A represent the o"!m B and . the eyes and D the sepidi!m or body of the little sepia$ ,%ee dia&ram$The female sepia &oes pre&nant in the sprin&+time and lays its e&&s after fifteen days of &estation# after the e&&s are laid there comes in another fifteen days somethin& like a b!nch of &rapes and at the b!rstin& of these the yo!n& sepiae iss!e forth$ B!t if when the yo!n& ones are f!lly formed yo! se"er the o!ter co"erin& a moment too soon the yo!n& creat!res e)ect e'crement and their colo!r chan&es from white to red in their alarm$ .r!staceans then hatch their e&&s by broodin& o"er them as they carry them abo!t beneath their bodies# b!t the octop!s the sepia and the like hatch their e&&s witho!t stirrin& from the spot where they may ha"e laid them and this statement is partic!larly applicable to the sepia# in fact the nest of the female sepia is often seen e'posed to "iew close in to shore$ The female octop!s at times sits broodin& o"er her e&&s and at other times s*!ats in front of her hole stretchin& o!t her tentacles on &!ard$ The sepia lays her spawn near to land in the nei&hbo!rhood of sea+weed or reeds or any off+ sweepin&s s!ch as br!shwood twi&s or stones# and fishermen place heaps of fa&&ots here and there on p!rpose and on to s!ch heaps the female deposits a lon& contin!o!s roe in shape like a "ine tendril$ It lays or spirts o!t the spawn with an effort as tho!&h there were diffic!lty in the process$ The female calamary spawns at sea# and it emits the spawn as does the sepia in the mass$ The calamary and the c!ttle+fish are short+li"ed as with few e'ceptions they ne"er see the year o!t# and the same statement is applicable to the octop!s$ From one sin&le e&& comes one sin&le sepia# and this is likewise tr!e of the yo!n& calamary$ The male calamary differs from the female# for if its &ill+re&ion be dilated and e'amined there are fo!nd two red formations resemblin& breasts with which the male is !npro"ided$ In the sepia apart from this distinction in the se'es the male as has been stated is more mottled than the female$ 1> With re&ard to insects that the male is less than the female and that he mo!nts !pon her back and how he performs the act of cop!lation and the circ!mstance that he &i"es o"er rel!ctantly all this has already been set forth most cases of insect cop!lation this process is speedily followed !p by part!rition$ All insects en&ender &r!bs with the e'ception of a species of b!tterfly# and the female of this species lays a hard e&& resemblin& the seed of the cnec!s with a )!ice inside it$ B!t from the &r!b the yo!n& animal does not &row o!t of a mere portion of it as a yo!n& animal &rows from a portion only of an e&& b!t the &r!b entire &rows and the animal becomes differentiated o!t of it$ And of insects some are deri"ed from insect con&eners as the "enom+spider and the common+ spider from the "enom+spider and the common+spider and so with the attelab!s or loc!st the acris or &rasshopper and the tetti' or cicada$ Other insects are not deri"ed from li"in& parenta&e b!t are &enerated spontaneo!sly: some o!t of dew fallin& on lea"es ordinarily in sprin&+time b!t not seldom in winter when there has been a stretch of fair weather and so!therly winds# others &row in decayin& m!d or d!n&# others in timber &reen or dry# some in the hair of animals# some in the flesh of animals# some in e'crements: and some from e'crement after it has been "oided and some from

e'crement yet within the li"in& animal like the helminthes or intestinal worms$ And of these intestinal worms there are three species: one named the flat+worm another the ro!nd worm and the third the ascarid$ These intestinal worms do not in any case propa&ate their kind$ The flat+worm howe"er in an e'ceptional way clin&s fast to the &!t and lays a thin& like a melon+seed by obser"in& which indication the physician concl!des that his patient is tro!bled with the worm$ The so+called psyche or b!tterfly is &enerated from caterpillars which &row on &reen lea"es chiefly lea"es of the raphan!s which some call crambe or cabba&e$ At first it is less than a &rain of millet# it then &rows into a small &r!b# and in three days it is a tiny caterpillar$ After this it &rows on and on and becomes *!iescent and chan&es its shape and is now called a chrysalis$ The o!ter shell is hard and the chrysalis mo"es if yo! to!ch it$ It attaches itself by cobweb+like filaments and is !nf!rnished with mo!th or any other apparent or&an$ After a little while the o!ter co"erin& b!rsts as!nder and o!t flies the win&ed creat!re that we call the psyche or b!tterfly$ At first when it is a caterpillar it feeds and e)ects e'crement# b!t when it t!rns into the chrysalis it neither feeds nor e)ects e'crement$ The same remarks are applicable to all s!ch insects as are de"eloped o!t of the &r!b both s!ch &r!bs as are deri"ed from the cop!lation of li"in& animals and s!ch as are &enerated witho!t cop!lation on the part of parents$ For the &r!b of the bee the anthrena and the wasp whilst it is yo!n& takes food and "oids e'crement# b!t when it has passed from the &r!b shape to its defined form and become what is termed a (nympha it ceases to take food and to "oid e'crement and remains ti&htly wrapped !p and motionless !ntil it has reached its f!ll si2e when it breaks the formation with which the cell is closed and iss!es forth$ The insects named the hypera and the penia are deri"ed from similar caterpillars which mo"e in an !nd!latory way pro&ressin& with one part and then p!llin& !p the hinder parts by a bend of the body$ The de"eloped insect in each case takes its pec!liar colo!r from the parent caterpillar$ From one partic!lar lar&e &r!b which has as it were horns and in other respects differs from &r!bs in &eneral there comes by a metamorphosis of the &r!b first a caterpillar then the cocoon then the necydal!s# and the creat!re passes thro!&h all these transformations within si' months$ A class of women !nwind and reel off the cocoons of these creat!res and afterwards wea"e a fabric with the threads th!s !nwo!nd# a .oan woman of the name of Aamphila da!&hter of Alate!s bein& credited with the first in"ention of the fabric$ After the same fashion the carab!s or sta&+beetle comes from &r!bs that li"e in dry wood: at first the &r!b is motionless b!t after a while the shell b!rsts and the sta&+beetle iss!es forth$ From the cabba&e is en&endered the cabba&eworm and from the leek the prasoc!ris or leekbane# this creat!re is also win&ed$ From the flat animalc!le that skims o"er the s!rface of ri"ers comes the oestr!s or &adfly# and this acco!nts for the fact that &adflies most abo!nd in the nei&hbo!rhood of waters on whose s!rface these animalc!les are obser"ed$ From a certain small black and hairy caterpillar comes first a win&less &low+worm# and this creat!re a&ain s!ffers a metamorphosis and transforms into a win&ed insect named the bostrych!s ,or hair+c!rl-$ 1nats &row from ascarids# and ascarids are en&endered in the slime of wells or in places where there is a deposit left by the drainin& off of water$ This slime decays and first t!rns white then black and finally blood+red# and at this sta&e there ori&inate in it as it were little tiny bits of red weed which at first wri&&le abo!t all clin&in& to&ether and finally break loose and swim in the water and are here!pon known as ascarids$ After a few days they stand strai&ht !p on the water

motionless and hard and by and by the h!sk breaks off and the &nats are seen sittin& !pon it !ntil the s!ns heat or a p!ff of wind sets them in motion when they fly away$ With all &r!bs and all animals that break o!t from the &r!b state &eneration is d!e primarily to the heat of the s!n or to wind$ Ascarids are more likely to be fo!nd and &row with !n!s!al rapidity in places where there is a deposit of a mi'ed and hetero&eneo!s kind as in kitchens and in plo!&hed fields for the contents of s!ch places are disposed to rapid p!trefaction$ In a!t!mn also owin& to the dryin& !p of moist!re they &row in !n!s!al n!mbers$ The tick is &enerated from co!ch+&rass$ The cockchafer comes from a &r!b that is &enerated in the d!n& of the cow or the ass$ The canthar!s or scarabe!s rolls a piece of d!n& into a ball lies hidden within it d!rin& the winter and &i"es birth therein to small &r!bs from which &r!bs come new canthari$ .ertain win&ed insects also come from the &r!bs that are fo!nd in p!lse in the same fashion as in the cases described$ Flies &row from &r!bs in the d!n& that farmers ha"e &athered !p into heaps: for those who are en&a&ed in this work assid!o!sly &ather !p the compost and this they technically term (workin&+ !p the man!re$ The &r!b is e'ceedin&ly min!te to be&in with# first e"en at this sta&e+it ass!mes a reddish colo!r and then from a *!iescent state it takes on the power of motion as tho!&h born to it# it then becomes a small motionless &r!b# it then mo"es a&ain and a&ain relapses into immobility# it then comes o!t a perfect fly and mo"es away !nder the infl!ence of the s!ns heat or of a p!ff of air$ The myops or horse+fly is en&endered in timber$ The orsodacna or b!dbane is a transformed &r!b# and this &r!b is en&endered in cabba&e+stalks$ The cantharis comes from the caterpillars that are fo!nd on fi&+trees or pear+trees or fir+treesGfor on all these &r!bs are en&endered+and also from caterpillars fo!nd on the do&+rose# and the cantharis takes ea&erly to ill+scented s!bstances from the fact of its ha"in& been en&endered in ill+scented woods$ The conops comes from a &r!b that is en&endered in the slime of "ine&ar$ And by the way li"in& animals are fo!nd in s!bstances that are !s!ally s!pposed to be incapable of p!trefaction# for instance worms are fo!nd in lon&+lyin& snow# and snow of this description &ets reddish in colo!r and the &r!b that is en&endered in it is red as mi&ht ha"e been e'pected and it is also hairy$ The &r!bs fo!nd in the snows of /edia are lar&e and white# and all s!ch &r!bs are little disposed to motion$ In .ypr!s in places where copper+ore is smelted with heaps of the ore piled on day after day an animal is en&endered in the fire somewhat lar&er than a bl!e bottle fly f!rnished with win&s which can hop or crawl thro!&h the fire$ And the &r!bs and these latter animals perish when yo! keep the one away from the fire and the other from the snow$ 4ow the salamander is a clear case in point to show !s that animals do act!ally e'ist that fire cannot destroy# for this creat!re so the story &oes not only walks thro!&h the fire b!t p!ts it o!t in doin& so$ On the ri"er 9ypanis in the .immerian Bosphor!s abo!t the time of the s!mmer solstice there are bro!&ht down towards the sea by the stream what look like little sacks rather bi&&er than &rapes o!t of which at their b!rstin& iss!es a win&ed *!adr!ped$ The insect li"es and flies abo!t !ntil the e"enin& b!t as the s!n &oes down it pines away and dies at s!nset ha"in& li"ed )!st one day from which circ!mstance it is called the ephemeron$ As a r!le insects that come from caterpillars and &r!bs are held at first by filaments resemblin& the threads of a spiders web$

%!ch is the mode of &eneration of the insects abo"e en!merated$ b!t if the latter impre&nation takes placed!rin& the chan&e of the yellow 3@ The wasps that are nicknamed (the ichne!mons ,or h!nters- less in si2e by the way than the ordinary wasp kill spiders and carry off the dead bodies to a wall or some s!ch place with a hole in it# this hole they smear o"er with m!d and lay their &r!bs inside it and from the &r!bs come the h!nter+wasps$ %ome of the coleoptera and of the small and nameless insects make small holes or cells of m!d on a wall or on a &ra"e+stone and there deposit their &r!bs$ With insects as a &eneral r!le the time of &eneration from its commencement to its completion comprises three or fo!r weeks$ With &r!bs and &r!b+like creat!res the time is !s!ally three weeks and in the o"iparo!s insects as a r!le fo!r$ B!t in the case of o"iparo!s insects the e&&+formation comes at the close of se"en days from cop!lation and d!rin& the remainin& three weeks the parent broods o"er and hatches its yo!n&# i$e$ where this is the res!lt of cop!lation as in the case of the spider and its con&eners$ As a r!le the transformations take place in inter"als of three or fo!r days correspondin& to the len&ths of inter"al at which the crises rec!r in intermittent fe"ers$ %o m!ch for the &eneration of insects$ Their death is d!e to the shri"ellin& of their or&ans )!st as the lar&er animals die of old a&e$ Win&ed insects die in a!t!mn from the shrinkin& of their win&s$ The myops dies from dropsy in the eyes$ 31 With re&ard to the &eneration of bees different hypotheses are in "o&!e$ %ome affirm that bees neither cop!late nor &i"e birth to yo!n& b!t that they fetch their yo!n&$ And some say that they fetch their yo!n& from the flower of the callyntr!m# others assert that they brin& them from the flower of the reed others from the flower of the oli"e$ And in respect to the oli"e theory it is stated as a proof that when the oli"e har"est is most ab!ndant the swarms are most n!mero!s$ Others declare that they fetch the brood of the drones from s!ch thin&s as abo"e mentioned b!t that the workin& bees are en&endered by the r!lers of the hi"e$ 4ow of these r!lers there are two kinds: the better kind is red in colo!r the inferior kind is black and "arie&ated# the r!ler is do!ble the si2e of the workin& bee$ These r!lers ha"e the abdomen or part below the waist half as lar&e a&ain and they are called by some the (mothers from an idea that they bear or &enerate the bees# and as a proof of this theory of their motherhood they declare that the brood of the drones appears e"en when there is no r!ler+bee in the hi"e b!t that the bees do not appear in his absence$ Others a&ain assert that these insects cop!late and that the drones are male and the bees female$ The ordinary bee is &enerated in the cells of the comb b!t the r!ler+bees in cells down below attached to the comb s!spended from it apart from the rest si' or se"en in n!mber and &rowin& in a way *!ite different from the mode of &rowth of the ordinary brood$ Bees are pro"ided with a stin& b!t the drones are not so pro"ided$ The r!lers are pro"ided with stin&s b!t they ne"er !se them# and this latter circ!mstance will acco!nt for the belief of some people that they ha"e no stin&s at all$ 33

Of bees there are "ario!s species$ The best kind is a little ro!nd mottled insect# another is lon& and resembles the anthrena# a third is a black and flat+bellied and is nick+named the (robber# a fo!rth kind is the drone the lar&est of all b!t stin&less and inacti"e$ And this proportionate si2e of the drone e'plains why some bee+masters place a net+work in front of the hi"es# for the network is p!t to keep the bi& drones o!t while it lets the little bees &o in$ Of the kin& bees there are as has been stated two kinds$ In e"ery hi"e there are more kin&s than one# and a hi"e &oes to r!in if there be too few kin&s not beca!se of anarchy thereby ens!in& b!t as we are told beca!se these creat!res contrib!te in some way to the &eneration of the common bees$ A hi"e will &o also to r!in if there be too lar&e a n!mber of kin&s in it# for the members of the hi"es are thereby s!bdi"ided into too many separate factions$ Whene"er the sprin&+time is late a+comin& and when there is dro!&ht and mildew then the pro&eny of the hi"e is small in n!mber$ B!t when the weather is dry they attend to the honey and in rainy weather their attention is concentrated on the brood# and this will acco!nt for the coincidence of rich oli"e+har"ests and ab!ndant swarms$ The bees first work at the honeycomb and then p!t the p!pae in it: by the mo!th say those who hold the theory of their brin&in& them from elsewhere$ After p!ttin& in the p!pae they p!t in the honey for s!bsistence and this they do in the s!mmer and a!t!mn# and by the way the a!t!mn honey is the better of the two$ The honeycomb is made from flowers and the materials for the wa' they &ather from the resino!s &!m of trees while honey is distilled from dew and is deposited chiefly at the risin&s of the constellations or when a rainbow is in the sky: and as a &eneral r!le there is no honey before the risin& of the Aleiads$ ,The bee then makes the wa' from flowers$ The honey howe"er it does not make b!t merely &athers what is deposited o!t of the atmosphere# and as a proof of this statement we ha"e the known fact that occasionally bee+keepers find the hi"es filled with honey within the space of two or three days$ F!rthermore in a!t!mn flowers are fo!nd b!t honey if it be withdrawn is not replaced# now after the withdrawal of the ori&inal honey when no food or "ery little is in the hi"es there wo!ld be a fresh stock of honey if the bees made it from flowers$9oney if allowed to ripen and mat!re &athers consistency# for at first it is like water and remains li*!id for se"eral days$ If it be drawn off d!rin& these days it has no consistency# b!t it attains consistency in abo!t twenty days$ The taste of thyme+honey is discernible at once from its pec!liar sweetness and consistency$ The bee &athers from e"ery flower that is f!rnished with a caly' or c!p and from all other flowers that are sweet+tasted witho!t doin& in)!ry to any fr!it# and the )!ices of the flowers it takes !p with the or&an that resembles a ton&!e and carries off to the hi"e$ %warms are robbed of their honey on the appearance of the wild fi&$ They prod!ce the best lar"ae at the time the honey is a+makin&$ The bee carries wa' and bees bread ro!nd its le&s b!t "omits the honey into the cell$ After depositin& its yo!n& it broods o"er it like a bird$ The &r!b when it is small lies slantwise in the comb b!t by and by rises !p strai&ht by an effort of its own and takes food and holds on so ti&htly to the honeycomb as act!ally to clin& to it$ The yo!n& of bees and of drones is white and from the yo!n& come the &r!bs# and the &r!bs &row into bees and drones$ The e&& of the kin& bee is reddish in colo!r and its s!bstance is abo!t as consistent as thick honey# and from the first it is abo!t as bi& as the bee that is prod!ced from it$

From the yo!n& of the kin& bee there is no intermediate sta&e it is said of the &r!b b!t the bee comes at once$ Whene"er the bee lays an e&& in the comb there is always a drop of honey set a&ainst it$ The lar"a of the bee &ets feet and win&s as soon as the cell has been stopped !p with wa' and when it arri"es at its completed form it breaks its membrane and flies away$ It e)ects e'crement in the &r!b state b!t not afterwards# that is not !ntil it has &ot o!t of the encasin& membrane as we ha"e already described$ If yo! remo"e the heads from off the lar"ae before the comin& of the win&s the bees will eat them !p# and if yo! nip off the win&s from a drone and let it &o the bees will spontaneo!sly bite off the win&s from off all the remainin& drones$ The bee li"es for si' years as a r!le as an e'ception for se"en years$ If a swarm lasts for nine years or ten &reat credit is considered d!e to its mana&ement$ In Aont!s are fo!nd bees e'ceedin&ly white in colo!r and these bees prod!ce their honey twice a month$ ,The bees in Themiscyra on the banks of the ri"er Thermodon b!ild honeycombs in the &ro!nd and in hi"es and these honeycombs are f!rnished with "ery little wa' b!t with honey of &reat consistency# and the honeycomb by the way is smooth and le"el$- B!t this is not always the case with these bees b!t only in the winter season# for in Aont!s the i"y is ab!ndant and it flowers at this time of the year and it is from the i"y+flower that they deri"e their honey$ A white and "ery consistent honey is bro!&ht down from the !pper co!ntry to Amis!s which is deposited by bees on trees witho!t the employment of honeycombs: and this kind of honey is prod!ced in other districts in Aont!s$ There are bees also that constr!ct triple honeycombs in the &ro!nd# and these honeycombs s!pply honey b!t ne"er contain &r!bs$ B!t the honeycombs in these places are not all of this sort nor do all the bees constr!ct them$ 35 Anthrenae and wasps constr!ct combs for their yo!n&$ When they ha"e no kin& b!t are wanderin& abo!t in search of one the anthrene constr!cts its comb on some hi&h place and the wasp inside a hole$ When the anthrene and the wasp ha"e a kin& they constr!ct their combs !nder&ro!nd$ Their combs are in all cases he'a&onal like the comb of the bee$ They are composed howe"er not of wa' b!t of a bark+like filamented fibre and the comb of the anthrene is m!ch neater than the comb of the wasp$ Bike the bee they p!t their yo!n& )!st like a drop of li*!id on to the side of the cell and the e&& clin&s to the wall of the cell$ B!t the e&&s are not deposited in the cells sim!ltaneo!sly# on the contrary in some cells are creat!res bi& eno!&h to fly in others are nymphae and in others are mere &r!bs$ As in the case of bees e'crement is obser"ed only in the cells where the &r!bs are fo!nd$ As lon& as the creat!res are in the nymph condition they are motionless and the cell is cemented o"er$ In the comb of the anthrene there is fo!nd in the cell of the yo!n& a drop of honey in front of it$ The lar"ae of the anthrene and the wasp make their appearance not in the sprin& b!t in the a!t!mn# and their &rowth is especially discernible in times of f!ll moon$ And by the way the e&&s and the &r!bs ne"er rest at the bottom of the cells b!t always clin& on to the side wall$ 36 There is a kind of h!mble+bee that b!ilds a cone+shaped nest of clay a&ainst a stone or in some similar sit!ation besmearin& the clay with somethin& like spittle$ And this nest or hi"e is e'ceedin&ly thick and hard# in point of fact one can hardly break it open with a spike$ 9ere the insects lay their e&&s and white &r!bs are prod!ced wrapped in a black membrane$ Apart from the

membrane there is fo!nd some wa' in the honeycomb# and this a wa' is m!ch sallower in h!e than the wa' in the honeycomb of the bee$ 38 Ants cop!late and en&ender &r!bs# and these &r!bs attach themsel"es to nothin& in partic!lar b!t &row on and on from small and ro!nded shapes !ntil they become elon&ated and defined in shape: and they are en&endered in sprin&+time$ 3: The land+scorpion also lays a n!mber of e&& shaped &r!bs and broods o"er them$ When the hatchin& is completed the parent animal as happens with the parent spider is e)ected and p!t to death by the yo!n& ones# for "ery often the yo!n& ones are abo!t ele"en in n!mber$ 3< %piders in all cases cop!late in the way abo"e mentioned and &enerate at first small &r!bs$ And these &r!bs metamorphose in their entirety and not partially into spiders# for by the way the &r!bs are ro!nd+shaped at the o!tset$ And the spider when it lays its e&&s broods o"er them and in three days the e&&s or &r!bs take definite shape$ All spiders lay their e&&s in a web# b!t some spiders lay in a small and fine web and others in a thick one# and some as a r!le lay in a ro!nd+shaped case or caps!le and some are only partially en"eloped in the web$ The yo!n& &r!bs are not all de"eloped at one and the same time into yo!n& spiders# b!t the moment the de"elopment takes place the yo!n& spider makes a leap and be&ins to spin his web$ The )!ice of the &r!b if yo! s*!ee2e it is the same as the )!ice fo!nd in the spider when yo!n&# that is to say it is thick and white$ The meadow spider lays its e&&s into a web one half of which is attached to itself and the other half is free# and on this the parent broods !ntil the e&&s are hatched$ The phalan&ia lay their e&&s in a sort of stron& basket which they ha"e wo"en and brood o"er it !ntil the e&&s are hatched$ The smooth spider is m!ch less prolific than the phalan&i!m or hairy spider$ These phalan&ia when they &row to f!ll si2e "ery often en"elop the mother phalan&i!m and e)ect and kill her# and not seldom they kill the father+phalan&i!m as well if they catch him: for by the way he has the habit of co+operatin& with the mother in the hatchin&$ The brood of a sin&le phalan&i!m is sometimes three h!ndred in n!mber$ The spider attains its f!ll &rowth in abo!t fo!r weeks$ 3= 1rasshoppers ,or loc!sts- cop!late in the same way as other insects# that is to say with the lesser co"erin& the lar&er for the male is smaller than the female$ The females first insert the hollow t!be which they ha"e at their tails in the &ro!nd and then lay their e&&s: and the male by the way is not f!rnished with this t!be$ The females lay their e&&s all in a l!mp to&ether and in one spot so that the entire l!mp of e&&s resembles a honeycomb$ After they ha"e laid their e&&s the e&&s ass!me the shape of o"al &r!bs that are en"eloped by a sort of thin clay like a membrane# in this membrane+like formation they &row on to mat!rity$ The lar"a is so soft that it collapses at a to!ch$ The lar"a is not placed on the s!rface of the &ro!nd b!t a little beneath the s!rface# and when it reaches mat!rity it comes o!t of its clayey in"estit!re in the shape of a little black &rasshopper# by and by the skin inte&!ment strips off and it &rows lar&er and lar&er$ The &rasshopper lays its e&&s at the close of s!mmer and dies after layin& them$ The fact is that at the time of layin& the e&&s &r!bs are en&endered in the re&ion of the mother &rasshoppers neck#

and the male &rasshoppers die abo!t the same time$ In sprin&+time they come o!t of the &ro!nd# and by the way no &rasshoppers are fo!nd in mo!ntaino!s land or in poor land b!t only in flat and loamy land for the fact is they lay their e&&s in cracks of the soil$ D!rin& the winter their e&&s remain in the &ro!nd# and with the comin& of s!mmer the last years lar"a de"elops into the perfect &rasshopper$ 3> The attelabi or loc!sts lay their e&&s and die in like manner after layin& them$ Their e&&s are s!b)ect to destr!ction by the a!t!mn rains when the rains are !n!s!ally hea"y# b!t in seasons of dro!&ht the loc!sts are e'ceedin&ly n!mero!s from the absence of any destr!cti"e ca!se since their destr!ction seems then to be a matter of accident and to depend on l!ck$ 5@ Of the cicada there are two kinds# one small in si2e the first to come and the last to disappear# the other lar&e the sin&in& one that comes last and first disappears$ Both in the small and the lar&e species some are di"ided at the waist to wit the sin&in& ones and some are !ndi"ided# and these latter ha"e no son&$ The lar&e and sin&in& cicada is by some desi&nated the (chirper and the small cicada the (tetti&oni!m or cicadelle$ And by the way s!ch of the tetti&onia as are di"ided at the waist can sin& )!st a little$ The cicada is not fo!nd where there are no trees# and this acco!nts for the fact that in the district s!rro!ndin& the city of .yrene it is not fo!nd at all in the plain co!ntry b!t is fo!nd in &reat n!mbers in the nei&hbo!rhood of the city and especially where oli"e+trees are &rowin&: for an oli"e &ro"e is not thickly shaded$ And the cicada is not fo!nd in cold places and conse*!ently is not fo!nd in any &ro"e that keeps o!t the s!nli&ht$ The lar&e and the small cicada cop!late alike belly to belly$ The male dischar&es sperm into the female as is the case with insects in &eneral and the female cicada has a cleft &enerati"e or&an# and it is the female into which the male dischar&es the sperm$ They lay their e&&s in fallow lands borin& a hole with the pointed or&an they carry in the rear as do the loc!sts likewise# for the loc!st lays its e&&s in !ntilled lands and this fact may acco!nt for their n!mbers in the territory ad)acent to the city of .yrene$ The cicadae also lay their e&&s in the canes on which h!sbandmen prop "ines perforatin& the canes# and also in the stalks of the s*!ill$ This brood r!ns into the &ro!nd$ And they are most n!mero!s in rainy weather$ The &r!b on attainin& f!ll si2e in the &ro!nd becomes a tetti&ometra ,or nymph- and the creat!re is sweetest to the taste at this sta&e before the h!sk is broken$ When the s!mmer solstice comes the creat!re iss!es from the h!sk at ni&ht+time and in a moment as the h!sk breaks the lar"a becomes the perfect cicada$ creat!re also at once t!rns black in colo!r and harder and lar&er and takes to sin&in&$ In both species the lar&er and the smaller it is the male that sin&s and the female that is !n"ocal$ At first the males are the sweeter eatin&# b!t after cop!lation the females as they are f!ll then of white e&&s$ If yo! make a s!dden noise as they are flyin& o"erhead they let drop somethin& like water$ .o!ntry people in re&ard to this say that they are "oidin& !rine ie$ that they ha"e an e'crement and that they feed !pon dew$ If yo! present yo!r fin&er to a cicada and bend back the tip of it and then e'tend it a&ain it will end!re the presentation more *!ietly than if yo! were to keep yo!r fin&er o!tstretched alto&ether#

and it will set to climbin& yo!r fin&er: for the creat!re is so weak+si&hted that it will take to climbin& yo!r fin&er as tho!&h that were a mo"in& leaf$ 51 Of insects that are not carni"oro!s b!t that li"e on the )!ices of li"in& flesh s!ch as lice and fleas and b!&s all witho!t e'ception &enerate what are called (nits and these nits &enerate nothin&$ Of these insects the flea is &enerated o!t of the sli&htest amo!nt of p!trefyin& matter# for where"er there is any dry e'crement a flea is s!re to be fo!nd$ B!&s are &enerated from the moist!re of li"in& animals as it dries !p o!tside their bodies$ Bice are &enerated o!t of the flesh of animals$ When lice are comin& there is a kind of small er!ption "isible !naccompanied by any dischar&e of p!r!lent matter# and if yo! prick an animal when in this condition at the spot of er!ption the lice )!mp o!t$ In some men the appearance of lice is a disease in cases where the body is s!rchar&ed with moist!re# and indeed men ha"e been known to s!cc!mb to this lo!se+disease as Alcman the poet and the %yrian Aherecydes are said to ha"e done$ /oreo"er in certain diseases lice appear in &reat ab!ndance$ There is also a species of lo!se called the (wild lo!se and this is harder than the ordinary lo!se and there is e'ceptional diffic!lty in &ettin& the skin rid of it$ Boys heads are apt to be lo!sy b!t mens in less de&ree# and women are more s!b)ect to lice than men$ B!t whene"er people are tro!bled with lo!sy heads they are less than ordinarily tro!bled with headache$ And lice are &enerated in other animals than man$ For birds are infested with them# and pheasants !nless they clean themsel"es in the d!st are act!ally destroyed by them$ All other win&ed animals that are f!rnished with feathers are similarly infested and all hair+coated creat!res also with the sin&le e'ception of the ass which is infested neither with lice nor with ticks$ .attle s!ffer both from lice and from ticks$ %heep and &oats breed ticks b!t do not breed lice$ Ai&s breed lice lar&e and hard$ In do&s are fo!nd the flea pec!liar to the animal the .ynoroestes$ In all animals that are s!b)ect to lice the latter ori&inate from the animals themsel"es$ /oreo"er in animals that bathe at all lice are more than !s!ally ab!ndant when they chan&e the water in which they bathe$ In the sea lice are fo!nd on fishes b!t they are &enerated not o!t of the fish b!t o!t of slime# and they resemble m!ltipedal wood+lice only that their tail is flat$ %ea+lice are !niform in shape and !ni"ersal in locality and are partic!larly n!mero!s on the body of the red m!llet$ And all these insects are m!ltipedal and de"oid of blood$ The parasite that feeds on the t!nny is fo!nd in the re&ion of the fins# it resembles a scorpion and is abo!t the si2e of a spider$ In the seas between .yrene and 7&ypt there is a fish that attends on the dolphin which is called the (dolphins lo!se$ This fish &ets e'ceedin&ly fat from en)oyin& an ab!ndance of food while the dolphin is o!t in p!rs!it of its prey$ 53 Other animalc!les besides these are &enerated as we ha"e already remarked some in wool or in articles made of wool as the ses or clothes+moth$ And these animalc!les come in &reater n!mbers if the woollen s!bstances are d!sty# and they come in especially lar&e n!mbers if a spider be sh!t !p in the cloth or wool for the creat!re drinks !p any moist!re that may be there and dries !p the woollen s!bstance$ This &r!b is fo!nd also in mens clothes$

A creat!re is also fo!nd in wa' lon& laid by )!st as in wood and it is the smallest of animalc!les and is white in colo!r and is desi&nated the acari or mite$ In books also other animalc!les are fo!nd some resemblin& the &r!bs fo!nd in &arments and some resemblin& tailless scorpions b!t "ery small$ As a &eneral r!le we may state that s!ch animalc!les are fo!nd in practically anythin& both in dry thin&s that are becomin& moist and in moist thin&s that are dryin& pro"ided they contain the conditions of life$ There is a &r!b entitled the (fa&&ot+bearer as stran&e a creat!re as is known$ Its head pro)ects o!tside its shell mottled in colo!r and its feet are near the end or ape' as is the case with &r!bs in &eneral# b!t the rest of its body is cased in a t!nic as it were of spiders web and there are little dry twi&s abo!t it that look as tho!&h they had st!ck by accident to the creat!re as it went walkin& abo!t$ B!t these twi&+like formations are nat!rally connected with the t!nic for )!st as the shell is with the body of the snail so is the whole s!perstr!ct!re with o!r &r!b# and they do not drop off b!t can only be torn off as tho!&h they were all of a piece with him and the remo"al of the t!nic is as fatal to this &r!b as the remo"al of the shell wo!ld be to the snail$ In co!rse of time this &r!b becomes a chrysalis as is the case with the silkworm and li"es in a motionless condition$ B!t as yet it is not known into what win&ed condition it is transformed$ The fr!it of the wild fi& contains the psen or fi&+wasp$ This creat!re is a &r!b at first# b!t in d!e time the h!sk peels off and the psen lea"es the h!sk behind it and flies away and enters into the fr!it of the fi&+tree thro!&h its orifice and ca!ses the fr!it not to drop off# and with a "iew to this phenomenon co!ntry folk are in the habit of tyin& wild fi&s on to fi&+trees and of plantin& wild fi&+trees near domesticated ones$ 55 In the case of animals that are *!adr!peds and red+blooded and o"iparo!s &eneration takes place in the sprin& b!t cop!lation does not take place in an !niform season$ In some cases it takes place in the sprin& in others in s!mmer time and in others in the a!t!mn accordin& as the s!bse*!ent season may be fa"o!rable for the yo!n&$ The tortoise lays e&&s with a hard shell and of two colo!rs within like birds e&&s and after layin& them b!ries them in the &ro!nd and treads the &ro!nd hard o"er them# it then broods o"er the e&&s on the s!rface of the &ro!nd and hatches the e&&s the ne't year$ The hemys or fresh+water tortoise lea"es the water and lays its e&&s$ It di&s a hole of a casklike shape and deposits therein the e&&s# after rather less than thirty days it di&s the e&&s !p a&ain and hatches them with &reat rapidity and leads its yo!n& at once off to the water$ The sea+t!rtle lays on the &ro!nd e&&s )!st like the e&&s of domesticated birds b!ries the e&&s in the &ro!nd and broods o"er them in the ni&ht+time$ It lays a "ery &reat n!mber of e&&s amo!ntin& at times to one h!ndred$ Bi2ards and crocodiles terrestrial and fl!"ial lay e&&s on land$ The e&&s of li2ards hatch spontaneo!sly on land for the li2ard does not li"e on into the ne't year# in fact the life of the animal is said not to e'ceed si' months$ The ri"er+crocodile lays a n!mber of e&&s si'ty at the most white in colo!r and broods o"er them for si'ty days: for by the way the creat!re is "ery lon&+li"ed$ And the disproportion is more marked in this animal than in any other between the smallness of the ori&inal e&& and the h!&e si2e of the f!ll+&rown animal$ For the e&& is not lar&er than that of the &oose and the yo!n& crocodile is small answerin& to the e&& in si2e b!t the f!ll+ &rown animal attains the len&th of twenty+si' feet# in fact it is act!ally stated that the animal &oes on &rowin& to the end of its days$

56 With re&ard to serpents or snakes the "iper is e'ternally "i"iparo!s ha"in& been pre"io!sly o"iparo!s internally$ The e&& as with the e&& of fishes is !niform in colo!r and soft+skinned$ The yo!n& serpent &rows on the s!rface of the e&& and like the yo!n& of fishes has no shell+like en"elopment$ The yo!n& of the "iper is born inside a membrane that b!rsts from off the yo!n& creat!re in three days# and at times the yo!n& "iper eats its way o!t from the inside of the e&&$ The mother "iper brin&s forth all its yo!n& in one day twenty in n!mber and one at a time$ The other serpents are e'ternally o"iparo!s and their e&&s are str!n& on to one another like a ladys necklace# after the dam has laid her e&&s in the &ro!nd she broods o"er them and hatches the e&&s in the followin& year$

Book VI
1 %o m!ch for the &enerati"e processes in snakes and insects and also in o"iparo!s *!adr!peds$ Birds witho!t e'ception lay e&&s b!t the pairin& season and the times of part!rition are not alike for all$ %ome birds co!ple and lay at almost any time in the year as for instance the barn+door hen and the pi&eon: the former of these co!plin& and layin& d!rin& the entire year with the e'ception of the month before and the month after the winter solstice$ %ome hens e"en in the hi&h breeds lay a lar&e *!antity of e&&s before broodin& amo!ntin& to as many as si'ty# and by the way the hi&her breeds are less prolific than the inferior ones$ The Adrian hens are small+si2ed b!t they lay e"ery day# they are cross+tempered and often kill their chickens# they are of all colo!rs$ %ome domesticated hens lay twice a day# indeed instances ha"e been known where hens after e'hibitin& e'treme fec!ndity ha"e died s!ddenly$ 9ens then lay e&&s as has been stated at all times indiscriminately# the pi&eon the rin&+do"e the t!rtle+do"e and the stock+do"e lay twice a year and the pi&eon act!ally lays ten times a year$ The &reat ma)ority of birds lay d!rin& the sprin&+time$ %ome birds are prolific and prolific in either of two ways+either by layin& often as the pi&eon or by layin& many e&&s at a sittin& as the barn+door hen$ All birds of prey or birds with crooked talons are !nprolific e'cept the kestrel: this bird is the most prolific of birds of prey# as many as fo!r e&&s ha"e been obser"ed in the nest and occasionally it lays e"en more$ Birds in &eneral lay their e&&s in nests b!t s!ch as are dis*!alified for fli&ht as the partrid&e and the *!ail do not lay them in nests b!t on the &ro!nd and co"er them o"er with loose material$ The same is the case with the lark and the tetri'$ These birds hatch in sheltered places# b!t the bird called merops in Boeotia alone of all birds b!rrows into holes in the &ro!nd and hatches there$ Thr!shes like swallows b!ild nests of clay on hi&h trees and b!ild them in rows all close to&ether so that from their contin!ity the str!ct!re resembles a necklace of nests$ Of all birds that hatch for themsel"es the hoopoe is the only one that b!ilds no nest whate"er# it &ets into the hollow of the tr!nk of a tree and lays its e&&s there witho!t makin& any sort of nest$ The circ!s b!ilds either !nder a dwellin&+roof or on cliffs$ The tetri' called o!ra' in Athens b!ilds neither on the &ro!nd nor on trees b!t on low+lyin& shr!bs$ 3 The e&& in the case of all birds alike is hard+shelled if it be the prod!ce of cop!lation and be laid by a healthy hen+for some hens lay soft e&&s$ The interior of the e&& is of two colo!rs and the white part is o!tside and the yellow part within$

The e&&s of birds that fre*!ent ri"ers and marshes differ from those of birds that li"e on dry land# that is to say the e&&s of waterbirds ha"e comparati"ely more of the yellow or yolk and less of the white$ 7&&s "ary in colo!r accordin& to their kind$ %ome e&&s are white as those of the pi&eon and of the partrid&e# others are yellowish as the e&&s of marsh birds# in some cases the e&&s are mottled as the e&&s of the &!inea+fowl and the pheasant# while the e&&s of the kestrel are red like "ermilion$ 7&&s are not symmetrically shaped at both ends: in other words one end is comparati"ely sharp and the other end is comparati"ely bl!nt# and it is the latter end that protr!des first at the time of layin&$ Bon& and pointed e&&s are female# those that are ro!nd or more ro!nded at the narrow end are male$ 7&&s are hatched by the inc!bation of the mother+bird$ In some cases as in 7&ypt they are hatched spontaneo!sly in the &ro!nd by bein& b!ried in d!n& heaps$ A story is told of a toper in %yrac!se how he !sed to p!t e&&s into the &ro!nd !nder his r!sh+mat and to keep on drinkin& !ntil he hatched them$ Instances ha"e occ!rred of e&&s bein& deposited in warm "essels and &ettin& hatched spontaneo!sly$ The sperm of birds as of animals in &eneral is white$ After the female has s!bmitted to the male she draws !p the sperm to !nderneath her midriff$ At first it is little in si2e and white in colo!r# by and by it is red the colo!r of blood# as it &rows it becomes pale and yellow all o"er$ When at len&th it is &ettin& ripe for hatchin& it is s!b)ect to differentiation of s!bstance and the yolk &athers to&ether within and the white settles ro!nd it on the o!tside$ When the f!ll time is come the e&& detaches itself and protr!des chan&in& from soft to hard with s!ch temporal e'actit!de that whereas it is not hard d!rin& the process of protr!sion it hardens immediately after the process is completed: that is if there be no concomitant patholo&ical circ!mstances$ .ases ha"e occ!rred where s!bstances resemblin& the e&& at a critical point of its &rowth+that is when it is yellow all o"er as the yolk is s!bse*!ently+ha"e been fo!nd in the cock when c!t open !nderneath his midriff )!st where the hen has her e&&s# and these are entirely yellow in appearance and of the same si2e as ordinary e&&s$ %!ch phenomena are re&arded as !nnat!ral and portento!s$ %!ch as affirm that wind+e&&s are the resid!a of e&&s pre"io!sly be&otten from cop!lation are mistaken in this assertion for we ha"e cases well a!thenticated where chickens of the common hen and &oose ha"e laid wind+e&&s witho!t e"er ha"in& been s!b)ected to cop!lation$ Wind+e&&s are smaller less palatable and more li*!id than tr!e e&&s and are prod!ced in &reater n!mbers$ When they are p!t !nder the mother bird the li*!id contents ne"er coa&!late b!t both the yellow and the white remain as they were$ Wind+e&&s are laid by a n!mber of birds: as for instance by the common hen the hen partrid&e the hen pi&eon the peahen the &oose and the "!lpanser$ 7&&s are hatched !nder broodin& hens more rapidly in s!mmer than in winter# that is to say hens hatch in ei&hteen days in s!mmer b!t occasionally in winter take as many as twenty+fi"e$ And by the way for broodin& p!rposes some birds make better mothers than others$ If it th!nders while a hen+bird is broodin& the e&&s &et addled$ Wind+e&&s that are called by some cynos!ra and !ria are prod!ced chiefly in s!mmer$ Wind+e&&s are called by some 2ephyr+e&&s beca!se at sprin&+time hen+birds are obser"ed to inhale the bree2es# they do the same if they be stroked in a pec!liar way by hand$ Wind+e&&s can t!rn into fertile e&&s and e&&s d!e to pre"io!s cop!lation can chan&e breed if before the chan&e of the yellow to the white the hen that contains wind+e&&s or e&&s be&otten of cop!lation be trodden by another cock+bird$ ?nder these circ!mstances the wind+e&&s t!rn into fertile e&&s and the pre"io!sly impre&nated e&&s follow the breed of the impre&nator# b!t if the latter impre&nation takes place d!rin& the chan&e of the yellow to the white then no chan&e in the e&& takes place: the wind+e&& does not become a tr!e e&& and the tr!e e&& does not take on the

breed of the latter impre&nator$ If when the e&&+s!bstance is small cop!lation be intermitted the pre"io!sly e'istin& e&&+s!bstance e'hibits no increase# b!t if the hen be a&ain s!bmitted to the male the increase in si2e proceeds with rapidity$ The yolk and the white are di"erse not only in colo!r b!t also in properties$ Th!s the yolk con&eals !nder the infl!ence of cold whereas the white instead of con&ealin& is inclined rather to li*!efy$ A&ain the white stiffens !nder the infl!ence of fire whereas the yolk does not stiffen# b!t !nless it be b!rnt thro!&h and thro!&h it remains soft and in point of fact is inclined to set or to harden more from the boilin& than from the roastin& of the e&&$ The yolk and the white are separated by a membrane from one another$ The so+called (hail+stones or treadles that are fo!nd at the e'tremity of the yellow in no way contrib!te towards &eneration as some erroneo!sly s!ppose: they are two in n!mber one below and the other abo"e$ If yo! take o!t of the shells a n!mber of yolks and a n!mber of whites and po!r them into a sa!ce pan and boil them slowly o"er a low fire the yolks will &ather into the centre and the whites will set all aro!nd them$ Ho!n& hens are the first to lay and they do so at the be&innin& of sprin& and lay more e&&s than the older hens b!t the e&&s of the yo!n&er hens are comparati"ely small$ As a &eneral r!le if hens &et no broodin& they pine and sicken$ After cop!lation hens shi"er and shake themsel"es and often kick r!bbish abo!t all ro!nd them+and this by the way they do sometimes after layin&+whereas pi&eons trail their r!mps on the &ro!nd and &eese di"e !nder the water$ .onception of the tr!e e&& and conformation of the wind+e&& take place rapidly with most birds# as for instance with the hen+ partrid&e when in heat$ The fact is that when she stands to windward and within scent of the male she concei"es and becomes !seless for decoy p!rposes: for by the way the partrid&e appears to ha"e a "ery ac!te sense of smell$ The &eneration of the e&& after cop!lation and the &eneration of the chick from the s!bse*!ent hatchin& of the e&& are not bro!&ht abo!t within e*!al periods for all birds b!t differ as to time accordin& to the si2e of the parent+birds$ The e&& of the common hen after cop!lation sets and mat!res in ten days a &eneral r!le# the e&& of the pi&eon in a somewhat lesser period$ Ai&eons ha"e the fac!lty of holdin& back the e&& at the "ery moment of part!rition# if a hen pi&eon be p!t abo!t by any one for instance if it be dist!rbed on its nest or ha"e a feather pl!cked o!t or s!stain any other annoyance or dist!rbance then e"en tho!&h she had made !p her mind to lay she can keep the e&& back in abeyance$ A sin&!lar phenomenon is obser"ed in pi&eons with re&ard to pairin&: that is they kiss one another )!st when the male is on the point of mo!ntin& the female and witho!t this preliminary the male wo!ld decline to perform his f!nction$ With the older males the preliminary kiss is only &i"en to be&in with and s!bse*!ently se*!ently he mo!nts witho!t pre"io!sly kissin&# with yo!n&er males the preliminary is ne"er omitted$ Another sin&!larity in these birds is that the hens tread one another when a cock is not forthcomin& after kissin& one another )!st as takes place in the normal pairin&$ Tho!&h they do not impre&nate one another they lay more e&&s !nder these than !nder ordinary circ!mstances# no chicks howe"er res!lt therefrom b!t all s!ch e&&s are wind+e&&s$ 5 1eneration from the e&& proceeds in an identical manner with all birds b!t the f!ll periods from conception to birth differ as has been said$ With the common hen after three days and three ni&hts there is the first indication of the embryo# with lar&er birds the inter"al bein& lon&er with smaller birds shorter$ /eanwhile the yolk comes into bein& risin& towards the sharp end where the primal element of the e&& is sit!ated and where the e&& &ets hatched# and the heart appears like a speck

of blood in the white of the e&&$ This point beats and mo"es as tho!&h endowed with life and from it two "ein+d!cts with blood in them trend in a con"ol!ted co!rse ,as the e&& s!bstance &oes on &rowin& towards each of the two circ!m)acent inte&!ments-# and a membrane carryin& bloody fibres now en"elops the yolk leadin& off from the "ein+d!cts$ A little afterwards the body is differentiated at first "ery small and white$ The head is clearly distin&!ished and in it the eyes swollen o!t to a &reat e'tent$ This condition of the eyes lat on for a &ood while as it is only by de&rees that they diminish in si2e and collapse$ At the o!tset the !nder portion of the body appears insi&nificant in comparison with the !pper portion$ Of the two d!cts that lead from the heart the one proceeds towards the circ!m)acent inte&!ment and the other like a na"el+strin& towards the yolk$ The life+element of the chick is in the white of the e&& and the n!triment comes thro!&h the na"el+strin& o!t of the yolk$ When the e&& is now ten days old the chick and all its parts are distinctly "isible$ The head is still lar&er than the rest of its body and the eyes lar&er than the head b!t still de"oid of "ision$ The eyes if remo"ed abo!t this time are fo!nd to be lar&er than beans and black# if the c!ticle be peeled off them there is a white and cold li*!id inside *!ite &litterin& in the s!nli&ht b!t there is no hard s!bstance whatsoe"er$ %!ch is the condition of the head and eyes$ At this time also the lar&er internal or&ans are "isible as also the stomach and the arran&ement of the "iscera# and "eins that seem to proceed from the heart are now close to the na"el$ From the na"el there stretch a pair of "eins# one towards the membrane that en"elops the yolk ,and by the way the yolk is now li*!id or more so than is normal- and the other towards that membrane which en"elops collecti"ely the membrane wherein the chick lies the membrane of the yolk and the inter"enin& li*!id$ ,For as the chick &rows little by little one part of the yolk &oes !pward and another part downward and the white li*!id is between them# and the white of the e&& is !nderneath the lower part of the yolk as it was at the o!tset$- On the tenth day the white is at the e'treme o!ter s!rface red!ced in amo!nt &l!tino!s firm in s!bstance and sallow in colo!r$ The disposition of the se"eral constit!ent parts is as follows$ First and o!termost comes the membrane of the e&& not that of the shell b!t !nderneath it$ Inside this membrane is a white li*!id# then comes the chick and a membrane ro!nd abo!t it separatin& it off so as to keep the chick free from the li*!id# ne't after the chick comes the yolk into which one of the two "eins was described as leadin& the other one leadin& into the en"elopin& white s!bstance$ ,A membrane with a li*!id resemblin& ser!m en"elops the entire str!ct!re$ Then comes another membrane ri&ht ro!nd the embryo as has been described separatin& it off a&ainst the li*!id$ ?nderneath this comes the yolk en"eloped in another membrane ,into which yolk proceeds the na"el+strin& that leads from the heart and the bi& "ein- so as to keep the embryo free of both li*!ids$Abo!t the twentieth day if yo! open the e&& and to!ch the chick it mo"es inside and chirps# and it is already comin& to be co"ered with down when after the twentieth day is ast the chick be&ins to break the shell$ The head is sit!ated o"er the ri&ht le& close to the flank and the win& is placed o"er the head# and abo!t this time is plain to be seen the membrane resemblin& an after+birth that comes ne't after the o!termost membrane of the shell into which membrane the one of the na"el+strin&s was described as leadin& ,and by the way the chick in its entirety is now within it- and so also is the other membrane resemblin& an after+birth namely that s!rro!ndin& the yolk into which the second na"el+strin& was described as leadin&# and both of them were described as bein& connected with the heart and the bi& "ein$ At this con)!nct!re the na"el+strin& that leads to the o!ter afterbirth collapses and becomes detached from the chick and the membrane that leads into the yolk is fastened on to the thin &!t of the creat!re and by this time a considerable amo!nt of the yolk is

inside the chick and a yellow sediment is in its stomach$ Abo!t this time it dischar&es resid!!m in the direction of the o!ter after+birth and has resid!!m inside its stomach# and the o!ter resid!!m is white ,and there comes a white s!bstance inside-$ By and by the yolk diminishin& &rad!ally in si2e at len&th becomes entirely !sed !p and comprehended within the chick ,so that ten days after hatchin& if yo! c!t open the chick a small remnant of the yolk is still left in conne'ion with the &!t- b!t it is detached from the na"el and there is nothin& in the inter"al between b!t it has been !sed !p entirely$ D!rin& the period abo"e referred to the chick sleeps wakes !p makes a mo"e and looks !p and .hirps# and the heart and the na"el to&ether palpitate as tho!&h the creat!re were respirin&$ %o m!ch as to &eneration from the e&& in the case of birds$ Birds lay some e&&s that are !nfr!itf!l e"en e&&s that are the res!lt of cop!lation and no life comes from s!ch e&&s by inc!bation# and this phenomenon is obser"ed especially with pi&eons$ Twin e&&s ha"e two yolks$ In some twin e&&s a thin partition of white inter"enes to pre"ent the yolks mi'in& with each other b!t some twin e&&s are !npro"ided with s!ch partition and the yokes r!n into one another$ There are some hens that lay nothin& b!t twin e&&s and in their case the phenomenon re&ardin& the yolks has been obser"ed$ For instance a hen has been known to lay ei&hteen e&&s and to hatch twins o!t of them all e'cept those that were wind+e&&s# the rest were fertile ,tho!&h by the way one of the twins is always bi&&er than the other- b!t the ei&hteenth was abnormal or monstro!s$ 6 Birds of the pi&eon kind s!ch as the rin&do"e and the t!rtle+do"e lay two e&&s at a time# that is to say they do so as a &eneral r!le and they ne"er lay more than three$ The pi&eon as has been said lays at all seasons# the rin&+do"e and the t!rtle+do"e lay in the sprin&time and they ne"er lay more than twice in the same season$ The hen+bird lays the second pair of e&&s when the first pair happens to ha"e been destroyed for many of the hen+pi&eons destroy the first brood$ The hen+pi&eon as has been said occasionally lays three e&&s b!t it ne"er rears more than two chicks and sometimes rears only one# and the odd one is always a wind+e&&$ ;ery few birds propa&ate within their first year$ All birds after once they ha"e be&!n layin& keep on ha"in& e&&s tho!&h in the case of some birds it is diffic!lt to detect the fact from the min!te si2e of the creat!re$ The pi&eon as a r!le lays a male and a female e&& and &enerally lays the male e&& first# after layin& it allows a days inter"al to ens!e and then lays the second e&&$ The male takes its t!rn of sittin& d!rin& the daytime# the female sits d!rin& the ni&ht$ The first+laid e&& is hatched and bro!&ht to birth within twenty days# and the mother bird pecks a hole in the e&& the day before she hatches it o!t$ The two parent birds brood for some time o"er the chicks in the way in which they brooded pre"io!sly o"er the e&&s$ In all connected with the rearin& of the yo!n& the female parent is more cross+tempered than the male as is the case with most animals after part!rition$ The hens lay as many as ten times in the year# occasional instances ha"e been known of their layin& ele"en times and in 7&ypt they act!ally lay twel"e times$ The pi&eon male and female co!ples within the year# in fact it co!ples when only si' months old$ %ome assert that rin&do"es and t!rtle+do"es pair and procreate when only three months old and instance their s!perab!ndant n!mbers by way of proof of the assertion$ The hen+pi&eon carries her e&&s fo!rteen days# for as many more days the parent birds hatch the e&&s# by the end of another fo!rteen days the chicks are so far capable of fli&ht as to be o"ertaken with diffic!lty$ ,The rin&+do"e accordin& to all acco!nts li"es !p to forty

years$ The partrid&e li"es o"er si'teen$- ,After one brood the pi&eon is ready for another within thirty days$8 The "!lt!re b!ilds its nest on inaccessible cliffs# for which reason its nest and yo!n& are rarely seen$ And therefore 9erodor!s father of Bryson the %ophist declares that "!lt!res belon& to some forei&n co!ntry !nknown to !s statin& as a proof of the assertion that no one has e"er seen a "!lt!res nest and also that "!lt!res in &reat n!mbers make a s!dden appearance in the rear of armies$ 9owe"er diffic!lt as it is to &et a si&ht of it a "!lt!res nest has been seen$ The "!lt!re lays two e&&s$ ,.arni"oro!s birds in &eneral are obser"ed to lay b!t once a year$ The swallow is the only carni"oro!s bird that b!ilds a nest twice$ If yo! prick o!t the eyes of swallow chicks while they are yet yo!n& the birds will &et well a&ain and will see by and by$: The ea&le lays three e&&s and hatches two of them as it is said in the "erses ascribed to /!sae!s: That lays three hatches two and cares for one$ This is the case in most instances tho!&h occasionally a brood of three has been obser"ed$ As the yo!n& ones &row the mother becomes wearied with feedin& them and e'tr!des one of the pair from the nest$ At the same time the bird is said to abstain from food to a"oid harryin& the yo!n& of wild animals$ That is to say its win&s blanch and for some days its talons &et t!rned awry$ It is in conse*!ence abo!t this time cross+tempered to its own yo!n&$ The phene is said to rear the yo!n& one that has been e'pelled the nest$ The ea&le broods for abo!t thirty days$ The hatchin& period is abo!t the same for the lar&er birds s!ch as the &oose and the &reat b!stard# for the middle+si2ed birds it e'tends o"er abo!t twenty days as in the case of the kite and the hawk$ The kite in &eneral lays two e&&s b!t occasionally rears three yo!n& ones$ The so+called ae&oli!s at times rears fo!r$ It is not tr!e that as some a"er the ra"en lays only two e&&s# it lays a lar&er n!mber$ It broods for abo!t twenty days and then e'tr!des its yo!n&$ Other birds perform the same operation# at all e"ents mother birds that lay se"eral e&&s often e'tr!de one of their yo!n&$ Birds of the ea&le species are not alike in the treatment of their yo!n&$ The white+tailed ea&le is cross the black ea&le is affectionate in the feedin& of the yo!n&# tho!&h by the way all birds of prey when their brood is rather forward in bein& able to fly beat and e'tr!de them from the nest$ The ma)ority of birds other than birds of prey as has been said also act in this manner and after feedin& their yo!n& take no f!rther care of them# b!t the crow is an e'ception$ This bird for a considerable time takes char&e of her yo!n&# for e"en when her yo!n& can fly she flies alon&side of them and s!pplies them with food$ < The c!ckoo is said by some to be a hawk transformed beca!se at the time of the c!ckoos comin& the hawk which it resembles is ne"er seen# and indeed it is only for a few days that yo! will see hawks abo!t when the c!ckoos note so!nds early in the season$ The c!ckoo appears only for a short time in s!mmer and in winter disappears$ The hawk has crooked talons which the c!ckoo has not# neither with re&ard to the head does the c!ckoo resemble the hawk$ In point of fact both as re&ards the head and the claws it more resembles the pi&eon$ 9owe"er in colo!r and in colo!r alone it does resemble the hawk only that the markin&s of the hawk are striped and of the c!ckoo

mottled$ And by the way in si2e and fli&ht it resembles the smallest of the hawk tribe which bird disappears as a r!le abo!t the time of the appearance of the c!ckoo tho!&h the two ha"e been seen sim!ltaneo!sly$ The c!ckoo has been seen to be preyed on by the hawk# and this ne"er happens between birds of the same species$ They say no one has e"er seen the yo!n& of the c!ckoo$ The bird e&&s b!t does not b!ild a nest$ %ometimes it lays its e&&s in the nest of a smaller bird after first de"o!rin& the e&&s of this bird# it lays by preference in the nest of the rin&do"e after first de"o!rin& the e&&s of the pi&eon$ ,It occasionally lays two b!t !s!ally one$- It lays also in the nest of the hypolais and the hypolais hatches and rears the brood$ It is abo!t this time that the bird becomes fat and palatable$ ,The yo!n& of hawks also &et palatable and fat$ One species b!ilds a nest in the wilderness and on sheer and inaccessible cliffs$= With most birds as has been said of the pi&eon the hatchin& is carried on by the male and the female in t!rns: with some birds howe"er the male only sits lon& eno!&h to allow the female to pro"ide herself with food$ In the &oose tribe the female alone inc!bates and after once sittin& on the e&&s she contin!es broodin& !ntil they are hatched$ The nests of all marsh+birds are b!ilt in districts fenny and well s!pplied with &rass# conse*!ently the mother+bird while sittin& *!iet on her e&&s can pro"ide herself with food witho!t ha"in& to s!bmit to absol!te fastin&$ With the crow also the female alone broods and broods thro!&ho!t the whole period# the male bird s!pports the female brin&in& her food and feedin& her$ The female of the rin&+do"e be&ins to brood in the afternoon and broods thro!&h the entire ni&ht !ntil breakfast+time of the followin& day# the male broods d!rin& the rest of the time$ Aartrid&es b!ild a nest in two compartments# the male broods on the one and the female on the other$ After hatchin& each of the parent birds rears its brood$ B!t the male when he first takes his yo!n& o!t of the nest treads them$ > Aeafowl li"e for abo!t twenty+fi"e years breed abo!t the third year and at the same time take on their span&led pl!ma&e$ They hatch their e&&s within thirty days or rather more$ The peahen lays b!t once a year and lays twel"e e&&s or may be a sli&htly lesser n!mber: she does not lay all the e&&s there and then one after the other b!t at inter"als of two or three days$ %!ch as lay for the first time lay abo!t ei&ht e&&s$ The peahen lays wind+e&&s$ They pair in the sprin&# and layin& be&ins immediately after pairin&$ The bird mo!lts when the earliest trees are sheddin& their lea"es and reco"ers its pl!ma&e when the same trees are reco"erin& their folia&e$ Aeople that rear peafowl p!t the e&&s !nder the barn+door hen owin& to the fact that when the peahen is broodin& o"er them the peacock attacks her and tries to trample on them# owin& to this circ!mstance some birds of wild "arieties r!n away from the males and lay their e&&s and brood in solit!de$ Only two e&&s are p!t !nder a barn+door hen for she co!ld not brood o"er and hatch a lar&e n!mber$ They take e"ery preca!tion by s!pplyin& her with food to pre"ent her &oin& off the e&&s and discontin!in& the broodin&$ With male birds abo!t pairin& time the testicles are ob"io!sly lar&er than at other times and this is conspic!o!sly the case with the more salacio!s birds s!ch as the barn+door cock and the cock partrid&e# the pec!liarity is less conspic!o!s in s!ch birds as are intermittent in re&ard to pairin&$ 1@ %o m!ch for the conception and &eneration of birds$

It has been pre"io!sly stated that fishes are not all o"iparo!s$ Fishes of the cartila&ino!s &en!s are "i"iparo!s# the rest are o"iparo!s$ And cartila&ino!s fishes are first o"iparo!s internally and s!bse*!ently "i"iparo!s# they rear the embryos internally the batrach!s or fishin&+fro& bein& an e'ception$ Fishes also as was abo"e stated are pro"ided with wombs and wombs of di"erse kinds$ The o"iparo!s &enera ha"e wombs bif!rcate in shape and low down in position# the cartila&ino!s &en!s ha"e wombs shaped like those of O birds$ The womb howe"er in the cartila&ino!s fishes differs in this respect from the womb of birds that with some cartila&ino!s fishes the e&&s do not settle close to the diaphra&m b!t middle+ways alon& the backbone and as they &row they shift their position$ The e&& with all fishes is not of two colo!rs within b!t is of e"en h!e# and the colo!r is nearer to white than to yellow and that both when the yo!n& is inside it and pre"io!sly as well$ De"elopment from the e&& in fishes differs from that in birds in this respect that it does not e'hibit that one of the two na"el+strin&s that leads off to the membrane that lies close !nder the shell while it does e'hibit that one of the two that in the case of birds leads off to the yolk$ In a &eneral way the rest of the de"elopment from the e&& onwards is identical in birds and fishes$ That is to say de"elopment takes place at the !pper part of the e&& and the "eins e'tend in like manner at first from the heart# and at first the head the eyes and the !pper parts are lar&est# and as the creat!re &rows the e&&+s!bstance decreases and e"ent!ally disappears and becomes absorbed within the embryo )!st as takes place with the yolk in birds$ The na"el+strin& is attached a little way below the apert!re of the belly$ When the creat!res are yo!n& the na"el+strin& is lon& b!t as they &row it diminishes in si2e# at len&th it &ets small and becomes incorporated as was described in the case of birds$ The embryo and the e&& are en"eloped by a common membrane and )!st !nder this is another membrane that en"elops the embryo by itself# and in between the two membranes is a li*!id$ The food inside the stomach of the little fishes resembles that inside the stomach of yo!n& chicks and is partly white and partly yellow$ As re&ards the shape of the womb the reader is referred to my treatise on Anatomy$ The womb howe"er is di"erse in di"erse fishes as for instance in the sharks as compared one with another or as compared with the skate$ That is to say in some sharks the e&&s adhere in the middle of the womb ro!nd abo!t the backbone as has been stated and this is the case with the do&+fish# as the e&&s &row they shift their place# and since the womb is bif!rcate and adheres to the midriff as in the rest of similar creat!res the e&&s pass into one or other of the two compartments$ This womb and the womb of the other sharks e'hibit as yo! &o a little way off from the midriff somethin& resemblin& white breasts which ne"er make their appearance !nless there be conception$ Do&+fish and skate ha"e a kind of e&&+shell in the which is fo!nd an e&&+like li*!id$ The shape of the e&&+shell resembles the ton&!e of a ba&pipe and hair+like d!cts are attached to the shell$ With the do&+fish which is called by some the (dappled shark the yo!n& are born when the shell+ formation breaks in pieces and falls o!t# with the ray after it has laid the e&& the shell+formation breaks !p and the yo!n& mo"e o!t$ The spiny do&+fish has its close to the midriff abo"e the breast like formations# when the e&& descends as soon as it &ets detached the yo!n& is born$ The mode of &eneration is the same in the case of the fo'+shark$ The so+called smooth shark has its e&&s in betwi't the wombs like the do&+fish# these e&&s shift into each of the two horns of the womb and descend and the yo!n& de"elop with the na"el+strin& attached to the womb so that as the e&&+s!bstance &ets !sed !p the embryo is s!stained to all

appearance )!st as in the case of *!adr!peds$ The na"el+strin& is lon& and adheres to the !nder part of the womb ,each na"el+strin& bein& attached as it were by a s!cker- and also to the centre of the embryo in the place where the li"er is sit!ated$ If the embryo be c!t open e"en tho!&h it has the e&&+s!bstance no lon&er the food inside is e&&+like in appearance$ 7ach embryo as in the case of *!adr!peds is pro"ided with a chorion and separate membranes$ When yo!n& the embryo has its head !pwards b!t downwards when it &ets stron& and is completed in form$ /ales are &enerated on the left+hand side of the womb and females on the ri&ht+hand side and males and females on the same side to&ether$ If the embryo be c!t open then as with *!adr!peds s!ch internal or&ans as it is f!rnished with as for instance the li"er are fo!nd to be lar&e and s!pplied with blood$ All cartila&ino!s fishes ha"e at one and the same time e&&s abo"e close to the midriff ,some lar&er some smaller- in considerable n!mbers and also embryos lower down$ And this circ!mstance leads many to s!ppose that fishes of this species pair and bear yo!n& e"ery month inasm!ch as they do not prod!ce all their yo!n& at once b!t now and a&ain and o"er a len&thened period$ B!t s!ch e&&s as ha"e come down below within the womb are sim!ltaneo!sly ripened and completed in &rowth$ Do&+fish in &eneral can e'tr!de and take in a&ain their yo!n& as can also the an&el+fish and the electric ray+and by the way a lar&e electric ray has been seen with abo!t ei&hty embryos inside it+ b!t the spiny do&fish is an e'ception to the r!le bein& pre"ented by the spine of the yo!n& fish from so doin&$ Of the flat cartila&ino!s fish the try&on and the ray cannot e'tr!de and take in a&ain in conse*!ence of the ro!&hness of the tails of the yo!n&$ The batrach!s or fishin&+fro& also is !nable to take in its yo!n& owin& to the si2e of the head and the prickles# and by the way as was pre"io!sly remarked it is the only one of these fishes that is not "i"iparo!s$ %o m!ch for the "arieties of the cartila&ino!s species and for their modes of &eneration from the e&&$ 11 At the breedin& season the sperm+d!cts of the male are filled with sperm so m!ch so that if they be s*!ee2ed the sperm flows o!t spontaneo!sly as a white fl!id# the d!cts are bif!rcate and start from the midriff and the &reat "ein$ Abo!t this period the sperm+d!cts of the male are *!ite distinct ,from the womb of the female- b!t at any other than the act!al breedin& time their distinctness is not ob"io!s to a non+e'pert$ The fact is that in certain fishes at certain times these or&ans are imperceptible as was stated re&ardin& the testicles of birds$ Amon& other distinctions obser"ed between the thoric d!cts and the womb+d!cts is the circ!mstance that the thoric d!cts are attached to the loins while the womb+d!cts mo"e abo!t freely and are attached by a thin membrane$ The partic!lars re&ardin& the thoric d!cts may be st!died by a reference to the dia&rams in my treatise on Anatomy$ .artila&ino!s fishes are capable of s!perfoetation and their period of &estation is si' months at the lon&est$ The so+called starry do&fish bears yo!n& the most fre*!ently# in other words it bears twice a month$ The breedin& season is in the month of /aemacterion$ The do&+fish as a &eneral r!le bear twice in the year with the e'ception of the little do&+fish which bears only once a year$ %ome of them brin& forth in the sprin&time$ The rhine or an&el+fish bears its first brood in the sprin&time and its second in the a!t!mn abo!t the winter settin& of the Aleiads# the second brood is the stron&er of the two$ The electric ray brin&s forth in the late a!t!mn$

.artila&ino!s fishes come o!t from the main seas and deep waters towards the shore and there brin& forth their yo!n& and they do so for the sake of warmth and by way of protection for their yo!n&$ Obser"ations wo!ld lead to the &eneral r!le that no one "ariety of fish pairs with another "ariety$ The an&el+fish howe"er and the bat!s or skate appear to pair with one another# for there is a fish called the rhinobat!s with the head and front parts of the skate and the after parts of the rhine or an&el+fish )!st as tho!&h it were made !p of both fishes to&ether$ %harks then and their con&eners as the fo'+shark and the do&+fish and the flat fishes s!ch as the electric ray the ray the smooth skate and the try&on are first o"iparo!s and then "i"iparo!s in the way abo"e mentioned ,as are also the saw+fish and the o'+ray$13 The dolphin the whale and all the rest of the .etacea all that is to say that are pro"ided with a blow+hole instead of &ills are "i"iparo!s$ That is to say no one of all these fishes is e"er seen to be s!pplied with e&&s b!t directly with an embryo from whose differentiation comes the fish )!st as in the case of mankind and the "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds$ The dolphin bears one at a time &enerally b!t occasionally two$ The whale bears one or at the most two &enerally two$ The porpoise in this respect resembles the dolphin and by the way it is in form like a little dolphin and is fo!nd in the 7!'ine# it differs howe"er from the dolphin as bein& less in si2e and broader in the back# its colo!r is leaden+black$ /any people are of opinion that the porpoise is a "ariety of the dolphin$ All creat!res that ha"e a blow+hole respire and inspire for they are pro"ided with l!n&s$ The dolphin has been seen asleep with his nose abo"e water and when asleep he snores$ The dolphin and the porpoise are pro"ided with milk and s!ckle their yo!n&$ They also take their yo!n& when small inside them$ The yo!n& of the dolphin &row rapidly bein& f!ll &rown at ten years of a&e$ Its period of &estation is ten months$ It brin&s forth its yo!n& s!mmer and ne"er at any other season# ,and sin&!larly eno!&h !nder the Do&star it disappears for abo!t thirty days-$ Its yo!n& accompany it for a considerable period# and in fact the creat!re is remarkable for the stren&th of its parental affection$ It li"es for many years# some are known to ha"e li"ed for more than twenty+fi"e and some for thirty years# the fact is fishermen nick their tails sometimes and set them adrift a&ain and by this e'pedient their a&es are ascertained$ The seal is an amphibio!s animal: that is to say it cannot take in water b!t breathes and sleeps and brin&s forth on dry land+only close to the shore+as bein& an animal f!rnished with feet# it spends howe"er the &reater part of its time in the sea and deri"es its food from it so that it m!st be classed in the cate&ory of marine animals$ It is "i"iparo!s by immediate conception and brin&s forth its yo!n& ali"e and e'hibits an after+birth and all else )!st like a ewe$ It bears one or two at a time and three at the most$ It has two teats and s!ckles its yo!n& like a *!adr!ped$ Bike the h!man species it brin&s forth at all seasons of the year b!t especially at the time when the earliest kids are forthcomin&$ It cond!cts its yo!n& ones when they are abo!t twel"e days old o"er and o"er a&ain d!rin& the day down to the sea acc!stomin& them by slow de&rees to the water$ It slips down steep places instead of walkin& from the fact that it cannot steady itself by its feet$ It can contract and draw itself in for it is fleshy and soft and its bones are &ristly$ Owin& to the flabbiness of its body it is diffic!lt to kill a seal by a blow !nless yo! strike it on the temple$ It looks like a cow$ The

female in re&ard to its &enital or&ans resembles the female of the ray# in all other respects it resembles the female of the h!man species$ %o m!ch for the phenomena of &eneration and of part!rition in animals that li"e in water and are "i"iparo!s either internally or e'ternally$ 15 O"iparo!s fishes ha"e their womb bif!rcate and placed low down as was said pre"io!sly+and by the way all scaly fish are o"iparo!s as the basse the m!llet the &rey m!llet and the etelis and all the so+called white+fish and all the smooth or slippery fish e'cept the eel+and their roe is of a cr!mblin& or &ran!lar s!bstance$ This appearance is d!e to the fact that the whole womb of s!ch fishes is f!ll of e&&s so that in little fishes there seem to be only a co!ple of e&&s there# for in small fishes the womb is indistin&!ishable from its dimin!ti"e si2e and thin conte't!re$ The pairin& of fishes has been disc!ssed pre"io!sly$ Fishes for the most part are di"ided into males and females b!t one is p!22led to acco!nt for the erythrin!s and the channa for specimens of these species are ne"er ca!&ht e'cept in a condition of pre&nancy$ With s!ch fish as pair e&&s are the res!lt of cop!lation b!t s!ch fish ha"e them also witho!t cop!lation# and this is shown in the case of some ri"er+fish for the minnow has e&&s when *!ite small +almost one may say as soon as it is born$ These fishes shed their e&&s little by little and as is stated the males swallow the &reater part of them and some portion of them &oes to waste in the water# b!t s!ch of the e&&s as the female deposits on the spawnin& beds are sa"ed$ If all the e&&s were preser"ed each species wo!ld be infinite in n!mber$ The &reater n!mber of these e&&s so deposited are not prod!cti"e b!t only those o"er which the male sheds the milt or sperm# for when the female has laid her e&&s the male follows and sheds its sperm o"er them and from all the e&&s so besprinkled yo!n& fishes proceed while the rest are left to their fate$ The same phenomenon is obser"ed in the case of moll!scs also# for in the case of the c!ttlefish or sepia after the female has deposited her e&&s the male besprinkles them$ It is hi&hly probable that a similar phenomenon takes place in re&ard to moll!scs in &eneral tho!&h !p to the present time the phenomenon has been obser"ed only in the case of the c!ttlefish$ Fishes deposit their e&&s close in to shore the &oby close to stones# and by the way the spawn of the &oby is flat and cr!mbly$ Fish in &eneral so deposit their e&&s# for the water close in to shore is warm and is better s!pplied with food than the o!ter sea and ser"es as a protection to the spawn a&ainst the "oracity of the lar&er fish$ And it is for this reason that in the 7!'ine most fishes spawn near the mo!th of the ri"er Thermodon beca!se the locality is sheltered &enial and s!pplied with fresh water$ O"iparo!s fish as a r!le spawn only once a year$ The little phycis or black &oby is an e'ception as it spawns twice# the male of the black &oby differs from the female as bein& blacker and ha"in& lar&er scales$ Fishes then in &eneral prod!ce their yo!n& by cop!lation and lay their e&&s# b!t the pipefish as some call it when the time of part!rition arri"es b!rsts in two and the e&&s escape o!t$ For the fish has a diaphysis or clo"en &rowth !nder the belly and abdomen ,like the blind snakes- and after it has spawned by the splittin& of this diaphysis the sides of the split &row to&ether a&ain$

De"elopment from the e&& takes place similarly with fishes that are o"iparo!s internally and with fishes that are o"iparo!s e'ternally# that is to say the embryo comes at the !pper end of the e&& and is en"eloped in a membrane and the eyes lar&e and spherical are the first or&ans "isible$ From this circ!mstance it is plain that the assertion is !ntenable which is made by some writers to wit that the yo!n& of o"iparo!s fishes are &enerated like the &r!bs of worms# for the opposite phenomena are obser"ed in the case of these &r!bs in that their lower e'tremities are the lar&er at the o!tset and that the eyes and the head appear later on$ After the e&& has been !sed !p the yo!n& fishes are like tadpoles in shape and at first witho!t takin& any n!triment they &row by s!stenance deri"ed from the )!ice oo2in& from the e&&# by and by they are no!rished !p to f!ll &rowth by the ri"er+ waters$ When the 7!'ine is (p!r&ed a s!bstance called phyc!s is carried into the 9ellespont and this s!bstance is of a pale yellow colo!r$ %ome writers a"er that it is the flower of the phyc!s from which ro!&e is made# it comes at the be&innin& of s!mmer$ Oysters and the small fish of these localities feed on this s!bstance and some of the inhabitants of these maritime districts say that the p!rple m!re' deri"es its pec!liar colo!r from it$ 16 /arsh+fishes and ri"er+fishes concei"e at the a&e of fi"e months as a &eneral r!le and deposit their spawn towards the close of the year witho!t e'ception$ And with these fishes like as with the marine fishes the female does not "oid all her e&&s at one time nor the male his sperm# b!t they are at all times more or less pro"ided the female with e&&s and the male with sperm$ The+carp spawns as the seasons come ro!nd fi"e or si' times and follows in spawnin& the risin& of the &reater constellations$ The chalcis spawns three times and the other fishes once only in the year$ They all spawn in pools left by the o"erflowin& of ri"ers and near to reedy places in marshes# as for instance the pho'in!s or minnow and the perch$ The &lanis or sheat+fish and the perch deposit their spawn in one contin!o!s strin& like the fro&# so contin!o!s in fact is the con"ol!ted spawn of the perch that by reason of its smoothness the fishermen in the marshes can !nwind it off the reeds like threads off a reel$ The lar&er indi"id!als of the sheat+fish spawn in deep waters some in water of a fathoms depth the smaller in shallower water &enerally close to the roots of the willow or of some other tree or close to reeds or to moss$ At times these fishes intertwine with one another a bi& with a little one and brin& into )!'taposition the d!cts+which some writers desi&nate as na"els+at the point where they emit the &enerati"e prod!cts and dischar&e the e&& in the case of the female and the milt in the case of the male$ %!ch e&&s as are besprinkled with the milt &row in a day or thereabo!ts whiter and lar&er and in a little while afterwards the fishs eyes become "isible for these or&ans in all fishes as for that matter in all other animals are early conspic!o!s and seem disproportionately bi&$ B!t s!ch e&&s as the milt fails to to!ch remain as with marine fishes !seless and infertile$ From the fertile e&&s as the little fish &row a kind of sheath detaches itself# this is a membrane that en"elops the e&& and the yo!n& fish$ When the milt has min&led with the e&&s the res!ltin& prod!ct becomes "ery sticky or "isco!s and adheres to the roots of trees or where"er it may ha"e been laid$ The male keeps on &!ard at the principal spawnin&+place and the female after spawnin& &oes away$ In the case of the sheat+fish the &rowth from the e&& is e'ceptionally slow and in conse*!ence the male has to keep watch for forty or fifty days to pre"ent the+spawn bein& de"o!red by s!ch little fishes as chance to come by$ 4e't in point of slowness is the &eneration of the carp$ As with fishes in &eneral so e"en with these the spawn th!s protected disappears and &ets lost rapidly$

In the case of some of the smaller fishes when they are only three days old yo!n& fishes are &enerated$ 7&&s to!ched by the male sperm take on increase both the same day and also later$ The e&& of the sheat+fish is as bi& as a "etch+seed# the e&& of the carp and of the carp+species as bi& as a millet+seed$ These fishes then spawn and &enerate in the way here described$ The chalcis howe"er spawns in deep water in dense shoals of fish# and the so+called tilon spawns near to beaches in sheltered spots in shoals likewise$ The carp the baleros and fishes in &eneral p!sh ea&erly into the shallows for the p!rpose of spawnin& and "ery often thirteen or fo!rteen males are seen followin& a sin&le female$ When the female deposits her spawn and departs the males follow on and shed the milt$ The &reater portion of the spawn &ets wasted# beca!se owin& to the fact that the female mo"es abo!t while spawnin& the spawn scatters or so m!ch of it as is ca!&ht in the stream and does not &et entan&led with some r!bbish$ For with the e'ception of the sheatfish no fish keeps on &!ard# !nless by the way it be the carp which is said to remain on &!ard if it so happen that its spawn lies in a solid mass$ All male fishes are s!pplied with milt e'ceptin& the eel: with the eel the male is de"oid of milt and the female of spawn$ The m!llet &oes !p from the sea to marshes and ri"ers# the eels on the contrary make their way down from the marshes and ri"ers to the sea$ 18 The &reat ma)ority of fish then as has been stated proceed from e&&s$ 9owe"er there are some fish that proceed from m!d and sand e"en of those kinds that proceed also from pairin& and the e&&$ This occ!rs in ponds here and there and especially in a pond in the nei&hbo!rhood of .nidos$ This pond it is said at one time ran dry abo!t the risin& of the Do&star and the m!d had all dried !p# at the first fall of the rains there was a show of water in the pond and on the first appearance of the water shoals of tiny fish were fo!nd in the pond$ The fish in *!estion was a kind of m!llet one which does not proceed from normal pairin& abo!t the si2e of a small sprat and not one of these fishes was pro"ided with either spawn or milt$ There are fo!nd also in Asia /inor in ri"ers not comm!nicatin& with the sea little fishes like whitebait differin& from the small fry fo!nd near .nidos b!t fo!nd !nder similar circ!mstances$ %ome writers act!ally a"er that m!llet all &row spontaneo!sly$ In this assertion they are mistaken for the female of the fish is fo!nd pro"ided with spawn and the male with milt$ 9owe"er there is a species of m!llet that &rows spontaneo!sly o!t of m!d and sand$ From the facts abo"e en!merated it is *!ite pro"ed that certain fishes come spontaneo!sly into e'istence not bein& deri"ed from e&&s or from cop!lation$ %!ch fish as are neither o"iparo!s nor "i"iparo!s arise all from one of two so!rces from m!d or from sand and from decayed matter that rises thence as a sc!m# for instance the so+called froth of the small fry comes o!t of sandy &ro!nd$ This fry is incapable of &rowth and of propa&atin& its kind# after li"in& for a while it dies away and another creat!re takes its place and so with short inter"als e'cepted it may be said to last the whole year thro!&h$ At all e"ents it lasts from the a!t!mn risin& of Arct!r!s !p to the sprin&+time$ As a proof that these fish occasionally come o!t of the &ro!nd we ha"e the fact that in cold weather they are not ca!&ht and that they are ca!&ht in warm weather ob"io!sly comin& !p o!t of the &ro!nd to catch the heat# also when the fishermen !se dred&es and the &ro!nd is scraped !p fairly often the fishes appear in lar&er n!mbers and of s!perior *!ality$ All other small fry are inferior in *!ality owin& to rapidity of &rowth$ The fry are fo!nd in sheltered and marshy districts when after a spell of fine weather the &ro!nd is &ettin& warmer as for instance in the nei&hbo!rhood of

Athens at %alamis and near the tomb of Themistocles and at /arathon# for in these districts the froth is fo!nd$ It appears then in s!ch districts and d!rin& s!ch weather and occasionally appears after a hea"y fall of rain in the froth that is thrown !p by the fallin& rain from which circ!mstance the s!bstance deri"es its specific name$ Foam is occasionally bro!&ht in on the s!rface of the sea in fair weather$ ,And in this where it has formed on the s!rface the so+called froth collects as &r!bs swarm in man!re# for which+reason this fry is often bro!&ht in from the open sea$ The fish is at its best in *!ality and *!antity in moist warm weather$The ordinary fry is the normal iss!e of parent fishes: the so+called &!d&eon+fry of small insi&nificant &!d&eon+like fish that b!rrow !nder the &ro!nd$ From the Ahaleric fry comes the membras from the membras the trichis from the trichis the trichias and from one partic!lar sort of fry to wit from that fo!nd in the harbo!r of Athens comes what is called the encrasichol!s or ancho"y$ There is another fry deri"ed from the maenis and the m!llet$ The !nfertile fry is watery and keeps only a short time as has been stated for at last only head and eyes are left$ 9owe"er the fishermen of late ha"e hit !pon a method of transportin& it to a distance as when salted it keeps for a considerable time$ 1: 7els are not the iss!e of pairin& neither are they o"iparo!s# nor was an eel e"er fo!nd s!pplied with either milt or spawn nor are they when c!t open fo!nd to ha"e within them passa&es for spawn or for e&&s$ In point of fact this entire species of blooded animals proceeds neither from pair nor from the e&&$ There can be no do!bt that the case is so$ For in some standin& pools after the water has been drained off and the m!d has been dred&ed away the eels appear a&ain after a fall of rain$ In time of dro!&ht they do not appear e"en in sta&nant ponds for the simple reason that their e'istence and s!stenance is deri"ed from rain+water$ There is no do!bt then that they proceed neither from pairin& nor from an e&&$ %ome writers howe"er are of opinion that they &enerate their kind beca!se in some eels little worms are fo!nd from which they s!ppose that eels are deri"ed$ B!t this opinion is not fo!nded on fact$ 7els are deri"ed from the so+called (earths &!ts that &row spontaneo!sly in m!d and in h!mid &ro!nd# in fact eels ha"e at times been seen to emer&e o!t of s!ch earthworms and on other occasions ha"e been rendered "isible when the earthworms were laid open by either scrapin& or c!ttin&$ %!ch earthworms are fo!nd both in the sea and in ri"ers especially where there is decayed matter: in the sea in places where sea+weed abo!nds and in ri"ers and marshes near to the ed&e# for it is near to the waters ed&e that s!n+heat has its chief power and prod!ces p!trefaction$ %o m!ch for the &eneration of the eel$ 1< Fish do not all brin& forth their yo!n& at the same season nor all in like manner neither is the period of &estation for all of the same d!ration$ Before pairin& the males and females &ather to&ether in shoals# at the time for cop!lation and part!rition they pair off$ With some fishes the time of &estation is not lon&er than thirty days with others it is a lesser period# b!t with all it e'tends o"er a n!mber of days di"isible by se"en$ The lon&est period of &estation is that of the species which some call a marin!s$

The sar&!e concei"es d!rin& the month of Aoseideon ,or December- and carries its spawn for thirty days# and the species of m!llet named by some the chelon and the my'on &o with spawn at the same period and o"er the same len&th of time$ All fish s!ffer &reatly d!rin& the period of &estation and are in conse*!ence "ery apt to be thrown !p on shore at this time$ In some cases they are dri"en frantic with pain and throw themsel"es on land$ At all e"ents they are thro!&ho!t this time contin!ally in motion !ntil part!rition is o"er ,this bein& especially tr!e of the m!llet- and after part!rition they are in repose$ With many fish the time for part!rition terminates on the appearance of &r!bs within the belly# for small li"in& &r!bs &et &enerated there and eat !p the spawn$ With shoal fishes part!rition takes place in the sprin& and indeed with most fishes abo!t the time of the sprin& e*!ino'# with others it is at different times in s!mmer with some and with others abo!t the a!t!mn e*!ino'$ The first of shoal fishes to spawn is the atherine and it spawns close to land# the last is the cephal!s: and this is inferred from the fact that the brood of the atherine appears first of all and the brood of the cephal!s last$ The m!llet also spawns early$ The sa!pe spawns !s!ally at the be&innin& of s!mmer b!t occasionally in the a!t!mn$ The a!lopias which some call the anthias spawns in the s!mmer$ 4e't in order of spawnin& comes the chrysophrys or &ilthead the basse the mormyr!s and in &eneral s!ch fish as are nicknamed (r!nners$ Batest in order of the shoal fish come the red m!llet and the coracine# these spawn in a!t!mn$ The red m!llet spawns on m!d and conse*!ently as the m!d contin!es cold for a lon& while spawns late in the year$ The coracine carries its spawn for a lon& time# b!t as it li"es !s!ally on rocky &ro!nd it &oes to a distance and spawns in places abo!ndin& in seaweed at a period later than the red m!llet$ The maenis spawns abo!t the winter solstice$ Of the others s!ch as are pela&ic spawn for the most part in s!mmer# which fact is pro"ed by their not bein& ca!&ht by fishermen d!rin& this period$ Of ordinary fishes the most prolific is the sprat# of cartila&ino!s fishes the fishin&+fro&$ %pecimens howe"er of the fishin&+fro& are rare from the facility with which the yo!n& are destroyed as the female lays her spawn all in a l!mp close in to shore$ As a r!le cartila&ino!s fish are less prolific than other fish owin& to their bein& "i"iparo!s# and their yo!n& by reason of their si2e ha"e a better chance of escapin& destr!ction$ The so+called needle+fish ,or pipe+fish- is late in spawnin& and the &reater portion of them are b!rst as!nder by the e&&s before spawnin&# and the e&&s are not so many in n!mber as lar&e in si2e$ The yo!n& fish cl!ster ro!nd the parent like so many yo!n& spiders for the fish spawns on to herself# and if any one to!ch the yo!n& they swim away$ The atherine spawns by r!bbin& its belly a&ainst the sand$ T!nny fish also b!rst as!nder by reason of their fat$ They li"e for two years# and the fishermen infer this a&e from the circ!mstance that once when there was a fail!re of the yo!n& t!nny fish for a year there was a fail!re of the f!ll+&rown t!nny the ne't s!mmer$ They are of opinion that the t!nny is a fish a year older than the pelamyd$ The t!nny and the mackerel pair abo!t the close of the month of 7laphebolion and spawn abo!t the commencement of the month of 9ecatombaeon# they deposit their spawn in a sort of ba&$ The &rowth of the yo!n& t!nny is rapid$ After the females ha"e spawned in the 7!'ine there comes from the e&& what some call scordylae b!t what the By2antines nickname the (a!'ids or (&rowers from their &rowin& to a considerable si2e in a few days# these fish &o o!t of the Aont!s in a!t!mn alon& with the yo!n& t!nnies and enter Aont!s in the sprin& as pelamyds$ Fishes as a r!le take on &rowth with rapidity b!t this is pec!liarly the case

with all species of fish fo!nd in the Aont!s# the &rowth for instance of the amia+t!nny is *!ite "isible from day to day$ To res!me we m!st bear in mind that the same fish in the same localities ha"e not the same season for pairin& for conception for part!rition or for fa"o!rin& weather$ The coracine for instance in some places spawns abo!t wheat+har"est$ The statements here &i"en pretend only to &i"e the res!lts of &eneral obser"ation$ The con&er also spawns b!t the fact is not e*!ally ob"io!s in all localities nor is the spawn plainly "isible owin& to the fat of the fish# for the spawn is lanky in shape as it is with serpents$ 9owe"er if it be p!t on the fire it shows its nat!re# for the fat e"aporates and melts while the e&&s dance abo!t and e'plode with a crack$ F!rther if yo! to!ch the s!bstances and r!b them with yo!r fin&ers the fat feels smooth and the e&& ro!&h$ %ome con&ers are pro"ided with fat b!t not with any spawn others are !npro"ided with fat b!t ha"e e&&+spawn as here described$ 1= We ha"e then treated pretty f!lly of the animals that fly in the air or swim in the water and of s!ch of those that walk on dry land as are o"iparo!s to wit of their pairin& conception and the like phenomena# it now remains to treat of the same phenomena in conne'ion with "i"iparo!s land animals and with man$ The statements made in re&ard to the pairin& of the se'es apply partly to the partic!lar kinds of animal and partly to all in &eneral$ It is common to all animals to be most e'cited by the desire of one se' for the other and by the pleas!re deri"ed from cop!lation$ The female is most cross+ tempered )!st after part!rition the male d!rin& the time of pairin&# for instance stallions at this period bite one another throw their riders and chase them$ Wild boars tho!&h !s!ally enfeebled at this time as the res!lt of cop!lation are now !n!s!ally fierce and fi&ht with one another in an e'traordinary way clothin& themsel"es with defensi"e armo!r or in other words deliberately thickenin& their hide by r!bbin& a&ainst trees or by coatin& themsel"es repeatedly all o"er with m!d and then dryin& themsel"es in the s!n$ They dri"e one another away from the swine past!res and fi&ht with s!ch f!ry that "ery often both combatants s!cc!mb$ The case is similar with b!lls rams and he+&oats# for tho!&h at ordinary times they herd to&ether at breedin& time they hold aloof from and *!arrel with one another$ The male camel also is cross+tempered at pairin& time if either a man or a camel comes near him# as for a horse a camel is ready to fi&ht him at any time$ It is the same with wild animals$ The bear the wolf and the lion are all at this time ferocio!s towards s!ch as come in their way b!t the males of these animals are less &i"en to fi&ht with one another from the fact that they are at no time &re&ario!s$ The she+bear is fierce after c!bbin& and the bitch after p!ppin&$ /ale elephants &et sa"a&e abo!t pairin& time and for this reason it is stated that men who ha"e char&e of elephants in India ne"er allow the males to ha"e interco!rse with the females# on the &ro!nd that the males &o wild at this time and t!rn topsy+t!r"y the dwellin&s of their keepers li&htly constr!cted as they are and commit all kinds of ha"oc$ They also state that ab!ndancy of food has a tendency to tame the males$ They f!rther introd!ce other elephants amon&st the wild ones and p!nish and break them in by settin& on the new+comers to chastise the others$ Animals that pair fre*!ently and not at a sin&le specific season as for instance animals domesticated by man s!ch as swine and do&s are fo!nd to ind!l&e in s!ch freaks to a lesser de&ree owin& to the fre*!ency of their se'!al interco!rse$

Of female animals the mare is the most se'!ally wanton and ne't in order comes the cow$ In fact the mare is said to &o a+horsin&# and the term deri"ed from the habits of this one animal ser"es as a term of ab!se applicable to s!ch females of the h!man species as are !nbridled in the way of se'!al appetite$ This is the common phenomenon as obser"ed in the sow when she is said to &o a+boarin&$ The mare is said also abo!t this time to &et wind+impre&nated if not impre&nated by the stallion and for this reason in .rete they ne"er remo"e the stallion from the mares# for when the mare &ets into this condition she r!ns away from all other horses$ The mares !nder these circ!mstances fly in"ariably either northwards or so!thwards and ne"er towards either east or west$ When this complaint is on them they allow no one to approach !ntil either they are e'ha!sted with fati&!e or ha"e reached the sea$ ?nder either of these circ!mstances they dischar&e a certain s!bstance (hippomanes the title &i"en to a &rowth on a new+born foal# this resembles the sow+"ir!s and is in &reat re*!est amon&st women who deal in dr!&s and potions$ Abo!t horsin& time the mares h!ddle closer to&ether are contin!ally switchin& their tails their nei&h is abnormal in so!nd and from the se'!al or&an there flows a li*!id resemblin& &enital sperm b!t m!ch thinner than the sperm of the male$ It is this s!bstance that some call hippomanes instead of the &rowth fo!nd on the foal# they say it is e'tremely diffic!lt to &et as it oo2es o!t only in small drops at a time$ /ares also when in heat dischar&e !rine fre*!ently and frisk with one another$ %!ch are the phenomena connected with the horse$ .ows &o a+b!llin&# and so completely are they !nder the infl!ence of the se'!al e'citement that the herdsmen ha"e no control o"er them and cannot catch hold of them in the fields$ /ares and kine alike when in heat indicate the fact by the !praisin& of their &enital or&ans and by contin!ally "oidin& !rine$ F!rther kine mo!nt the b!lls follow them abo!t# and keep standin& beside them$ The yo!n&er females both with horses and o'en are the first to &et in heat# and their se'!al appetites are all the keener if the weather warm and their bodily condition be healthy$ /ares when clipt of their coat ha"e the se'!al feelin& checked and ass!me a downcast droopin& appearance$ The stallion reco&ni2es by the scent the mares that form his company e"en tho!&h they ha"e been to&ether only a few days before breedin& time: if they &et mi'ed !p with other mares the stallion bites and dri"es away the interlopers$ 9e feeds apart accompanied by his own troop of mares$ 7ach stallion has assi&ned to him abo!t thirty mares or e"en somewhat more# when a stran&e stallion approaches he h!ddles his mares into a close rin& r!ns ro!nd them then ad"ances to the enco!nter of the newcomer# if one of the mares make a mo"ement he bites her and dri"es her back$ The b!ll in breedin& time be&ins to &ra2e with the cows and fi&hts with other b!lls ,ha"in& hitherto &ra2ed with them- which is termed by &ra2iers (herd+sp!rnin&$ Often in 7pir!s a b!ll disappears for three months to&ether$ In a &eneral way one may state that of male animals either none or few herd with their respecti"e females before breedin& time# b!t they keep separate after reachin& mat!rity and the two se'es feed apart$ %ows when they are mo"ed by se'!al desire or are as it is called a+ boarin& will attack e"en h!man bein&s$ With bitches the same se'!al condition is termed (&ettin& into heat$ The se'!al or&an rises at this time and there is a moist!re abo!t the parts$ /ares drip with a white li*!id at this season$ Female animals are s!b)ect to menstr!al dischar&es b!t ne"er in s!ch+ab!ndance as is the female of the h!man species$ With ewes and she+&oats there are si&ns of menstr!ation in breedin& time )!st before the for s!bmittin& to the male# after cop!lation also the si&ns are manifest and then cease for an inter"al !ntil the period of part!rition arri"es# the process then s!per"enes and it is by this s!per"ention that the shepherd knows that s!ch and s!ch an ewe is abo!t to brin& forth$ After part!rition comes copio!s menstr!ation not at first m!ch tin&ed with blood b!t deeply dyed with it

by and by$ With the cow the she ass and the mare the dischar&e is more copio!s act!ally owin& to their &reater b!lk b!t proportionally to the &reater b!lk it is far less copio!s$ The cow for instance when in heat e'hibits a small dischar&e to the e'tent of a *!arter of a pint of li*!id or a little less# and the time when this dischar&e takes place is the best time for her to be co"ered by the b!ll$ Of all *!adr!peds the mare is the most easily deli"ered of its yo!n& e'hibits the least amo!nt of dischar&e after part!rition and emits the least amo!nt of blood# that is to say of all animals in proportion to si2e$ With kine and mares menstr!ation !s!ally manifests itself at inter"als of two fo!r and si' months# b!t !nless one be constantly attendin& to and thoro!&hly ac*!ainted with s!ch animals it is diffic!lt to "erify the circ!mstance and the res!lt is that many people are !nder the belief that the process ne"er takes place with these animals at all$ With m!les menstr!ation ne"er takes place b!t the !rine of the female is thicker than the !rine of the male$ As a &eneral r!le the dischar&e from the bladder in the case of *!adr!peds is thicker than it is in the h!man species and this dischar&e with ewes and she+&oats is thicker than with rams and he+&oats# b!t the !rine of the )ackass is thicker than the !rine of the she+ass and the !rine of the b!ll is more p!n&ent than the !rine of the cow$ After part!rition the !rine of all *!adr!peds becomes thicker especially with s!ch animals as e'hibit comparati"ely sli&ht dischar&es$ At breedin& time the milk become p!r!lent b!t after part!rition it becomes wholesome$ D!rin& pre&nancy ewes and she+&oats &et fatter and eat more# as is also the case with cows and indeed with the females of all *!adr!peds$ In &eneral the se'!al appetites of animals are keenest in sprin&+time# the time of pairin& howe"er is not the same for all b!t is adapted so as to ens!re the rearin& of the yo!n& at a con"enient season$ Domesticated swine carry their yo!n& for fo!r months and brin& forth a litter of twenty at the !tmost# and by the way if the litter be e'ceedin&ly n!mero!s they cannot rear all the yo!n&$ As the sow &rows old she contin!es to bear b!t &rows indifferent to the boar# she concei"es after a sin&le cop!lation b!t they ha"e to p!t the boar to her repeatedly owin& to her droppin& after interco!rse what is called the sow+"ir!s$ This incident befalls all sows b!t some of them dischar&e the &enital sperm as well$ D!rin& conception any one of the litter that &ets in)!red or dwarfed is called an afterpi& or sc!t: s!ch in)!ry may occ!r at any part of the womb$ After litterin& the mother offers the foremost teat to the first+born$ When the sow is in heat she m!st not at once be p!t to the boar b!t only after she lets her l!&s drop for otherwise she is apt to &et into heat a&ain# if she be p!t to the boar when in f!ll condition of heat one cop!lation as has been said is s!fficient$ It is as well to s!pply the boar at the period of cop!lation with barley and the sow at the time of part!rition with boiled barley$ %ome swine &i"e fine litters only at the be&innin& with others the litters impro"e as the mothers &row in a&e and si2e$ It is said that a sow if she ha"e one of her eyes knocked o!t is almost s!re to die soon afterwards$ %wine for the most part li"e for fifteen years b!t some fall little short of the twenty$ 1> 7wes concei"e after three or fo!r cop!lations with the ram$ If rain falls after interco!rse the ram impre&nates the ewe a&ain# and it is the same with the she+&oat$ The ewe bears !s!ally two lambs sometimes three or fo!r$ Both ewe and she+&oat carry their yo!n& for fi"e months# conse*!ently where"er a district is s!nny and the animals are !sed to comfort and well fed they bear twice in the year$ The &oat li"es for ei&ht years and the sheep for ten b!t in most cases not so lon&# the bell+ wether howe"er li"es to fifteen years$ In e"ery flock they train one of the rams for bell+wether$

When he is called on by name by the shepherd he takes the lead of the flock: and to this d!ty the creat!re is trained from its earliest years$ %heep in 7thiopia li"e for twel"e or thirteen years &oats for ten or ele"en$ In the case of the sheep and the &oat the two se'es ha"e interco!rse all their li"es lon&$ Twins with sheep and &oats may be d!e to richness of past!ra&e or to the fact that either the ram or the he+&oat is a twin+be&etter or that the ewe or the she+&oat is a twin+bearer$ Of these animals some &i"e birth to males and others to females# and the difference in this respect depends on the waters they drink and also on the sires$ And if they s!bmit to the male when north winds are blowin& they are apt to bear males# if when so!th winds are blowin& females$ %!ch as bear females may &et to bear males d!e re&ard bein& paid to their lookin& northwards when p!t to the male$ 7wes acc!stomed to be p!t to the ram early will ref!se him if he attempt to mo!nt them late$ Bambs are born white and black accordin& as white or black "eins are !nder the rams ton&!e# the lambs are white if the "eins are white and black if the "eins are black and white and black if the "eins are white and black# and red if the "eins are red$ The females that drink salted waters are the first to take the male# the water sho!ld be salted before and after part!rition and a&ain in the sprin&time$ With &oats the shepherds appoint no bell+wether as the animal is not capable of repose b!t frisky and apt to ramble$ If at the appointed season the elders of the flock are ea&er for interco!rse the shepherds say that it bodes well for the flock# if the yo!n&er ones that the flock is &oin& to be bad$ 3@ Of do&s there are se"eral breeds$ Of these the Baconian ho!nd of either se' is fit for breedin& p!rposes when ei&ht months old: at abo!t the same a&e some do&s lift the le& when "oidin& !rine$ The bitch concei"es with one linin&# this is clearly seen in the case where a do& contri"es to line a bitch by stealth as they impre&nate after mo!ntin& only once$ The Baconian bitch carries her yo!n& the si'th part of a year or si'ty days: or more by one two or three or less by one# the p!ps are blind for twel"e days after birth$ After p!ppin& the bitch &ets in heat a&ain in si' months b!t not before$ %ome bitches carry their yo!n& for the fifth part of the year or for se"enty+two days# and their p!ps are blind for fo!rteen days$ Other bitches carry their yo!n& for a *!arter of a year or for three whole months# and the whelps of these are blind for se"enteen days$ The bitch appears &o in heat for the same len&th of time$ /enstr!ation contin!es for se"en days and a swellin& of the &enital or&an occ!rs sim!ltaneo!sly# it is not d!rin& this period that the bitch is disposed to s!bmit to the do& b!t in the se"en days that follow$ The bitch as a r!le &oes in heat for fo!rteen days b!t occasionally for si'teen$ The birth+dischar&e occ!rs sim!ltaneo!sly with the deli"ery of the whelps and the s!bstance of it is thick and m!co!s$ ,The fallin&+off in b!lk on the part of the mother is not so &reat as mi&ht ha"e been inferred from the si2e of her frame$- The bitch is !s!ally s!pplied with milk fi"e days before part!rition# some se"en days pre"io!sly some fo!r# and the milk is ser"iceable immediately after birth$ The Baconian bitch is s!pplied with milk thirty days after linin&$ The milk at first is thickish b!t &ets thinner by de&rees# with the bitch the milk is thicker than with the female of any other animal e'ceptin& the sow and the hare$ When the bitch arri"es at f!ll &rowth an indication is &i"en of her capacity for the male# that is to say )!st as occ!rs in the female of the h!man species a swellin& takes place in the teats of the breasts and the breasts take on &ristle$ This incident howe"er it is diffic!lt for any b!t an e'pert to detect as the part that &i"es the indication is inconsiderable$ The precedin& statements relate to the female and not one of them to the male$ The male as a r!le lifts his le& to "oid !rine when si' months old# some at a later period when ei&ht months old some before they reach si' months$ In a &eneral way one may p!t it

that they do so when they are o!t of p!ppyhood$ The bitch s*!ats down when she "oids !rine# it is a rare e'ception that she lifts the le& to do so$ The bitch bears twel"e p!ps at the most b!t !s!ally fi"e or si'# occasionally a bitch will bear one only$ The bitch of the Baconian breed &enerally bears ei&ht$ The two se'es ha"e interco!rse with each other at all periods of life$ A "ery remarkable phenomenon is obser"ed in the case of the Baconian ho!nd: in other words he is fo!nd to be more "i&oro!s in commerce with the female after bein& hard+worked than when allowed to li"e idle$ The do& of the Baconian breed li"es ten years and the bitch twel"e$ The bitch of other breeds !s!ally li"es for fo!rteen or fifteen years b!t some li"e to twenty# and for this reason certain critics consider that 9omer did well in representin& the do& of ?lysses as ha"in& died in his twentieth year$ With the Baconian ho!nd owin& to the hardships to which the male is p!t he is less lon&+ li"ed than the female# with other breeds the distinction as to lon&e"ity is not "ery apparent tho!&h as a &eneral r!le the male is the lon&er+li"ed$ The do& sheds no teeth e'cept the so+called (canines# these a do& of either se' sheds when fo!r months old$ As they shed these only many people are in do!bt as to the fact and some people owin& to their sheddin& b!t two and its bein& hard to hit !pon the time when they do so fancy that the animal sheds no teeth at all# others after obser"in& the sheddin& of two come to the concl!sion that the creat!re sheds the rest in d!e t!rn$ /en discern the a&e of a do& by inspection of its teeth# with yo!n& do&s the teeth are white and sharp pointed with old do&s black and bl!nted$ 31 The b!ll impre&nates the cow at a sin&le mo!nt and mo!nts with s!ch "i&o!r as to wei&h down the cow# if his effort be !ns!ccessf!l the cow m!st be allowed an inter"al of twenty days before bein& a&ain s!bmitted$ B!lls of mat!re a&e decline to mo!nt the same cow se"eral times on one day e'cept by the way at considerable inter"als$ Ho!n& b!lls by reason of their "i&o!r are enabled to mo!nt the same cow se"eral times in one day and a &ood many cows besides$ The b!ll is the least salacio!s of male animals$$$$ The "ictor amon& the b!lls is the one that mo!nts the females# when he &ets e'ha!sted by his amoro!s efforts his beaten anta&onist sets on him and "ery often &ets the better of the conflict$ The b!ll and the cow are abo!t a year old when it is possible for them to ha"e commerce with chance of offsprin&: as a r!le howe"er they are abo!t twenty months old b!t it is !ni"ersally allowed that they are capable in this respect at the a&e of two years$ The cow &oes with calf for nine months and she cal"es in the tenth month# some maintain that they &o in calf for ten months to the "ery day$ A calf deli"ered before the times here specified is an abortion and ne"er li"es howe"er little premat!re its birth may ha"e been as its hoo"es are weak and imperfect$ The cow as a r!le bears b!t one calf "ery seldom two# she s!bmits to the b!ll and bears as lon& as she li"es$ .ows li"e for abo!t fifteen years and the b!lls too if they ha"e been castrated# b!t some li"e for twenty years or e"en more if their bodily constit!tions be so!nd$ The herdsmen tame the castrated b!lls and &i"e them an office in the herd analo&o!s to the office of the bell+wether in a flock# and these b!lls li"e to an e'ceptionally ad"anced a&e owin& to their e'emption from hardship and to their browsin& on past!re of &ood *!ality$ The b!ll is in f!llest "i&o!r when fi"e years old which leads the critics to commend 9omer for applyin& to the b!ll the epithets of (fi"e+year+old or (of nine seasons which epithets are alike in meanin&$ The o' sheds his teeth at the a&e of two years not all to&ether b!t )!st as the horse sheds his$ When the animal s!ffers from poda&ra it does not shed the hoof b!t is s!b)ect to a painf!l swellin& in the feet$ The milk of the cow is ser"iceable after part!rition and before part!rition there is no milk at all$ The milk that first presents itself

becomes as hard as stone when it clots# this res!lt ens!es !nless it be pre"io!sly dil!ted with water$ O'en yo!n&er than a year old do not cop!late !nless !nder circ!mstances of an !nnat!ral and portento!s kind: instances ha"e been recorded of cop!lation in both se'es at the a&e of fo!r months$ Eine in &eneral be&in to s!bmit to the male abo!t the month of Thar&elion or of %cirophorion# some howe"er are capable of conception ri&ht on to the a!t!mn$ When kine in lar&e n!mbers recei"e the b!ll and concei"e it is looked !pon as pro&nostic of rain and stormy weather$ Eine herd to&ether like mares b!t in lesser de&ree$ 33 In the case of horses the stallion and the mare are first fitted for breedin& p!rposes when two years old$ Instances howe"er of s!ch early mat!rity are rare and their yo!n& are e'ceptionally small and weak# the ordinary a&e for se'!al mat!rity is three years and from that a&e to twenty the two se'es &o on impro"in& in the *!ality of their offsprin&$ The mare carries her foal for ele"en months and casts it in the twelfth$ It is not a fi'ed n!mber of days that the stallion takes to impre&nate the mare# it may be one two three or more$ An ass in co"erin& will impre&nate more e'peditio!sly than a stallion$ The act of interco!rse with horses is not laborio!s as it is with o'en$ In both se'es the horse is the most salacio!s of animals ne't after the h!man species$ The breedin& fac!lties of the yo!n&er horses may be stim!lated beyond their years if they be s!pplied with &ood feedin& in ab!ndance$ The mare as a r!le bears only one foal# occasionally she has two b!t ne"er more$ A mare has been known to cast two m!les# b!t s!ch a circ!mstance was re&arded as !nnat!ral and portento!s$ The horse then is first fitted for breedin& p!rposes at the a&e of two and a half years b!t achie"es f!ll se'!al mat!rity when it has ceased to shed teeth e'cept it be nat!rally infertile# it m!st be added howe"er that some horses ha"e been known to impre&nate the mare while the teeth were in process of sheddin&$ The horse has forty teeth$ It sheds its first set of fo!r two from the !pper )aw and two from the lower when two and a half years old$ After a years inter"al it sheds another set of fo!r in like manner and another set of fo!r after yet another years inter"al# after arri"in& at the a&e of fo!r years and si' months it sheds no more$ An instance has occ!rred where a horse shed all his teeth at once and another instance of a horse sheddin& all his teeth with his last set of fo!r# b!t s!ch instances are "ery rare$ It conse*!ently happens that a horse when fo!r and a half years old is in e'cellent condition for breedin& p!rposes$ The older horses whether of the male or female are the more &enerati"ely prod!cti"e$ 9orses will co"er mares from which they ha"e been foaled and mares which they ha"e be&otten# and indeed a troop of horses is only considered perfect when s!ch promisc!ity of interco!rse occ!rs$ %cythians !se pre&nant mares for ridin& when the embryo has t!rned rather soon in the womb and they assert that thereby the mothers ha"e all the easier deli"ery$ I!adr!peds as a r!le lie down for part!rition and in conse*!ence the yo!n& of them all come o!t of the womb sideways$ The mare howe"er when the time for part!rition arri"es stands erect and in that post!re casts its foal$ The horse in &eneral li"es for ei&hteen or twenty years# some horses li"e for twenty+fi"e or e"en thirty and if a horse be treated with e'treme care it may last on to the a&e of fifty years# a horse howe"er when it reaches thirty years is re&arded as e'ceptionally old$ The mare li"es !s!ally for twenty+fi"e years tho!&h instances ha"e occ!rred of their attainin& the a&e of forty$ The male is less lon&+li"ed than the female by reason of the se'!al ser"ice he is called on to render# and horses that are reared in a pri"ate stable li"e lon&er than s!ch as are reared in troops$ The mare attains her

f!ll len&th and hei&ht at fi"e years old the stallion at si'# in another si' years the animal reaches its f!ll b!lk and &oes on impro"in& !ntil it is twenty years old$ The female then reaches mat!rity more rapidly than the male b!t in the womb the case is re"ersed )!st as is obser"ed in re&ard to the se'es of the h!man species# and the same phenomenon is obser"ed in the case of all animals that bear se"eral yo!n&$ The mare is said to s!ckle a m!le+foal for si' months b!t not to allow its approach for any lon&er on acco!nt of the pain it is p!t to by the hard t!&&in& of the yo!n&# an ordinary foal it allows to s!ck for a lon&er period$ 9orse and m!le are at their best after the sheddin& of the teeth$ After they ha"e shed them all it is not easy to distin&!ish their a&e# hence they are said to carry their mark before the sheddin& b!t not after$ 9owe"er e"en after the sheddin& their a&e is pretty well reco&ni2ed by the aid of the canines# for in the case of horses m!ch ridden these teeth are worn away by attrition ca!sed by the insertion of the bit# in the case of horses not ridden the teeth are lar&e and detached and in yo!n& horses they are sharp and small$ The male of the horse will breed at all seasons and d!rin& its whole life# the mare can take the horse all its life lon& b!t is not th!s ready to pair at all seasons !nless it be held in check by a halter or some other comp!lsion be bro!&ht to bear$ There is no fi'ed time at which interco!rse of the two se'es cannot take place# and accordin&ly interco!rse may chance to take place at a time that may render diffic!lt the rearin& of the f!t!re pro&eny$ In a stable in Op!s there was a stallion that !sed to ser"e mares when forty years old: his fore le&s had to be lifted !p for the operation$ /ares first take the horse in the sprin&+time$ After a mare has foaled she does not &et impre&nated at once a&ain b!t only after a considerable inter"al# in fact the foals will be all the better if the inter"al e'tend o"er fo!r or fi"e years$ It is at all e"ents absol!tely necessary to allow an inter"al of one year and for that period to let her lie fallow$ A mare then breeds at inter"als# a she+ass breeds on and on witho!t intermission$ Of mares some are absol!tely sterile others are capable of conception b!t incapable of brin&in& the foal to f!ll term# it is said to be an indication of this condition in a mare that her foal if dissected is fo!nd to ha"e other kidney+shaped s!bstances ro!nd abo!t its kidneys presentin& the appearance of ha"in& fo!r kidneys$ After part!rition the mare at once swallows the after+birth and bites off the &rowth called the (hippomanes that is fo!nd on the forehead of the foal$ This &rowth is somewhat smaller than a dried fi&# and in shape is broad and ro!nd and in colo!r black$ If any bystander &ets possession of it before the mare and the mare &ets a smell of it she &oes wild and frantic at the smell$ And it is for this reason that "enders of dr!&s and simples hold the s!bstance in hi&h re*!est and incl!de it amon& their stores$ If an ass co"er a mare after the mare has been co"ered by a horse the ass will destroy the pre"io!sly formed embryo$ ,9orse+trainers do not appoint a horse as leader to a troop as herdsmen appoint a b!ll as leader to a herd and for this reason that the horse is not steady b!t *!ick+tempered and skittish$35 The ass of both se'es is capable of breedin& and sheds its first teeth at the a&e of two and a half years# it sheds its second teeth within si' months its third within another si' months and the fo!rth after the like inter"al$ These fo!rth teeth are termed the &nomons or a&e+indicators$

A she+ass has been known to concei"e when a year old and the foal to be reared$ After interco!rse with the male it will dischar&e the &enital sperm !nless it be hindered and for this reason it is !s!ally beaten after s!ch interco!rse and chased abo!t$ It casts its yo!n& in the twelfth month$ It !s!ally bears b!t one foal and that is its nat!ral n!mber occasionally howe"er it bears twins$ The ass if it co"er a mare destroys as has been said the embryo pre"io!sly be&otten by the horse# b!t after the mare has been co"ered by the ass the horse s!per"enin& will not spoil the embryo$ The she+ass has milk in the tenth month of pre&nancy$ %e"en days after castin& a foal the she+ass s!bmits to the male and is almost s!re to concei"e if p!t to the male on this partic!lar day# the same res!lt howe"er is *!ite possible later on$ The she+ass will ref!se to cast her foal with any one lookin& on or in the dayli&ht and )!st before foalin& she has to be led away into a dark place$ If the she+ass has had yo!n& before the sheddin& of the inde'+teeth she will bear all her life thro!&h# b!t if not then she will neither concei"e nor bear for the rest of her days$ The ass li"es for more than thirty years and the she+ass li"es lon&er than the male$ When there is a cross between a horse and a she+ass or a )ackass and a mare there is m!ch &reater chance of a miscarria&e than where the commerce is normal$ The period for &estation in the case of a cross depends on the male and is )!st what it wo!ld ha"e been if the male had had commerce with a female of his own kind$ In re&ard to si2e looks and "i&o!r the foal is more apt to resemble the mother than the sire$ If s!ch hybrid conne'ions be contin!ed witho!t intermittence the female will soon &o sterile# and for this reason trainers always allow of inter"als between breedin& times$ A mare will not take the ass nor a she ass the horse !nless the ass or she+ass shall ha"e been s!ckled by a mare# and for this reason trainers p!t foals of the she+ass !nder mares which foals are technically spoken of as (mare+s!ckled$ These asses th!s reared mo!nt the mares in the open past!res masterin& them by force as the stallions do$ 36 A m!le is fitted for commerce with the female after the first sheddin& of its teeth and at the a&e of se"en will impre&nate effect!ally# and where conne'ion has taken place with a mare a (hinny has been known to be prod!ced$ After the se"enth year it has no f!rther interco!rse with the female$ A female m!le has been known to be impre&nated b!t witho!t the impre&nation bein& followed !p by part!rition$ In %yrophoenicia she+m!les s!bmit to the m!le and bear yo!n&# b!t the breed tho!&h it resembles the ordinary one is different and specific$ The hinny or st!nted m!le is foaled by a mare when she has &one sick d!rin& &estation and corresponds to the dwarf in the h!man species and to the after+pi& or sc!t in swine# and as is the case with dwarfs the se'!al or&an of the hinny is abnormally lar&e$ The m!le li"es for a n!mber of years$ There are on record cases of m!les li"in& to the a&e of ei&hty as did one in Athens at the time of the b!ildin& of the temple# this m!le on acco!nt of its a&e was let &o free b!t contin!ed to assist in dra&&in& b!rdens and wo!ld &o side by side with the other dra!&ht+beasts and stim!late them to their work# and in conse*!ence a p!blic decree was passed forbiddin& any baker dri"in& the creat!re away from his bread+tray$ The she+m!le &rows old more slowly than the m!le$ %ome assert that the she+m!le menstr!ates by the act of "oidin& her !rine and that the m!le owes the premat!rity of his decay to his habit of smellin& at the !rine$ %o m!ch for the modes of &eneration in conne'ion with these animals$ 38

Breeders and trainers can distin&!ish between yo!n& and old *!adr!peds$ If when drawn back from the )aw the skin at once &oes back to its place the animal is yo!n&# if it remains lon& wrinkled !p the animal is old$ 3: The camel carries its yo!n& for ten months and bears b!t one at a time and ne"er more# the yo!n& camel is remo"ed from the mother when a year old$ The animal li"es for a lon& period more than fifty years$ It bears in sprin&+time and &i"es milk !ntil the time of the ne't conception$ Its flesh and milk are e'ceptionally palatable$ The milk is dr!nk mi'ed with water in the proportion of either two to one or three to one$ 3< The elephant of either se' is fitted for breedin& before reachin& the a&e of twenty$ The female carries her yo!n& accordin& to some acco!nts for two and a half years# accordin& to others for three years# and the discrepancy in the assi&ned periods is d!e to the fact that there are ne"er h!man eyewitnesses to the commerce between the se'es$ The female settles down on its rear to cast its yo!n& and ob"io!sly s!ffers &reatly d!rin& the process$ The yo!n& one immediately after birth s!cks the mother not with its tr!nk b!t with the mo!th# and can walk abo!t and see distinctly the moment it is born$ 3= The wild sow s!bmits to the boar at the be&innin& of winter and in the sprin&+time retreats for part!rition to a lair in some district inaccessible to intr!sion hemmed in with sheer cliffs and chasms and o"ershadowed by trees$ The boar !s!ally remains by the sow for thirty days$ The n!mber of the litter and the period &estation is the same as in the case of the domesticated con&ener$ The so!nd of the &r!nt also is similar# only that the sow &r!nts contin!ally and the boar b!t seldom$ Of the wild boars s!ch as are castrated &row to the lar&est si2e and become fiercest: to which circ!mstance 9omer all!des when he says:+ (9e reared a&ainst him a wild castrated boar: it was not like a food+de"o!rin& br!te b!t like a forest+clad promontory$ Wild boars become castrated owin& to an itch befallin& them in early life in the re&ion of the testicles and the castration is s!perind!ced by their r!bbin& themsel"es a&ainst the tr!nks of trees$ 3> The hind as has been stated s!bmits to the sta& as a r!le only !nder comp!lsion as she is !nable to end!re the male often owin& to the ri&idity of the penis$ 9owe"er they do occasionally s!bmit to the sta& as the ewe s!bmits ram# and when they are in heat the hinds a"oid one another$ The sta& is not constant to one partic!lar hind b!t after a while *!its one and mates with others$ The breedin& time is after the risin& of Arct!r!s d!rin& the months of Boedromion and /aimacterion$ The period of &estation lasts for ei&ht months$ .onception comes on a few days after interco!rse# and a n!mber of hinds can be impre&nated by a sin&le male$ The hind as a r!le bears b!t one fawn altho!&h instances ha"e been known of her castin& two$ O!t of dread of wild beasts she casts her yo!n& by the side of the hi&h+road$ The yo!n& fawn &rows with rapidity$ /enstr!ation occ!rs at no other time with the hind# it takes place only after part!rition and the s!bstance is phle&m+like$

The hind leads the fawn to her lair# this is her place of ref!&e a ca"e with a sin&le inlet inside which she shelters herself a&ainst attack$ Fab!lo!s stories are told concernin& the lon&e"ity of the animal b!t the stories ha"e ne"er been "erified and the bre"ity of the period of &estation and the rapidity of &rowth in the fawn wo!ld not lead one to attrib!te e'treme lon&e"ity to this creat!re$ In the mo!ntain called 7laphoeis or Deer /o!ntain which is in Ar&in!ssa in Asia /inor+the place by the way where Alcibiades was assassinated+all the hinds ha"e the ear split so that if they stray to a distance they can be reco&ni2ed by this mark# and the embryo act!ally has the mark while yet in the womb of the mother$ The hind has fo!r teats like the cow$ After the hinds ha"e become pre&nant the males all se&re&ate one by one and in conse*!ence of the "iolence of their se'!al passions they keep each one to himself di& a hole in the &ro!nd and bellow from time to time# in all these partic!lars they resemble the &oat and their foreheads from &ettin& wetted become black as is also the case with the &oat$ In this way they pass the time !ntil the rain falls after which time they t!rn to past!re$ The animal acts in this way owin& to its se'!al wantonness and also to its obesity# for in s!mmer+ time it becomes so e'ceptionally fat as to be !nable to r!n: in fact at this period they can be o"ertaken by the h!nters that p!rs!e them on foot in the second or third r!n# and by the way in conse*!ence of the heat of the weather and their &ettin& o!t of breath they always make for water in their r!ns$ In the r!ttin& season the flesh of the deer is !nsa"o!ry and rank like the flesh of the he+&oat$ In winter+time the deer becomes thin and weak b!t towards the approach of the sprin& he is at his best for r!nnin&$ When on the r!n the deer keeps pa!sin& from time to time and waits !ntil his p!rs!er draws !pon him where!pon he starts off a&ain$ This habit appears d!e to some internal pain: at all e"ents the &!t is so slender and weak that if yo! strike the animal e"er so softly it is apt to break as!nder tho!&h the hide of the animal remains so!nd and !nin)!red$ 5@ Bears as has been pre"io!sly stated do not cop!late with the male mo!ntin& the back of the female b!t with the female lyin& down !nder the male$ The she+bear &oes with yo!n& for thirty days$ %he brin&s forth sometimes one c!b sometimes two c!bs and at most fi"e$ Of all animals the newly born c!b of the she bear is the smallest in proportion to the si2e of the mother# that is to say it is lar&er than a mo!se b!t smaller than a weasel$ It is also smooth and blind and its le&s and most of its or&ans are as yet inartic!late$ Aairin& takes Alace in the month of 7laphebolion and part!rition abo!t the time for retirin& into winter *!arters# abo!t this time the bear and the she+bear are at the fattest$ After the she+bear has reared her yo!n& she comes o!t of her winter lair in the third month when it is already sprin&$ The female porc!pine by the way hibernates and &oes with yo!n& the same n!mber of days as the she+bear and in all respects as to part!rition resembles this animal$ When a she+bear is with yo!n& it is a "ery hard task to catch her$ 51 It has already been stated that the lion and lioness cop!late rearwards and that these animals are opisth!retic$ They do not cop!late nor brin& forth at all seasons indiscriminately b!t once in the year only$ The lioness brin&s forth in the sprin& &enerally two c!bs at a time and si' at the "ery most# b!t sometimes only one$ The story abo!t the lioness dischar&in& her womb in the act of part!rition is a p!re fable and was merely in"ented to acco!nt for the scarcity of the animal# for the animal is as is well known a rare animal and is not fo!nd in many co!ntries$ In fact in the whole

of 7!rope it is only fo!nd in the strip between the ri"ers Achelo!s and 4ess!s$ The c!bs of the lioness when newly born are e'ceedin&ly small and can scarcely walk when two months old$ The %yrian lion bears c!bs fi"e times: fi"e c!bs at the first litter then fo!r then three then two and lastly one# after this the lioness ceases to bear for the rest of her days$ The lioness has no mane b!t this appenda&e is pec!liar to the lion$ The lion sheds only the fo!r so+called canines two in the !pper )aw and two in the lower# and it sheds them when it is si' months old$ 53 The hyena in colo!r resembles the wolf b!t is more sha&&y and is f!rnished with a mane r!nnin& all alon& the spine$ What is reco!nted concernin& its &enital or&ans to the effect that e"ery hyena is f!rnished with the or&an both of the male and the female is !ntr!e$ The fact is that the se'!al or&an of the male hyena resembles the same or&an in the wolf and in the do&# the part resemblin& the female &enital or&an lies !nderneath the tail and does to some e'tent resemble the female or&an b!t it is !npro"ided with d!ct or passa&e and the passa&e for the resid!!m comes !nderneath it$ The female hyena has the part that resembles the or&an of the male and as in the case of the male has it !nderneath her tail !npro"ided with d!ct or passa&e# and after it the passa&e for the resid!!m and !nderneath this the tr!e female &enital or&an$ The female hyena has a womb like all other female animals of the same kind$ It is an e'ceedin&ly rare circ!mstance to meet with a female hyena$ At least a h!nter said that o!t of ele"en hyenas he had ca!&ht only one was a female$ 55 9ares cop!late in a rearward post!re as has been stated for the animal is opisth!retic$ They breed and bear at all seasons s!perfoetate d!rin& pre&nancy and bear yo!n& e"ery month$ They do not &i"e birth to their yo!n& ones all to&ether at one time b!t brin& them forth at inter"als o"er as many days as the circ!mstances of each case may re*!ire$ The female is s!pplied with milk before part!rition# and after bearin& s!bmits immediately to the male and is capable of conception while s!cklin& her yo!n&$ The milk in consistency resembles sows milk$ The yo!n& are born blind as is the case with the &reater part Of the fissipeds or toed animals$ 56 The fo' mo!nts the "i'en in cop!lation and the "i'en bears yo!n& like the she+bear# in fact her yo!n& ones are e"en more inartic!lately formed$ Before part!rition she retires to se*!estered places so that it is a &reat rarity for a "i'en to be ca!&ht while pre&nant$ After part!rition she warms her yo!n& and &ets them into shape by lickin& them$ %he bears fo!r at most at a birth$ 58 The wolf resembles the do& in re&ard to the time of conception and part!rition the n!mber of the litter and the blindness of the newborn yo!n&$ The se'es co!ple at one special period and the female brin&s forth at the be&innin& of the s!mmer$ There is an acco!nt &i"en of the part!rition of the she+wolf that borders on the fab!lo!s to the effect that she confines her lyin&+in to within twel"e partic!lar days of the year$ And they &i"e the reason for this in the form of a myth "i2$ that when they transported Beto in so many days from the land of the 9yperboreans to the island of Delos she ass!med the form of a she+wolf to escape the an&er of 9ere$ Whether the acco!nt be correct or not has not yet been "erified# I &i"e it merely as it is c!rrently told$ There is no more of tr!th in the c!rrent statement that the she+wolf bears once and only once in her lifetime$ The cat and the ichne!mon bear as many yo!n& as the do& and li"e on the same food# they li"e abo!t si' years$ The c!bs of the panther are born blind like those of the wolf and the female bears

fo!r at the most at one birth$ The partic!lars of conception are the same for the thos or ci"et as for the do&# the c!bs of the animal are born blind and the female bears two or three or fo!r at a birth$ It is lon& in the body and low in stat!re# b!t not withstandin& the shortness of its le&s it is e'ceptionally fleet of foot owin& to the s!ppleness of its frame and its capacity for leapin&$ 5: There is fo!nd in %yria a so+called m!le$ It is not the same as the cross between the horse and ass b!t resembles it )!st as a wild ass resembles the domesticated con&ener and deri"es its name from the resemblance$ Bike the wild ass this wild m!le is remarkable for its speed$ The animals of this species interbreed with one another# and a proof of this statement may be &athered from the fact that a certain n!mber of them were bro!&ht into Ahry&ia in the time of Aharnaces the father of Aharnaba2!s and the animal is there still$ The n!mber ori&inally introd!ced was nine and there are three there at the present day$ 5< The phenomena of &eneration in re&ard to the mo!se are the most astonishin& both for the n!mber of the yo!n& and for the rapidity of rec!rrence in the births$ On one occasion a she+mo!se in a state of pre&nancy was sh!t !p by accident in a )ar containin& millet+seed and after a little while the lid of the )ar was remo"ed and !pwards of one h!ndred and twenty mice were fo!nd inside it$ The rate of propa&ation of field mice in co!ntry places and the destr!ction that they ca!se are beyond all tellin&$ In many places their n!mber is so incalc!lable that b!t "ery little of the corn+ crop is left to the farmer# and so rapid is their mode of proceedin& that sometimes a small farmer will one day obser"e that it is time for reapin& and on the followin& mornin& when he takes his reapers afield he finds his entire crop de"o!red$ Their disappearance is !nacco!ntable: in a few days not a mo!se will there be to be seen$ And yet in the time before these few days men fail to keep down their n!mbers by f!mi&atin& and !nearthin& them or by re&!larly h!ntin& them and t!rnin& in swine !pon them# for pi&s by the way t!rn !p the mo!se+holes by rootin& with their sno!ts$ Fo'es also h!nt them and the wild ferrets in partic!lar destroy them b!t they make no way a&ainst the prolific *!alities of the animal and the rapidity of its breedin&$ When they are s!per+ ab!ndant nothin& s!cceeds in thinnin& them down e'cept the rain# b!t after hea"y rains they disappear rapidly$ In a certain district of Aersia when a female mo!se is dissected the female embryos appear to be pre&nant$ %ome people assert and positi"ely assert that a female mo!se by lickin& salt can become pre&nant witho!t the inter"ention of the male$ /ice in 7&ypt are co"ered with bristles like the hed&eho&$ There is also a different breed of mice that walk on their two hind+le&s# their front le&s are small and their hind+le&s lon&# the breed is e'ceedin&ly n!mero!s$ There are many other breeds of mice than are here referred to$

Book VII
1 As to /ans &rowth first within his mothers womb and afterward to old a&e the co!rse of nat!re in so far as man is specially concerned is after the followin& manner$ And by the way the difference of male and female and of their respecti"e or&ans has been dealt with heretofore$ When twice se"en years old in the most of cases the male be&ins to en&ender seed# and at the same time hair appears !pon the p!bes in like manner so Alcmaeon of .roton remarks as plants first

blossom and then seed$ Abo!t the same time the "oice be&ins to alter &ettin& harsher and more !ne"en neither shrill as formerly nor deep as afterward nor yet of any e"en tone b!t like an instr!ment whose strin&s are frayed and o!t of t!ne# and it is called by way of by+word the bleat of the billy+&oat$ 4ow this breakin& of the "oice is the more apparent in those who are makin& trial of their se'!al powers# for in those who are prone to l!stf!lness the "oice t!rns into the "oice of a man b!t not so in the continent$ For if a lad stri"e dili&ently to hinder his "oice from breakin& as some do of those who de"ote themsel"es to m!sic the "oice lasts a lon& while !nbroken and may e"en persist with little chan&e$ And the breasts swell and likewise the pri"ate parts alterin& in si2e and shape$ ,And by the way at this time of life those who try by friction to pro"oke emission of seed are apt to e'perience pain as well as "ol!pt!o!s sensations$- At the same a&e in the female the breasts swell and the so+called catamenia commence to flow# and this fl!id resembles fresh blood$ There is another dischar&e a white one by the way which occ!rs in &irls e"en at a "ery early a&e more especially if their diet be lar&ely of a fl!id nat!re# and this malady ca!ses arrest of &rowth and loss of flesh$ In the ma)ority of cases the catamenia are noticed by the time the breasts ha"e &rown to the hei&ht of two fin&ers breadth$ In &irls too abo!t this time the "oice chan&es to a deeper note# for while in &eneral the womans "oice is hi&her than the mans so also the "oices of &irls are pitched in a hi&her key than the elder womens )!st as the boys are hi&her than the mens# and the &irls "oices are shriller than the boys and a maids fl!te is t!ned sharper than a lads$ 1irls of this a&e ha"e m!ch need of s!r"eillance$ For then in partic!lar they feel a nat!ral imp!lse to make !sa&e of the se'!al fac!lties that are de"elopin& in them# so that !nless they &!ard a&ainst any f!rther imp!lse beyond that ine"itable one which their bodily de"elopment of itself s!pplies e"en in the case of those who abstain alto&ether from passionate ind!l&ence they contract habits which are apt to contin!e into later life$ For &irls who &i"e way to wantonness &row more and more wanton# and the same is tr!e of boys !nless they be safe&!arded from one temptation and another# for the passa&es become dilated and set !p a local fl!' or r!nnin& and besides this the recollection of pleas!re associated with former ind!l&ence creates a lon&in& for its repetition$ %ome men are con&enitally impotent owin& to str!ct!ral defect# and in like manner women also may s!ffer from con&enital incapacity$ Both men and women are liable to constit!tional chan&e &rowin& healthier or more sickly or alterin& in the way of leanness sto!tness and "i&o!r# th!s after p!berty some lads who were thin before &row sto!t and healthy and the con"erse also happens# and the same is e*!ally tr!e of &irls$ For when in boy or &irl the body is loaded with s!perfl!o!s matter then when s!ch s!perfl!ities are &ot rid of in the spermatic or catamenial dischar&e their bodies impro"e in health and condition owin& to the remo"al of what had acted as an impediment to health and proper n!trition# b!t in s!ch as are of opposite habit their bodies become emaciated and o!t of health for then the spermatic dischar&e in the one case and the catamenial flow in the other take place at the cost of nat!ral healthy conditions$ F!rthermore in the case of maidens the condition of the breasts is di"erse in different indi"id!als for they are sometimes *!ite bi& and sometimes little# and as a &eneral r!le their si2e depends on whether or not the body was b!rthened in childhood with s!perfl!o!s material$ For when the si&ns of womanhood are ni&h b!t not come the more there be of moist!re the more will it ca!se the breasts to swell e"en to the b!rstin& point# and the res!lt is that the breasts remain d!rin& after+life of the b!lk that they then ac*!ired$ And amon& men the breasts &row more conspic!o!s and more like to those of women both in yo!n& men and old when the indi"id!al temperament is moist and sleek and the re"erse of sinewy and all the more amon& the dark+comple'ioned than the fair$

At the o!tset and till the a&e of one and twenty the spermatic dischar&e is de"oid of fec!ndity# afterwards it becomes fertile b!t yo!n& men and women prod!ce !ndersi2ed and imperfect pro&eny as is the case also with the common r!n of animals$ Ho!n& women concei"e readily b!t ha"in& concei"ed their labo!r in childbed is apt to be diffic!lt$ The frame fails of reachin& its f!ll de"elopment and a&es *!ickly in men of intemperate l!sts and in women who become mothers of many children# for it appears to be the case that &rowth ceases when the woman has &i"en birth to three children$ Women of a lasci"io!s disposition &row more sedate and "irt!o!s after they ha"e borne se"eral children$ After the a&e of twenty+one women are f!lly ripe for child+bearin& b!t men &o on increasin& in "i&o!r$ When the spermatic fl!id is of a thin consistency it is infertile# when &ran!lar it is fertile and likely to prod!ce male children b!t when thin and !nclotted it is apt to prod!ce female offsprin&$ And it is abo!t this time of life that in men the beard makes its appearance$ 3 The onset of the catamenia in women takes place towards the end of the month# and on this acco!nt the wiseacres assert that the moon is feminine beca!se the dischar&e in women and the wanin& of the moon happen at one and the same time and after the wane and the dischar&e both one and the other &row whole a&ain$ ,In some women the catamenia occ!r re&!larly b!t sparsely e"ery month and more ab!ndantly e"ery third month$- With those in whom the ailment lasts b!t a little while two days or three reco"ery is easy# b!t where the d!ration is lon&er the ailment is more tro!blesome$ For women are ailin& d!rin& these days# and sometimes the dischar&e is s!dden and sometimes &rad!al b!t in all cases alike there is bodily distress !ntil the attack be o"er$ In many cases at the commencement of the attack when the dischar&e is abo!t to appear there occ!r spasms and r!mblin& noises within the womb !ntil s!ch time as the dischar&e manifests itself$ ?nder nat!ral conditions it is after reco"ery from these symptoms that conception takes place in women and women in whom the si&ns do not manifest themsel"es for the most part remain childless$ B!t the r!le is not witho!t e'ception for some concei"e in spite of the absence of these symptoms# and these are cases in which a secretion acc!m!lates not in s!ch a way as act!ally to iss!e forth b!t in amo!nt e*!al to the resid!!m left in the case of child+bearin& women after the normal dischar&e has taken place$ And some concei"e while the si&ns are on b!t not afterwards those namely in whom the womb closes !p immediately after the dischar&e$ In some cases the menses persist d!rin& pre&nancy !p to the "ery last# b!t the res!lt in these cases is that the offsprin& are poor and either fail to s!r"i"e or &row !p weakly$ In many cases owin& to e'cessi"e desire arisin& either from yo!thf!l impet!osity or from len&thened abstinence prolapsion of the womb takes place and the catamenia appear repeatedly thrice in the month !ntil conception occ!rs# and then the womb withdraws !pwards a&ain to its proper place$$$ As we ha"e remarked abo"e the dischar&e is wont to be more ab!ndant in women than in the females of any other animals$ In creat!res that do not brin& forth their yo!n& ali"e nothin& of the sort manifests itself this partic!lar s!perfl!ity bein& con"erted into bodily s!bstance# and by the way in s!ch animals the females are sometimes lar&er than the males# and moreo"er the material is !sed !p sometimes for sc!tes and sometimes for scales and sometimes for the ab!ndant co"erin& of feathers whereas in the "i"ipara possessed of limbs it is t!rned into hair and into bodily s!bstance ,for man alone amon& them is smooth+skinned- and into !rine for this e'cretion is in the

ma)ority of s!ch animals thick and copio!s$ Only in the case of women is the s!perfl!ity t!rned into a dischar&e instead of bein& !tili2ed in these other ways$ There is somethin& similar to be remarked of men: for in proportion to his si2e man emits more seminal fl!id than any other animal ,for which reason man is the smoothest of animals- especially s!ch men as are of a moist habit and not o"er corp!lent and fair men in &reater de&ree than dark$ It is likewise with women# for in the sto!t &reat part of the e'cretion &oes to no!rish the body$ In the act of interco!rse women of a fair comple'ion dischar&e a more plentif!l secretion than the dark# and f!rthermore a watery and p!n&ent diet cond!ces to this phenomenon$ 5 It is a si&n of conception in women when the place is dry immediately after interco!rse$ If the lips of the orifice be smooth conception is diffic!lt for the matter slips off# and if they be thick it is also diffic!lt$ B!t if on di&ital e'amination the lips feel somewhat ro!&h and adherent and if they be likewise thin then the chances are in fa"o!r of conception$ Accordin&ly if conception be desired we m!st brin& the parts into s!ch a condition as we ha"e )!st described# b!t if on the contrary we want to a"oid conception then we m!st brin& abo!t a contrary disposition$ Wherefore since if the parts be smooth conception is pre"ented some anoint that part of the womb on which the seed falls with oil of cedar or with ointment of lead or with frankincense commin&led with oli"e oil$ If the seed remain within for se"en days then it is certain that conception has taken place# for it is d!rin& that period that what is known as effl!'ion takes place$ In most cases the menstr!al dischar&e rec!rs for some time after conception has taken place its d!ration bein& mostly thirty days in the case of a female and abo!t forty days in the case of a male child$ After part!rition also it is common for the dischar&e to be withheld for an e*!al n!mber of days b!t not in all cases with e*!al e'actit!de$ After conception and when the abo"e+mentioned days are past the dischar&e no lon&er takes its nat!ral co!rse b!t finds its way to the breasts and t!rns to milk$ The first appearance of milk in the breasts is scant in *!antity and so to speak cobwebby or interspersed with little threads$ And when conception has taken place there is apt to be a sort of feelin& in the re&ion of the flanks which in some cases *!ickly swell !p a little especially in thin persons and also in the &roin$ In the case of male children the first mo"ement !s!ally occ!rs on the ri&ht+hand side of the womb and abo!t the fortieth day b!t if the child be a female then on the left+hand side and abo!t the ninetieth day$ 9owe"er we m!st by no means ass!me this to be an acc!rate statement of fact for there are many e'ceptions in which the mo"ement is manifested on the ri&ht+hand side tho!&h a female child be comin& and on the left+hand side tho!&h the infant be a male$ And in short these and all s!chlike phenomena are !s!ally s!b)ect to differences that may be s!mmed !p as differences of de&ree$ Abo!t this period the embryo be&ins to resol"e into distinct parts it ha"in& hitherto consisted of a fleshlike s!bstance witho!t distinction of parts$ What is called effl!'ion is a destr!ction of the embryo within the first week while abortion occ!rs !p to the fortieth day# and the &reater n!mber of s!ch embryos as perish do so within the space of these forty days$ In the case of a male embryo aborted at the fortieth day if it be placed in cold water it holds to&ether in a sort of membrane b!t if it be placed in any other fl!id it dissol"es and disappears$ If the membrane be p!lled to bits the embryo is re"ealed as bi& as one of the lar&e kind of ants# and

all the limbs are plain to see incl!din& the penis and the eyes also which as in other animals are of &reat si2e$ B!t the female embryo if it s!ffer abortion d!rin& the first three months is as a r!le fo!nd to be !ndifferentiated# if howe"er it reach the fo!rth month it comes to be s!bdi"ided and *!ickly attains f!rther differentiation$ In short while within the womb the female infant accomplishes the whole de"elopment of its parts more slowly than the male and more fre*!ently than the man+child takes ten months to come to perfection$ B!t after birth the females pass more *!ickly than the males thro!&h yo!th and mat!rity and a&e# and this is especially tr!e of those that bear many children as indeed I ha"e already said$ 6 When the womb has concei"ed the seed strai&htway in the ma)ority of cases it closes !p !ntil se"en months are f!lfilled# b!t in the ei&hth month it opens and the embryo if it be fertile descends in the ei&hth month$ B!t s!ch embryos as are not fertile b!t are de"oid of breath at ei&ht months old their mothers do not brin& into the world by part!rition at ei&ht months neither does the embryo descend within the womb at that period nor does the womb open$ And it is a si&n that the embryo is not capable of life if it be formed witho!t the abo"e+named circ!mstances takin& place$ After conception women are prone to a feelin& of hea"iness in all parts of their bodies and for instance they e'perience a sensation of darkness in front of the eyes and s!ffer also from headache$ These symptoms appear sooner or later sometimes as early as the tenth day accordin& as the patient be more or less b!rthened with s!perfl!o!s h!mo!rs$ 4a!sea also and sickness affect the most of women and especially s!ch as those that we ha"e )!st now mentioned after the menstr!al dischar&e has ceased and before it is yet t!rned in the direction of the breasts$ /oreo"er some women s!ffer most at the be&innin& of their pre&nancy and some at a later period when the embryo has had time to &row# and in some women it is a common occ!rrence to s!ffer from stran&!ry towards the end of their time$ As a &eneral r!le women who are pre&nant of a male child escape comparati"ely easily and retain a comparati"ely healthy look b!t it is otherwise with those whose infant is a female# for these latter look as a r!le paler and s!ffer more pain and in many cases they are s!b)ect to swellin&s of the le&s and er!ptions on the body$ 4e"ertheless the r!le is s!b)ect to e'ceptions$ Women in pre&nancy are a prey to all sorts of lon&in&s and to rapid chan&es of mood and some folks call this the (i"y+sickness# and with the mothers of female infants the lon&in&s are more ac!te and they are less contented when they ha"e &ot what they desired$ In a certain few cases the patient feels !n!s!ally well d!rin& pre&nancy$ The worst time of all is )!st when the childs hair is be&innin& to &row$ In pre&nant women their own nat!ral hair is inclined to &row thin and fall o!t b!t on the other hand hair tends to &row on parts of the body where it was not wont to be$ As a &eneral r!le a man+child is more prone to mo"ement within its mothers womb than a female child and it is !s!ally born sooner$ And labo!r in the case of female children is apt to be protracted and sl!&&ish while in the case of male children it is ac!te and by a lon& way more diffic!lt$ Women who ha"e conne'ion with their h!sbands shortly before childbirth are deli"ered all the more *!ickly$ Occasionally women seem to be in the pains of labo!r tho!&h labo!r has not in fact commenced what seemed like the commencement of labo!r bein& really the res!lt of the foet!s t!rnin& its head$

4ow all other animals brin& the time of pre&nancy to an end in a !niform way# in other words one sin&le term of pre&nancy is defined for each of them$ B!t in the case of mankind alone of all animals the times are di"erse# for pre&nancy may be of se"en months d!ration or of ei&ht months or of nine and still more commonly of ten months while some few women &o e"en into the ele"enth month$ .hildren that come into the world before se"en months can !nder no circ!mstances s!r"i"e$ The se"en+months children are the earliest that are capable of life and most of them are weakly+for which reason by the way it is c!stomary to swaddle them in wool +and many of them are born with some of the orifices of the body imperforate for instance the ears or the nostrils$ B!t as they &et bi&&er they become more perfectly de"eloped and many of them &row !p$ In 7&ypt and in some other places where the women are fr!itf!l and are wont to bear and brin& forth many children witho!t diffic!lty and where the children when born are capable of li"in& e"en if they be born s!b)ect to deformity in these places the ei&ht+months children li"e and are bro!&ht !p b!t in 1reece it is only a few of them that s!r"i"e while most perish$ And this bein& the &eneral e'perience when s!ch a child does happen to s!r"i"e the mother is apt to think that it was not an ei&ht months child after all b!t that she had concei"ed at an earlier period witho!t bein& aware of it$ Women s!ffer most pain abo!t the fo!rth and the ei&hth months and if the foet!s perishes in the fo!rth or in the ei&hth month the mother also s!cc!mbs as a &eneral r!le# so that not only do the ei&ht+months children not li"e b!t when they die their mothers are in &reat dan&er of their own li"es$ In like manner children that are apparently born at a later term than ele"en months are held to be in do!btf!l case# inasm!ch as with them also the be&innin& of conception may ha"e escaped the notice of the mother$ What I mean to say is that often the womb &ets filled with wind and then when at a later period conne'ion and conception take place they think that the former circ!mstance was the be&innin& of conception from the similarity of the symptoms that they e'perienced$ %!ch then are the differences between mankind and other animals in re&ard to the many "ario!s modes of completion of the term of pre&nancy$ F!rthermore some animals prod!ce one and some prod!ce many at a birth b!t the h!man species does sometimes the one and sometimes the other$ As a &eneral r!le and amon& most nations the women bear one child a birth# b!t fre*!ently and in many lands they bear twins as for instance in 7&ypt especially$ %ometimes women brin& forth three and e"en fo!r children and especially in certain parts of the world as has already been stated$ The lar&est n!mber e"er bro!&ht forth is fi"e and s!ch an occ!rrence has been witnessed on se"eral occasions$ There was once !pon a time a certain women who had twenty children at fo!r births# each time she had fi"e and most of them &rew !p$ 4ow amon& other animals if a pair of twins happen to be male and female they ha"e as &ood a chance of s!r"i"in& as tho!&h both had been males or both females# b!t amon& mankind "ery few twins s!r"i"e if one happen to be a boy and the other a &irl$ Of all animals the woman and the mare are most inclined to recei"e the commerce of the male d!rin& pre&nancy# while all other animals when they are pre&nant a"oid the male sa"e those in which the phenomenon of s!perfoetation occ!rs s!ch as the hare$ ?nlike that animal the mare after once concei"in& cannot be rendered pre&nant a&ain b!t brin&s forth one foal only at least as a &eneral r!le# in the h!man species cases of s!perfoetation are rare b!t they do happen now and then$

An embryo concei"ed some considerable time after a pre"io!s conception does not come to perfection b!t &i"es rise to pain and ca!ses the destr!ction of the earlier embryo# and by the way a case has been known to occ!r where owin& to this destr!cti"e infl!ence no less than twel"e embryos concei"ed by s!perfoetation ha"e been dischar&ed$ B!t if the second conception take place at a short inter"al then the mother bears that which was later concei"ed and brin&s forth the two children like act!al twins as happened accordin& to the le&end in the case of Iphicles and 9erc!les$ The followin& also is a strikin& e'ample: a certain woman ha"in& committed ad!ltery bro!&ht forth the one child resemblin& her h!sband and the other resemblin& the ad!ltero!s lo"er$ The case has also occ!rred where a woman bein& pre&nant of twins has s!bse*!ently concei"ed a third child# and in co!rse of time she bro!&ht forth the twins perfect and at f!ll term b!t the third a fi"e+months child# and this last died there and then$ And in another case it happened that the woman was first deli"ered of a se"en+months child and then of two which were of f!ll term# and of these the first died and the other two s!r"i"ed$ %ome also ha"e been known to concei"e while abo!t to miscarry and they ha"e lost the one child and been deli"ered of the other$ If women while &oin& with child cohabit after the ei&hth month the child is in most cases born co"ered o"er with a slimy fl!id$ Often also the child is fo!nd to be replete with food of which the mother had partaken$ 8 When women ha"e partaken of salt in o"erab!ndance their children are apt to be born destit!te of nails$ /ilk that is prod!ced earlier than the se"enth month is !nfit for !se# b!t as soon as the child is fit to li"e the milk is fit to !se$ The first of the milk is saltish as it is likewise with sheep$ /ost women are sensibly affected by wine d!rin& pre&nancy for if they partake of it they &row rela'ed and debilitated$ The be&innin& of child+bearin& in women and of the capacity to procreate in men and the cessation of these f!nctions in both cases coincide in the one case with the emission of seed and in the other with the dischar&e of the catamenia: with this *!alification that there is a lack of fertility at the commencement of these symptoms and a&ain towards their close when the emissions become scanty and weak$ The a&e at which the se'!al powers be&in has been related already$ As for their end the menstr!al dischar&es ceases in most women abo!t their fortieth year# b!t with those in whom it &oes on lon&er it lasts e"en to the fiftieth year and women of that a&e ha"e been known to bear children$ B!t beyond that a&e there is no case on record$ : /en in most cases contin!e to be se'!ally competent !ntil they are si'ty years old and if that limit be o"erpassed then !ntil se"enty years# and men ha"e been act!ally known to procreate children at se"enty years of a&e$ With many men and many women it so happens that they are !nable to prod!ce children to one another while they are able to do so in !nion with other indi"id!als$ The same thin& happens with re&ard to the prod!ction of male and female offsprin&# for sometimes men and women in !nion with one another prod!ce male children or female as the case may be b!t children of the opposite se' when otherwise mated$ And they are apt to chan&e in this respect with ad"ancin& a&e: for sometimes a h!sband and wife while they are yo!n& prod!ce female children and in later life male children# and in other cases the "ery contrary occ!rs$ And )!st the same thin&

is tr!e in re&ard to the &enerati"e fac!lty: for some while yo!n& are childless b!t ha"e children when they &row older# and some ha"e children to be&in with and later on no more$ There are certain women who concei"e with diffic!lty b!t if they do concei"e brin& the child to mat!rity# while others a&ain concei"e readily b!t are !nable to brin& the child to birth$ F!rthermore some men and some women prod!ce female offsprin& and some male as for instance in the story of 9erc!les who amon& all his two and se"enty children is said to ha"e be&otten b!t one &irl$ Those women who are !nable to concei"e sa"e with the help of medical treatment or some other ad"entitio!s circ!mstance are as a &eneral r!le apt to bear female children rather than male$ It is a common thin& with men to be at first se'!ally competent and afterwards impotent and then a&ain to re"ert to their former powers$ From deformed parents come deformed children lame from lame and blind from blind and speakin& &enerally children often inherit anythin& that is pec!liar in their parents and are born with similar marks s!ch as pimples or scars$ %!ch thin&s ha"e been known to be handed down thro!&h three &enerations# for instance a certain man had a mark on his arm which his son did not possess b!t his &randson had it in the same spot tho!&h not "ery distinct$ %!ch cases howe"er are few# for the children of cripples are mostly so!nd and there is no hard and fast r!le re&ardin& them$ While children mostly resemble their parents or their ancestors it sometimes happens that no s!ch resemblance is to be traced$ B!t parents may pass on resemblance after se"eral &enerations as in the case of the woman in 7lis who committed ad!ltery with a ne&ro# in this case it was not the womans own da!&hter b!t the da!&hters child that was a blackamoor$ As a r!le the da!&hters ha"e a tendency to take after the mother and the boys after the father# b!t sometimes it is the other way the boys takin& after the mother and the &irls after the father$ And they may resemble both parents in partic!lar feat!res$ There ha"e been known cases of twins that had no resemblance to one another b!t they are alike as a &eneral r!le$ There was once !pon a time a woman who had interco!rse with her h!sband a week after &i"in& birth to a child and she concei"ed and bore a second child as like the first as any twin$ %ome women ha"e a tendency to prod!ce children that take after themsel"es and others children that take after the h!sband# and this latter case is like that of the celebrated mare in Aharsal!s that &ot the name of the 9onest Wife$ < In the emission of sperm there is a preliminary dischar&e of air and the o!tflow is manifestly ca!sed by a blast of air# for nothin& is cast to a distance sa"e by pne!matic press!re$ After the seed reaches the womb and remains there for a while a membrane forms aro!nd it# for when it happens to escape before it is distinctly formed it looks like an e&& en"eloped in its membrane after remo"al of the e&&shell# and the membrane is f!ll of "eins$ All animals whatsoe"er whether they fly or swim or walk !pon dry land whether they brin& forth their yo!n& ali"e or in the e&& de"elop in the same way: sa"e only that some ha"e the na"el attached to the womb namely the "i"iparo!s animals and some ha"e it attached to the e&& and some to both parts alike as in a certain sort of fishes$ And in some cases membrano!s en"elopes s!rro!nd the e&& and in other cases the chorion s!rro!nds it$ And first of all the animal de"elops within the innermost en"elope and then another membrane appears aro!nd the former one which

latter is for the most part attached to the womb b!t is in part separated from it and contains fl!id$ In between is a watery or san&!ineo!s fl!id which the women folk call the forewaters$ = All animals or all s!ch as ha"e a na"el &row by the na"el$ And the na"el is attached to the cotyledon in all s!ch as possess cotyledons and to the womb itself by a "ein in all s!ch as ha"e the womb smooth$ And as re&ards their shape within the womb the fo!r+footed animals all lie stretched o!t and the footless animals lie on their sides as for instance fishes# b!t two+le&&ed animals lie in a bent position as for instance birds# and h!man embryos lie bent with nose between the knees and eyes !pon the knees and the ears free at the sides$ All animals alike ha"e the head !pwards to be&in with# b!t as they &row and approach the term of e&ress from the womb they t!rn downwards and birth in the nat!ral co!rse of thin&s takes place in all animals head foremost# b!t in abnormal cases it may take place in a bent position or feet foremost$ The yo!n& of *!adr!peds when they are near their f!ll time contain e'crements both li*!id and in the form of solid l!mps the latter in the lower part of the bowel and the !rine in the bladder$ In those animals that ha"e cotyledons in the womb the cotyledons &row less as the embryo &rows bi&&er and at len&th they disappear alto&ether$ The na"el+strin& is a sheath wrapped abo!t blood+ "essels which ha"e their ori&in in the womb from the cotyledons in those animals which possess them and from a blood+"essel in those which do not$ In the lar&er animals s!ch as the embryos of o'en the "essels are fo!r in n!mber and in smaller animals two# in the "ery little ones s!ch as fowls one "essel only$ Of the fo!r "essels that r!n into the embryo two pass thro!&h the li"er where the so+called &ates or (portae are r!nnin& in the direction of the &reat "ein and the other two r!n in the direction of the aorta towards the point where it di"ides and becomes two "essels instead of one$ Aro!nd each pair of blood+"essels are membranes and s!rro!ndin& these membranes is the na"el+strin& itself after the manner of a sheath$ And as the embryo &rows the "eins themsel"es tend more and more to dwindle in si2e$ And also as the embryo mat!res it comes down into the hollow of the womb and is obser"ed to mo"e here and sometimes rolls o"er in the "icinity of the &roin$ > When women are in labo!r their pains determine towards many di"ers parts of the body and in most cases to one or other of the thi&hs$ Those are the *!ickest to be deli"ered who e'perience se"ere pains in the re&ion of the belly# and part!rition is diffic!lt in those who be&in by s!fferin& pain in the loins and speedy when the pain is abdominal$ If the child abo!t to be born be a male the preliminary flood is watery and pale in colo!r b!t if a &irl it is tin&ed with blood tho!&h still watery$ In some cases of labo!r these latter phenomena do not occ!r either one way or the other$ In other animals part!rition is !naccompanied by pain and the dam is plainly seen to s!ffer b!t moderate incon"enience$ In women howe"er the pains are more se"ere and this is especially the case in persons of sedentary habits and in those who are weak+chested and short of breath$ Babo!r is apt to be especially diffic!lt if d!rin& the process the woman while e'ertin& force with her breath fails to hold it in$

First of all when the embryo starts to mo"e and the membranes b!rst there iss!es forth the watery flood# then afterwards comes the embryo while the womb e"erts and the afterbirth comes o!t from within$ 1@ The c!ttin& of the na"el+strin& which is the n!rses d!ty is a matter callin& for no little care and skill$ For not only in cases of diffic!lt labo!r m!st she be able to render assistance with skilf!l hand b!t she m!st also ha"e her wits abo!t her in all contin&encies and especially in the operation of tyin& the cord$ For if the afterbirth ha"e come away the na"el is li&at!red off from the afterbirth with a woollen thread and is then c!t abo"e the li&at!re# and at the place where it has been tied it heals !p and the remainin& portion drops off$ ,If the li&at!re come loose the child dies from loss of blood$- B!t if the afterbirth has not yet come away b!t remains after the child itself is e'tr!ded it is c!t away within after the li&at!rin& of the cord$ It often happens that the child appears to ha"e been born dead when it is merely weak and when before the !mbilical cord has been li&at!red the blood has r!n o!t into the cord and its s!rro!ndin&s$ B!t e'perienced midwi"es ha"e been known to s*!ee2e back the blood into the childs body from the cord and immediately the child that a moment before was bloodless came back to life a&ain$ It is the nat!ral r!le as we ha"e mentioned abo"e for all animals to come into the world head foremost and children moreo"er ha"e their hands stretched o!t by their sides$ And the child &i"es a cry and p!ts its hands !p to its mo!th as soon as it iss!es forth$ /oreo"er the child "oids e'crement sometimes at once sometimes a little later b!t in all cases d!rin& the first day# and this e'crement is !nd!ly copio!s in comparison with the si2e of the child# it is what the midwi"es call the meconi!m or (poppy+)!ice$ In colo!r it resembles blood e'tremely dark and pitch+like b!t later on it becomes milky for the child takes at once to the breast$ Before birth the child makes no so!nd e"en tho!&h in diffic!lt labo!r it p!t forth its head while the rest of the body remains within$ In cases where floodin& takes place rather before its time it is apt to be followed by diffic!lt part!rition$ B!t if dischar&e take place after birth in small *!antity and in cases where it only takes place at the be&innin& and does not contin!e till the fortieth day then in s!ch cases women make a better reco"ery and are the sooner ready to concei"e a&ain$ ?ntil the child is forty days old it neither la!&hs nor weeps d!rin& wakin& ho!rs b!t of ni&hts it sometimes does both# and for the most part it does not e"en notice bein& tickled b!t passes most of its time in sleep$ As it keeps on &rowin& it &ets more and more wakef!l# and moreo"er it shows si&ns of dreamin& tho!&h it is lon& afterwards before it remembers what it dreams$ In other animals there is no contrastin& difference between one bone and another b!t all are properly formed# b!t in children the front part of the head is soft and late of ossifyin&$ And by the way some animals are born with teeth b!t children be&in to c!t their teeth in the se"enth month# and the front teeth are the first to come thro!&h sometimes the !pper and sometimes the lower ones$ And the warmer the n!rses milk so m!ch the *!icker are the childrens teeth to come$ 11 After part!rition and the cleasin& flood the milk comes in plenty and in some women it flows not only from the nipples b!t at di"ers parts of the breasts and in some cases e"en from the armpits$

And for some time afterwards there contin!e to be certain ind!rated parts of the breast called stran&alides or (knots which occ!r when it so happens that the moist!re is not concocted or when it finds no o!tlet b!t acc!m!lates within$ For the whole breast is so spon&y that if a woman in drinkin& happen to swallow a hair she &ets a pain in her breast which ailment is called (trichia# and the pain lasts till the hair either find its own way o!t or be s!cked o!t with the milk$ Women contin!e to ha"e milk !ntil their ne't conception# and then the milk stops comin& and &oes dry alike in the h!man species and in the *!adr!pedal "i"ipara$ %o lon& as there is a flow of milk the menstr!al p!r&ations do not take place at least as a &eneral r!le tho!&h the dischar&e has been known to occ!r d!rin& the period of s!cklin&$ For speakin& &enerally a determination of moist!re does not take place at one and the same time in se"eral directions# as for instance the menstr!al p!r&ations tend to be scanty in persons s!fferin& from haemorrhoids$ And in some women the like happens owin& to their s!fferin& from "arices when the fl!ids iss!e from the pel"ic re&ion before enterin& into the womb$ And patients who d!rin& s!ppression of the menses happen to "omit blood are no whit the worse$ 13 .hildren are "ery commonly s!b)ect to con"!lsions more especially s!ch of them as are more than ordinarily well+no!rished on rich or !n!s!ally plentif!l milk from a sto!t n!rse$ Wine is bad for infants in that it tends to e'cite this malady and red wine is worse than white especially when taken !ndil!ted# and most thin&s that tend to ind!ce flat!lency are also bad and constipation too is pre)!dicial$ The ma)ority of deaths in infancy occ!r before the child is a week old hence it is c!stomary to name the child at that a&e from a belief that it has now a better chance of s!r"i"al$ This malady is worst at the f!ll of the moon# and by the way it is a dan&ero!s symptom when the spasms be&in in the childs back$

Book VIII
1 W7 ha"e now disc!ssed the physical characteristics of animals and their methods of &eneration$ Their habits and their modes of li"in& "ary accordin& to their character and their food$ In the &reat ma)ority of animals there are traces of psychical *!alities or attit!des which *!alities are more markedly differentiated in the case of h!man bein&s$ For )!st as we pointed o!t resemblances in the physical or&ans so in a n!mber of animals we obser"e &entleness or fierceness mildness or cross temper co!ra&e or timidity fear or confidence hi&h spirit or low c!nnin& and with re&ard to intelli&ence somethin& e*!i"alent to sa&acity$ %ome of these *!alities in man as compared with the correspondin& *!alities in animals differ only *!antitati"ely: that is to say a man has more or less of this *!ality and an animal has more or less of some other# other *!alities in man are represented by analo&o!s and not identical *!alities: for instance )!st as in man we find knowled&e wisdom and sa&acity so in certain animals there e'ists some other nat!ral potentiality akin to these$ The tr!th of this statement will be the more clearly apprehended if we ha"e re&ard to the phenomena of childhood: for in children may be obser"ed the traces and seeds of what will one day be settled psycholo&ical habits tho!&h psycholo&ically a child hardly differs for the time bein& from an animal# so that one is *!ite )!stified in sayin& that as re&ards man and animals certain psychical *!alities are identical with one another whilst others resemble and others are analo&o!s to each other$

4at!re proceeds little by little from thin&s lifeless to animal life in s!ch a way that it is impossible to determine the e'act line of demarcation nor on which side thereof an intermediate form sho!ld lie$ Th!s ne't after lifeless thin&s in the !pward scale comes the plant and of plants one will differ from another as to its amo!nt of apparent "itality# and in a word the whole &en!s of plants whilst it is de"oid of life as compared with an animal is endowed with life as compared with other corporeal entities$ Indeed as we )!st remarked there is obser"ed in plants a contin!o!s scale of ascent towards the animal$ %o in the sea there are certain ob)ects concernin& which one wo!ld be at a loss to determine whether they be animal or "e&etable$ For instance certain of these ob)ects are fairly rooted and in se"eral cases perish if detached# th!s the pinna is rooted to a partic!lar spot and the solen ,or ra2or+shell- cannot s!r"i"e withdrawal from its b!rrow$ Indeed broadly speakin& the entire &en!s of testaceans ha"e a resemblance to "e&etables if they be contrasted with s!ch animals as are capable of pro&ression$ In re&ard to sensibility some animals &i"e no indication whatsoe"er of it whilst others indicate it b!t indistinctly$ F!rther the s!bstance of some of these intermediate creat!res is fleshlike as is the case with the so+called tethya ,or ascidians- and the acalephae ,or sea+anemones-# b!t the spon&e is in e"ery respect like a "e&etable$ And so thro!&ho!t the entire animal scale there is a &rad!ated differentiation in amo!nt of "itality and in capacity for motion$ A similar statement holds &ood with re&ard to habits of life$ Th!s of plants that sprin& from seed the one f!nction seems to be the reprod!ction of their own partic!lar species and the sphere of action with certain animals is similarly limited$ The fac!lty of reprod!ction then is common to all alike$ If sensibility be s!peradded then their li"es will differ from one another in respect to se'!al interco!rse thro!&h the "aryin& amo!nt of pleas!re deri"ed therefrom and also in re&ard to modes of part!rition and ways of rearin& their yo!n&$ %ome animals like plants simply procreate their own species at definite seasons# other animals b!sy themsel"es also in proc!rin& food for their yo!n& and after they are reared *!it them and ha"e no f!rther dealin&s with them# other animals are more intelli&ent and endowed with memory and they li"e with their offsprin& for a lon&er period and on a more social footin&$ The life of animals then may be di"ided into two acts+procreation and feedin&# for on these two acts all their interests and life concentrate$ Their food depends chiefly on the s!bstance of which they are se"erally constit!ted# for the so!rce of their &rowth in all cases will be this s!bstance$ And whatsoe"er is in conformity with nat!re is pleasant and all animals p!rs!e pleas!re in keepin& with their nat!re$ 3 Animals are also differentiated locally: that is to say some li"e !pon dry land while others li"e in the water$ And this differentiation may be interpreted in two different ways$ Th!s some animals are termed terrestrial as inhalin& air and others a*!atic as takin& in water# and there are others which do not act!ally take in these elements b!t ne"ertheless are constit!tionally adapted to the coolin& infl!ence so far as is needf!l to them of one element or the other and hence are called terrestrial or a*!atic tho!&h they neither breathe air nor take in water$ A&ain other animals are so called from their findin& their food and fi'in& their habitat on land or in water: for many animals altho!&h they inhale air and breed on land yet deri"e their food from the water and li"e in water for the &reater part of their li"es# and these are the only animals to which as li"in& in and on two elements the term (amphibio!s is applicable$ There is no animal takin& in water that is terrestrial or aerial or that deri"es its food from the land whereas of the &reat n!mber of land animals

inhalin& air many &et their food from the water# moreo"er some are so pec!liarly or&ani2ed that if they be sh!t off alto&ether from the water they cannot possibly li"e as for instance the so+called sea+t!rtle the crocodile the hippopotam!s the seal and some of the smaller creat!res s!ch as the fresh+water tortoise and the fro&: now all these animals choke or drown if they do not from time to time breathe atmospheric air: they breed and rear their yo!n& on dry land or near the land b!t they pass their li"es in water$ B!t the dolphin is e*!ipped in the most remarkable way of all animals: the dolphin and other similar a*!atic animals incl!din& the other cetaceans which resemble it# that is to say the whale and all the other creat!res that are f!rnished with a blow+hole$ One can hardly allow that s!ch an animal is terrestrial and terrestrial only or a*!atic and a*!atic only if by terrestrial we mean an animal that inhales air and if by a*!atic we mean an animal that takes in water$ For the fact is the dolphin performs both these processes: he takes in water and dischar&es it by his blow+hole and he also inhales air into his l!n&s# for by the way the creat!re is f!rnished with this or&an and respires thereby and accordin&ly when ca!&ht in the nets he is *!ickly s!ffocated for lack of air$ 9e can also li"e for a considerable while o!t of the water b!t all this while he keeps !p a d!ll moanin& so!nd correspondin& to the noise made by air+breathin& animals in &eneral# f!rthermore when sleepin& the animal keeps his nose abo"e water and he does so that he may breathe the air$ 4ow it wo!ld be !nreasonable to assi&n one and the same class of animals to both cate&ories terrestrial and a*!atic seein& that these cate&ories are more or less e'cl!si"e of one another# we m!st accordin&ly s!pplement o!r definition of the term (a*!atic or (marine$ For the fact is some a*!atic animals take in water and dischar&e it a&ain for the same reason that leads air+breathin& animals to inhale air: in other words with the ob)ect of coolin& the blood$ Others take in water as incidental to their mode of feedin&# for as they &et their food in the water they cannot b!t take in water alon& with their food and if they take in water they m!st be pro"ided with some or&an for dischar&in& it$ Those blooded animals then that !se water for a p!rpose analo&o!s to respiration are pro"ided with &ills# and s!ch as take in water when catchin& their prey with the blow+hole$ %imilar remarks are applicable to moll!scs and cr!staceans# for a&ain it is by way of proc!rin& food that these creat!res take in water$ A*!atic in different ways the differences dependin& on bodily relation to e'ternal temperat!re and on habit of life are s!ch animals on the one hand as take in air b!t li"e in water and s!ch on the other hand as take in water and are f!rnished with &ills b!t &o !pon dry land and &et their li"in& there$ At present only one animal of the latter kind is known the so+called cordyl!s or water+newt# this creat!re is f!rnished not with l!n&s b!t with &ills b!t for all that it is a *!adr!ped and fitted for walkin& on dry land$ In the case of all these animals their nat!re appears in some kind of a way to ha"e &ot warped )!st as some male animals &et to resemble the female and some female animals the male$ The fact is that animals if they be s!b)ected to a modification in min!te or&ans are liable to immense modifications in their &eneral confi&!ration$ This phenomenon may be obser"ed in the case of &elded animals: only a min!te or&an of the animal is m!tilated and the creat!re passes from the male to the female form$ We may infer then that if in the primary conformation of the embryo an infinitesimally min!te b!t absol!tely essential or&an s!stain a chan&e of ma&nit!de one way or the other the animal will in one case t!rn to male and in the other to female# and also that if the said or&an be obliterated alto&ether the animal will be of neither one se' nor the other$ And so by the occ!rrence of modification in min!te or&ans it comes to pass that one animal is terrestrial and another a*!atic in both senses of these terms$ And a&ain some animals are amphibio!s whilst

other animals are not amphibio!s owin& to the circ!mstance that in their conformation while in the embryonic condition there &ot intermi'ed into them some portion of the matter of which their s!bse*!ent food is constit!ted# for as was said abo"e what is in conformity with nat!re is to e"ery sin&le animal pleasant and a&reeable$ Animals then ha"e been cate&ori2ed into terrestrial and a*!atic in three ways accordin& to their ass!mption of air or of water the temperament of their bodies or the character of their food# and the mode of life of an animal corresponds to the cate&ory in which it is fo!nd$ That is to say in some cases the animal depends for its terrestrial or a*!atic nat!re on temperament and diet combined as well as !pon its method of respiration# and sometimes on temperament and habits alone$ Of testaceans some that are incapable of motion s!bsist on fresh water for as the sea water dissol"es into its constit!ents the fresh water from its &reater thinness percolates thro!&h the &rosser parts# in fact they li"e on fresh water )!st as they were ori&inally en&endered from the same$ 4ow that fresh water is contained in the sea and can be strained off from it can be pro"ed in a thoro!&hly practical way$ Take a thin "essel of mo!lded wa' attach a cord to it and let it down *!ite empty into the sea: in twenty+fo!r ho!rs it will be fo!nd to contain a *!antity of water and the water will be fresh and drinkable$ %ea+anemones feed on s!ch small fishes as come in their way$ The mo!th of this creat!re is in the middle of its body# and this fact may be clearly obser"ed in the case of the lar&er "arieties$ Bike the oyster it has a d!ct for the o!tlet of the resid!!m# and this d!ct is at the top of the animal$ In other words the sea+anemone corresponds to the inner fleshy part of the oyster and the stone to which the one creat!re clin&s corresponds to the shell which encases the other$ The limpet detaches itself from the rock and &oes abo!t in *!est of food$ Of shell+fish that are mobile some are carni"oro!s and li"e on little fishes as for instance the p!rple m!re'+and there can be no do!bt that the p!rple m!re' is carni"oro!s as it is ca!&ht by a bait of fish# others are carni"oro!s b!t feed also on marine "e&etation$ The sea+t!rtles feed on shell+fish+for by the way their mo!ths are e'traordinarily hard# whate"er ob)ect it sei2es stone or other it cr!nches into bits b!t when it lea"es the water for dry land it browses on &rass-$ These creat!res s!ffer &reatly and oftentimes die when they lie on the s!rface of the water e'posed to a scorchin& s!n# for when once they ha"e risen to the s!rface they find a diffic!lty in sinkin& a&ain$ .r!staceans feed in like manner$ They are omni"oro!s# that is to say they li"e on stones slime sea+weed and e'crement+as for instance the rock+crab+and are also carni"oro!s$ The crawfish or spiny+lobster can &et the better of fishes e"en of the lar&er species tho!&h in some of them it occasionally finds more than its match$ Th!s this animal is so o"ermastered and cowed by the octop!s that it dies of terror if it become aware of an octop!s in the same net with itself$ The crawfish can master the con&er+eel for owin& to the ro!&h spines of the crawfish the eel cannot slip away and el!de its hold$ The con&er+eel howe"er de"o!rs the octop!s for owin& to the slipperiness of its anta&onist the octop!s can make nothin& of it$ The crawfish feeds on little fish capt!rin& them beside its hole or dwellin& place# for by the way it is fo!nd o!t at sea on ro!&h and stony bottoms and in s!ch places it makes its den$ Whate"er it catches it p!ts into its mo!th with its pincer+like claws like the common crab$ Its nat!re is to walk strai&ht forward when it has nothin& to fear with its feelers han&in& sideways# if it be fri&htened it makes its escape backwards dartin& off to a &reat distance$ These animals fi&ht one another with their claws )!st as rams fi&ht

with their horns raisin& them and strikin& their opponents# they are often also seen crowded to&ether in herds$ %o m!ch for the mode of life of the cr!stacean$ /oll!scs are all carni"oro!s# and of moll!scs the calamary and the sepia are more than a match for fishes e"en of the lar&e species$ The octop!s for the most part &athers shellfish e'tracts the flesh and feeds on that# in fact fishermen reco&ni2e their holes by the n!mber of shells lyin& abo!t$ %ome say that the octop!s de"o!rs its own species b!t this statement is incorrect# it is do!btless fo!nded on the fact that the creat!re is often fo!nd with its tentacles remo"ed which tentacles ha"e really been eaten off by the con&er$ Fishes all witho!t e'ception feed on spawn in the spawnin& season# b!t in other respects the food "aries with the "aryin& species$ %ome fishes are e'cl!si"ely carni"oro!s as the cartila&ino!s &en!s the con&er the channa or %erran!s the t!nny the bass the synodon or Dente' the amia the sea+ perch and the m!raena$ The red m!llet is carni"oro!s b!t feeds also on sea+weed on shell+fish and on m!d$ The &rey m!llet feeds on m!d the dascyll!s on m!d and offal the scar!s or parrot+ fish and the melan!r!s on sea+weed the sa!pe on offal and sea+weed# the sa!pe feeds also on 2ostera and is the only fish that is capt!red with a &o!rd$ All fishes de"o!r their own species with the sin&le e'ception of the cestre!s or m!llet# and the con&er is especially ra"eno!s in this respect$ The cephal!s and the m!llet in &eneral are the only fish that eat no flesh# this may be inferred from the facts that when ca!&ht they are ne"er fo!nd with flesh in their intestines and that the bait !sed to catch them is not flesh b!t barley+cake$ 7"ery fish of the m!llet+kind li"es on sea+weed and sand$ The cephal!s called by some the (chelon keeps near in to the shore the peraeas keeps o!t at a distance from it and feeds on a m!co!s s!bstance e'!din& from itself and conse*!ently is always in a star"ed condition$ The cephal!s li"es in m!d and is in conse*!ence hea"y and slimy# it ne"er feeds on any other fish$ As it li"es in m!d it has e"ery now and then to make a leap !pwards o!t of the m!d so as to wash the slime from off its body$ There is no creat!re known to prey !pon the spawn of the cephal!s so that the species is e'ceedin&ly n!mero!s# when howe"er the is f!ll+ &rown it is preyed !pon by a n!mber of fishes and especially by the acharnas or bass$ Of all fishes the m!llet is the most "oracio!s and insatiable and in conse*!ence its belly is kept at f!ll stretch# whene"er it is not star"in& it may be considered as o!t of condition$ When it is fri&htened it hides its head in m!d !nder the notion that it is hidin& its whole body$ The synodon is carni"oro!s and feeds on moll!scs$ ;ery often the synodon and the channa cast !p their stomachs while chasin& smaller fishes# for be it remembered fishes ha"e their stomachs close to the mo!th and are not f!rnished with a &!llet$ %ome fishes then as has been stated are carni"oro!s and carni"oro!s only as the dolphin the synodon the &ilt+head the selachians and the moll!scs$ Other fishes feed habit!ally on m!d or sea+weed or sea+moss or the so+called stalk+weed or &rowin& plants# as for instance the phycis the &oby and the rock+fish# and by the way the only meat that the phycis will to!ch is that of prawns$ ;ery often howe"er as has been stated they de"o!r one another and especially do the lar&er ones de"o!r the smaller$ The proof of their bein& carni"oro!s is the fact that they can be ca!&ht with flesh for a bait$ The mackerel the t!nny and the bass are for the most part carni"oro!s b!t they do occasionally feed on sea+weed$ The sar&!e feeds on the lea"in&s of the tri&le or red m!llet$ The red m!llet b!rrows in the m!d when it sets the m!d in motion and *!its its ha!nt the sar&!e settles down into the place and feeds on what is left behind and pre"ents any smaller fish from settlin& in the immediate "icinity$ Of all fishes the so+called scar!s or parrot wrasse is the only one known to chew the c!d like a *!adr!ped$

As a &eneral r!le the lar&er fishes catch the smaller ones in their mo!ths whilst swimmin& strai&ht after them in the ordinary position# b!t the selachians the dolphin and all the cetacea m!st first t!rn o"er on their backs as their mo!ths are placed down below# this allows a fair chance of escape to the smaller fishes and indeed if it were not so there wo!ld be "ery few of the little fishes left for the speed and "oracity of the dolphin is somethin& mar"ello!s$ Of eels a few here and there feed on m!d and on chance morsels of food thrown to them# the &reater part of them s!bsist on fresh water$ 7el+breeders are partic!larly caref!l to ha"e the water kept perfectly clear by its perpet!ally flowin& on to flat slabs of stone and then flowin& off a&ain# sometimes they coat the eel+tanks with plaster$ The fact is that the eel will soon choke if the water is not clear as his &ills are pec!liarly small$ On this acco!nt when fishin& for eels they dist!rb the water$ In the ri"er %trymon eel+fishin& takes place at the risin& of the Aleiads beca!se at this period the water is tro!bled and the m!d raised !p by contrary winds# !nless the water be in this condition it is as well to lea"e the eels alone$ When dead the eel !nlike the ma)ority of fishes neither floats on nor rises to the s!rface# and this is owin& to the smallness of the stomach$ A few eels are s!pplied with fat b!t the &reater part ha"e no fat whatsoe"er$ When remo"ed from the water they can li"e for fi"e or si' days# for a lon&er period if north winds pre"ail for a shorter if so!th winds$ If they are remo"ed in s!mmer from the pools to the tanks they will die# b!t not so if remo"ed in the winter$ They are not capable of holdin& o!t a&ainst any abr!pt chan&e# conse*!ently they often die in lar&e n!mbers when men en&a&ed in transportin& them from one place to another dip them into water partic!larly cold$ They will also die of s!ffocation if they be kept in a scanty s!pply of water$ This same remark will hold &ood for fishes in &eneral# for they are s!ffocated if they be lon& confined in a short s!pply of water with the water kept !nchan&ed+)!st as animals that respire are s!ffocated if they be sh!t !p with a scanty s!pply of air$ The eel in some cases li"es for se"en or ei&ht years$ The ri"er+eel feeds on his own species on &rass or on roots or on any chance food fo!nd in the m!d$ Their !s!al feedin&+time is at ni&ht and d!rin& the day+time they retreat into deep water$ And so m!ch for the food of fishes$ 5 Of birds s!ch as ha"e crooked talons are carni"oro!s witho!t e'ception and cannot swallow corn or bread+food e"en if it be p!t into their bills in tit+bits# as for instance the ea&le of e"ery "ariety the kite the two species of hawks to wit the do"e+hawk and the sparrow+hawk+and by the way these two hawks differ &reatly in si2e from one another+and the b!22ard$ The b!22ard is of the same si2e as the kite and is "isible at all seasons of the year$ There is also the phene ,or lammer&eierand the "!lt!re$ The phene is lar&er than the common ea&le and is ashen in colo!r$ Of the "!lt!re there are two "arieties: one small and whitish the other comparati"ely lar&e and rather more ashen+ colo!red than white$ F!rther of birds that fly by ni&ht some ha"e crooked talons s!ch as the ni&ht+ra"en the owl and the ea&le+owl$ The ea&le+owl resembles the common owl in shape b!t it is *!ite as lar&e as the ea&le$ A&ain there is the ele!s the Ae&olian owl and the little horned owl$ Of these birds the ele!s is somewhat lar&er than the barn+door cock and the Ae&olian owl is of abo!t the same si2e as the ele!s and both these birds h!nt the )ay# the little horned owl is smaller than the common owl$ All these three birds are alike in appearance and all three are carni"oro!s$ A&ain of birds that ha"e not crooked talons some are carni"oro!s s!ch as the swallow$ Others feed on &r!bs s!ch as the chaffinch the sparrow the (batis the &reen linnet and the titmo!se$ Of the titmo!se there are three "arieties$ The lar&est is the finch+titmo!seGfor it is abo!t the si2e of a finch# the second has a lon& tail and from its habitat is called the hill+titmo!se# the third resembles the other two in appearance b!t is less in si2e than either of them$ Then come the becca+fico the

black+cap the b!ll+finch the robin the epilais the mid&et+bird and the &olden+crested wren$ This wren is little lar&er than a loc!st has a crest of bri&ht red &old and is in e"ery way a bea!tif!l and &racef!l little bird$ Then the anth!s a bird abo!t the si2e of a finch# and the mo!ntain+finch which resembles a finch and is of m!ch the same si2e b!t its neck is bl!e and it is named from its habitat# and lastly the wren and the rook$ The abo"e+en!merated birds and the like of them feed either wholly or for the most part on &r!bs b!t the followin& and the like feed on thistles# to wit the linnet the thra!pis and the &oldfinch$ All these birds feed on thistles b!t ne"er on &r!bs or any li"in& thin& whate"er# they li"e and roost also on the plants from which they deri"e their food$ There are other birds whose fa"o!rite food consists of insects fo!nd beneath the bark of trees# as for instance the &reat and the small pie which are nicknamed the woodpeckers$ These two birds resemble one another in pl!ma&e and in note only that the note of the lar&er bird is the lo!der of the two# they both fre*!ent the tr!nks of trees in *!est of food$ There is also the &reenpie a bird abo!t the si2e of a t!rtle+do"e &reen+colo!red all o"er that pecks at the bark of trees with e'traordinary "i&o!r li"es &enerally on the branch of a tree has a lo!d note and is mostly fo!nd in the Aeloponnese$ There is another bird called the (&r!b+picker ,or tree+creeper- abo!t as small as the pend!line titmo!se with speckled pl!ma&e of an ashen colo!r and with a poor note# it is a "ariety of the woodpecker$ There are other birds that li"e on fr!it and herba&e s!ch as the wild pi&eon or rin&do"e the common pi&eon the rock+do"e and the t!rtle+do"e$ The rin&+do"e and the common pi&eon are "isible at all seasons# the t!rtledo"e only in the s!mmer for in winter it l!rks in some hole or other and is ne"er seen$ The rock+do"e is chiefly "isible in the a!t!mn and is ca!&ht at that season# it is lar&er than the common pi&eon b!t smaller than the wild one# it is &enerally ca!&ht while drinkin&$ These pi&eons brin& their yo!n& ones with them when they "isit this co!ntry$ All o!r other birds come to !s in the early s!mmer and b!ild their nests here and the &reater part of them rear their yo!n& on animal food with the sole e'ception of the pi&eon and its "arieties$ The whole &en!s of birds may be pretty well di"ided into s!ch as proc!re their food on dry land s!ch as fre*!ent ri"ers and lakes and s!ch as li"e on or by the sea$ Of water+birds s!ch as are web+footed li"e act!ally on the water while s!ch as are split+footed li"e by the ed&e of it+and by the way water+birds that are not carni"oro!s li"e on water+plants ,b!t most of them li"e on fish- like the heron and the spoonbill that fre*!ent the banks of lakes and ri"ers# and the spoonbill by the way is less than the common heron and has a lon& flat bill$ There are f!rthermore the stork and the seamew# and the seamew by the way is ashen+colo!red$ There is also the schoenil!s the cincl!s and the white+r!mp$ Of these smaller birds the last mentioned is the lar&est bein& abo!t the si2e of the common thr!sh# all three may be described as (wa&+tails$ Then there is the scalidris with pl!ma&e ashen+&rey b!t speckled$ /oreo"er the family of the halcyons or kin&fishers li"e by the waterside$ Of kin&fishers there are two "arieties# one that sits on reeds and sin&s# the other the lar&er of the two is witho!t a note$ Both these "arieties are bl!e on the back$ There is also the trochil!s ,or sandpiper-$ The halcyon also incl!din& a "ariety termed the ceryl!s is fo!nd near the seaside$ The crow also feeds on s!ch animal life as is cast !p on the beach for the bird is omni"oro!s$ There are also the white &!ll the cepph!s the aethyia and the charadri!s$ Of web+footed birds the lar&er species li"e on the banks of ri"ers and lakes# as the swan the d!ck the coot the &rebe and the teal+a bird resemblin& the d!ck b!t less in si2e+and the water+ra"en or cormorant$ This bird is the si2e of a stork only that its le&s are shorter# it is web+footed and is a

&ood swimmer# its pl!ma&e is black$ It roosts on trees and is the only one of all s!ch birds as these that is fo!nd to b!ild its nest in a tree$ F!rther there is the lar&e &oose the little &re&ario!s &oose the "!lpanser the horned &rebe and the penelops$ The sea+ea&le li"es in the nei&hbo!rhood of the sea and seeks its *!arry in la&oons$ A &reat n!mber of birds are omni"oro!s$ Birds of prey feed on any animal or bird other than a bird of prey that they may catch$ These birds ne"er to!ch one of their own &en!s whereas fishes often de"o!r members act!ally of their own species$ Birds as a r!le are "ery spare drinkers$ In fact birds of prey ne"er drink at all e'ceptin& a "ery few and these drink "ery rarely# and this last obser"ation is pec!liarly applicable to the kestrel$ The kite has been seen to drink b!t he certainly drinks "ery seldom$ 6 Animals that are coated with tessellates+s!ch as the li2ard and the other *!adr!peds and the serpents+are omni"oro!s: at all e"ents they are carni"oro!s and &ramini"oro!s# and serpents by the way are of all animals the &reatest &l!ttons$ Tessellated animals are spare drinkers as are also all s!ch animals as ha"e a spon&y l!n& and s!ch a l!n& scantily s!pplied with blood is fo!nd in all o"iparo!s animals$ %erpents by the by ha"e an insatiate appetite for wine# conse*!ently at times men h!nt for snakes by po!rin& wine into sa!cers and p!ttin& them into the interstices of walls and the creat!res are ca!&ht when inebriated$ %erpents are carni"oro!s and whene"er they catch an animal they e'tract all its )!ices and e)ect the creat!re whole$ And by the way this is done by all other creat!res of similar habits as for instance the spider# only that the spider s!cks o!t the )!ices of its prey o!tside and the serpent does so in its belly$ The serpent takes any food presented to him eats birds and animals and swallows e&&s entire$ B!t after takin& his prey he stretches himself !ntil he stands strai&ht o!t to the "ery tip and then he contracts and s*!ee2es himself into little compass so that the swallowed mass may pass down his o!tstretched body# and this action on his part is d!e to the ten!ity and len&th of his &!llet$ %piders and snakes can both &o witho!t food for a lon& time# and this remark may be "erified by obser"ation of specimens kept ali"e in the shops of the apothecaries$ 8 Of "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds s!ch as are fierce and )a&+toothed are witho!t e'ception carni"oro!s# tho!&h by the way it is stated of the wolf b!t of no other animal that in e'tremity of h!n&er it will eat a certain kind of earth$ These carni"oro!s animals ne"er eat &rass e'cept when they are sick )!st as do&s brin& on a "omit by eatin& &rass and thereby p!r&e themsel"es$ The solitary wolf is more apt to attack man than the wolf that &oes with a pack$ The animal called (&lan!s by some and (hyaena by others is as lar&e as a wolf with a mane like a horse only that the hair is stiffer and lon&er and e'tends o"er the entire len&th of the chine$ It will lie in wait for a man and chase him and will in"ei&le a do& within its reach by makin& a noise that resembles the retchin& noise of a man "omitin&$ It is e'ceedin&ly fond of p!trefied flesh and will b!rrow in a &ra"eyard to &ratify this propensity$ The bear is omni"oro!s$ It eats fr!it and is enabled by the s!ppleness of its body to climb a tree# it also eats "e&etables and it will break !p a hi"e to &et at the honey# it eats crabs and ants also and is in a &eneral way carni"oro!s$ It is so powerf!l that it will attack not only the deer b!t the wild boar if it can take it !nawares and also the b!ll$ After comin& to close *!arters with the b!ll it falls on

its back in front of the animal and when the b!ll proceeds to b!tt the bear sei2es hold of the b!lls horns with its front paws fastens its teeth into his sho!lder and dra&s him down to the &ro!nd$ For a short time to&ether it can walk erect on its hind le&s$ All the flesh it eats it first allows to become carrion$ The lion like all other sa"a&e and )a&+toothed animals is carni"oro!s$ It de"o!rs its food &reedily and fiercely and often swallows its prey entire witho!t rendin& it at all# it will then &o fastin& for two or three days to&ether bein& rendered capable of this abstinence by its pre"io!s s!rfeit$ It is a spare drinker$ It dischar&es the solid resid!!m in small *!antities abo!t e"ery other day or at irre&!lar inter"als and the s!bstance of it is hard and dry like the e'crement of a do&$ The wind dischar&ed from off its stomach is p!n&ent and its !rine emits a stron& odo!r a phenomenon which in the case of do&s acco!nts for their habit of sniffin& at trees# for by the way the lion like the do& lifts its le& to "oid its !rine$ It infects the food it eats with a stron& smell by breathin& on it and when the animal is c!t open an o"erpowerin& "apo!r e'hales from its inside$ %ome wild *!adr!peds feed in lakes and ri"ers# the seal is the only one that &ets its li"in& on the sea$ To the former class of animals belon& the so+called castor the satyri!m the otter and the so+ called lata' or bea"er$ The bea"er is flatter than the otter and has stron& teeth# it often at ni&ht+time emer&es from the water and &oes nibblin& at the bark of the aspens that frin&e the ri"ersides$ The otter will bite a man and it is said that whene"er it bites it will ne"er let &o !ntil it hears a bone crack$ The hair of the bea"er is ro!&h intermediate in appearance between the hair of the seal and the hair of the deer$ : Da&+toothed animals drink by lappin& as do also some animals with teeth differently formed as the mo!se$ Animals whose !pper and lower teeth meet e"enly drink by s!ction as the horse and the o'# the bear neither laps nor s!cks b!t &!lps down his drink$ Birds a r!le drink by s!ction b!t the lon& necked birds stop and ele"ate their heads at inter"als# the p!rple coot is the only one ,of the lon&+necked birds- that swallows water by &!lps$ 9orned animals domesticated or wild and all s!ch as are not )a&+toothed are all fr!&i"oro!s and &ramini"oro!s sa"e !nder &reat stress of h!n&er$ The pi& is an e'ception it cares little for &rass or fr!it b!t of all animals it is the fondest of roots owin& to the fact that its sno!t is pec!liarly adapted for di&&in& them o!t of the &ro!nd# it is also of all animals the most easily pleased in the matter of food$ It takes on fat more rapidly in proportion to its si2e than any other animal# in fact a pi& can be fattened for the market in si'ty days$ Ai&+dealers can tell the amo!nt of flesh taken on by ha"in& first wei&hed the animal while it was bein& star"ed$ Before the fattenin& process be&ins the creat!re m!st be star"ed for three days# and by the way animals in &eneral will take on fat if s!b)ected pre"io!sly to a co!rse of star"ation# after the three days of star"ation pi&+breeders feed the animal la"ishly$ Breeders in Thrace when fattenin& pi&s &i"e them a drink on the first day# then they miss one and then two days then three and fo!r !ntil the inter"al e'tends o"er se"en days$ The pi&s meat !sed for fattenin& is composed of barley millet fi&s acorns wild pears and c!c!mbers$ These animals+and other animals that ha"e warm bellies+are fattened by repose$ ,Ai&s also fatten the better by bein& allowed to wallow in m!d$ They like to feed in batches of the same a&e$ A pi& will &i"e battle e"en to a wolf$- If a pi& be wei&hed when li"in& yo! may calc!late that after death its flesh will wei&h fi"e+si'ths of that wei&ht and the hair the blood and the rest will wei&h the other si'th$ When s!cklin& their yo!n& swinelike all other animals+&et atten!ated$ %o m!ch for these animals$

< .attle feed on corn and &rass and fatten on "e&etables that tend to ca!se flat!lency s!ch as bitter "etch or br!ised beans or bean+stalks$ The older ones also will fatten if they be fed !p after an incision has been made into their hide and air blown thereinto$ .attle will fatten also on barley in its nat!ral state or on barley finely winnowed or on sweet food s!ch as fi&s or p!lp from the wine+press or on elm+lea"es$ B!t nothin& is so fattenin& as the heat of the s!n and wallowin& in warm waters$ If the horns of yo!n& cattle be smeared with hot wa' yo! may mold them to any shape yo! please and cattle are less s!b)ect to disease of the hoof if yo! smear the horny parts with wa' pitch or oli"e oil$ 9erded cattle s!ffer more when they are forced to chan&e their past!re &ro!nd by frost than when snow is the ca!se of chan&e$ .attle &row all the more in si2e when they are kept from se'!al commerce o"er a n!mber of years# and it is with a "iew to &rowth in si2e that in 7pir!s the so+called Ayrrhic kine are not allowed interco!rse with the b!ll !ntil they are nine years old# from which circ!mstance they are nicknamed the (!nb!lled kine$ Of these Ayrrhic cattle by the way they say that there are only abo!t fo!r h!ndred in the world that they are the pri"ate property of the 7pirote royal family that they cannot thri"e o!t of 7pir!s and that people elsewhere ha"e tried to rear them b!t witho!t s!ccess$ = 9orses m!les and asses feed on corn and &rass b!t are fattened chiefly by drink$ D!st in proportion as beasts of b!rden drink water so will they more or less en)oy their food and a place will &i"e &ood or bad feedin& accordin& as the water is &ood or bad$ 1reen corn while ripenin& will &i"e a smooth coat# b!t s!ch corn is in)!rio!s if the spikes are too stiff and sharp$ The first crop of clo"er is !nwholesome and so is clo"er o"er which ill+scented water r!ns# for the clo"er is s!re to &et the taint of the water$ .attle like clear water for drinkin&# b!t the horse in this respect resembles the camel for the camel likes t!rbid and thick water and will ne"er drink from a stream !ntil he has trampled it into a t!rbid condition$ And by the way the camel can &o witho!t water for as m!ch as fo!r days b!t after that when he drinks he drinks in immense *!antities$ > The elephant at the most can eat nine /acedonian medimni of fodder at one meal# b!t so lar&e an amo!nt is !nwholesome$ As a &eneral r!le it can take si' or se"en medimni of fodder fi"e medimni of wheat and fi"e mareis of wine+si' cotylae &oin& to the maris$ An elephant has been known to drink ri&ht off fo!rteen /acedonian metretae of water and another metretae later in the day$ .amels li"e for abo!t thirty years# in some e'ceptional cases they li"e m!ch lon&er and instances ha"e been known of their li"in& to the a&e of a h!ndred$ The elephant is said by some to li"e for abo!t two h!ndred years# by others for three h!ndred$ 1@ %heep and &oats are &ramini"oro!s b!t sheep browse assid!o!sly and steadily whereas &oats shift their &ro!nd rapidly and browse only on the tips of the herba&e$ %heep are m!ch impro"ed in condition by drinkin& and accordin&ly they &i"e the flocks salt e"ery fi"e days in s!mmer to the e'tent of one medimn!s to the h!ndred sheep and this is fo!nd to render a flock healthier and fatter$ In fact they mi' salt with the &reater part of their food# a lar&e amo!nt of salt is mi'ed into their bran ,for the reason that they drink more when thirsty- and in a!t!mn they &et c!c!mbers with a sprinklin& of salt on them# this admi't!re of salt in their food tends also to increase the

*!antity of milk in the ewes$ If sheep be kept on the mo"e at midday they will drink more copio!sly towards e"enin&# and if the ewes be fed with salted food as the lambin& season draws near they will &et lar&er !dders$ %heep are fattened by twi&s of the oli"e or of the oleaster by "etch and bran of e"ery kind# and these articles of food fatten all the more if they be first sprinkled with brine$ %heep will take on flesh all the better if they be first p!t for three days thro!&h a process of star"in&$ In a!t!mn water from the north is more wholesome for sheep than water from the so!th$ Aast!re &ro!nds are all the better if they ha"e a westerly aspect$ %heep will lose flesh if they be kept o"erm!ch on the mo"e or be s!b)ected to any hardship$ In winter time shepherds can easily distin&!ish the "i&oro!s sheep from the weakly from the fact that the "i&oro!s sheep are co"ered with hoar+frost while the weakly ones are *!ite free of it# the fact bein& that the weakly ones feelin& oppressed with the b!rden shake themsel"es and so &et rid of it$ The flesh of all *!adr!peds deteriorates in marshy past!res and is the better on hi&h &ro!nds$ %heep that ha"e flat tails can stand the winter better than lon&+tailed sheep and short+fleeced sheep than the sha&&y+fleeced# and sheep with crisp wool stand the ri&o!r of winter "ery poorly$ %heep are healthier than &oats b!t &oats are stron&er than sheep$ ,The fleeces and the wool of sheep that ha"e been killed by wol"es as also the clothes made from them are e'ceptionally infested with lice$11 Of insects s!ch as ha"e teeth are omni"oro!s# s!ch as ha"e a ton&!e feed on li*!ids only e'tractin& with that or&an )!ices from all *!arters$ And of these latter some may be called omni"oro!s inasm!ch as they feed on e"ery kind of )!ice as for instance the common fly# others are blood+s!ckers s!ch as the &adfly and the horse+fly others a&ain li"e on the )!ices of fr!its and plants$ The bee is the only insect that in"ariably eschews whate"er is rotten# it will to!ch no article of food !nless it ha"e a sweet+tastin& )!ice and it is partic!larly fond of drinkin& water if it be fo!nd b!bblin& !p clear from a sprin& !nder&ro!nd$ %o m!ch for the food of animals of the leadin& &enera$ 13 The habits of animals are all connected with either breedin& and the rearin& of yo!n& or with the proc!rin& a d!e s!pply of food# and these habits are modified so as to s!it cold and heat and the "ariations of the seasons$ For all animals ha"e an instincti"e perception of the chan&es of temperat!re and )!st as men seek shelter in ho!ses in winter or as men of &reat possessions spend their s!mmer in cool places and their winter in s!nny ones so also all animals that can do so shift their habitat at "ario!s seasons$ %ome creat!res can make pro"ision a&ainst chan&e witho!t stirrin& from their ordinary ha!nts# others mi&rate *!ittin& Aont!s and the cold co!ntries after the a!t!mnal e*!ino' to a"oid the approachin& winter and after the sprin& e*!ino' mi&ratin& from warm lands to cool lands to a"oid the comin& heat$ In some cases they mi&rate from places near at hand in others they may be said to come from the ends of the world as in the case of the crane# for these birds mi&rate from the steppes of %cythia to the marshlands so!th of 7&ypt where the 4ile has its so!rce$ And it is here by the way that they are said to fi&ht with the py&mies# and the story is not fab!lo!s b!t there is in reality a race of dwarfish men and the horses are little in proportion and the men li"e in ca"es !nder&ro!nd$ Aelicans also mi&rate and fly from the %trymon to the Ister and breed on the banks of this ri"er$ They depart in flocks and the birds in front wait for those in the rear owin& to the fact

that when the flock is passin& o"er the inter"enin& mo!ntain ran&e the birds in the rear lose si&ht of their companions in the "an$ Fishes also in a similar manner shift their habitat now o!t of the 7!'ine and now into it$ In winter they mo"e from the o!ter sea in towards land in *!est of heat# in s!mmer they shift from shallow waters to the deep sea to escape the heat$ Weakly birds in winter and in frosty weather come down to the plains for warmth and in s!mmer mi&rate to the hills for coolness$ The more weakly an animal is the &reater h!rry will it be in to mi&rate on acco!nt of e'tremes of temperat!re either hot or cold# th!s the mackerel mi&rates in ad"ance of the t!nnies and the *!ail in ad"ance of the cranes$ The former mi&rates in the month of Boedromion and the latter in the month of /aemacterion$ All creat!res are fatter in mi&ratin& from cold to heat than in mi&ratin& from heat to cold# th!s the *!ail is fatter when he emi&rates in a!t!mn than when he arri"es in sprin&$ The mi&ration from cold co!ntries is contemporaneo!s with the close of the hot season$ Animals are in better trim for breedin& p!rposes in sprin&+time when they chan&e from hot to cool lands$ Of birds the crane as has been said mi&rates from one end of the world to the other# they fly a&ainst the wind$ The story told abo!t the stone is !ntr!e: to wit that the bird so the story &oes carries in its inside a stone by way of ballast and that the stone when "omited !p is a to!chstone for &old$ The c!shat and the rock+do"e mi&rate and ne"er winter in o!r co!ntry as is the case also with the t!rtle+do"e# the common pi&eon howe"er stays behind$ The *!ail also mi&rates# only by the way a few *!ails and t!rtle+do"es may stay behind here and there in s!nny districts$ .!shats and t!rtle+ do"es flock to&ether both when they arri"e and when the season for mi&ration comes ro!nd a&ain$ When *!ails come to land if it be fair weather or if a north wind is blowin& they will pair off and mana&e pretty comfortably# b!t if a so!therly wind pre"ail they are &reatly distressed owin& to the diffic!lties in the way of fli&ht for a so!therly wind is wet and "iolent$ For this reason bird+ catchers are ne"er on the alert for these birds d!rin& fine weather b!t only d!rin& the pre"alence of so!therly winds when the bird from the "iolence of the wind is !nable to fly$ And by the way it is owin& to the distress occasioned by the b!lkiness of its body that the bird always screams while flyin&: for the labo!r is se"ere$ When the *!ails come from abroad they ha"e no leaders b!t when they mi&rate hence the &lottis flits alon& with them as does also the landrail and the eared owl and the corncrake$ The corncrake calls them in the ni&ht and when the birdcatchers hear the croak of the bird in the ni&httime they know that the *!ails are on the mo"e$ The landrail is like a marsh bird and the &lottis has a ton&!e that can pro)ect far o!t of its beak$ The eared owl is like an ordinary owl only that it has feathers abo!t its ears# by some it is called the ni&ht+ra"en$ It is a &reat ro&!e of a bird and is a capital mimic# a bird+catcher will dance before it and while the bird is mimickin& his &est!res the accomplice comes behind and catches it$ The common owl is ca!&ht by a similar trick$ As a &eneral r!le all birds with crooked talons are short+necked flat+ton&!ed and disposed to mimicry$ The Indian bird the parrot which is said to ha"e a mans ton&!e answers to this description# and by the way after drinkin& wine the parrot becomes more sa!cy than e"er$ Of birds the followin& are mi&ratory+the crane the swan the pelican and the lesser &oose$ 15

Of fishes some as has been obser"ed mi&rate from the o!ter seas in towards shore and from the shore towards the o!ter seas to a"oid the e'tremes of cold and heat$ Fish li"in& near to the shore are better eatin& than deep+sea fish$ The fact is they ha"e more ab!ndant and better feedin& for where"er the s!ns heat can reach "e&etation is more ab!ndant better in *!ality and more delicate as is seen in any ordinary &arden$ F!rther the black shore+weed &rows near to shore# the other shore+weed is like wild weed$ Besides the parts of the sea near to shore are s!b)ected to a more e*!able temperat!re# and conse*!ently the flesh of shallow+water fishes is firm and consistent whereas the flesh of deep+water fishes is flaccid and watery$ The followin& fishes are fo!nd near into the shore+the synodon the black bream the mero! the &ilthead the m!llet the red m!llet the wrasse the wea"er the callionym!s the &oby and rock+ fishes of all kinds$ The followin& are deep+sea fishesGthe try&on the cartila&ino!s fishes the white con&er the serran!s the erythrin!s and the &la!c!s$ The brai2e the sea+scorpion the black con&er the m!raena and the piper or sea+c!ckoo are fo!nd alike in shallow and deep waters$ These fishes howe"er "ary for "ario!s localities# for instance the &oby and all rock+fish are fat off the coast of .rete$ A&ain the t!nny is o!t of season in s!mmer when it is bein& preyed on by its own pec!liar lo!se+parasite b!t after the risin& of Arct!r!s when the parasite has left it it comes into season a&ain$ A n!mber of fish also are fo!nd in sea+est!aries# s!ch as the sa!pe the &ilthead the red m!llet and in point of fact the &reater part of the &re&ario!s fishes$ The bonito also is fo!nd in s!ch waters as for instance off the coast of Alopeconnes!s# and most species of fishes are fo!nd in Bake Bistonis$ The coly+mackerel as a r!le does not enter the 7!'ine b!t passes the s!mmer in the Aropontis where it spawns and winters in the Ae&ean$ The t!nny proper the pelamys and the bonito penetrate into the 7!'ine in s!mmer and pass the s!mmer there# as do also the &reater part of s!ch fish as swim in shoals with the c!rrents or con&re&ate in shoals to&ether$ And most fish con&re&ate in shoals and shoal+fishes in all cases ha"e leaders$ Fish penetrate into the 7!'ine for two reasons and firstly for food$ For the feedin& is more ab!ndant and better in *!ality owin& to the amo!nt of fresh ri"er+water that dischar&es into the sea and moreo"er the lar&e fishes of this inland sea are smaller than the lar&e fishes of the o!ter sea$ In point of fact there is no lar&e fish in the 7!'ine e'ceptin& the dolphin and the porpoise and the dolphin is a small "ariety# b!t as soon as yo! &et into the o!ter sea the bi& fishes are on the bi& scale$ F!rthermore fish penetrate into this sea for the p!rpose of breedin&# for there are recesses there fa"o!rable for spawnin& and the fresh and e'ceptionally sweet water has an in"i&oratin& effect !pon the spawn$ After spawnin& when the yo!n& fishes ha"e attained some si2e the parent fish swim o!t of the 7!'ine immediately after the risin& of the Aleiads$ If winter comes in with a so!therly wind they swim o!t with more or less of deliberation# b!t if a north wind be blowin& they swim o!t with &reater rapidity from the fact that the bree2e is fa"o!rable to their own co!rse$ And by the way the yo!n& fish are ca!&ht abo!t this time in the nei&hbo!rhood of By2anti!m "ery small in si2e as mi&ht ha"e been e'pected from the shortness of their so)o!rn in the 7!'ine$ The shoals in &eneral are "isible both as they *!it and enter the 7!'ine$ The trichiae howe"er only can be ca!&ht d!rin& their entry b!t are ne"er "isible d!rin& their e'it# in point of fact when a trichia is ca!&ht r!nnin& o!twards in the nei&hbo!rhood of By2anti!m the fishermen are partic!larly caref!l to cleanse their nets as the circ!mstance is so sin&!lar and e'ceptional$ The way of acco!ntin& for this phenomenon is that this fish and this one only swims northwards into the Dan!be and then at the point of its bif!rcation swims down so!thwards into the Adriatic$ And as a proof that this theory is correct the "ery opposite phenomenon presents itself in the Adriatic# that is to say they are not ca!&ht in that sea d!rin& their entry b!t are ca!&ht d!rin& their e'it$

T!nny+fish swim into the 7!'ine keepin& the shore on their ri&ht and swim o!t of it with the shore !pon their left$ It is stated that they do so as bein& nat!rally weak+si&hted and seein& better with the ri&ht eye$ D!rin& the daytime shoal+fish contin!e on their way b!t d!rin& the ni&ht they rest and feed$ B!t if there be moonli&ht they contin!e their )o!rney witho!t restin& at all$ %ome people acc!stomed to sea+life assert that shoal+fish at the period of the winter solstice ne"er mo"e at all b!t keep perfectly still where"er they may happen to ha"e been o"ertaken by the solstice and this lasts !ntil the e*!ino'$ The coly+mackerel is ca!&ht more fre*!ently on enterin& than on *!ittin& the 7!'ine$ And in the Aropontis the fish is at its best before the spawnin& season$ %hoal+fish as a r!le are ca!&ht in &reater *!antities as they lea"e the 7!'ine and at that season they are in the best condition$ At the time of their entrance they are ca!&ht in "ery pl!mp condition close to shore b!t those are in comparati"ely poor condition that are ca!&ht farther o!t to sea$ ;ery often when the coly+ mackerel and the mackerel are met by a so!th wind in their e'it there are better catches to the so!thward than in the nei&hbo!rhood of By2anti!m$ %o m!ch then for the phenomenon of mi&ration of fishes$ 4ow the same phenomenon is obser"ed in fishes as in terrestrial animals in re&ard to hibernation: in other words d!rin& winter fishes take to concealin& themsel"es in o!t of the way places and *!it their places of concealment in the warmer season$ B!t by the way animals &o into concealment by way of ref!&e a&ainst e'treme heat as well as a&ainst e'treme cold$ %ometimes an entire &en!s will th!s seek concealment# in other cases some species will do so and others will not$ For instance the shell+fish seek concealment witho!t e'ception as is seen in the case of those dwellin& in the sea the p!rple m!re' the cery' and all s!ch like# b!t tho!&h in the case of the detached species the phenomenon is ob"io!s+for they hide themsel"es as is seen in the scallop or they are pro"ided with an operc!l!m on the free s!rface as in the case of land snails+in the case of the non+detached the concealment is not so clearly obser"ed$ They do not &o into hidin& at one and the same season# b!t the snails &o in winter the p!rple m!re' and the cery' for abo!t thirty days at the risin& of the Do&+star and the scallop at abo!t the same period$ B!t for the most part they &o into concealment when the weather is either e'tremely cold or e'tremely hot$ 16 Insects almost all &o into hidin& with the e'ception of s!ch of them as li"e in h!man habitations or perish before the completion of the year$ They hide in the winter# some of them for se"eral days others for only the coldest days as the bee$ For the bee also &oes into hidin&: and the proof that it does so is that d!rin& a certain period bees ne"er to!ch the food set before them and if a bee creeps o!t of the hi"e it is *!ite transparent with nothin& whatsoe"er in its stomach# and the period of its rest and hidin& lasts from the settin& of the Aleiads !ntil sprin&time$ Animals take their winter+sleep or s!mmer+sleep by concealin& themsel"es in warm places or in places where they ha"e been !sed to lie concealed$ 18 %e"eral blooded animals take this sleep s!ch as the pholidotes or tessellates namely the serpent the li2ard the &ecko and the ri"er$ crocodile all of which &o into hidin& for fo!r months in the depth of winter and d!rin& that time eat nothin&$ %erpents in &eneral b!rrow !nder &ro!nd for this p!rpose# the "iper conceals itself !nder a stone$

A &reat n!mber of fishes also take this sleep and notably the hipp!r!s and coracin!s in winter time# for whereas fish in &eneral may be ca!&ht at all periods of the year more or less there is this sin&!larity obser"ed in these fishes that they are ca!&ht within a certain fi'ed period of the year and ne"er by any chance o!t of it$ The m!raena also hides and the orph!s or sea+perch and the con&er$ Cock+fish pair off male and female for hidin& ,)!st as for breedin&-# as is obser"ed in the case of the species of wrasse called the thr!sh and the ow2el and in the perch$ The t!nny also takes a sleep in winter in deep waters and &ets e'ceedin&ly fat after the sleep$ The fishin& season for the t!nny be&ins at the risin& of the Aleiads and lasts at the lon&est down to the settin& of Arct!r!s# d!rin& the rest of the year they are hid and en)oyin& imm!nity$ Abo!t the time of hibernation a few t!nnies or other hibernatin& fishes are ca!&ht while swimmin& abo!t in partic!larly warm localities and in e'ceptionally fine weather or on ni&hts of f!ll moon# for the fishes are ind!ced ,by the warmth or the li&ht- to emer&e for a while from their lair in *!est of food$ /ost fishes are at their best for the table d!rin& the s!mmer or winter sleep$ The primas+t!nny conceals itself in the m!d# this may be inferred from the fact that d!rin& a partic!lar period the fish is ne"er ca!&ht and that when it is ca!&ht after that period it is co"ered with m!d and has its fins dama&ed$ In the sprin& these t!nnies &et in motion and proceed towards the coast co!plin& and breedin& and the females are now ca!&ht f!ll of spawn$ At this time they are considered as in season b!t in a!t!mn and in winter as of inferior *!ality# at this time also the males are f!ll of milt$ When the spawn is small the fish is hard to catch b!t it is easily ca!&ht when the spawn &ets lar&e as the fish is then infested by its parasite$ %ome fish b!rrow for sleep in the sand and some in m!d )!st keepin& their mo!ths o!tside$ /ost fishes hide then d!rin& the winter only b!t cr!staceans the rock+fish the ray and the cartila&ino!s species hide only d!rin& e'tremely se"ere weather and this may be inferred from the fact that these fishes are ne"er by any chance ca!&ht when the weather is e'tremely cold$ %ome fishes howe"er hide d!rin& the s!mmer as the &la!c!s or &rey+back# this fish hides in s!mmer for abo!t si'ty days$ The hake also and the &ilthead hide# and we infer that the hake hides o"er a len&thened period from the fact that it is only ca!&ht at lon& inter"als$ We are led also to infer that fishes hide in s!mmer from the circ!mstance that the takes of certain fish are made between the rise and settin& of certain constellations: of the Do&+star in partic!lar the sea at this period bein& !pt!rned from the lower depths$ This phenomenon may be obser"ed to best ad"anta&e in the Bospor!s# for the m!d is there bro!&ht !p to the s!rface and the fish are bro!&ht !p alon& with it$ They say also that "ery often when the sea+bottom is dred&ed more fish will be ca!&ht by the second ha!l than by the first one$ F!rthermore after "ery hea"y rains n!mero!s specimens become "isible of creat!res that at other times are ne"er seen at all or seen only at inter"als$ 1: A &reat n!mber of birds also &o into hidin&# they do not all mi&rate as is &enerally s!pposed to warmer co!ntries$ Th!s certain birds ,as the kite and the swallow- when they are not far off from places of this kind in which they ha"e their permanent abode betake themsel"es thither# others that are at a distance from s!ch places decline the tro!ble of mi&ration and simply hide themsel"es where they are$ %wallows for instance ha"e been often fo!nd in holes *!ite den!ded of their feathers and the kite on its first emer&ence from torpidity has been seen to fly from o!t some s!ch hidin&+place$ And with re&ard to this phenomenon of periodic torpor there is no distinction obser"ed whether the talons of a bird be crooked or strai&ht# for instance the stork the ow2el the

t!rtle+do"e and the lark all &o into hidin&$ The case of the t!rtledo"e is the most notorio!s of all for we wo!ld defy any one to assert that he had anywhere seen a t!rtle+do"e in winter+time# at the be&innin& of the hidin& time it is e'ceedin&ly pl!mp and d!rin& this period it mo!lts b!t retains its pl!mpness$ %ome c!shats hide# others instead of hidin& mi&rate at the same time as the swallow$ The thr!sh and the starlin& hide# and of birds with crooked talons the kite and the owl hide for a few days$ 1< Of "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds the porc!pine and the bear retire into concealment$ The fact that the bear hides is well established b!t there are do!bts as to its moti"e for so doin& whether it be by reason of the cold or from some other ca!se$ Abo!t this period the male and the female become so fat as to be hardly capable of motion$ The female brin&s forth her yo!n& at this time and remains in concealment !ntil it is time to brin& the c!bs o!t# and she brin&s them o!t in sprin& abo!t three months after the winter solstice$ The bear hides for at least forty days# d!rin& fo!rteen of these days it is said not to mo"e at all b!t d!rin& most of the s!bse*!ent days it mo"es and from time to time wakes !p$ A she+bear in pre&nancy has either ne"er been ca!&ht at all or has been ca!&ht "ery seldom$ There can be no do!bt b!t that d!rin& this period they eat nothin&# for in the first place they ne"er emer&e from their hidin&+place and f!rther when they are ca!&ht their belly and intestines are fo!nd to be *!ite empty$ It is also said that from no food bein& taken the &!t almost closes !p and that in conse*!ence the animal on first emer&in& takes to eatin& ar!m with the "iew of openin& !p and distendin& the &!t$ The dormo!se act!ally hides in a tree and &ets "ery fat at that period# as does also the white mo!se of Aont!s$ ,Of animals that hide or &o torpid some slo!&h off what is called their (old+a&e$ This name is applied to the o!termost skin and to the casin& that en"elops the de"elopin& or&anism$In disc!ssin& the case of terrestrial "i"ipara we stated that the reason for the bears seekin& concealment is an open *!estion$ We now proceed to treat of the tessellates$ The tessellates for the most part &o into hidin& and if their skin is soft they slo!&h off their (old+a&e b!t not if the skin is shell+like as is the shell of the tortoise+for by the way the tortoise and the fresh water tortoise belon& to the tessellates$ Th!s the old+a&e is slo!&hed off by the &ecko the li2ard and abo"e all by serpents# and they slo!&h off the skin in sprin&time when emer&in& from their torpor and a&ain in the a!t!mn$ ;ipers also slo!&h off their skin both in sprin& and in a!t!mn and it is not the case as some a"er that this species of the serpent family is e'ceptional in not slo!&hin&$ When the serpent be&ins to slo!&h the skin peels off at first from the eyes so that any one i&norant of the phenomenon wo!ld s!ppose the animal were &oin& blind# after that it peels off the head and so on !ntil the creat!re presents to "iew only a white s!rface all o"er$ The slo!&hin& &oes on for a day and a ni&ht be&innin& with the head and endin& with the tail$ D!rin& the slo!&hin& of the skin an inner layer comes to the s!rface for the creat!re emer&es )!st as the embryo from its afterbirth$ All insects that slo!&h at all slo!&h in the same way# as the silphe and the empis or mid&e and all the coleoptera as for instance the canthar!s+beetle$ They all slo!&h after the period of de"elopment# for )!st as the afterbirth breaks from off the yo!n& of the "i"ipara so the o!ter h!sk breaks off from aro!nd the yo!n& of the "ermipara in the same way both with the bee and the &rasshopper$ The cicada the moment after iss!in& from the h!sk &oes and sits !pon an oli"e tree or a reed# after the breakin& !p of the h!sk the creat!re iss!es o!t lea"in& a little moist!re behind and after a short inter"al flies !p into the air and sets a$ chirpin&$

Of marine animals the crawfish and the lobster slo!&h sometimes in the sprin& and sometimes in a!t!mn after part!rition$ Bobsters ha"e been ca!&ht occasionally with the parts abo!t the thora' soft from the shell ha"in& there peeled off and the lower parts hard from the shell ha"in& not yet peeled off there# for by the way they do not slo!&h in the same manner as the serpent$ The crawfish hides for abo!t fi"e months$ .rabs also slo!&h off their old+a&e# this is &enerally allowed with re&ard to the soft+shelled crabs and it is said to be the case with the testaceo!s kind as for instance with the lar&e (&ranny crab$ When these animals slo!&h their shell becomes soft all o"er and as for the crab it can scarcely crawl$ These animals also do not cast their skins once and for all b!t o"er and o"er a&ain$ %o m!ch for the animals that &o into hidin& or torpidity for the times at which and the ways in which they &o# and so m!ch also for the animals that slo!&h off their old+a&e and for the times at which they !nder&o the process$ 1= Animals do not all thri"e at the same seasons nor do they thri"e alike d!rin& all e'tremes of weather$ F!rther animals of di"erse species are in a di"erse way healthy or sickly at certain seasons# and in point of fact some animals ha"e ailments that are !nknown to others$ Birds thri"e in times of dro!&ht both in their &eneral health and in re&ard to part!rition and this is especially the case with the c!shat# fishes howe"er with a few e'ceptions thri"e best in rainy weather# on the contrary rainy seasons are bad for birds+and so by the way is m!ch drinkin&+and dro!&ht is bad for fishes$ Birds of prey as has been already stated may in a &eneral way be said ne"er to drink at all tho!&h 9esiod appears to ha"e been i&norant of the fact for in his story abo!t the sie&e of 4in!s he represents the ea&le that presided o"er the a!&!ries as in the act of drinkin&# all other birds drink b!t drink sparin&ly as is the case also with all other spon&y+l!n&ed o"iparo!s animals$ %ickness in birds may be dia&nosed from their pl!ma&e which is r!ffled when they are sickly instead of lyin& smooth as when they are well$ 1> The ma)ority of fishes as has been stated thri"e best in rainy seasons$ 4ot only ha"e they food in &reater ab!ndance at this time b!t in a &eneral way rain is wholesome for them )!st as it is for "e&etation+for by the way kitchen "e&etables tho!&h artificially watered deri"e benefit from rain# and the same remark applies e"en to reeds that &row in marshes as they hardly &row at all witho!t a rainfall$ That rain is &ood for fishes may be inferred from the fact that most fishes mi&rate to the 7!'ine for the s!mmer# for owin& to the n!mber of the ri"ers that dischar&e into this sea its water is e'ceptionally fresh and the ri"ers brin& down a lar&e s!pply of food$ Besides a &reat n!mber of fishes s!ch as the bonito and the m!llet swim !p the ri"ers and thri"e in the ri"ers and marshes$ The sea+&!d&eon also fattens in the ri"ers and as a r!le co!ntries abo!ndin& in la&oons f!rnish !n!s!ally e'cellent fish$ While most fishes then are benefited by rain they are chiefly benefited by s!mmer rain# or we may state the case th!s that rain is &ood for fishes in sprin& s!mmer and a!t!mn and fine dry weather in winter$ As a &eneral r!le what is &ood for men is &ood for fishes also$ Fishes do not thri"e in cold places and those fishes s!ffer most in se"ere winters that ha"e a stone in their head as the chromis the basse the sciaena and the brai2e# for owin& to the stone they &et fro2en with the cold and are thrown !p on shore$

Whilst rain is wholesome for most fishes it is on the contrary !nwholesome for the m!llet the cephal!s and the so+called marin!s for rain s!perind!ces blindness in most of these fishes and all the more rapidly if the rainfall be s!perab!ndant$ The cephal!s is pec!liarly s!b)ect to this malady in se"ere winters# their eyes &row white and when ca!&ht they are in poor condition and e"ent!ally the disease kills them$ It wo!ld appear that this disease is d!e to e'treme cold e"en more than to an e'cessi"e rainfall# for instance in many places and more especially in shallows off the coast of 4a!plia in the Ar&olid a n!mber of fishes ha"e been known to be ca!&ht o!t at sea in seasons of se"ere cold$ The &ilthead also s!ffers in winter# the acharnas s!ffers in s!mmer and loses condition$ The coracine is e'ceptional amon& fishes in deri"in& benefit from dro!&ht and this is d!e to the fact that heat and dro!&ht are apt to come to&ether$ Aartic!lar places s!it partic!lar fishes# some are nat!rally fishes of the shore and some of the deep sea and some are at home in one or the other of these re&ions and others are common to the two and are at home in both$ %ome fishes will thri"e in one partic!lar spot and in that spot only$ As a &eneral r!le it may be said that places abo!ndin& in weeds are wholesome# at all e"ents fishes ca!&ht in s!ch places are e'ceptionally fat: that is s!ch fishes a a habit all sorts of localities as well$ The fact is that weed+eatin& fishes find ab!ndance of their special food in s!ch localities and carni"oro!s fish find an !n!s!ally lar&e n!mber of smaller fish$ It matters also whether the wind be from the north or so!th: the lon&er fish thri"e better when a north wind pre"ails and in s!mmer at one and the same spot more lon& fish will be ca!&ht than flat fish with a north wind blowin&$ The t!nny and the sword+fish are infested with a parasite abo!t the risin& of the Do&+star# that is to say abo!t this time both these fishes ha"e a &r!b beside their fins that is nicknamed the (&adfly$ It resembles the scorpion in shape and is abo!t the si2e of the spider$ %o ac!te is the pain it inflicts that the sword+fish will often leap as hi&h o!t of the water as a dolphin# in fact it sometimes leaps o"er the b!lwarks of a "essel and falls back on the deck$ The t!nny deli&hts more than any other fish in the heat of the s!n$ It will b!rrow for warmth in the sand in shallow waters near to shore or will beca!se it is warm disport itself on the s!rface of the sea$ The fry of little fishes escape by bein& o"erlooked for it is only the lar&er ones of the small species that fishes of the lar&e species will p!rs!e$ The &reater part of the spawn and the fry of fishes is destroyed by the heat of the s!n for whate"er of them the s!n reaches it spoils$ Fishes are ca!&ht in &reatest ab!ndance before s!nrise and after s!nset or speakin& &enerally )!st abo!t s!nset and s!nrise$ Fishermen ha!l !p their nets at these times and speak of the ha!ls then made as the (nick+of+time ha!ls$ The fact is that at these times fishes are partic!larly weak+ si&hted# at ni&ht they are at rest and as the li&ht &rows stron&er they see comparati"ely well$ We know of no pestilential malady attackin& fishes s!ch as those which attack man and horses and o'en amon& the *!adr!pedal "i"ipara and certain species of other &enera domesticated and wild# b!t fishes do seem to s!ffer from sickness# and fishermen infer this from the fact that at times fishes in poor condition and lookin& as tho!&h they were sick and of altered colo!r are ca!&ht in a lar&e ha!l of well+conditioned fish of their own species$ %o m!ch for sea+fishes$ 3@ Ci"er+fish and lake+fish also are e'empt from diseases of a pestilential character b!t certain species are s!b)ect to special and pec!liar maladies$ For instance the sheat+fish )!st before the risin& of the Do&+star owin& to its swimmin& near the s!rface of the water is liable to s!nstroke and is paralysed by a lo!d peal of th!nder$ The carp is s!b)ect to the same e"ent!alities b!t in a lesser

de&ree$ The sheatfish is destroyed in &reat *!antities in shallow waters by the serpent called the dra&on$ In the baler!s and tilon a worm is en&endered abo!t the risin& of the Do&+star that sickens these fish and ca!ses them to rise towards the s!rface where they are killed by the e'cessi"e heat$ The chalcis is s!b)ect to a "ery "iolent malady# lice are en&endered !nderneath their &ills in &reat n!mbers and ca!se destr!ction amon& them# b!t no other species of fish is s!b)ect to any s!ch malady$ If m!llein be introd!ced into water it will kill fish in its "icinity$ It is !sed e'tensi"ely for catchin& fish in ri"ers and ponds# by the Ahoenicians it is made !se of also in the sea$ There are two other methods employed for catch+fish$ It is a known fact that in winter fishes emer&e from the deep parts of ri"ers and by the way at all seasons fresh water is tolerably cold$ A trench accordin&ly is d!& leadin& into a ri"er and wattled at the ri"er end with reeds and stones an apert!re bein& left in the wattlin& thro!&h which the ri"er water flows into the trench# when the frost comes on the fish can be taken o!t of the trench in weels$ Another method is adopted in s!mmer and winter alike$ They r!n across a stream a dam composed of br!shwood and stones lea"in& a small open space and in this space they insert a weel# they then coop the fish in towards this place and draw them !p in the weel as they swim thro!&h the open space$ %hell+fish as a r!le are benefited by rainy weather$ The p!rple m!re' is an e'ception# if it be placed on a shore near to where a ri"er dischar&es it will die within a day after tastin& the fresh water$ The m!re' li"es for abo!t fifty days after capt!re# d!rin& this period they feed off one another as there &rows on the shell a kind of sea+weed or sea+moss# if any food is thrown to them d!rin& this period it is said to be done not to keep them ali"e b!t to make them wei&h more$ To shell+fish in &eneral dro!&ht is !nwholesome$ D!rin& dry weather they decrease in si2e and de&enerate in *!ality# and it is d!rin& s!ch weather that the red scallop is fo!nd in more than !s!al ab!ndance$ In the Ayrrhaean %trait the clam was e'terminated partly by the dred&in&+machine !sed in their capt!re and partly by lon&+contin!ed dro!&hts$ Cainy weather is wholesome to the &enerality of shellfish owin& to the fact that the sea+water then becomes e'ceptionally sweet$ In the 7!'ine owin& to the coldness of the climate shellfish are not fo!nd: nor yet in ri"ers e'ceptin& a few bi"al"es here and there$ ?ni"al"es by the way are "ery apt to free2e to death in e'tremely cold weather$ %o m!ch for animals that li"e in water$ 31 To t!rn to *!adr!peds the pi& s!ffers from three diseases one of which is called branchos a disease attended with swellin&s abo!t the windpipe and the )aws$ It may break o!t in any part of the body# "ery often it attacks the foot and occasionally the ear# the nei&hbo!rin& parts also soon rot and the decay &oes on !ntil it reaches the l!n&s when the animal s!cc!mbs$ The disease de"elops with &reat rapidity and the moment it sets in the animal &i"es !p eatin&$ The swineherds know b!t one way to c!re it namely by complete e'cision when they detect the first si&ns of the disease$ There are two other diseases which are both alike termed cra!r!s$ The one is attended with pain and hea"iness in the head and this is the commoner of the two the other with diarrhoea$ The latter is inc!rable the former is treated by applyin& wine fomentations to the sno!t and rinsin& the nostrils with wine$ 7"en this disease is "ery hard to c!re# it has been known to kill within three or fo!r days$ The animal is chiefly s!b)ect to branchos when it &ets e'tremely fat and when the heat has bro!&ht a &ood s!pply of fi&s$ The treatment is to feed on mashed m!lberries to &i"e repeated warm baths and to lance the !nder part of the ton&!e$

Ai&s with flabby flesh are s!b)ect to measles abo!t the le&s neck and sho!lders for the pimples de"elop chiefly in these parts$ If the pimples are few in n!mber the flesh is comparati"ely sweet b!t if they be n!mero!s it &ets watery and flaccid$ The symptoms of measles are ob"io!s for the pimples show chiefly on the !nder side of the ton&!e and if yo! pl!ck the bristles off the chine the skin will appear s!ff!sed with blood and f!rther the animal will be !nable to keep its hind+feet at rest$ Ai&s ne"er take this disease while they are mere s!cklin&s$ The pimples may be &ot rid of by feedin& on this kind of spelt called tiphe# and this spelt by the way is "ery &ood for ordinary food$ The best food for rearin& and fattenin& pi&s is chickpeas and fi&s b!t the one thin& essential is to "ary the food as m!ch as possible for this animal like animals in &eneral li&hts in a chan&e of diet# and it is said that one kind of food blows the animal o!t that another s!perind!ces flesh and that another p!ts on fat and that acorns tho!&h liked by the animal render the flesh flaccid$ Besides if a sow eats acorns in &reat *!antities it will miscarry as is also the case with the ewe# and indeed the miscarria&e is more certain in the case of the ewe than in the case of the sow$ The pi& is the only animal known to be s!b)ect to measles$ 33 Do&s s!ffer from three diseases# rabies *!insy and sore feet$ Cabies dri"es the animal mad and ary animal whate"er e'ceptin& man will take the disease if bitten by a do& so afflicted# the disease is fatal to the do& itself and to any animal it may bite man e'cepted$ I!insy also is fatal to do&s# and only a few reco"er from disease of the feet$ The camel like the do& is s!b)ect to rabies$ The elephant which is rep!ted to en)oy imm!nity from all other illnesses is occasionally s!b)ect to flat!lency$ 35 .attle in herds are liable to two diseases foot sickness and cra!r!s$ In the former their feet s!ffer from er!ptions b!t the animal reco"ers from the disease witho!t e"en the loss of the hoof$ It is fo!nd of ser"ice to smear the horny parts with warm pitch$ In cra!r!s the breath comes warm at short inter"als# in fact cra!r!s in cattle answers to fe"er in man$ The symptoms of the disease are droopin& of the ears and disinclination for food$ The animal soon s!cc!mbs and when the carcase is opened the l!n&s are fo!nd to be rotten$ 36 9orses o!t at past!re are free from all diseases e'ceptin& disease of the feet$ From this disease they sometimes lose their hoo"es: b!t after losin& them they &row them soon a&ain for as one hoof is decayin& it is bein& replaced by another$ %ymptoms of the malady are a sinkin& in and wrinklin& of the lip in the middle !nder the nostrils and in the case of the male a twitchin& of the ri&ht testicle$ %tall+reared horses are s!b)ect to "ery n!mero!s forms of disease$ They are liable to disease called (eile!s$ ?nder this disease the animal trails its hind+le&s !nder its belly so far forward as almost to fall back on its ha!nches# if it &oes witho!t food for se"eral days and t!rns rabid it may be of ser"ice to draw blood or to castrate the male$ The animal is s!b)ect also to tetan!s: the "eins &et ri&id as also the head and neck and the animal walks with its le&s stretched o!t strai&ht$ The horse s!ffers also from abscesses$ Another painf!l illness afflicts them called the (barley+s!rfeit$ The are a softenin& of the palate and heat of the breath# the animal may reco"er thro!&h the stren&th of its own constit!tion b!t no formal remedies are of any a"ail$ There is also a disease called nymphia in which the animal is said to stand still and droop its head on hearin& fl!te+m!sic# if d!rin& this ailment the horse be mo!nted it will r!n off at a &allop !ntil it

is p!lled$ 7"en with this rabies in f!ll force it preser"es a de)ected spiritless appearance# some of the symptoms are a throwin& back of the ears followed by a pro)ection of them &reat lan&!or and hea"y breathin&$ 9eart+ache also is inc!rable of which the symptom is a drawin& in of the flanks# and so is displacement of the bladder which is accompanied by a retention of !rine and a drawin& !p of the hoo"es and ha!nches$ 4either is there any c!re if the animal swallow the &rape+beetle which is abo!t the si2e of the sphondyle or kn!ckle+beetle$ The bite of the shrewmo!se is dan&ero!s to horses and other dra!&ht animals as well# it is followed by boils$ The bite is all the more dan&ero!s if the mo!se be pre&nant when she bites for the boils then b!rst b!t do not b!rst otherwise$ The cici&na+called (chalcis by some and (2i&nis by others+either ca!ses death by its bite or at all e"ents intense pain# it is like a small li2ard with the colo!r of the blind snake$ In point of fact accordin& to e'perts the horse and the sheep ha"e pretty well as many ailments as the h!man species$ The dr!& known !nder the name of (sandarace or real&ar is e'tremely in)!rio!s to a horse and to all dra!&ht animals# it is &i"en to the animal as a medicine in a sol!tion of water the li*!id bein& filtered thro!&h a colander$ The mare when pre&nant apt to miscarry when dist!rbed by the odo!r of an e'tin&!ished candle# and a similar accident happens occasionally to women in their pre&nancy$ %o m!ch for the diseases of the horse$ The so+called hippomanes &rows as has stated on the foal and the mare nibbles it off as she licks and cleans the foal$ All the c!rio!s stories connected with the hippomanes are d!e to old wi"es and to the "enders of charms$ What is called the (poli!m or foals membrane is as all the acco!nts state deli"ered by the mother before the foal appears$ A horse will reco&ni2e the nei&hin& of any other horse with which it may ha"e fo!&ht at any pre"io!s period$ The horse deli&hts in meadows and marshes and likes to drink m!ddy water# in fact if water be clear the horse will trample in it to make it t!rbid will then drink it and afterwards will wallow in it$ The animal is fond of water in e"ery way whether for drinkin& or for bathin& p!rposes# and this e'plains the pec!liar constit!tion of the hippopotam!s or ri"er+horse$ In re&ard to water the o' is the opposite of the horse# for if the water be imp!re or cold or mi'ed !p with alien matter it will ref!se to drink it$ 38 The ass s!ffers chiefly from one partic!lar disease which they call (melis$ It arises first in the head and a clammy h!mo!r r!ns down the nostrils thick and red# if it stays in the head the animal may reco"er b!t if it descends into the l!n&s the animal will die$ Of all animals on its of its kind it is the least capable of end!rin& e'treme cold which circ!mstance will acco!nt for the fact that the animal is not fo!nd on the shores of the 7!'ine nor in %cythia$ 3: 7lephants s!ffer from flat!lence and when th!s afflicted can "oid neither solid nor li*!id resid!!m$ If the elephant swallow earth+mo!ld it s!ffers from rela'ation# b!t if it &o on takin& it steadily it will e'perience no harm$ From time to time it takes to swallowin& stones$ It s!ffers also from diarrhoea: in this case they administer dra!&hts of l!kewarm water or dip its fodder in honey and either one or the other prescription will pro"e a costi"e$ When they s!ffer from insomnia they will be restored to health if their sho!lders be r!bbed with salt oli"e+oil and warm water# when they ha"e aches in their sho!lders they will deri"e &reat benefit from the application of roast pork$ %ome elephants like oli"e oil and others do not$ If there is a bit of iron in the inside of an elephant it is said that it will pass o!t if the animal takes a drink of oli"e+oil# if the animal ref!ses oli"e+oil they soak a root in the oil and &i"e it the root to swallow$ %o m!ch then for *!adr!peds$

3< Insects as a &eneral r!le thri"e best in the time of year in which they come into bein& especially if the season be moist and warm as in sprin&$ In bee+hi"es are fo!nd creat!res that do &reat dama&e to the combs# for instance the &r!b that spins a web and r!ins the honeycomb: it is called the (cleros$ It en&enders an insect like itself of a spider+shape and brin&s disease into the swarm$ There is another insect resemblin& the moth called by some the (pyra!stes that flies abo!t a li&hted candle: this creat!re en&enders a brood f!ll of a fine down$ It is ne"er st!n& by a bee and can only be &ot o!t of a hi"e by f!mi&ation$ A caterpillar also is en&endered in hi"es of a species nicknamed the teredo or (borer with which creat!re the bee ne"er interferes$ Bees s!ffer most when flowers are co"ered with mildew or in seasons of dro!&ht$ All insects witho!t e'ception die if they be smeared o"er with oil# and they die all the more rapidly if yo! smear their head with the oil and lay them o!t in the s!n$ 3= ;ariety in animal life may be prod!ced by "ariety of locality: th!s in one place an animal will not be fo!nd at all in another it will be small or short+li"ed or will not thri"e$ %ometimes this sort of difference is obser"ed in closely ad)acent districts$ Th!s in the territory of /ilet!s in one district cicadas are fo!nd while there are none in the district close ad)oinin&# and in .ephalenia there is a ri"er on one side of which the cicada is fo!nd and not on the other$ In Aordoselene there is a p!blic road one side of which the weasel is fo!nd b!t not on the other$ In Boeotia the mole is fo!nd in &reat ab!ndance in the nei&hbo!rhood of Orchomen!s b!t there are none in Bebadia tho!&h it is in the immediate "icinity and if a mole be transported from the one district to the other it will ref!se to b!rrow in the soil$ The hare cannot li"e in Ithaca if introd!ced there# in fact it will be fo!nd dead t!rned towards the point of the beach where it was landed$ The horseman+ant is not fo!nd in %icily# the croakin& fro& has only recently appeared in the nei&hbo!rhood of .yrene$ In the whole of Bibya there is neither wild boar nor sta& nor wild &oat# and in India accordin& to .tesias+no "ery &ood a!thority by the way+there are no swine wild or tame b!t animals that are de"oid of blood and s!ch as &o into hidin& or &o torpid are all of immense si2e there$ In the 7!'ine there are no small moll!scs nor testaceans e'cept a few here and there# b!t in the Ced %ea all the testaceans are e'ceedin&ly lar&e$ In %yria the sheep ha"e tails a c!bit in breadth# the &oats ha"e ears a span and a palm lon& and some ha"e ears that flap down to the &ro!nd# and the cattle ha"e h!mps on their sho!lders like the camel$ In Bycia &oats are shorn for their fleece )!st as sheep are in all other co!ntries$ In Bibya the lon&+horned ram is born with horns and not the ram only as 9omer words it b!t the ewe as well# in Aont!s on the confines of %cythia the ram is witho!t horns$ In 7&ypt animals as a r!le are lar&er than their con&eners in 1reece as the cow and the sheep# b!t some are less as the do& the wolf the hare the fo' the ra"en and the hawk# others are of pretty m!ch the same si2e as the crow and the &oat$ The difference where it e'ists is attrib!ted to the food as bein& ab!ndant in one case and ins!fficient in another for instance for the wolf and the hawk# for pro"ision is scanty for the carni"oro!s animals small birds bein& scarce# food is scanty also for the hare and for all fr!&i"oro!s animals beca!se neither the n!ts nor the fr!it last lon&$ In many places the climate will acco!nt for pec!liarities# th!s in Illyria Thrace and 7pir!s the ass is small and in 1a!l and in %cythia the ass is not fo!nd at all owin& to the coldness of the climate

of these co!ntries$ In Arabia the li2ard is more than a c!bit in len&th and the mo!se is m!ch lar&er than o!r field+mo!se with its hind+le&s a span lon& and its front le&s the len&th of the first fin&er+ )oint$ In Bibya accordin& to all acco!nts the len&th of the serpents is somethin& appallin&# sailors spin a yarn to the effect that some crews once p!t ashore and saw the bones of a n!mber of o'en and that they were s!re that the o'en had been de"o!red by serpents for )!st as they were p!ttin& o!t to sea serpents came chasin& their &alleys at f!ll speed and o"ert!rned one &alley and set !pon the crew$ A&ain lions are more n!mero!s in Bibya and in that district of 7!rope that lies between the Achelo!s and the 4ess!s# the leopard is more ab!ndant in Asia /inor and is not fo!nd in 7!rope at all$ As a &eneral r!le wild animals are at their wildest in Asia at their boldest in 7!rope and most di"erse in form in Bibya# in fact there is an old sayin& (Always somethin& fresh in Bibya$ It wo!ld appear that in that co!ntry animals of di"erse species meet on acco!nt of the rainless climate at the waterin&+places and there pair to&ether# and that s!ch pairs will often breed if they be nearly of the same si2e and ha"e periods of &estation of the same len&th$ For it is said that they are tamed down in their beha"io!r towards each other by e'tremity of thirst$ And by the way !nlike animals elsewhere they re*!ire to drink more in wintertime than in s!mmer: for they ac*!ire the habit of not drinkin& in s!mmer owin& to the circ!mstance that there is !s!ally no water then# and the mice if they drink die$ 7lsewhere also bastard+animals are born to hetero&eneo!s pairs# th!s in .yrene the wolf and the bitch will co!ple and breed# and the Baconian ho!nd is a cross between the fo' and the do&$ They say that the Indian do& is a cross between the ti&er and the bitch not the first cross b!t a cross in the third &eneration# for they say that the first cross is a sa"a&e creat!re$ They take the bitch to a lonely spot and tie her !p: if the ti&er be in an amoro!s mood he will pair with her# if not he will eat her !p and this cas!alty is of fre*!ent occ!rrence$ 3> Bocality will differentiate habits also: for instance r!&&ed hi&hlands will not prod!ce the same res!lts as the soft lowlands$ The animals of the hi&hlands look fiercer and bolder as is seen in the swine of /o!nt Athos# for a lowland boar is no match e"en for a mo!ntain sow$ A&ain locality is an important element in re&ard to the bite of an animal$ Th!s in Aharos and other places the bite of the scorpion is not dan&ero!s# elsewhere+in .aria for instances+where scorpions are "enomo!s as well as plentif!l and of lar&e si2e the stin& is fatal to man or beast e"en to the pi& and especially to a black pi& tho!&h the pi& by the way is in &eneral most sin&!larly indifferent to the bite of any other creat!re$ If a pi& &oes into water after bein& str!ck by the scorpion of .aria it will s!rely die$ There is &reat "ariety in the effects prod!ced by the bites of serpents$ The asp is fo!nd in Bibya# the so+called (septic dr!& is made from the body of the animal and is the only remedy known for the bite of the ori&inal$ Amon& the silphi!m also a snake is fo!nd for the bite or which a certain stone is said to be a c!re: a stone that is bro!&ht from the &ra"e of an ancient kin& which stone is p!t into water and dr!nk off$ In certain parts of Italy the bite of the &ecko is fatal$ B!t the deadliest of all bites of "enomo!s creat!res is when one "enomo!s animal has bitten another# as for instance a "ipers after it has bitten a scorpion$ To the &reat ma)ority of s!ch creat!res mans is fatal$ There is a "ery little snake by some entitled the (holy+snake which is dreaded by e"en the lar&est serpents$ It is abo!t an ell lon& and hairy+lookin&# whene"er it bites an animal the flesh all ro!nd the wo!nd

will at once mortify$ There is in India a small snake which is e'ceptional in this respect that for its bite no specific whate"er is known$ 5@ Animals also "ary as to their condition of health in conne'ion with their pre&nancy$ Testaceans s!ch as scallops and all the oyster+family and cr!staceans s!ch as the lobster family are best when with spawn$ 7"en in the case of the testacean we speak of spawnin& ,or pre&nancy-# b!t whereas the cr!staceans may be seen co!plin& and layin& their spawn this is ne"er the case with testaceans$ /oll!scs are best in the breedin& time as the calamary the sepia and the octop!s$ Fishes when they be&in to breed are nearly all &ood for the table# b!t after the female has &one lon& with spawn they are &ood in some cases and in others are o!t of season$ The maenis for instance is &ood at the breedin& time$ The female of this fish is ro!nd the male lon&er and flatter# when the female is be&innin& to breed the male t!rns black and mottled and is *!ite !nfit for the table# at this period he is nicknamed the (&oat$ The wrasses called the ow2el and the thr!sh and the smaris ha"e different colo!rs at different seasons as is the case with the pl!ma&e of certain birds# that is to say they become black in the sprin& and after the sprin& &et white a&ain$ The phycis also chan&es its h!e: in &eneral it is white b!t in sprin& it is mottled# it is the only sea+fish which is said make a bed for itself and the female lays her spawn in this bed or nest$ The maenis as was obser"ed chan&es its colo!r as does the smaris and in s!mmer+time chan&es back from whitish to black the chan&e bein& especially marked abo!t the fins and &ills$ The coracine like the maenis is in best condition at breedin& time# the m!llet the basse and scaly fishes in &eneral are in bad condition at this period$ A few fish are in m!ch the same condition at all times whether with spawn or not as the &la!c!s$ Old fishes also are bad eatin&# the old t!nny is !nfit e"en for picklin& as a &reat part of its flesh wastes away with a&e and the same wastin& is obser"ed in all old fishes$ The a&e of a scaly fish may be told by the si2e and the hardness of its scales$ An old t!nny has been ca!&ht wei&hin& fifteen talents with the span of its tail two c!bits and a palm broad$ Ci"er+fish and lake+fish are best after they ha"e dischar&ed the spawn in the case of the female and the milt in the case of the male: that is when they ha"e f!lly reco"ered from the e'ha!stion of s!ch dischar&e$ %ome are &ood in the breedin& time as the saperdis and some bad as the sheat+fish$ As a &eneral r!le the male fish is better eatin& than the female# b!t the re"erse holds &ood of the sheat+ fish$ The eels that are called females are the best for the table: they look as tho!&h they were female b!t they really are not so$

Book IX
1 OF the animals that are comparati"ely obsc!re and short+li"ed the characters or dispositions are not so ob"io!s to reco&nition as are those of animals that are lon&er+li"ed$ These latter animals appear to ha"e a nat!ral capacity correspondin& to each of the passions: to c!nnin& or simplicity co!ra&e or timidity to &ood temper or to bad and to other similar dispositions of mind$ %ome also are capable of &i"in& or recei"in& instr!ction+of recei"in& it from one another or from man: those that ha"e the fac!lty of hearin& for instance# and not to limit the matter to a!dible so!nd s!ch as can differentiate the s!&&ested meanin&s of word and &est!re$

In all &enera in which the distinction of male and female is fo!nd 4at!re makes a similar differentiation in the mental characteristics of the two se'es$ This differentiation is the most ob"io!s in the case of h!man kind and in that of the lar&er animals and the "i"iparo!s *!adr!peds$ In the case of these latter the female softer in character is the sooner tamed admits more readily of caressin& is more apt in the way of learnin&# as for instance in the Baconian breed of do&s the female is cle"erer than the male$ Of the /olossian breed of do&s s!ch as are employed in the chase are pretty m!ch the same as those elsewhere# b!t sheep+do&s of this breed are s!perior to the others in si2e and in the co!ra&e with which they face the attacks of wild animals$ Do&s that are born of a mi'ed breed between these two kinds are remarkable for co!ra&e and end!rance of hard labo!r$ In all cases e'ceptin& those of the bear and leopard the female is less spirited than the male# in re&ard to the two e'ceptional cases the s!periority in co!ra&e rests with the female$ With all other animals the female is softer in disposition than the male is more mischie"o!s less simple more imp!lsi"e and more attenti"e to the n!rt!re of the yo!n&: the male on the other hand is more spirited than the female more sa"a&e more simple and less c!nnin&$ The traces of these differentiated characteristics are more or less "isible e"erywhere b!t they are especially "isible where character is the more de"eloped and most of all in man$ The fact is the nat!re of man is the most ro!nded off and complete and conse*!ently in man the *!alities or capacities abo"e referred to are fo!nd in their perfection$ 9ence woman is more compassionate than man more easily mo"ed to tears at the same time is more )ealo!s more *!er!lo!s more apt to scold and to strike$ %he is f!rthermore more prone to despondency and less hopef!l than the man more "oid of shame or self+respect more false of speech more decepti"e and of more retenti"e memory$ %he is also more wakef!l more shrinkin& more diffic!lt to ro!se to action and re*!ires a smaller *!antity of n!triment$ As was pre"io!sly stated the male is more co!ra&eo!s than the female and more sympathetic in the way of standin& by to help$ 7"en in the case of moll!scs when the c!ttle+fish is str!ck with the trident the male stands by to help the female# b!t when the male is str!ck the female r!ns away$ There is enmity between s!ch animals as dwell in the same localities or s!bsist on the food$ If the means of s!bsistence r!n short creat!res of like kind will fi&ht to&ether$ Th!s it is said that seals which inhabit one and the same district will fi&ht male with male and female with female !ntil one combatant kills the other or one is dri"en away by the other# and their yo!n& do e"en in like manner$ All creat!res are at enmity with the carni"ores and the carni"ores with all the rest for they all s!bsist on li"in& creat!res$ %oothsayers take notice of cases where animals keep apart from one another and cases where they con&re&ate to&ether# callin& those that li"e at war with one another (dissociates and those that dwell in peace with one another (associates$ One may &o so far as to say that if there were no lack or stint of food then those animals that are now afraid of man or are wild by nat!re wo!ld be tame and familiar with him and in like manner with one another$ This is shown by the way animals are treated in 7&ypt for owin& to the fact that food is constantly s!pplied to them the "ery fiercest creat!res li"e peaceably to&ether$ The fact is they are tamed by kindness and in some places crocodiles are tame to their priestly keeper from bein& fed by him$ And elsewhere also the same phenomenon is to be obser"ed$

The ea&le and the snake are enemies for the ea&le li"es on snakes# so are the ichne!mon and the "enom+spider for the ichne!mon preys !pon the latter$ In the case of birds there is m!t!al enmity between the poecilis the crested lark the woodpecker ,0- and the chlore!s for they de"o!r one anothers e&&s# so also between the crow and the owl# for owin& to the fact that the owl is dim+ si&hted by day the crow at midday preys !pon the owls e&&s and the owl at ni&ht !pon the crows each ha"in& the whip+hand of the other t!rn and t!rn abo!t ni&ht and day$ There is enmity also between the owl and the wren# for the latter also de"o!rs the owls e&&s$ In the daytime all other little birds fl!tter ro!nd the owl+a practice which is pop!larly termed (admirin& him+b!ffet him and pl!ck o!t his feathers# in conse*!ence of this habit bird+catchers !se the owl as a decoy for catchin& little birds of all kinds$ The so+called presbys or (old man is at war with the weasel and the crow for they prey on her e&&s and her brood# and so the t!rtle+do"e with the pyrallis for they li"e in the same districts and on the same food# and so with the &reen wood pecker and the liby!s# and so with kite and the ra"en for owin& to his ha"in& the ad"anta&e from stron&er talons and more rapid fli&ht the former can steal whate"er the latter is holdin& so that it is food also that makes enemies of these$ In like manner there is war between birds that &et their li"in& from the sea as between the brenth!s the &!ll and the harpe# and so between the b!22ard on one side and the toad and snake on the other for the b!22ard preys !pon the e&&s of the two others# and so between the t!rtle+do"e and the chlore!s# the chlore!s kills the do"e and the crow kills the so+called dr!mmer+bird$ The ae&oli!s and birds of prey in &eneral prey !pon the calaris and conse*!ently there is war between it and them# and so is there war between the &ecko+li2ard and the spider for the former preys !pon the latter# and so between the woodpecker and the heron for the former preys !pon the e&&s and brood of the latter$ And so between the ae&ith!s and the ass owin& to the fact that the ass in passin& a f!r2e+b!sh r!bs its sore and itchin& parts a&ainst the prickles# by so doin& and all the more if it brays it topples the e&&s and the brood o!t of the nest the yo!n& ones t!mble o!t in fri&ht and the mother+bird to a"en&e this wron& flies at the beast and pecks at his sore places$ The wolf is at war with the ass the b!ll and the fo' for as bein& a carni"ore he attacks these other animals# and so for the same reason with the fo' and the circ!s for the circ!s bein& carni"oro!s and f!rnished with crooked talons attacks and maims the animal$ And so the ra"en is at war with the b!ll and the ass for it flies at them and strikes them and pecks at their eyes# and so with the ea&le and the heron for the former ha"in& crooked talons attacks the latter and the latter !s!ally s!cc!mbs to the attack# and so the merlin with the "!lt!re# and the cre' with the ele!s+owl the blackbird and the oriole ,of this latter bird by the way the story &oes that he was ori&inally born o!t of a f!neral pyre-: the ca!se of warfare is that the cre' in)!res both them and their yo!n&$ The n!thatch and the wren are at war with the ea&le# the n!thatch breaks the ea&les e&&s so the ea&le is at war with it on special &ro!nds tho!&h as a bird of prey it carries on a &eneral war all ro!nd$ The horse and the anth!s are enemies and the horse will dri"e the bird o!t of the field where he is &ra2in&: the bird feeds on &rass and sees too dimly to foresee an attack# it mimics the whinnyin& of the horse flies at him and tries to fri&hten him away# b!t the horse dri"es the bird away and whene"er he catches it he kills it: this bird li"es beside ri"ers or on marsh &ro!nd# it has pretty pl!ma&e and finds its witho!t tro!ble$ The ass is at enmity with the li2ard for the li2ard sleeps in his man&er &ets into his nostril and pre"ents his eatin&$ Of herons there are three kinds: the ash colo!red the white and the starry heron ,or bittern-$ Of these the first mentioned s!bmits with rel!ctance to the d!ties of inc!bation or to !nion of the

se'es# in fact it screams d!rin& the !nion and it is said drips blood from its eyes# it lays its e&&s also in an awkward manner not !nattended with pain$ It is at war with certain creat!res that do it in)!ry: with the ea&le for robbin& it with the fo' for worryin& it at ni&ht and with the lark for stealin& its e&&s$ The snake is at war with the weasel and the pi&# with the weasel when they are both at home for they li"e on the same food# with the pi& for preyin& on her kind$ The merlin is at war with the fo'# it strikes and claws it and as it has crooked talons it kills the animals yo!n&$ The ra"en and the fo' are &ood friends for the ra"en is at enmity with the merlin# and so when the merlin assails the fo' the ra"en comes and helps the animal$ The "!lt!re and the merlin are m!t!al enemies as bein& both f!rnished with crooked talons$ The "!lt!re fi&hts with the ea&le and so by the way does does swan# and the swan is often "ictorio!s: moreo"er of all birds swans are most prone to the killin& of one another$ In re&ard to wild creat!res some sets are at enmity with other sets at all times and !nder all circ!mstances# others as in the case of man and man at special times and !nder incidental circ!mstances$ The ass and the acanthis are enemies# for the bird li"es on thistles and the ass browses on thistles when they are yo!n& and tender$ The anth!s the acanthis and the ae&ith!s are at enmity with one another# it is said that the blood of the anth!s will not intercommin&le with the blood of the ae&ith!s$ The crow and the heron are friends as also are the sed&e+bird and lark the laed!s and the cele!s or &reen woodpecker# the woodpecker li"es on the banks of ri"ers and beside brakes the laed!s li"es on rocks and bills and is &reatly attached to its nestin&+place$ The piphin' the harpe and the kite are friends# as are the fo' and the snake for both b!rrow !nder&ro!nd# so also are the blackbird and the t!rtle+do"e$ The lion and the thos or ci"et are enemies for both are carni"oro!s and li"e on the same food$ 7lephants fi&ht fiercely with one another and stab one another with their t!sks# of two combatants the beaten one &ets completely cowed and dreads the so!nd of his con*!erors "oice$ These animals differ from one another an e'traordinary e'tent in the way of co!ra&e$ Indians employ these animals for war p!rposes irrespecti"e of se'# the females howe"er are less in si2e and m!ch inferior in point of spirit$ An elephant by p!shin& with his bi& t!sks can batter down a wall and will b!tt with his forehead at a palm !ntil he brin&s it down when he stamps on it and lays it in orderly fashion on the &ro!nd$ /en h!nt the elephant in the followin& way: they mo!nt tame elephants of appro"ed spirit and proceed in *!est of wild animals# when they come !p with these they bid the tame br!tes to beat the wild ones !ntil they tire the latter completely$ 9ere!pon the dri"er mo!nts a wild br!te and &!ides him with the application of his metal pron&# after this the creat!re soon becomes tame and obeys &!idance$ 4ow when the dri"er is on their back they are all tractable b!t after he has dismo!nted some are tame and others "icio!s# in the case of these latter they tie their front+le&s with ropes to keep them *!iet$ The animal is h!nted whether yo!n& or f!ll &rown$ Th!s we see that in the case of the creat!res abo"e mentioned their m!t!al friendship or the is d!e to the food they feed on and the life they lead$ 3 Of fishes s!ch as swim in shoals to&ether are friendly to one another# s!ch as do not so swim are enemies$ %ome fishes swarm d!rin& the spawnin& season# others after they ha"e spawned$ To state the matter comprehensi"ely we may say that the followin& are shoalin& fish: the t!nny the maenis the sea+&!d&eon the bo&!e the horse+mackerel the coracine the synodon or dente' the red m!llet the sphyraena the anthias the ele&in!s the atherine the sar&in!s the &ar+fish ,the s*!id -

the rainbow+wrasse the pelamyd the mackerel the coly+mackerel$ Of these some not only swim in shoals b!t &o in pairs inside the shoal# the rest witho!t e'ception swim in pairs and only swim in shoals at certain periods: that is as has been said when they are hea"y with spawn or after they ha"e spawned$ The basse and the &rey m!llet are bitter enemies b!t they swarm to&ether at certain times# for at times not only do fishes of the same species swarm to&ether b!t also those whose feedin&+&ro!nds are identical or ad)acent if the food+s!pply be ab!ndant$ The &rey m!llet is often fo!nd ali"e with its tail lopped off and the con&er with all that part of its body remo"ed that lies to the rear of the "ent# in the case of the m!llet the in)!ry is wro!&ht by the basse in that of the con&er+eel by the m!raena$ There is war between the lar&er and the lesser fishes: for the bi& fishes prey on the little ones$ %o m!ch on the s!b)ect of marine animals$ 5 The characters of animals as has been obser"ed differ in respect to timidity to &entleness to co!ra&e to tameness to intelli&ence and to st!pidity$ The sheep is said to be nat!rally d!ll and st!pid$ Of all *!adr!peds it is the most foolish: it will sa!nter away to lonely places with no ob)ect in "iew# oftentimes in stormy weather it will stray from shelter# if it be o"ertaken by a snowstorm it will stand still !nless the shepherd sets it in motion# it will stay behind and perish !nless the shepherd brin&s !p the rams# it will then follow home$ If yo! catch hold of a &oats beard at the e'tremity+the beard is of a s!bstance resemblin& hair+all the companion &oats will stand stock still starin& at this partic!lar &oat in a kind of d!mbfo!nderment$ Ho! will ha"e a warmer bed in amon&st the &oats than amon& the sheep beca!se the &oats will be *!ieter and will creep !p towards yo!# for the &oat is more impatient of cold than the sheep$ %hepherds train sheep to close in to&ether at a clap of their hands for if when a th!nderstorm comes on a ewe stays behind witho!t closin& in the storm will kill it if it be with yo!n&# conse*!ently if a s!dden clap or noise is made they close in to&ether within the sheepfold by reason of their trainin&$ 7"en b!lls when they are roamin& by themsel"es apart from the herd are killed by wild animals$ %heep and &oats lie crowded to&ether kin by kin$ When the s!n t!rns early towards its settin& the &oats are said to lie no lon&er face to face b!t back to back$ 6 .attle at past!re keep to&ether in their acc!stomed herds and if one animal strays away the rest will follow# conse*!ently if the herdsmen lose one partic!lar animal they keep close watch on all the rest$ When mares with their colts past!re to&ether in the same field if one dam dies the others will take !p the rearin& of the colt$ In point of fact the mare appears to be sin&!larly prone by nat!re to maternal fondness# in proof whereof a barren mare will steal the foal from its dam will tend it with all the solicit!de of a mother b!t as it will be !npro"ided with mothers milk its solicit!de will pro"e fatal to its char&e$ 8

Amon& wild *!adr!peds the hind appears to be pre+eminently intelli&ent# for e'ample in its habit of brin&in& forth its yo!n& on the sides of p!blic roads where the fear of man forbids the approach of wild animals$ A&ain after part!rition it first swallows the afterbirth then &oes in *!est of the seseli shr!b and after eatin& of it ret!rns to its yo!n&$ The mother takes its yo!n& betimes to her lair so leadin& it to know its place of ref!&e in time of dan&er# this lair is a precipito!s rock with only one approach and there it is said to hold its own a&ainst all comers$ The male when it &ets fat which it does in a hi&h de&ree in a!t!mn disappears abandonin& its !s!al resorts apparently !nder an idea that its fatness facilitates its capt!re$ They shed their horns in places diffic!lt of access or disco"ery whence the pro"erbial e'pression of (the place where the sta& sheds his horns# the fact bein& that as ha"in& parted with their weapons they take care not to be seen$ The sayin& is that no man has e"er seen the animals left horn# that the creat!re keeps it o!t of si&ht beca!se it possesses some medicinal property$ In their first year sta&s &row no horns b!t only an e'crescence indicatin& where horns will be this e'crescence bein& short and thick$ In their second year they &row their horns for the first time strai&ht in shape like pe&s for han&in& clothes on# and on this acco!nt they ha"e an appropriate nickname$ In the third year the antlers are bif!rcate# in the fo!rth year they &row trif!rcate# and so they &o on increasin& in comple'ity !ntil the creat!re is si' years old: after this they &row their horns witho!t any specific differentiation so that yo! cannot by obser"ation of them tell the animals a&e$ B!t the patriarchs of the herd may be told chiefly by two si&ns# in the first place they ha"e few teeth or none at all and in the second place they ha"e ceased to &row the pointed tips to their antlers$ The forward+pointin& tips of the &rowin& horns ,that is to say the brow antlers- with which the animal meets attack are technically termed its (defenders# with these the patriarchs are !npro"ided and their antlers merely &row strai&ht !pwards$ %ta&s shed their horns ann!ally in or abo!t the month of /ay# after sheddin& they conceal themsel"es it is said d!rin& the daytime and to a"oid the flies hide in thick copses# d!rin& this time !ntil they ha"e &rown their horns they feed at ni&ht+time$ The horns at first &row in a kind of skin en"elope and &et ro!&h by de&rees# when they reach their f!ll si2e the animal basks in the s!n to mat!re and dry them$ When they need no lon&er r!b them a&ainst tree+tr!nks they *!it their hidin& places from a sense of sec!rity based !pon the possession of arms defensi"e and offensi"e$ An Achaeine sta& has been ca!&ht with a *!antity of &reen i"y &rown o"er its horns it ha"in& &rown apparently as on fresh &reen wood when the horns were yo!n& and tender$ When a sta& is st!n& by a "enom+spider or similar insect it &athers crabs and eats them# it is said to be a &ood thin& for man to drink the )!ice b!t the taste is disa&reeable$ The hinds after part!rition at once swallow the afterbirth and it is impossible to sec!re it for the hind catches it before it falls to the &ro!nd: now this s!bstance is s!pposed to ha"e medicinal properties$ When h!nted the creat!res are ca!&ht by sin&in& or pipe+playin& on the part of the h!nters# they are so pleased with the m!sic that they lie down on the &rass$ If there be two h!nters one before their eyes sin&s or plays the pipe the other keeps o!t of si&ht and shoots at a si&nal &i"en by the confederate$ If the animal has its ears cocked it can hear well and yo! cannot escape its ken# if its ears are down yo! can$ : When bears are r!nnin& away from their p!rs!ers they p!sh their c!bs in front of them or take them !p and carry them# when they are bein& o"ertaken they climb !p a tree$ When emer&in& from their winter+den they at once take to eatin& c!ckoo+pint as has been said and chew sticks of wood as tho!&h they were c!ttin& teeth$

/any other *!adr!peds help themsel"es in cle"er ways$ Wild &oats in .rete are said when wo!nded by arrows to &o in search of dittany which is s!pposed to ha"e the property of e)ectin& arrows in the body$ Do&s when they are ill eat some kind of &rass and prod!ce "omitin&$ The panther after eatin& panthers+bane tries to find some h!man e'crement which is said to heal its pain$ This panthers+bane kills lions as well$ 9!nters han& !p h!man e'crement in a "essel attached to the bo!&hs of a tree to keep the animal from strayin& to any distance# the animal meets its end in leapin& !p to the branch and tryin& to &et at the medicine$ They say that the panther has fo!nd o!t that wild animals are fond of the scent it emits# that when it &oes a+h!ntin& it hides itself# that the other animals come nearer and nearer and that by this strata&em it can catch e"en animals as swift of foot as sta&s$ The 7&yptian ichne!mon when it sees the serpent called the asp does not attack it !ntil it has called in other ichne!mons to help# to meet the blows and bites of their enemy the assailants beplaster themsel"es with m!d by first soakin& in the ri"er and then rollin& on the &ro!nd$ When the crocodile yawns the trochil!s flies into his mo!th and cleans his teeth$ The trochil!s &ets his food thereby and the crocodile &ets ease and comfort# it makes no attempt to in)!re its little friend b!t when it wants it to &o it shakes its neck in warnin& lest it sho!ld accidentally bite the bird$ The tortoise when it has partaken of a snake eats mar)oram# this action has been act!ally obser"ed$ A man saw a tortoise perform this operation o"er and o"er a&ain and e"ery time it pl!cked !p some mar)oram &o back to partake of its prey# he there!pon p!lled the mar)oram !p by the roots and the conse*!ence was the tortoise died$ The weasel when it fi&hts with a snake first eats wild r!e the smell of which is no'io!s to the snake$ The dra&on when it eats fr!it swallows endi"e+ )!ice# it has been seen in the act$ Do&s when they s!ffer from worms eat the standin& corn$ %torks and all other birds when they &et a wo!nd fi&htin& apply mar)oram to the place in)!red$ /any ha"e seen the loc!st when fi&htin& with the snake &et a ti&ht hold of the snake by the neck$ The weasel has a cle"er way of &ettin& the better of birds# it tears their throats open as wol"es do with sheep$ Weasels fi&ht desperately with mice+catchin& snakes as they both prey on the same animal$ In re&ard to the instinct of hed&eho&s it has been obser"ed in many places that when the wind is shiftin& from north to so!th and from so!th to north they shift the o!tlook of their earth+holes and those that are kept in domestication shift o"er from one wall to the other$ The story &oes that a man in By2anti!m &ot into hi&h rep!te for foretellin& a chan&e of weather all owin& to his ha"in& noticed this habit of the hed&eho&$ The polecat or marten is abo!t as lar&e as the smaller breed of /altese do&s$ In the thickness of its f!r in its look in the white of its belly and in its lo"e of mischief it resembles the weasel# it is easily tamed# from its likin& for honey it is a pla&!e to bee+hi"es# it preys on birds like the cat$ Its &enital or&an as has been said consists of bone: the or&an of the male is s!pposed to be a c!re for stran&!ry# doctors scrape it into powder and administer it in that form$ < In a &eneral way in the li"es of animals many resemblances to h!man life may be obser"ed$ Are+ eminent intelli&ence will be seen more in small creat!res than in lar&e ones as is e'emplified in the case of birds by the nest b!ildin& of the swallow$ In the same way as men do the bird mi'es m!d and chaff to&ether# if it r!ns short of m!d it so!ses its body in water and rolls abo!t in the dry d!st

with wet feathers# f!rthermore )!st as man does it makes a bed of straw p!ttin& hard material below for a fo!ndation and adaptin& all to s!it its own si2e$ Both parents co+operate in the rearin& of the yo!n&# each of the parents will detect with practised eye the yo!n& one that has had a helpin& and will take care it is not helped twice o"er# at first the parents will rid the nest of e'crement b!t when the yo!n& are &rown they will teach their yo!n& to shift their position and let their e'crement fall o"er the side of the nest$ Ai&eons e'hibit other phenomena with a similar likeness to the ways of h!mankind$ In pairin& the same male and the same female keep to&ether# and the !nion is only broken by the death of one of the two parties$ At the time of part!rition in the female the sympathetic attentions of the male are e'traordinary# if the female is afraid on acco!nt of the impendin& part!rition to enter the nest the male will beat her and force her to come in$ When the yo!n& are born he will take and masticate pieces of s!itable food will open the beaks of the fled&lin&s and in)ect these pieces th!s preparin& them betimes to take food$ ,When the male bird is abo!t to e'pel the the yo!n& ones from the nest he cohabits with them all$- As a &eneral r!le these birds show this con)!&al fidelity b!t occasionally a female will cohabit with other than her mate$ These birds are combati"e and *!arrel with one another and enter each others nests tho!&h this occ!rs b!t seldom# at a distance from their nests this *!arrelsomeness is less marked b!t in the close nei&hbo!rhood of their nests they will fi&ht desperately$ A pec!liarity common to the tame pi&eon the rin&+do"e and the t!rtle+do"e is that they do not lean the head back when they are in the act of drinkin& b!t only when they ha"e f!lly *!enched their thirst$ The t!rtle+do"e and the rin&+do"e both ha"e b!t one mate and let no other come ni&h# both se'es co+operate in the process of inc!bation$ It is diffic!lt to distin&!ish between the se'es e'cept by an e'amination of their interiors$ Cin&+do"es are lon&+li"ed# cases ha"e been known where s!ch birds were twenty+fi"e years old thirty years old and in some cases forty$ As they &row old their claws increase in si2e and pi&eon+fanciers c!t the claws# as far as one can see the birds s!ffer no other perceptible disfi&!rement by their increase in a&e$ T!rtle+do"es and pi&eons that are blinded by fanciers for !se as decoys li"e for ei&ht years$ Aartrid&es li"e for abo!t fifteen years$ Cin&+do"es and t!rtle+do"es always b!ild their nests in the same place year after year$ The male as a &eneral r!le is more lon&+li"ed than the female# b!t in the case of pi&eons some assert that the male dies before the female takin& their inference from the statements of persons who keep decoy+birds in capti"ity$ %ome declare that the male sparrow li"es only a year pointin& to the fact that early in sprin& the male sparrow has no black beard b!t has one later on as tho!&h the blackbearded birds of the last year had all died o!t# they also say that the females are the lon&er li"ed on the &ro!nds that they are ca!&ht in amon&st the yo!n& birds and that their a&e is rendered manifest by the hardness abo!t their beaks$ T!rtle+do"es in s!mmer li"e in cold places ,and in warm places d!rin& the winter-# chaffinches affect warm habitations in s!mmer and cold ones in winter$ = Birds of a hea"y b!ild s!ch as *!ails partrid&es and the like b!ild no nests# indeed where they are incapable of fli&ht it wo!ld be of no !se if they co!ld do so$ After scrapin& a hole on a le"el piece of &ro!nd+and it is only in s!ch a place that they lay their e&&s+they co"er it o"er with thorns and sticks for sec!rity a&ainst hawks and ea&les and there lay their e&&s and hatch them# after the hatchin& is o"er they at once lead the yo!n& o!t from the nest as they are not able to fly afield for food for them$ I!ails and partrid&es like barn+door hens when they &o to rest &ather their brood !nder their win&s$ 4ot to be disco"ered as mi&ht be the case if they stayed lon& in one spot they do not hatch the e&&s where they laid them$ When a man comes by chance !pon a yo!n& brood

and tries to catch them the hen+bird rolls in front of the h!nter pretendin& to be lame: the man e"ery moment thinks he is on the point of catchin& her and so she draws him on and on !ntil e"ery one of her brood has had time to escape# here!pon she ret!rns to the nest and calls the yo!n& back$ The partrid&e lays not less than ten e&&s and often lays as many as si'teen$ As has been obser"ed the bird has mischie"o!s and deceitf!l habits$ In the sprin&+time a noisy scrimma&e takes place o!t of which the male+birds emer&e each with a hen$ Owin& to the lechero!s nat!re of the bird and from a dislike to the hen sittin& the males if they find any e&&s roll them o"er and o"er !ntil they break them in pieces# to pro"ide a&ainst this the female &oes to a distance and lays the e&&s and often !nder the stress of part!rition lays them in any chance spot that offers# if the male be near at hand then to keep the e&&s intact she refrains from "isitin& them$ If she be seen by a man then )!st as with her fled&ed brood she entices him off by showin& herself close at his feet !ntil she has drawn him to a distance$ When the females ha"e r!n away and taken to sittin& the males in a pack take to screamin& and fi&htin&# when th!s en&a&ed they ha"e the nickname of (widowers$ The bird who is beaten follows his "ictor and s!bmits to be co"ered by him only# and the beaten bird is co"ered by a second one or by any other only clandestinely witho!t the "ictors knowled&e# this is so not at all times b!t at a partic!lar season of the year and with *!ails as well as with partrid&es$ A similar proceedin& takes place occasionally with barn+door cocks: for in temples where cocks are set apart as dedicate witho!t hens they all as a matter of co!rse tread any new+comer$ Tame partrid&es tread wild birds pecket their heads and treat them with e"ery possible o!tra&e$ The leader of the wild birds with a co!nter+note of challen&e p!shes forward to attack the decoy+bird and after he has been netted another ad"ances with a similar note$ This is what is done if the decoy be a male# b!t if it be a female that is the decoy and &i"es the note and the leader of the wild birds &i"e a co!nter one the rest of the males set !pon him and chase him away from the female for makin& ad"ances to her instead of to them# in conse*!ence of this the male often ad"ances witho!t !tterin& any cry so that no other may hear him and come and &i"e him battle# and e'perienced fowlers assert that sometimes the male bird when he approaches the female makes her keep silence to a"oid ha"in& to &i"e battle to other males who mi&ht ha"e heard him$ The partrid&e has not only the note here referred to b!t also a thin shrill cry and other notes$ Oftentimes the hen+bird rises from off her brood when she sees the male showin& attentions to the female decoy# she will &i"e the co!nter note and remain still so as to be trodden by him and di"ert him from the decoy$ The *!ail and the partrid&e are so intent !pon se'!al !nion that they often come ri&ht in the way of the decoy+birds and not seldom ali&ht !pon their heads$ %o m!ch for the se'!al procli"ities of the partrid&e for the way in which it is h!nted and the &eneral nasty habits of the bird$ As has been said *!ails and partrid&es b!ild their nests !pon the &ro!nd and so also do some of the birds that are capable of s!stained fli&ht$ F!rther for instance of s!ch birds the lark and the woodcock as well as the *!ail do not perch on a branch b!t s*!at !pon the &ro!nd$ > The woodpecker does not s*!at on the &ro!nd b!t pecks at the bark of trees to dri"e o!t from !nder it ma&&ots and &nats# when they emer&e it licks them !p with its ton&!e which is lar&e and flat$ It can r!n !p and down a tree in any way e"en with the head downwards like the &ecko+ li2ard$ For sec!re hold !pon a tree its claws are better adapted than those of the daw# it makes its way by stickin& these claws into the bark$ One species of woodpecker is smaller than a blackbird and has small reddish speckles# a second species is lar&er than the blackbird and a third is not m!ch smaller than a barn+door hen$ It b!ilds a nest on trees as has been said on oli"e trees amon&st others$ It feeds on the ma&&ots and ants that are !nder the bark: it is so ea&er in the search

for ma&&ots that it is said sometimes to hollow a tree o!t to its downfall$ A woodpecker once in co!rse of domestication was seen to insert an almond into a hole in a piece of timber so that it mi&ht remain steady !nder its peckin&# at the third peck it split the shell of the fr!it and then ate the kernel$ 1@ /any indications of hi&h intelli&ence are &i"en by cranes$ They will fly to a &reat distance and !p in the air to command an e'tensi"e "iew# if they see clo!ds and si&ns of bad weather they fly down a&ain and remain still$ They f!rthermore ha"e a leader in their fli&ht and patrols that scream on the confines of the flock so as to be heard by all$ When they settle down the main body &o to sleep with their heads !nder their win& standin& first on one le& and then on the other while their leader with his head !nco"ered keeps a sharp look o!t and when he sees anythin& of importance si&nals it with a cry$ Aelicans that li"e beside ri"ers swallow the lar&e smooth m!ssel+shells: after cookin& them inside the crop that precedes the stomach they spit them o!t so that now when their shells are open they may pick the flesh o!t and eat it$ 11 Of wild birds the nests are fashioned to meet the e'i&encies of e'istence and ens!re the sec!rity of the yo!n&$ %ome of these birds are fond of their yo!n& and take &reat care of them others are *!ite the re"erse# some are cle"er in proc!rin& s!bsistence others are not so$ %ome of these birds b!ild in ra"ines and clefts and on cliffs as for instance the so+called charadri!s or stone+c!rlew# this bird is in no way noteworthy for pl!ma&e or "oice# it makes an appearance at ni&ht b!t in the daytime keeps o!t of si&ht$ The hawk also b!ilds in inaccessible places$ Altho!&h a ra"eno!s bird it will ne"er eat the heart of any bird it catches# this has been obser"ed in the case of the *!ail the thr!sh and other birds$ They modify betimes their method of h!ntin& for in s!mmer they do not &rab their prey as they do at other seasons$ Of the "!lt!re it is said that no one has e"er seen either its yo!n& or its nest# on this acco!nt and on the &ro!nd that all of a s!dden &reat n!mbers of them will appear witho!t any one bein& able to tell from whence they come 9erodor!s the father of Bryson the sophist says that it belon&s to some distant and ele"ated land$ The reason is that the bird has its nest on inaccessible cra&s and is fo!nd only in a few localities$ The female lays one e&& as a r!le and two at the most$ %ome birds li"e on mo!ntains or in forests as the hoopoe and the brenth!s# this latter bird finds his food with ease and has a m!sical "oice$ The wren li"es in brakes and cre"ices# it is diffic!lt of capt!re keeps o!t of si&ht is &entle of disposition finds its food with ease and is somethin& of a mechanic$ It &oes by the nickname of (old man or (kin&# and the story &oes that for this reason the ea&le is at war with him$ 13 %ome birds li"e on the sea+shore as the wa&tail# the bird is of a mischie"o!s nat!re hard to capt!re b!t when ca!&ht capable of complete domestication# it is a cripple as bein& weak in its hinder *!arters$ Web+footed birds witho!t e'ception li"e near the sea or ri"ers or pools as they nat!rally resort to places adapted to their str!ct!re$ %e"eral birds howe"er with clo"en toes li"e near pools or

marshes as for instance the anth!s li"es by the side of ri"ers# the pl!ma&e of this bird is pretty and it finds its food with ease$ The catarrhactes li"es near the sea# when it makes a di"e it will keep !nder water for as lon& as it wo!ld take a man to walk a f!rlon&# it is less than the common hawk$ %wans are web+footed and li"e near pools and marshes# they find their food with ease are &ood+ tempered are fond of their yo!n& and li"e to a &reen old a&e$ If the ea&le attacks them they will repel the attack and &et the better of their assailant b!t they are ne"er the first to attack$ They are m!sical and sin& chiefly at the approach of death# at this time they fly o!t to sea and men when sailin& past the coast of Bibya ha"e fallen in with many of them o!t at sea sin&in& in mo!rnf!l strains and ha"e act!ally seen some of them dyin&$ The cymindis is seldom seen as it li"es on mo!ntains# it is black in colo!r and abo!t the si2e of the hawk called the (do"e+killer# it is lon& and slender in form$ The Ionians call the bird by this name# 9omer in the Iliad mentions it in the line: .halcis its name with those of hea"enly birth B!t called .ymindis by the sons of earth$ The hybris said by some to be the same as the ea&le+owl is ne"er seen by dayli&ht as it is dim+ si&hted b!t d!rin& the ni&ht it h!nts like the ea&le# it will fi&ht the ea&le with s!ch desperation that the two combatants are often capt!red ali"e by shepherds# it lays two e&&s and like others we ha"e mentioned it b!ilds on rocks and in ca"erns$ .ranes also fi&ht so desperately amon& themsel"es as to be ca!&ht when fi&htin& for they will not lea"e off# the crane lays two e&&s$ 15 The )ay has a &reat "ariety of notes: indeed mi&ht almost say it had a different note for e"ery day in the year$ It lays abo!t nine e&&s# b!ilds its nest on trees o!t of hair and ta&s of wool# when acorns are &ettin& scarce it lays !p a store of them in hidin&$ It is a common story of the stork that the old birds are fed by their &ratef!l pro&eny$ %ome tell a similar story of the bee+eater and declare that the parents are fed by their yo!n& not only when &rowin& old b!t at an early period as soon as the yo!n& are capable of feedin& them# and the parent+birds stay inside the nest$ The !nder part of the birds win& is pale yellow# the !pper part is dark bl!e like that of the halcyon# the tips of the win&s are Abo!t a!t!mn+time it lays si' or se"en e&&s in o"erhan&in& banks where the soil is soft# there it b!rrows into the &ro!nd to a depth of si' feet$ The &reenfinch so called from the colo!r of its belly is as lar&e as a lark# it lays fo!r or fi"e e&&s b!ilds its nest o!t of the plant called comfrey p!llin& it !p by the roots and makes an !nder+ mattress to lie on of hair and wool$ The blackbird and the )ay b!ild their nests after the same fashion$ The nest of the pend!line tit shows &reat mechanical skill# it has the appearance of a ball of fla' and the hole for entry is "ery small$ Aeople who li"e where the bird comes from say that there e'ists a cinnamon bird which brin&s the cinnamon from some !nknown localities and b!ilds its nest o!t of it# it b!ilds on hi&h trees on the slender top branches$ They say that the inhabitants attach leaden wei&hts to the tips of their arrows and therewith brin& down the nests and from the interte't!re collect the cinnamon sticks$ 16 The halcyon is not m!ch lar&er than the sparrow$ Its colo!r is dark bl!e &reen and li&ht p!rple# the whole body and win&s and especially parts abo!t the neck show these colo!rs in a mi'ed way

witho!t any colo!r bein& sharply defined# the beak is li&ht &reen lon& and slender: s!ch then is the look of the bird$ Its nest is like sea+balls i$e$ the thin&s that by the name of halosachne or seafoam only the colo!r is not the same$ The colo!r of the nest is li&ht red and the shape is that of the lon&+necked &o!rd$ The nests are lar&er than the lar&est spon&e tho!&h they "ary in si2e# they are roofed o"er and &reat part of them is solid and &reat part hollow$ If yo! !se a sharp knife it is not easy to c!t the nest thro!&h# b!t if yo! c!t it and at the same time br!ise it with yo!r hand it will soon cr!mble to pieces like the halosachne$ The openin& is small )!st eno!&h for a tiny entrance so that e"en if the nest !pset the sea does not enter in# the hollow channels are like those in spon&es$ It is not known for certain of what material the nest is constr!cted# it is possibly made of the backbones of the &ar+fish# for by the way the bird li"es on fish$ Besides li"in& on the shore it ascends fresh+water streams$ It lays &enerally abo!t fi"e e&&s and lays e&&s all its life lon& be&innin& to do so at the a&e of fo!r months$ 18 The hoopoe !s!ally constr!cts its nest o!t of h!man e'crement$ It chan&es its appearance in s!mmer and in winter as in fact do the &reat ma)ority of wild birds$ ,The titmo!se is said to lay a "ery lar&e *!antity of e&&s: ne't to the ostrich the blackheaded tit is said by some to lay the lar&est n!mber of e&&s# se"enteen e&&s ha"e been seen# it lays howe"er more than twenty# it is said always to lay an odd n!mber$ Bike others we ha"e mentioned it b!ilds in trees# it feeds on caterpillars$- A pec!liarity of this bird and of the ni&htin&ale is that the o!ter e'tremity of the ton&!e is not sharp+pointed$ The ae&ith!s finds its food with ease has many yo!n& and walks with a limp$ The &olden oriole is apt at learnin& is cle"er at makin& a li"in& b!t is awkward in fli&ht and has an !&ly pl!ma&e$ 1: The reed+warbler makes its li"in& as easily as any other bird sits in s!mmer in a shady spot facin& the wind in winter in a s!nny and sheltered place amon& reeds in a marsh# it is small in si2e with a pleasant note$ The so+called chatterer has a pleasant note bea!tif!l pl!ma&e makes a li"in& cle"erly and is &racef!l in form# it appears to be alien to o!r co!ntry# at all e"ents it is seldom seen at a distance from its own immediate home$ 1< The crake is *!arrelsome cle"er at makin& a li"in& b!t in other ways an !nl!cky bird$ The bird called sitta is *!arrelsome b!t cle"er and tidy makes its li"in& with ease and for its knowin&ness is re&arded as !ncanny# it has a n!mero!s brood of which it is fond and li"es by peckin& the bark of trees$ The ae&oli!s+owl flies by ni&ht is seldom seen by day# like others we ha"e mentioned it li"es on cliffs or in ca"erns# it feeds on two kinds of food# it has a stron& hold on life and is f!ll of reso!rce$ The tree+creeper is a little bird of fearless disposition# it li"es amon& trees feeds on caterpillars makes a li"in& with ease and has a lo!d clear note$ The acanthis finds its food with diffic!lty# its pl!ma&e is poor b!t its note is m!sical$ 1= Of the herons the ashen+colo!red one as has been said !nites with the female not witho!t pain# it is f!ll of reso!rce carries its food with it is ea&er in the *!est of it and works by day# its pl!ma&e is poor and its e'crement is always wet$ Of the other two species+for there are three in all+the white heron has handsome pl!ma&e !nites witho!t harm to itself with the female b!ilds a nest and lays its e&&s neatly in trees# it fre*!ents marshes and lakes and Alains and meadow land$ The speckled

heron which is nicknamed (the sk!lker is said in folklore stories to be of ser"ile ori&in and as its nickname implies it is the la2iest bird of the three species$ %!ch are the habits of herons$ The bird that is called the poyn' has this pec!liarity that it is more prone than any other bird to peck at the eyes of an assailant or its prey# it is at war with the harpy as the two birds li"e on the same food$ 1> There are two kinds of owsels# the one is black and is fo!nd e"erywhere the other is *!ite white abo!t the same si2e as the other and with the same pipe$ This latter is fo!nd on .yllene in Arcadia and is fo!nd nowhere else$ The lai!s or bl!e+thr!sh is like the black owsel only a little smaller# it li"es on cliffs or on tile roofin&s# it has not a red beak as the black owsel has$ 3@ Of thr!shes there are three species$ One is the misselthr!sh# it feeds only on mistletoe and resin# it is abo!t the si2e of the )ay$ A second is the son&+thr!sh# it has a sharp pipe and is abo!t the si2e of the owsel$ There is another species called the Illas# it is the smallest species of the three and is less "arie&ated in pl!ma&e than the others$ 31 There is a bird that li"es on rocks called the bl!e+bird from its colo!r$ It is comparati"ely common in 4isyros and is somewhat less than the owsel and a little bi&&er than the chaffinch$ It has lar&e claws and climbs on the face of the rocks$ It is steel+bl!e all o"er# its beak is lon& and slender# its le&s are short like those of the woodpecker$ 33 The oriole is yellow all o"er# it is not "isible d!rin& winter b!t p!ts in an appearance abo!t the time of the s!mmer solstice and departs a&ain at the risin& of Arct!r!s# it is the si2e of the t!rtle+ do"e$ The so+called soft+head ,or shrike- always settles on one and the same branch where it falls a prey to the birdcatcher$ Its head is bi& and composed of &ristle# it is a little smaller than the thr!sh# its beak is stron& small and ro!nd# it is ashen+colo!red all o"er# is fleet of foot b!t slow of win&$ The bird+catcher !s!ally catches it by help of the owl$ 35 There is also the pardal!s$ As a r!le it is seen in flocks and not sin&ly# it is ashen+colo!red all o"er and abo!t the si2e of the birds last described# it is fleet of foot and stron& of win& and its pipe is lo!d and hi&h+pitched$ The collyrion ,or fieldfare- feeds on the same food as the owsel# is of the same si2e as the abo"e mentioned birds# and is trapped !s!ally in the winter$ All these birds are fo!nd at all times$ F!rther there are the birds that li"e as a r!le in towns the ra"en and the crow$ These also are "isible at all seasons ne"er shift their place of abode and ne"er &o into winter *!arters$ 36 Of daws there are three species$ One is the cho!&h# it is as lar&e as the crow b!t has a red beak$ There is another called the (wolf# and f!rther there is the little daw called the (railer$ There is another kind of daw fo!nd in Bybia and Ahry&ia which is web+footed$ 38

Of larks there are two kinds$ One li"es on the &ro!nd and has a crest on its head# the other is &re&ario!s and not sporadic like the first# it is howe"er of the same colo!red pl!ma&e b!t is smaller and has no crest# it is an article of h!man food$ 3: The woodcock is ca!&ht with nets in &ardens$ It is abo!t the si2e of a barn+door hen# it has a lon& beak and in pl!ma&e is like the francolin+partrid&e$ It r!ns *!ickly and is pretty easily domesticated$ The starlin& is speckled# it is of the same si2e as the owsel$ 3< Of the 7&yptian ibis there are two kinds the white and the black$ The white ones are fo!nd o"er 7&ypt e'ceptin& in Ael!si!m# the black ones are fo!nd in Ael!si!m and nowhere else in 7&ypt$ 3= Of the little horned owls there are two kinds and one is "isible at all seasons and for that reason has the nickname of (all+the+year+ro!nd owl# it is not s!fficiently palatable to come to table# another species makes its appearance sometimes in the a!t!mn is seen for a sin&le day or at the most for two days and is re&arded as a table delicacy# it scarcely differs from the first species sa"e only in bein& fatter# it has no note b!t the other species has$ With re&ard to their ori&in nothin& is known from oc!lar obser"ation# the only fact known for certain is that they are first seen when a west wind is blowin&$ 3> The c!ckoo as has been said elsewhere makes no nest b!t deposits its e&&s in an alien nest &enerally in the nest of the rin&+do"e or on the &ro!nd in the nest of the hypolais or lark or on a tree in the nest of the &reen linnet$ it lays only one e&& and does not hatch it itself b!t the mother+ bird in whose nest it has deposited it hatches and rears it# and as they say this mother bird when the yo!n& c!ckoo has &rown bi& thr!sts her own brood o!t of the nest and lets them perish# others say that this mother+bird kills her own brood and &i"es them to the alien to de"o!r despisin& her own yo!n& owin& to the bea!ty of the c!ckoo$ Aersonal obser"ers a&ree in tellin& most of these stories b!t are not in a&reement as to the instr!ction of the yo!n&$ %ome say that the mother+ c!ckoo comes and de"o!rs the brood of the rearin& mother# others say that the yo!n& c!ckoo from its s!perior si2e snaps !p the food bro!&ht before the smaller brood ha"e a chance and that in conse*!ence the smaller brood die of h!n&er# others say that by its s!perior stren&th it act!ally kills the other ones whilst it is bein& reared !p with them$ The c!ckoo shows &reat sa&acity in the disposal of its pro&eny# the fact is the mother c!ckoo is *!ite conscio!s of her own cowardice and of the fact that she co!ld ne"er help her yo!n& one in an emer&ency and so for the sec!rity of the yo!n& one she makes of him a s!pposititio!s child in an alien nest$ The tr!th is this bird is pre+ eminent amon& birds in the way of cowardice# it allows itself to be pecked at by little birds and flies away from their attacks$ 5@ It has already been stated that the footless bird which some term the cypsel!s resembles the swallow# indeed it is not easy to distin&!ish between the two birds e'ceptin& in the fact that the cypsel!s has feathers on the shank$ These birds rear their yo!n& in lon& cells made of m!d and f!rnished with a hole )!st bi& eno!&h for entry and e'it# they b!ild !nder co"er of some roofin&+ !nder a rock or in a ca"ern+for protection a&ainst animals and men$

The so+called &oat+s!cker li"es on mo!ntains# it is a little lar&er than the owsel and less than the c!ckoo# it lays two e&&s or three at the most and is of a sl!&&ish disposition$ It flies !p to the she+ &oat and s!cks its milk from which habit it deri"es its name# it is said that after it has s!cked the teat of the animal the teat dries !p and the animal &oes blind$ It is dim+si&hted in the day+time b!t sees well eno!&h by ni&ht$ 51 In narrow circ!mscribed districts where the food wo!ld be ins!fficient for more birds than two ra"ens are only fo!nd in isolated pairs# when their yo!n& are old eno!&h to fly the parent co!ple first e)ect them from the nest and by and by chase them from the nei&hbo!rhood$ The ra"en lays fo!r or fi"e e&&s$ Abo!t the time when the mercenaries !nder /edi!s were sla!&htered at Aharsal!s the districts abo!t Athens and the Aeloponnese were left destit!te of ra"ens from which it wo!ld appear that these birds ha"e some means of intercomm!nicatin& with one another$ 53 Of ea&les there are se"eral species$ One of them called (the white+tailed ea&le is fo!nd on low lands in &ro"es and in the nei&hbo!rhood of cities# some call it the (heron+killer$ It is bold eno!&h to fly to mo!ntains and the interior of forests$ The other ea&les seldom "isit &ro"es or low+lyin& land$ There is another species called the (plan&!s# it ranks second in point of si2e and stren&th# it li"es in mo!ntain combes and &lens and by marshy lakes and &oes by the name of (d!ck+killer and (swart+ea&le$ It is mentioned by 9omer in his acco!nt of the "isit made by Ariam to the tent of Achilles$ There is another species with black Al!ma&e the smallest b!t boldest of all the kinds$ It dwells on mo!ntains or in forests and is called (the black+ea&le or (the hare+killer# it is the only ea&le that rears its yo!n& and thoro!&hly takes them o!t with it$ It is swift of fli&ht is neat and tidy in its habits too pro!d for )ealo!sy fearless *!arrelsome# it is also silent for it neither whimpers nor screams$ There is another species the percnopter!s "ery lar&e with white head "ery short win&s lon& tail+feathers in appearance like a "!lt!re$ It &oes by the name of (mo!ntain+stork or (half+ea&le$ It li"es in &ro"es# has all the bad *!alities of the other species and none of the &ood ones# for it lets itself be chased and ca!&ht by the ra"en and the other birds$ It is cl!msy in its mo"ements has diffic!lty in proc!rin& its food preys on dead animals is always h!n&ry and at all times whinin& and screamin&$ There is another species called the (sea+ea&le or (osprey$ This bird has a lar&e thick neck c!r"ed win&s and broad tailfeathers# it li"es near the sea &rasps its prey with its talons and often from inability to carry it t!mbles down into the water$ There is another species called the (tr!e+bred# people say that these are the only tr!e+bred birds to be fo!nd that all other birds+ea&les hawks and the smallest birds+are all spoilt by the interbreedin& of different species$ The tr!e+bred ea&le is the lar&est of all ea&les# it is lar&er than the phene# is half as lar&e a&ain as the ordinary ea&le and has yellow pl!ma&e# it is seldom seen as is the case with the so+ called cymindis$ The time for an ea&le to be on the win& in search of prey is from midday to e"enin&# in the mornin& !ntil the market+ho!r it remains on the nest$ In old a&e the !pper beak of the ea&le &rows &rad!ally lon&er and more crooked and the bird dies e"ent!ally of star"ation# there is a folklore story that the ea&le is th!s p!nished beca!se it once was a man and ref!sed entertainment to a stran&er$ The ea&le p!ts aside its s!perfl!o!s food for its yo!n&# for owin& to the diffic!lty in proc!rin& food day by day it at times may come back to the nest with nothin&$ If it catch a man prowlin& abo!t in the nei&hbo!rhood of its nest it will strike him with its win&s and scratch him with its talons$ The nest is b!ilt not on low &ro!nd b!t on an ele"ated spot &enerally on an inaccessible led&e of a cliff# it does howe"er b!ild !pon a tree$ The yo!n& are fed !ntil they can fly# here!pon the parent+birds topple them o!t of the nest and chase them completely o!t of the

locality$ The fact is that a pair of ea&les demands an e'tensi"e space for its maintenance and conse*!ently cannot allow other birds to *!arter themsel"es in close nei&hbo!rhood$ They do not h!nt in the "icinity of their nest b!t &o to a &reat distance to find their prey$ When the ea&le has capt!red a beast it p!ts it down witho!t attemptin& to carry it off at once# if on trial it finds the b!rden too hea"y it will lea"e it$ When it has spied a hare it does not swoop on it at once b!t lets it &o on into the open &ro!nd# neither does it descend to the &ro!nd at one swoop b!t &oes &rad!ally down from hi&her fli&hts to lower and lower: these de"ices it adopts by way of sec!rity a&ainst the strata&em of the h!nter$ It ali&hts on hi&h places by reason of the diffic!lty it e'periences in soarin& !p from the le"el &ro!nd# it flies hi&h in the air to ha"e the more e'tensi"e "iew# from its hi&h fli&ht it is said to be the only bird that resembles the &ods$ Birds of prey as a r!le seldom ali&ht !pon rock as the crookedness of their talons pre"ents a stable footin& on hard stone$ The ea&le h!nts hares fawns fo'es and in &eneral all s!ch animals as he can master with ease$ It is a lon&+li"ed bird and this fact mi&ht be inferred from the len&th of time d!rin& which the same nest is maintained in its place$ 55 In %cythia there is fo!nd a bird as lar&e as the &reat b!stard$ The female lays two e&&s b!t does not hatch them b!t hides them in the skin of a hare or fo' and lea"es them there and when it is not in *!est of prey it keeps a watch on them on a hi&h tree# if any man tries to climb the tree it fi&hts and strikes him with its win& )!st as ea&les do$ 56 The owl and the ni&ht+ra"en and all the birds see poorly in the daytime seek their prey in the ni&ht b!t not all the ni&ht thro!&h b!t at e"enin& and dawn$ Their food consists of mice li2ards chafers and the like little creat!res$ The so+called phene or lammer&eier is fond of its yo!n& pro"ides its food with ease fetches food to its nest and is of a kindly disposition$ It rears its own yo!n& and those of the ea&le as well# for when the ea&le e)ects its yo!n& from the nest this bird catches them !p as they fall and feeds them$ For the ea&le by the way e)ects the yo!n& birds premat!rely before they are able to feed themsel"es or to fly$ It appears to do so from )ealo!sy# for it is by nat!re )ealo!s and is so ra"eno!s as to &rab f!rio!sly at its food# and when it does &rab at its food it &rabs it in lar&e morsels$ It is accordin&ly )ealo!s of the yo!n& birds as they approach mat!rity since they are &ettin& &ood appetites and so it scratches them with its talons$ The yo!n& birds fi&ht also with one another to sec!re a morsel of food or a comfortable position where!pon the mother+bird beats them and e)ects them from the nest# the yo!n& ones scream at this treatment and the phene hearin& them catches them as they fall$ The phene has a film o"er its eyes and sees badly b!t the sea+ea&le is "ery keen+si&hted and before its yo!n& are fled&ed tries to make them stare at the s!n and beats the one that ref!ses to do so and twists him back in the s!ns direction# and if one of them &ets watery eyes in the process it kills him and rears the other$ It li"es near the sea and feeds as has been said on sea+birds# when in p!rs!it of them it catches them one by one watchin& the moment when the bird rises to the s!rface from its di"e$ When a sea+bird emer&in& from the water sees the sea+ea&le he in terror di"es !nder intendin& to rise a&ain elsewhere# the ea&le howe"er owin& to its keenness of "ision keeps flyin& after him !ntil he either drowns the bird or catches him on the s!rface$ The ea&le ne"er attacks these birds when they are in a swarm for they keep him off by raisin& a shower of water+drops with their win&s$ 58

The cepph!s is ca!&ht by means of sea+foam# the bird snaps at the foam and conse*!ently fishermen catch it by sl!icin& with showers of sea+water$ These birds &row to be pl!mp and fat# their flesh has a &ood odo!r e'ceptin& the hinder *!arters which smell of shoreweed$ 5: Of hawks the stron&est is the b!22ard# the ne't in point of co!ra&e is the merlin# and the circ!s ranks third# other di"erse kinds are the asterias the pi&eon+hawk and the pternis# the broaded+ win&ed hawk is called the half+b!22ard# others &o by the name of hobby+hawk or sparrow+hawk or (smooth+feathered or (toad+catcher$ Birds of this latter species find their food with "ery little diffic!lty and fl!tter alon& the &ro!nd$ %ome say that there are ten species of hawks all differin& from one another$ One hawk they say will strike and &rab the pi&eon as it rests on the &ro!nd b!t ne"er to!ch it while it is in fli&ht# another hawk attacks the pi&eon when it is perched !pon a tree or any ele"ation b!t ne"er to!ches it when it is on the &ro!nd or on the win&# other hawks attack their prey only when it is on the win&$ They say that pi&eons can distin&!ish the "ario!s species: so that when a hawk is an assailant if it be one that attacks its prey when the prey is on the win& the pi&eon will sit still# if it be one that attacks sittin& prey the pi&eon will rise !p and fly away$ In Thrace in the district sometimes called that of .edripolis men h!nt for little birds in the marshes with the aid of hawks$ The men with sticks in their hands &o beatin& at the reeds and br!shwood to fri&hten the birds o!t and the hawks show themsel"es o"erhead and fri&hten them down$ The men then strike them with their sticks and capt!re them$ They &i"e a portion of their booty to the hawks# that is they throw some of the birds !p in the air and the hawks catch them$ In the nei&hbo!rhood of Bake /aeotis it is said wol"es act in concert with the fishermen and if the fishermen decline to share with them they tear their nets in pieces as they lie dryin& on the shore of the lake$ 5< %o m!ch for the habits of birds$ In marine creat!res also one In marine creat!res also one may obser"e many in&enio!s de"ices adapted to the circ!mstances of their li"es$ For the acco!nts commonly &i"en of the so+called fishin&+fro& are *!ite tr!e# as are also those &i"en of the torpedo$ The fishin&+fro& has a set of filaments that pro)ect in front of its eyes# they are lon& and thin like hairs and are ro!nd at the tips# they lie on either side and are !sed as baits$ Accordin&ly when the animal stirs !p a place f!ll of sand and m!d and conceals itself therein it raises the filaments and when the little fish strike a&ainst them it draws them in !nderneath into its mo!th$ The torpedo narcoti2es the creat!res that it wants to catch o"erpowerin& them by the power of shock that is resident in its body and feeds !pon them# it also hides in the sand and m!d and catches all the creat!res that swim in its way and come !nder its narcoti2in& infl!ence$ This phenomenon has been act!ally obser"ed in operation$ The stin&+ray also conceals itself b!t not e'actly in the same way$ That the creat!res &et their li"in& by this means is ob"io!s from the fact that whereas they are pec!liarly inacti"e they are often ca!&ht with m!llets in their interior the swiftest of fishes$ F!rthermore the fishin&+fro& is !n!s!ally thin when he is ca!&ht after losin& the tips of his filaments and the torpedo is known to ca!se a n!mbness e"en in h!man bein&s$ A&ain the hake the ray the flat+fish and the an&elfish b!rrow in the sand and after concealin& themsel"es an&le with the filaments on their mo!ths that fishermen call their fishin&+rods and the little creat!res on which they feed swim !p to the filaments takin& them for bits of sea+weed s!ch as they feed !pon$

Where"er an anthias+fish is seen there will be no dan&ero!s creat!res in the "icinity and spon&e+ di"ers will di"e in sec!rity and they call these si&nal+fishes (holy+fish$ It is a sort of perpet!al coincidence like the fact that where"er snails are present yo! may be s!re there is neither pi& nor partrid&e in the nei&hbo!rhood# for both pi& and partrid&e eat !p the snails$ The sea+serpent resembles the con&er in colo!r and shape b!t is of lesser b!lk and more rapid in its mo"ements$ If it be ca!&ht and thrown away it will bore a hole with its sno!t and b!rrow rapidly in the sand# its sno!t by the way is sharper than that of ordinary serpents$ The so+called sea+ scolopendra after swallowin& the hook t!rns itself inside o!t !ntil it e)ects it and then it a&ain t!rns itself o!tside in$ The sea+scolopendra like the land+scolopendra will come to a sa"o!ry bait# the creat!re does not bite with its teeth b!t stin&s by contact with its entire body like the so+called sea+nettle$ The so+called fo'+shark when it finds it has swallowed the hook tries to &et rid of it as the scolopendra does b!t not in the same way# in other words it r!ns !p the fishin&+line and bites it off short# it is ca!&ht in some districts in deep and rapid waters with ni&ht+lines$ The bonitos swarm to&ether when they espy a dan&ero!s creat!re and the lar&est of them swim ro!nd it and if it to!ches one of the shoal they try to repel it# they ha"e stron& teeth$ Amon&st other lar&e fish a lamia+shark after fallin& in amon&st a shoal has been seen to be co"ered with wo!nds$ Of ri"er+fish the male of the sheat+fish is remarkably attenti"e to the yo!n&$ The female after part!rition &oes away# the male stays and keeps on &!ard where the spawn is most ab!ndant contentin& himself with keepin& off all other little fishes that mi&ht steal the spawn or fry and this he does for forty or fifty days !ntil the yo!n& are s!fficiently &rown to make away from the other fishes for themsel"es$ The fishermen can tell where he is on &!ard: for in wardin& off the little fishes he makes a r!sh in the water and &i"es !tterance to a kind of m!tterin& noise$ 9e is so earnest in the performance of his parental d!ties that the fishermen at times if the e&&s be attached to the roots of water+plants deep in the water dra& them into as shallow a place as possible# the male fish will still keep by the yo!n& and if it so happen will be ca!&ht by the hook when snappin& at the little fish that come by# if howe"er he be sensible by e'perience of the dan&er of the hook he will still keep by his char&e and with his e'tremely stron& teeth will bite the hook in pieces$ All fishes both those that wander abo!t and those that are stationary occ!py the districts where they were born or "ery similar places for their nat!ral food is fo!nd there$ .arni"oro!s fish wander most# and all fish are carni"oro!s with the e'ception of a few s!ch as the m!llet the sa!pe the red m!llet and the chalcis$ The so+called pholis &i"es o!t a m!co!s dischar&e which en"elops the creat!re in a kind of nest$ Of shell+fish and fish that are finless the scallop mo"es with &reatest force and to the &reatest distance impelled alon& by some internal ener&y# the m!re' or p!rple+ fish and others that resemble it mo"e hardly at all$ O!t of the la&oon of Ayrrha all the fishes swim in winter+time e'cept the sea+&!d&eon# they swim o!t owin& to the cold for the narrow waters are colder than the o!ter sea and on the ret!rn of the early s!mmer they all swim back a&ain$ In the la&oon no scar!s is fo!nd nor thritta nor any other species of the spiny fish no spotted do&fish no spiny do&fish no sea+crawfish no octop!s either of the common or the m!sky kinds and certain other fish are also absent# b!t of fish that are fo!nd in the la&oon the white &!d&eon is not a marine fish$ Of fishes the o"iparo!s are in their prime in the early s!mmer !ntil the spawnin& time# the "i"iparo!s in the a!t!mn as is also the case with the m!llet the red m!llet and all s!ch fish$ In the nei&hbo!rhood of Besbos the fishes of the o!ter sea or of the la&oon brin& forth their e&&s or yo!n& in the la&oon# se'!al !nion takes place in the a!t!mn and part!rition in the sprin&$ With fishes of the cartila&ino!s kind the males and females swarm to&ether in the a!t!mn for the sake of

se'!al !nion# in the early s!mmer they come swimmin& in and keep apart !ntil after part!rition# the two se'es are often taken linked to&ether in se'!al !nion$ Of moll!scs the sepia is the most c!nnin& and is the only species that employs its dark li*!id for the sake of concealment as well as from fear: the octop!s and calamary make the dischar&e solely from fear$ These creat!res ne"er dischar&e the pi&ment in its entirety# and after a dischar&e the pi&ment acc!m!lates a&ain$ The sepia as has been said often !ses its colo!rin& pi&ment for concealment# it shows itself in front of the pi&ment and then retreats back into it# it also h!nts with its lon& tentacles not only little fishes b!t oftentimes e"en m!llets$ The octop!s is a st!pid creat!re for it will approach a mans hand if it be lowered in the water# b!t it is neat and thrifty in its habits: that is it lays !p stores in its nest and after eatin& !p all that is eatable it e)ects the shells and sheaths of crabs and shell+fish and the skeletons of little fishes$ It seeks its prey by so chan&in& its colo!r as to render it like the colo!r of the stones ad)acent to it# it does so also when alarmed$ By some the sepia is said to perform the same trick# that is they say it can chan&e its colo!r so as to make it resemble the colo!r of its habitat$ The only fish that can do this is the an&elfish that is it can chan&e its colo!r like the octop!s$ The octop!s as a r!le does not li"e the year o!t$ It has a nat!ral tendency to r!n off into li*!id# for if beaten and s*!ee2ed it keeps losin& s!bstance and at last disappears$ The female after part!rition is pec!liarly s!b)ect to this colli*!efaction# it becomes st!pid# if tossed abo!t by wa"es it s!bmits impassi"ely# a man if he di"ed co!ld catch it with the hand# it &ets co"ered o"er with slime and makes no effort to catch its wonted prey$ The male becomes leathery and clammy$ As a proof that they do not li"e into a second year there is the fact that after the birth of the little octop!ses in the late s!mmer or be&innin& of a!t!mn it is seldom that a lar&e+si2ed octop!s is "isible whereas a little before this time of year the creat!re is at its lar&est$ After the e&&s are laid they say that both the male and the female &row so old and feeble that they are preyed !pon by little fish and with ease dra&&ed from their holes# and that this co!ld not ha"e been done pre"io!sly# they say also that this is not the case with the small and yo!n& octop!s b!t that the yo!n& creat!re is m!ch stron&er than the &rown+!p one$ 4either does the sepia li"e into a second year$ The octop!s is the only moll!sc that "ent!res on to dry land# it walks by preference on ro!&h &ro!nd# it is firm all o"er when yo! s*!ee2e it e'ceptin& in the neck$ %o m!ch for the moll!sca$ It is also said that they make a thin ro!&h shell abo!t them like a hard sheath and that this is made lar&er and lar&er as the animal &rows lar&er and that it comes o!t of the sheath as tho!&h o!t of a den or dwellin& place$ The na!til!s ,or ar&ona!t- is a po!lpe or octop!s b!t one pec!liar both in its nat!re and its habits$ It rises !p from deep water and swims on the s!rface# it rises with its shell down+t!rned in order that it may rise the more easily and swim with it empty b!t after reachin& the s!rface it shifts the position of the shell$ In between its feelers it has a certain amo!nt of web+&rowth resemblin& the s!bstance between the toes of web+footed birds# only that with these latter the s!bstance is thick while with the na!til!s it is thin and like a spiders web$ It !ses this str!ct!re when a bree2e is blowin& for a sail and lets down some of its feelers alon&side as r!dder+oars$ If it be fri&htened it fills its shell with water and sinks$ With re&ard to the mode of &eneration and the &rowth of the shell knowled&e from obser"ation is not yet satisfactory# the shell howe"er does not appear to be there from the be&innin& b!t to &row in their cases as in that of other shell+fish# neither is it ascertained for certain whether the animal can li"e when stripped of the shell$ 5=

Of all insects one may also say of all li"in& creat!res the most ind!strio!s are the ant the bee the hornet the wasp and in point of fact all creat!res akin to these# of spiders some are more skilf!l and more reso!rcef!l than others$ The way in which ants work is open to ordinary obser"ation# how they all march one after the other when they are en&a&ed in p!ttin& away and storin& !p their food# all this may be seen for they carry on their work e"en d!rin& bri&ht moonli&ht ni&hts$ 5> Of spiders and phalan&ia there are many species$ Of the "enomo!s phalan&ia there are two# one that resembles the so+called wolf+spider small speckled and taperin& to a point# it mo"es with leaps from which habit it is nicknamed (the flea: the other kind is lar&e black in colo!r with lon& front le&s# it is hea"y in its mo"ements walks slowly is not "ery stron& and ne"er leaps$ ,Of all the other species wherewith poison+"endors s!pply themsel"es some &i"e a weak bite and others ne"er bite at all$ There is another kind comprisin& the so+called wolf+spiders$- Of these spiders the small one wea"es no web and the lar&e wea"es a r!de and poorly b!ilt one on the &ro!nd or on dry stone walls$ It always b!ilds its web o"er hollow places inside of which it keeps a watch on the end+threads !ntil some creat!re &ets into the web and be&ins to str!&&le when o!t the spider po!nces$ The speckled kind makes a little shabby web !nder trees$ There is a third species of this animal preeminently cle"er and artistic$ It first wea"es a thread stretchin& to all the e'terior ends of the f!t!re web# then from the centre which it hits !pon with &reat acc!racy it stretches the warp# on the warp it p!ts what corresponds to the woof and then wea"es the whole to&ether$ It sleeps and stores its food away from the centre b!t it is at the centre that it keeps watch for its prey$ Then when any creat!re to!ches the web and the centre is set in motion it first ties and wraps the creat!re ro!nd with threads !ntil it renders it helpless then lifts it and carries it off and if it happens to be h!n&ry s!cks o!t the life+)!icesGfor that is the way it feeds# b!t if it be not h!n&ry it first mends any dama&e done and then hastens a&ain to its *!est of prey$ If somethin& comes meanwhile into the net the spider at first makes for the centre and then &oes back to its entan&led prey as from a fi'ed startin& point$ If any one in)!res a portion of the web it recommences wea"in& at s!nrise or at s!nset beca!se it is chiefly at these periods that creat!res are ca!&ht in the web$ It is the female that does the wea"in& and the h!ntin& b!t the male takes a share of the booty capt!red$ Of the skilf!l spiders wea"in& a s!bstantial web there are two kinds the lar&er and the smaller$ The one has lon& le&s and keeps watch while swin&in& downwards from the web: from its lar&e si2e it cannot easily conceal itself and so it keeps !nderneath so that its prey may not be fri&htened off b!t may strike !pon the webs !pper s!rface# the less awkwardly formed one lies in wait on the top !sin& a little hole for a l!rkin&+place$ %piders can spin webs from the time of their birth not from their interior as a s!perfl!ity or e'cretion as Democrit!s a"ers b!t off their body as a kind of tree+bark like the creat!res that shoot o!t with their hair as for instance the porc!pine$ The creat!re can attack animals lar&er than itself and enwrap them with its threads: in other words it will attack a small li2ard r!n ro!nd and draw threads abo!t its mo!th !ntil it closes the mo!th !p# then it comes !p and bites it$ 6@ %o m!ch for the spider$ Of insects there is a &en!s that has no one name that comprehends all the species tho!&h all the species are akin to one another in form# it consists of all the insects that constr!ct a honeycomb: to wit the bee and all the insects that resemble it in form$

There are nine "arieties of which si' are &re&ario!s+the bee the kin&+bee the drone bee the ann!al wasp and f!rthermore the anthrene ,or hornet- and the tenthredo ,or &ro!nd+wasp-# three are solitary+the smaller siren of a d!n colo!r the lar&er siren black and speckled and the third the lar&est of all that is called the h!mble+bee$ 4ow ants ne"er &o a+h!ntin& b!t &ather !p what is ready to hand# the spider makes nothin& and lays !p no store b!t simply &oes a+h!ntin& for its food# while the beeGfor we shall by and by treat of the nine "arietiesGdoes not &o a+h!ntin& b!t constr!cts its food o!t of &athered material and stores it away for honey is the bees food$ This fact is shown by the beekeepers attempt to remo"e the combs# for the bees when they are f!mi&ated and are s!fferin& &reat distress from the process then de"o!r the honey most ra"eno!sly whereas at other times they are ne"er obser"ed to be so &reedy b!t apparently are thrifty and disposed to lay by for their f!t!re s!stenance$ They ha"e also another food which is called bee+bread# this is scarcer than honey and has a sweet fi&like taste# this they carry as they do the wa' on their le&s$ ;ery remarkable di"ersity is obser"ed in their methods of workin& and their &eneral habits$ When the hi"e has been deli"ered to them clean and empty they b!ild their wa'en cells brin&in& in the )!ice of all kinds of flowers and the (tears or e'!din& sap of trees s!ch as willows and elms and s!ch others as are partic!larly &i"en to the e'!dation of &!m$ With this material they besmear the &ro!ndwork to pro"ide a&ainst attacks of other creat!res# the bee+keepers call this st!ff (stop+wa'$ They also with the same material narrow by side+b!ildin& the entrances to the hi"e if they are too wide$ They first b!ild cells for themsel"es# then for the so+called kin&s and the drones# for themsel"es they are always b!ildin& for the kin&s only when the brood of yo!n& is n!mero!s and cells for the drones they b!ild if a s!perab!ndance of honey sho!ld s!&&est their doin& so$ They b!ild the royal cells ne't to their own and they are of small b!lk# the drones cells they b!ild near by and these latter are less in b!lk than the bees cells$ They be&in b!ildin& the combs downwards from the top of the hi"e and &o down and down b!ildin& many combs connected to&ether !ntil they reach the bottom$ The cells both those for the honey and those also for the &r!bs are do!ble+doored# for two cells are ran&ed abo!t a sin&le base one pointin& one way and one the other after the manner of a do!ble ,or ho!r+&lass+shaped- &oblet$ The cells that lie at the commencement of the combs and are attached to the hi"es to the e'tent of two or three concentric circ!lar rows are small and de"oid of honey# the cells that are well filled with honey are most thoro!&hly l!ted with wa'$ At the entry to the hi"e the apert!re of the doorway is smeared with mitys# this s!bstance is a deep black and is a sort of dross or resid!al by+ prod!ct of wa'# it has a p!n&ent odo!r and is a c!re for br!ises and s!pp!ratin& sores$ The &reasy st!ff that comes ne't is pitch+wa'# it has a less p!n&ent odo!r and is less medicinal than the mitys$ %ome say that the drones constr!ct combs by themsel"es in the same hi"e and in the same comb that they share with the bees# b!t that they make no honey b!t s!bsist they and their &r!bs also on the honey made by the bees$ The drones as a r!le keep inside the hi"e# when they &o o!t of doors they soar !p in the air in a stream whirlin& ro!nd and ro!nd in a kind of &ymnastic e'ercise# when this is o"er they come inside the hi"e and feed to repletion ra"eno!sly$ The kin&s ne"er *!it the hi"e e'cept in con)!nction with the entire swarm either for food or for any other reason$ They say that if a yo!n& swarm &o astray it will t!rn back !pon its ro!te and by the aid of scent seek o!t its leader$ It is said that if he is !nable to fly he is carried by the swarm and that if he dies the swarm perishes# and that if this swarm o!tli"es the kin& for a while and constr!cts combs no honey is prod!ced and the bees soon die o!t$ Bees scramble !p the stalks of flowers and rapidly &ather the bees+wa' with their front le&s# the front le&s wipe it off on to the middle le&s and these pass it on to the hollow c!r"es of the hind+

le&s# when th!s laden they fly away home and one may see plainly that their load is a hea"y one$ On each e'pedition the bee does not fly from a flower of one kind to a flower of another b!t flies from one "iolet say to another "iolet and ne"er meddles with another flower !ntil it has &ot back to the hi"e# on reachin& the hi"e they throw off their load and each bee on his ret!rn is accompanied by three or fo!r companions$ One cannot well tell what is the s!bstance they &ather nor the e'act process of their work$ Their mode of &atherin& wa' has been obser"ed on oli"e+trees as owin& to the thickness of the lea"es the bees remain stationary for a considerable while$ After this work is o"er they attend to the &r!bs$ There is nothin& to pre"ent &r!bs honey and drones bein& all fo!nd in one and the same comb$ As lon& as the leader is ali"e the drones are said to be prod!ced apart by themsel"es# if he be no lon&er li"in& they are said to be reared by the bees in their own cells and !nder these circ!mstances to become more spirited: for this reason they are called (stin&+drones not that they really ha"e stin&s b!t that they ha"e the wish witho!t the power to !se s!ch weapons$ The cells for the drones are lar&er than the others# sometimes the bees constr!ct cells for the drones apart b!t !s!ally they p!t them in amon&st their own# and when this is the case the bee+keepers c!t the drone+cells o!t of the combs$ There are se"eral species of bees as has been said# two of (kin&s the better kind red the other black and "arie&ated and twice as bi& as the workin&+bee$ The best workin&bee is small ro!nd and speckled: another kind is lon& and like an anthrene wasp# another kind is what is called the robber+bee black and flat+bellied# then there is the drone the lar&est of all b!t de"oid of stin& and la2y$ There is a difference between the pro&eny of bees that inhabit c!lti"ated land and of those from the mo!ntains: the forest+bees are more sha&&y smaller more ind!strio!s and more fierce$ Workin&+bees make their combs all e"en with the s!perficial co"erin& *!ite smooth$ 7ach comb is of one kind only: that is it contains either bees only or &r!bs only or drones only# if it happen howe"er that they make in one and the same comb all these kinds of cells each separate kind will be b!ilt in a contin!o!s row ri&ht thro!&h$ The lon& bees b!ild !ne"en combs with the lids of the cells prot!berant like those of the anthrene# &r!bs and e"erythin& else ha"e no fi'ed places b!t are p!t anywhere# from these bees come inferior kin&s a lar&e *!antity of drones and the so+called robber+bee# they prod!ce either no honey at all or honey in "ery small *!antities$ Bees brood o"er the combs and so mat!re them# if they fail to do so the combs are said to &o bad and to &et co"ered with a sort of spiders web$ If they can keep broodin& o"er the part !ndama&ed the dama&ed part simply eats itself away# if they cannot so brood the entire comb perishes# in the dama&ed combs small worms are en&endered which take on win&s and fly away$ When the combs keep settlin& down the bees restore the le"el s!rface and p!t props !nderneath the combs to &i"e themsel"es free passa&e+room# for if s!ch free passa&e be lackin& they cannot brood and the cobwebs come on$ When the robber+bee and the drone appear not only do they do no work themsel"es b!t they act!ally dama&e the work of the other bees# if they are ca!&ht in the act they are killed by the workin&+bees$ These bees also kill witho!t mercy most of their kin&s and especially kin&s of the inferior sort# and this they do for fear a m!ltiplicity of kin&s sho!ld lead to a dismemberment of the hi"e$ They kill them especially when the hi"e is deficient in &r!bs and a swarm is not intended to take place# !nder these circ!mstances they destroy the cells of the kin&s if they ha"e been prepared on the &ro!nd that these kin&s are always ready to lead o!t swarms$ They destroy also the combs of the drones if a fail!re in the s!pply be threatenin& and the hi"e r!ns short of pro"isions# !nder s!ch circ!mstances they fi&ht desperately with all who try to take their honey and e)ect from the hi"e all the resident drones# and oftentimes the drones are to be seen sittin& apart in the hi"e$ The little bees fi&ht "i&oro!sly with the lon& kind and try to banish them from the hi"es# if they s!cceed the hi"e will be !n!s!ally prod!cti"e b!t if the bi&&er bees &et left mistresses of the field they pass the time

in idleness and no &ood at all b!t die o!t before the a!t!mn$ Whene"er the workin&+bees kill an enemy they try to do so o!t of doors# and whene"er one of their own body dies they carry the dead bee o!t of doors also$ The so+called robber+bees spoil their own combs and if they can do so !nnoticed enter and spoil the combs of other bees# if they are ca!&ht in the act they are p!t to death$ It is no easy task for them to escape detection for there are sentinels on &!ard at e"ery entry# and e"en if they do escape detection on enterin& afterwards from a s!rfeit of food they cannot fly b!t &o rollin& abo!t in front of the hi"e so that their chances of escape are small indeed$ The kin&s are ne"er themsel"es seen o!tside the hi"e e'cept with a swarm in fli&ht: d!rin& which time all the other bees cl!ster aro!nd them$ When the fli&ht of a swarm is imminent a monotono!s and *!ite pec!liar so!nd made by all the bees is heard for se"eral days and for two or three days in ad"ance a few bees are seen flyin& ro!nd the hi"e# it has ne"er as yet been ascertained owin& to the diffic!lty of the obser"ation whether or no the kin& is amon& these$ When they ha"e swarmed they fly away and separate off to each of the kin&s# if a small swarm happens to settle near to a lar&e one it will shift to )oin this lar&e one and if the kin& whom they ha"e abandoned follows them they p!t him to death$ %o m!ch for the *!ittin& of the hi"e and the swarmfli&ht$ %eparate detachments of bees are told off for di"erse operations# that is some carry flower+prod!ce others carry water others smooth and arran&e the combs$ A bee carries water when it is rearin& &r!bs$ 4o bee e"er settles on the flesh of any creat!re or e"er eats animal food$ They ha"e no fi'ed date for commencin& work# b!t when their pro"ender is forthcomin& and they are in comfortable trim and by preference in s!mmer they set to work and when the weather is fine they work incessantly$ The bee when *!ite yo!n& and in fact only three days old after sheddin& its chrysalis+case be&ins to work if it be well fed$ When a swarm is settlin& some bees detach themsel"es in search of food and ret!rn back to the swarm$ In hi"es that are in &ood condition the prod!ction of yo!n& bees is discontin!ed only for the forty days that follow the winter solstice$ When the &r!bs are &rown the bees p!t food beside them and co"er them with a coatin& of wa'# and as soon as the &r!b is stron& eno!&h he of his own accord breaks the lid and comes o!t$ .reat!res that make their appearance in hi"es and spoil the combs the workin&+bees clear o!t b!t the other bees from sheer la2iness look with indifference on dama&e done to their prod!ce$ When the bee+masters take o!t the combs they lea"e eno!&h food behind for winter !se# if it be s!fficient in *!antity the occ!pants of the hi"e will s!r"i"e# if it be ins!fficient then if the weather be ro!&h they die on the spot b!t if it be fair they fly away and desert the hi"e$ They feed on honey s!mmer and winter# b!t they store !p another article of food resemblin& wa' in hardness which by some is called sandarace or bee+ bread$ Their worst enemies are wasps and the birds named titmice and f!rthermore the swallow and the bee+eater$ The fro&s in the marsh also catch them if they come in their way by the water+ side and for this reason bee+keepers chase the fro&s from the ponds from which the bees take water# they destroy also wasps nests and the nests of swallows in the nei&hbo!rhood of the hi"es and also the nests of bee+eaters$ Bees ha"e fear only of one another$ They fi&ht with one another and with wasps$ Away from the hi"e they attack neither their own species nor any other creat!re b!t in the close pro'imity of the hi"e they kill whate"er they &et hold of$ Bees that stin& die from their inability to e'tract the stin& witho!t at the same time e'tractin& their intestines$ Tr!e they often reco"er if the person st!n& takes the tro!ble to press the stin& o!t# b!t once it loses its stin& the bee m!st die$ They can kill with their stin&s e"en lar&e animals# in fact a horse has been known to ha"e been st!n& to death by them$ The kin&s are the least disposed to show an&er or to inflict a stin&$ Bees that die are remo"ed from the hi"e and in e"ery way the creat!re is remarkable for its cleanly habits# in point of fact they often fly away to a distance to "oid their e'crement beca!se it

is malodoro!s# and as has been said they are annoyed by all bad smells and by the scent of perf!mes so m!ch so that they stin& people that !se perf!mes$ They perish from a n!mber of accidental ca!ses and when their kin&s become too n!mero!s and try each to carry away a portion of the swarm$ The toad also feeds on bees# he comes to the doorway of the hi"e p!ffs himself o!t as he sits on the watch and de"o!rs the creat!res as they come flyin& o!t# the bees can in no way retaliate b!t the bee+keeper makes a point of killin& him$ As for the class of bee that has been spoken of as inferior or &ood+for+nothin& and as constr!ctin& its combs so ro!&hly some bee+keepers say that it is the yo!n& bees that act so from ine'perience# and the bees of the c!rrent year are termed yo!n&$ The yo!n& bees do not stin& as the others do# and it is for this reason that swarms may be safely carried as it is of yo!n& bees that they are composed$ When honey r!ns short they e'pel the drones and the bee+keepers s!pply the bees with fi&s and sweet+tastin& articles of food$ The elder bees do the indoor work and are ro!&h and hairy from stayin& indoors# the yo!n& bees do the o!ter carryin& and are comparati"ely smooth$ They kill the drones also when in their work they are confined for room# the drones by the way li"e in the innermost recess of the hi"e$ On one occasion when a hi"e was in a poor condition some of the occ!pants assailed a forei&n hi"e# pro"in& "ictorio!s in a combat they took to carryin& off the honey# when the bee+keeper tried to kill them the other bees came o!t and tried to beat off the enemy b!t made no attempt to stin& the man$ The diseases that chiefly attack prospero!s hi"es are first of all the cler!s+this consists in a &rowth of little worms on the floor from which as they de"elop a kind of cobweb &rows o"er the entire hi"e and the combs decay# another diseased condition is indicated in a lassit!de on the part of the bees and in malodoro!sness of the hi"e$ Bees feed on thyme# and the white thyme is better than the red$ In s!mmer the place for the hi"e sho!ld be cool and in winter warm$ They are "ery apt to fall sick if the plant they are at work on be mildewed$ In a hi&h wind they carry a stone by way of ballast to steady them$ If a stream be near at hand they drink from it and from it only b!t before they drink they first deposit their load# if there be no water near at hand they dis&or&e their honey as they drink elsewhere and at once make off to work$ There are two seasons for makin& honey sprin& and a!t!mn# the sprin& honey is sweeter whiter and in e"ery way better than the a!t!mn honey$ %!perior honey comes from fresh comb and from yo!n& shoots# the red honey is inferior and owes its inferiority to the comb in which it is deposited )!st as wine is apt to be spoiled by its cask# conse*!ently one sho!ld ha"e it looked to and dried$ When the thyme is in flower and the comb is f!ll the honey does not harden$ The honey that is &olden in h!e is e'cellent$ White honey does not come from thyme p!re and simple# it is &ood as a sal"e for sore eyes and wo!nds$ Aoor honey always floats on the s!rface and sho!ld be skimmed off# the fine clear honey rests below$ When the floral world is in f!ll bloom then they make wa'# conse*!ently yo! m!st then take the wa' o!t of the hi"e for they &o to work on new wa' at once$ The flowers from which they &ather honey are as follows: the spindle+tree the melilot+clo"er kin&s+spear myrtle flowerin&+reed withy and broom$ When they work at thyme they mi' in water before sealin& !p the comb$ As has been already stated they all either fly to a distance to dischar&e their e'crement or make the dischar&e into one sin&le comb$ The little bees as has been said are more ind!strio!s than the bi& ones# their win&s are battered# their colo!r is black and they ha"e a b!rnt+!p aspect$ 1a!dy and showy bees like &a!dy and showy women are &ood+for+nothin&s$

Bees seem to take a pleas!re in listenin& to a rattlin& noise# and conse*!ently men say that they can m!ster them into a hi"e by rattlin& with crockery or stones# it is !ncertain howe"er whether or no they can hear the noise at all and also whether their proced!re is d!e to pleas!re or alarm$ They e'pel from the hi"e all idlers and !nthrifts$ As has been said they differentiate their work# some make wa' some make honey some make bee+bread some shape and mo!ld combs some brin& water to the cells and min&le it with the honey some en&a&e in o!t+of+door work$ At early dawn they make no noise !ntil some one partic!lar bee makes a b!22in& noise two or three times and thereby awakes the rest# here!pon they all fly in a body to work$ By and by they ret!rn and at first are noisy# then the noise &rad!ally decreases !ntil at last some one bee flies ro!nd abo!t makin& a b!22in& noise and apparently callin& on the others to &o to sleep# then all of a s!dden there is a dead silence$ The hi"e is known to be in &ood condition if the noise heard within it is lo!d and if the bees make a fl!tter as they &o o!t and in# for at this time they are constr!ctin& brood+cells$ They s!ffer most from h!n&er when they recommence work after winter$ They become somewhat la2y if the bee+ keeper in robbin& the hi"e lea"e behind too m!ch honey# still one sho!ld lea"e cells n!mero!s in proportion to the pop!lation for the bees work in a spiritless way if too few combs are left$ They become idle also as bein& dispirited if the hi"e be too bi&$ A hi"e yields to the bee+keeper si' or nine pints of honey# a prospero!s hi"e will yield twel"e or fifteen pints e'ceptionally &ood hi"es ei&hteen$ %heep and as has been said wasps are enemies to the bees$ Bee+keepers entrap the latter by p!ttin& a flat dish on the &ro!nd with pieces of meat on it# when a n!mber of the wasps settle on it they co"er them with a lid and p!t the dish and its contents on the fire$ It is a &ood thin& to ha"e a few drones in a hi"e as their presence increases the ind!stry of the workers$ Bees can tell the approach of ro!&h weather or of rain# and the proof is that they will not fly away b!t e"en while it is as yet fine they &o fl!tterin& abo!t within a restricted space and the bee+keeper knows from this that they are e'pectin& bad weather$ When the bees inside the hi"e han& cl!sterin& to one another it is a si&n that the swarm is intendin& to *!it# conse*!ently occasion when a bee+keepers on seein& this besprinkle the hi"e with sweet wine$ It is ad"isable to plant abo!t the hi"es pear+trees beans /edian+&rass %yrian+&rass yellow p!lse myrtle poppies creepin&+thyme and almond+ trees$ %ome bee+keepers sprinkle their bees with flo!r and can distin&!ish them from others when they are at work o!t of doors$ If the sprin& be late or if there be dro!&ht or bli&ht then &r!bs are all the fewer in the hi"es$ %o m!ch for the habits of bees$ 61 Of wasps there are two kinds$ Of these kinds one is wild and scarce li"es on the mo!ntains en&enders &r!bs not !nder&ro!nd b!t on oak+trees is lar&er lon&er and blacker than the other kind is in"ariably speckled and f!rnished with a stin& and is remarkably co!ra&eo!s$ The pain from its stin& is more se"ere than that ca!sed by the others for the instr!ment that ca!ses the pain is lar&er in proportion to its own lar&er si2e$ These wild li"e o"er into a second year and in winter time when oaks ha"e been in co!rse of fellin& they may be seen comin& o!t and flyin& away$ They lie concealed d!rin& the winter and li"e in the interior of lo&s of wood$ %ome of them are mother+wasps and some are workers as with the tamer kind# b!t it is by obser"ation of the tame wasps that one may learn the "aried characteristics of the mothers and the workers$ For in the case of the tame wasps also there are two kinds# one consists of leaders who are called mothers and the other of workers$ The leaders are far lar&er and milder+tempered than the others$ The workers do not li"e o"er into a second year b!t all die when winter comes on# and this can be pro"ed for at the commencement of winter the workers become drowsy and abo!t the time of the winter solstice

they are ne"er seen at all$ The leaders the so+called mothers are seen all thro!&h the winter and li"e in holes !nder&ro!nd# for men when plo!&hin& or di&&in& in winter ha"e often come !pon mother+wasps b!t ne"er !pon workers$ The mode of reprod!ction of wasps is as follows$ At the approach of s!mmer when the leaders ha"e fo!nd a sheltered spot they take to mo!ldin& their combs and constr!ct the so+called sphecons +little nests containin& fo!r cells or thereabo!ts and in these are prod!ced workin&+wasps b!t not mothers$ When these are &rown !p then they constr!ct other lar&er combs !pon the first and then a&ain in like manner others# so that by the close of a!t!mn there are n!mero!s lar&e combs in which the leader the so+called mother en&enders no lon&er workin&+wasps b!t mothers$ These de"elop hi&h !p in the nest as lar&e &r!bs in cells that occ!r in &ro!ps of fo!r or rather more pretty m!ch in the same way as we ha"e seen the &r!bs of the kin&+bees to be prod!ced in their cells$ After the birth of the workin&+&r!bs in the cells the leaders do nothin& and the workers ha"e to s!pply them with no!rishment# and this is inferred from the fact that the leaders ,of the workin&+wasps- no lon&er fly o!t at this time b!t rest *!ietly indoors$ Whether the leaders of last year after en&enderin& new leaders are killed by the new brood and whether this occ!rs in"ariably or whether they can li"e for a lon&er time has not been ascertained by act!al obser"ation# neither can we speak with certainty as from obser"ation as to the a&e attained by the mother+wasp or by the wild wasps or as to any other similar phenomenon$ The mother+wasp is broad and hea"y fatter and lar&er than the ordinary wasp and from its wei&ht not "ery stron& on the win&# these wasps cannot fly far and for this reason they always rest inside the nest b!ildin& and mana&in& its indoor arran&ements$ The so+called mother+wasps are fo!nd in most of the nests# it is a matter of do!bt whether or no they are pro"ided with stin&s# in all probability like the kin&+bees they ha"e stin&s b!t ne"er protr!de them for offence$ Of the ordinary wasps some are destit!te of stin&s like the drone+bees and some are pro"ided with them$ Those !npro"ided therewith are smaller and less spirited and ne"er fi&ht while the others are bi& and co!ra&eo!s# and these latter by some are called males and the stin&less females$ At the approach of winter many of the wasps that ha"e stin&s appear to lose them# b!t we ha"e ne"er met an eyewitness of this phenomenon$ Wasps are more ab!ndant in times of dro!&ht and in wild localities$ They li"e !nder&ro!nd# their combs they mo!ld o!t of chips and earth each comb from a sin&le ori&in like a kind of root$ They feed on certain flowers and fr!its b!t for the most part on animal food$ %ome of the tame wasps ha"e been obser"ed when se'!ally !nited b!t it was not determined whether both or neither had stin&s or whether one had a stin& and the other had not# wild wasps ha"e been seen !nder similar circ!mstances when one was seen to ha"e a stin& b!t the case of the other was left !ndetermined$ The wasp+&r!b does not appear to come into e'istence by part!rition for at the o!tset the &r!b is too bi& to be the offsprin& of a wasp$ If yo! take a wasp by the feet and let him b!22 with the "ibration of his win&s wasps that ha"e no stin&s will fly toward it and wasps that ha"e stin&s will not# from which fact it is inferred by some that one set are males and the other females$ In holes in the &ro!nd in winter+time wasps are fo!nd some with stin&s and some witho!t$ %ome b!ild cells small and few in n!mber# others b!ild many and lar&e ones$ The so+called mothers are ca!&ht at the chan&e of season mostly on elm+trees while &atherin& a s!bstance sticky and &!mlike$ A lar&e n!mber of mother+wasps are fo!nd when in the pre"io!s year wasps ha"e been n!mero!s and the weather rainy# they are capt!red in precipito!s places or in "ertical clefts in the &ro!nd and they all appear to be f!rnished with stin&s$ 63 %o m!ch for the habits of wasps$

Anthrenae do not s!bsist by c!llin& from flowers as bees do b!t for the most part on animal food: for this reason they ho"er abo!t d!n&# for they chase the lar&e flies and after catchin& them lop off their heads and fly away with the rest of the carcases# they are f!rthermore fond of sweet fr!its$ %!ch is their food$ They ha"e also kin&s or leaders like bees and wasps# and their leaders are lar&er in proportion to themsel"es than are wasp+kin&s to wasps or bee+kin&s to bees$ The anthrena+kin& like the wasp+kin& li"es indoors$ Anthrenae b!ild their nests !nder&ro!nd scrapin& o!t the soil like ants# for neither anthrenae nor wasps &o off in swarms as bees do b!t s!ccessi"e layers of yo!n& anthrenae keep to the same habitat and &o on enlar&in& their nest by scrapin& o!t more and more of soil$ The nest accordin&ly attains a &reat si2e# in fact from a partic!larly prospero!s nest ha"e been remo"ed three and e"en fo!r baskets f!ll of combs$ They do not like bees store !p food b!t pass the winter in a torpid condition# the &reater part of them die in the winter b!t it is !ncertain whether that can be said of them all In the hi"es of bees se"eral kin&s are fo!nd and they lead off detachments in swarms b!t in the anthrenas nest only one kin& is fo!nd$ When indi"id!al anthrenae ha"e strayed from their nest they cl!ster on a tree and constr!ct combs as may be often seen abo"e+&ro!nd and in this nest they prod!ce a kin&# when the kin& is f!ll+&rown he leads them away and settles them alon& with himself in a hi"e or nest$ With re&ard to their se'!al !nions and the method of their reprod!ction nothin& is known from act!al obser"ation$ Amon& bees both the drones and the kin&s are stin&less and so are certain wasps as has been said# b!t anthrenae appear to be all f!rnished with stin&s: tho!&h by the way it wo!ld well be worth while to carry o!t in"esti&ation as to whether the anthrena+kin& has a stin& or not$ 65 9!mble+bees prod!ce their yo!n& !nder a stone ri&ht on the &ro!nd in a co!ple of cells or little more# in these cells is fo!nd an attempt at honey of a poor description$ The tenthredon is like the anthrena b!t speckled and abo!t as broad as a bee$ Bein& epic!res as to their food they fly one at a time into kitchens and on to slices of fish and the like dainties$ The tenthredon brin&s forth like the wasp !nder&ro!nd and is "ery prolific# its nest is m!ch bi&&er and lon&er than that of the wasp$ %o m!ch for the methods of workin& and the habits of life of the bee the wasp and all the other similar insects$ 66 As re&ards the disposition or temper of animals as has been pre"io!sly obser"ed one may detect &reat differences in respect to co!ra&e and timidity as also e"en amon& wild animals in re&ard to tameness and wildness$ The lion while he is eatin& is most ferocio!s# b!t when he is not h!n&ry and has had a &ood meal he is *!ite &entle$ 9e is totally de"oid of s!spicion or ner"o!s fear is fond of rompin& with animals that ha"e been reared alon& with him and to whom he is acc!stomed and manifests &reat affection towards them$ In the chase as lon& as he is in "iew he makes no attempt to r!n and shows no fear b!t e"en if he be compelled by the m!ltit!de of the h!nters to retreat he withdraws deliberately step by step e"ery now and then t!rnin& his head to re&ard his p!rs!ers$ If howe"er he reach wooded co"er then he r!ns at f!ll speed !ntil he comes to open &ro!nd when he res!mes his leis!rely retreat$ When in the open he is forced by the n!mber of the h!nters to r!n while in f!ll "iew he does r!n at the top of his speed b!t witho!t leapin& and bo!ndin&$ This r!nnin& of his is e"enly and contin!o!sly kept !p like the r!nnin& of a do&# b!t when he is in p!rs!it of his prey and is close behind he makes a s!dden po!nce !pon it$ The two statements made re&ardin& him are *!ite tr!e# the one that he is especially afraid of fire as 9omer pict!res him in the line+(and &lowin& torches which tho!&h fierce he dreads +and the other that he keeps a steady eye !pon the h!nter who hits him and flin&s himself !pon him$ If a h!nter hit

him witho!t h!rtin& him then if with a bo!nd he &ets hold of him he will do him no harm not e"en with his claws b!t after shakin& him and &i"in& him a fri&ht will let him &o a&ain$ They in"ade the cattle+folds and attack h!man bein&s when they are &rown old and so by reason of old a&e and the diseased condition of their teeth are !nable to p!rs!e their wonted prey$ They li"e to a &ood old a&e$ The lion who was capt!red when lame had a n!mber of his teeth broken# which fact was re&arded by some as a proof of the lon&e"ity of lions as he co!ld hardly ha"e been red!ced to this condition e'cept at an ad"anced a&e$ There are two species of lions the pl!mp c!rly+maned and the lon&+bodied strai&ht maned# the latter kind is co!ra&eo!s and the former comparati"ely timid# sometimes they r!n away with their tail between their le&s like a do&$ A lion was once seen to be on the point of attackin& a boar b!t to r!n away when the boar stiffened his bristles in defence$ It is s!sceptible of h!rt from a wo!nd in the flank b!t on any other part of its frame will end!re any n!mber of blows and its head is especially hard$ Whene"er it inflicts a wo!nd either by its teeth or its claws there flows from the wo!nded parts s!pp!ratin& matter *!ite yellow and not to be stanched by banda&e or spon&e# the treatment for s!ch a wo!nd is the same as that for the bite of a do&$ The thos or ci"et is fond of mans company# it does him no harm and is not m!ch afraid of him b!t it is an enemy to the do& and the lion and conse*!ently is not fo!nd in the same habitat with them$ The little ones are the best$ %ome say that there are two species of the animal and some say three# there are probably not more than three b!t as is the case with certain of the fishes birds and *!adr!peds this animal chan&es in appearance with the chan&e of season$ 9is colo!r in winter is not the same as it is in s!mmer# in s!mmer the animal is smooth+haired in winter he is clothed in f!r$ 68 The bison is fo!nd in Aaeonia on /o!nt /essapi!m which separates Aaeonia from /aedica# and the Aaeonians call it the monapos$ It is the si2e of a b!ll b!t sto!ter in b!ild and not lon& in the body# its skin stretched ti&ht on a frame wo!ld &i"e sittin& room for se"en people$ In &eneral it resembles the o' in appearance e'cept that it has a mane that reaches down to the point of the sho!lder as that of the horse reaches down to its withers# b!t the hair in its mane is softer than the hair in the horses mane and clin&s more closely$ The colo!r of the hair is brown+yellow# the mane reaches down to the eyes and is deep and thick$ The colo!r of the body is half red half ashen+&rey like that of the so+called chestn!t horse b!t ro!&her$ It has an !ndercoat of woolly hair$ The animal is not fo!nd either "ery black or "ery red$ It has the bellow of a b!ll$ Its horns are crooked t!rned inwards towards each other and !seless for p!rposes of self+defence# they are a span broad or a little more and in "ol!me each horn wo!ld hold abo!t three pints of li*!id# the black colo!r of the horn is bea!tif!l and bri&ht$ The t!ft of hair on the forehead reaches down to the eyes so that the animal sees ob)ects on either flank better than ob)ects ri&ht in front$ It has no !pper teeth as is the case also with kine and all other horned animals$ Its le&s are hairy# it is clo"en+footed and the tail which resembles that of the o' seems not bi& eno!&h for the si2e of its body$ It tosses !p d!st and scoops o!t the &ro!nd with its hoo"es like the b!ll$ Its skin is imper"io!s to blows$ Owin& to the sa"o!r of its flesh it is so!&ht for in the chase$ When it is wo!nded it r!ns away and stops only when thoro!&hly e'ha!sted$ It defends itself a&ainst an assailant by kickin& and pro)ectin& its e'crement to a distance of ei&ht yards# this de"ice it can easily adopt o"er and o"er a&ain and the e'crement is so p!n&ent that the hair of h!ntin&+do&s is b!rnt off by it$ It is only when the animal is dist!rbed or alarmed that the d!n& has this property# when the animal is !ndist!rbed it has no blisterin& effect$ %o m!ch for the shape and habits of the animal$ When the season comes for

part!rition the mothers &i"e birth to their yo!n& in troops !pon the mo!ntains$ Before droppin& their yo!n& they scatter their d!n& in all directions makin& a kind of circ!lar rampart aro!nd them# for the animal has the fac!lty of e)ectin& e'crement in most e'traordinary *!antities$ 6: Of all wild animals the most easily tamed and the &entlest is the elephant$ It can be ta!&ht a n!mber of tricks the drift and meanin& of which it !nderstands# as for instance it can ta!&ht to kneel in presence of the kin&$ It is "ery sensiti"e and possessed of an intelli&ence s!perior to that of other animals$ When the male has had se'!al !nion with the female and the female has concei"ed the male has no f!rther interco!rse with her$ %ome say that the elephant li"es for two h!ndred years# others for one h!ndred and twenty# that the female li"es nearly as lon& as the male# that they reach their prime abo!t the a&e of si'ty and that they are sensiti"e to inclement weather and frost$ The elephant is fo!nd by the banks of ri"ers b!t he is not a ri"er animal# he can make his way thro!&h water as lon& as the tip of his tr!nk can be abo"e the s!rface for he blows with his tr!nk and breathes thro!&h it$ The animal is a poor swimmer owin& to the hea"y wei&ht of his body$ 6< The male camel declines interco!rse with its mother# if his keeper tries comp!lsion he e"inces disinclination$ On one occasion when interco!rse was bein& declined by the yo!n& male the keeper co"ered o"er the mother and p!t the yo!n& male to her# b!t when after the interco!rse the wrappin& had been remo"ed tho!&h the operation was completed and co!ld not be re"oked still by and by he bit his keeper to death$ A story &oes that the kin& of %cythia had a hi&hly+bred mare and that all her foals were splendid# that wishin& to mate the best of the yo!n& males with the mother he had him bro!&ht to the stall for the p!rpose# that the yo!n& horse declined# that after the mothers head had been concealed in a wrapper he in i&norance had interco!rse# and that when immediately afterwards the wrapper was remo"ed and the head of the mare was rendered "isible the yo!n& horse ran way and h!rled himself down a precipice$ 6= Amon& the sea+fishes many stories are told abo!t the dolphin indicati"e of his &entle and kindly nat!re and of manifestations of passionate attachment to boys in and abo!t Tarent!m .aria and other places$ The story &oes that after a dolphin had been ca!&ht and wo!nded off the coast of .aria a shoal of dolphins came into the harbo!r and stopped there !ntil the fisherman let his capti"e &o free# where!pon the shoal departed$ A shoal of yo!n& dolphins is always by way of protection followed by a lar&e one$ On one occasion a shoal of dolphins lar&e and small was seen and two dolphins at a little distance appeared swimmin& in !nderneath a little dead dolphin when it was sinkin& and s!pportin& it on their backs tryin& o!t of compassion to pre"ent its bein& de"o!red by some predaceo!s fish$ Incredible stories are told re&ardin& the rapidity of mo"ement of this creat!re$ It appears to be the fleetest of all animals marine and terrestrial and it can leap o"er the masts of lar&e "essels$ This speed is chiefly manifested when they are p!rs!in& a fish for food# then if the fish endea"o!rs to escape they p!rs!e him in their ra"eno!s h!n&er down to deep waters# b!t when the necessary ret!rn swim is &ettin& too lon& they hold in their breath as tho!&h calc!latin& the len&th of it and then draw themsel"es to&ether for an effort and shoot !p like arrows tryin& to make the lon& ascent rapidly in order to breathe and in the effort they sprin& ri&ht o"er the a ships masts if a ship be in the "icinity$ This same phenomenon is obser"ed in di"ers

when they ha"e pl!n&ed into deep water# that is they p!ll themsel"es to&ether and rise with a speed proportional to their stren&th$ Dolphins li"e to&ether in pairs male and female$ It is not known for what reason they r!n themsel"es a&ro!nd on dry land# at all e"ents it is said that they do so at times and for no ob"io!s reason$ 6> D!st as with all animals a chan&e of action follows a chan&e of circ!mstance so also a chan&e of character follows a chan&e of action and often some portions of the physical frame !nder&o a chan&e occ!rs in the case of birds$ 9ens for instance when they ha"e beaten the cock in a fi&ht will crow like the cock and endea"o!r to tread him# the crest rises !p on their head and the tail+ feathers on the r!mp so that it becomes diffic!lt to reco&ni2e that they are hens# in some cases there is a &rowth of small sp!rs$ On the death of a hen a cock has been seen to !ndertake the maternal d!ties leadin& the chickens abo!t and pro"idin& them with food and so intent !pon these d!ties as to cease crowin& and ind!l&in& his se'!al propensities$ %ome cock+birds are con&enitally so feminine that they will s!bmit patiently to other males who attempt to tread them$ 8@ %ome animals chan&e their form and character not only at certain a&es and at certain seasons b!t in conse*!ence of bein& castrated# and all animals possessed of testicles may be s!bmitted to this operation$ Birds ha"e their testicles inside and o"iparo!s *!adr!peds close to the loins# and of "i"iparo!s animals that walk some ha"e them inside and most ha"e them o!tside b!t all ha"e them at the lower end of the belly$ Birds are castrated at the r!mp at the part where the two se'es !nite in cop!lation$ If yo! b!rn this twice or thrice with hot irons then if the bird be f!ll+&rown his crest &rows sallow he ceases to crow and fore&oes se'!al passion# b!t if yo! ca!teri2e the bird when yo!n& none of these male attrib!tes propensities will come to him as he &rows !p$ The case is the same with men: if yo! m!tilate them in boyhood the later+&rowin& hair ne"er comes and the "oice ne"er chan&es b!t remains hi&h+pitched# if they be m!tilated in early manhood the late &rowths of hair *!it them e'cept the &rowth on the &roin and that diminishes b!t does not entirely depart$ The con&enital &rowths of hair ne"er fall o!t for a e!n!ch ne"er &rows bald$ In the case of all castrated or m!tilated male *!adr!peds the "oice chan&es to the feminine "oice$ All other *!adr!peds when castrated !nless the operation be performed when they are yo!n& in"ariably die# b!t in the case of boars and in their case only the a&e at which the operation is performed prod!ces no difference$ All animals if operated on when they are yo!n& become bi&&er and better lookin& than their !nm!tilated fellows# if they be m!tilated when f!ll+&rown they do not take on any increase of si2e$ If sta&s be m!tilated when by reason of their a&e they ha"e as yet no horns they ne"er &row horns at all# if they be m!tilated when they ha"e horns the horns remain !nchan&ed in si2e and the animal does not lose them$ .al"es are m!tilated when a year old# otherwise they t!rn o!t !&lier and smaller$ %teers are m!tilated in the followin& way: they t!rn the animal o"er on its back c!t a little off the scrot!m at the lower end and s*!ee2e o!t the testicles then p!sh back the roots of them as far as they can and stop !p the incision with hair to &i"e an o!tlet to s!pp!ratin& matter# if inflammation ens!es they ca!teri2e the scrot!m and p!t on a plaster$ If a f!ll+&rown b!ll be m!tilated he can still to all appearance !nite se'!ally with the cow$ The o"aries of sows are e'cised with the "iew of *!enchin& in them se'!al appetites and of stim!latin& &rowth in si2e and fatness$ The sow has first to be kept two days witho!t food and after bein& h!n& !p by the hind le&s it is operated on# they c!t the lower belly abo!t the place where the boars ha"e their testicles for it is there that the o"ary &rows adherin& to the two di"isions ,or horns- of the womb# they c!t off a little piece and stitch !p the incision$ Female camels are m!tilated when they are wanted for

war p!rposes and are m!tilated to pre"ent their bein& &ot with yo!n&$ %ome of the inhabitants of ?pper Asia ha"e as many as three tho!sand camels: when they r!n they r!n in conse*!ence of the len&th of their stride m!ch *!icker than the horses of 4isaea$ As a &eneral r!le m!tilated animals &row to a &reater len&th than the !nm!tilated$ All animals that r!minate deri"e profit and pleas!re from the process of r!mination as they do from the process of eatin&$ It is the animals that lack the !pper teeth that r!minate s!ch as kine sheep and &oats$ In the case of wild animals no obser"ation has been possible# sa"e in the case of animals that are occasionally domesticated s!ch as the sta& and it we know chews the c!d$ All animals that r!minate &enerally do so when lyin& down on the &ro!nd$ They carry on the process to the &reatest e'tent in winter and stall+fed r!minants carry it on for abo!t se"en months in the year# beasts that &o in herds as they &et their food o!t of doors r!minate to a lesser de&ree and o"er a lesser period$ %ome also of the animals that ha"e teeth in both )aws r!minate# as for instance the Aontic mice and the fish which from the habit is by some called (the C!minant ,as well as other fish-$ Bon&+limbed animals ha"e loose faeces and broad+chested animals "omit with comparati"e facility and these remarks are in a &eneral way applicable to *!adr!peds birds and men$

49B
A considerable n!mber of birds chan&e accordin& to season the colo!r of their pl!ma&e and their note# as for instance the owsel becomes yellow instead of black and its note &ets altered for in s!mmer it has a m!sical note and in winter a discordant chatter$ The thr!sh also chan&es its colo!r# abo!t the throat it is marked in winter with speckles like a starlin& in s!mmer distinctly spotted: howe"er it ne"er alters its note$ The ni&htin&ale when the hills are takin& on "erd!re sin&s contin!ally for fifteen days and fifteen ni&hts# afterwards it sin&s b!t not contin!o!sly$ As s!mmer ad"ances it has a different son& not so "aried as before nor so deep nor so intricately mod!lated b!t simple# it also chan&es its colo!r and in Italy abo!t this season it &oes by a different name$ It &oes into hidin& and is conse*!ently "isible only for a brief period$ The erithac!s ,or redbreast- and the so+called redstart chan&e into one another# the former is a winter bird the latter a s!mmer one and the difference between them is practically limited to the coloration of their pl!ma&e$ In the same way with the beccafico and the blackcap# these chan&e into one another$ The beccafico appears abo!t a!t!mn and the blackcap as soon as a!t!mn has ended$ These birds also differ from one another only in colo!r and note# that these birds two in name are one in reality is pro"ed by the fact that at the period when the chan&e is in pro&ress each one has been seen with the chan&e as yet incomplete$ It is not so "ery stran&e that in these cases there is a chan&e in note and in pl!ma&e for e"en the rin&+do"e ceases to coo in winter and recommences cooin& when sprin& comes in# in winter howe"er when fine weather has s!cceeded to "ery stormy weather this bird has been known to &i"e its cooin& note to the astonishment of s!ch as were ac*!ainted with its !s!al winter silence$ As a &eneral r!le birds sin& most lo!dly and most di"ersely in the pairin& season$ The c!ckoo chan&es its colo!r and its note is not clearly heard for a short time pre"io!s to its depart!re$ It departs abo!t the risin& of the Do&+star and it reappears from sprin&time to the risin& of the Do&+star$ At the rise of this star the bird called by some oenanthe disappears and reappears when it is

settin&: th!s keepin& clear at one time of e'treme cold and at another time of e'treme heat$ The hoopoe also chan&es its colo!r and appearance as Aeschyl!s has represented in the followin& lines:+ The 9oopoe witness to his own distress Is clad by Je!s in "ariable dress:+ 4ow a &ay mo!ntain+bird with kni&htly crest 4ow in the white hawks sil"er pl!ma&e drest For timely chan&in& on the hawks white win& 9e &reets the apparition of the %prin&$ Th!s twofold form and colo!r are conferred In yo!th and a&e !pon the selfsame bird$ The span&led raiment marks his yo!thf!l days The ar&ent his mat!rity displays# And when the fields are yellow with ripe corn A&ain his particolo!red pl!mes are worn$ B!t e"ermore in s!llen discontent 9e seeks the lonely hills in self+so!&ht banishment$ Of birds some take a d!st+bath by rollin& in d!st some take a water+bath and some take neither the one bath nor the other$ Birds that do not fly b!t keep on the &ro!nd take the d!st+bath as for instance the hen the partrid&e the francolin the crested lark the pheasant# some of the strai&ht+ taloned birds and s!ch as li"e on the banks of a ri"er in marshes or by the sea take a water+bath# some birds take both the d!st+bath and the waterbath as for instance the pi&eon and the sparrow# of the crooked+taloned birds the &reater part take neither the one bath nor the other$ %o m!ch for the ways of the abo"e+mentioned b!t some birds ha"e a pec!liar habit of makin& a noise at their hinder *!arters as for instance the t!rtle+do"e# and they make a "iolent mo"ement of their tails at the same time that they prod!ce this pec!liar so!nd$
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T97 74D+