1.1 ATOMIC QUANTITIES 1.1.1. Two numbers give a remarkable amount of information about an atom.

They are shown here for sodium (symbol Na):

1.1.2. The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom. The connection with mass is that protons and neutrons both have relative atomic masses of 1. ince the electrons have negligible mass! the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus will be numerically e"ual to the relative atomic mass of the atom. 1.1.#. The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom! and even more information follows from this. $irst! the number of neutrons in the nucleus can be simply calculated: %ass number & 'tomic number ( number of neutrons (12 in sodium) econd! the number of electrons in the neutral atom can be deduced since it is e"ual to the number of protons. This makes sense! because protons each have a charge of 1) and electrons each have a charge of 1&. %oreover! neutrons are (as the name implies) neutral. 1.1.*. The major characteristics of the atomic particles can be summarised:

Relative Charge mass proton

1 1+ 0

neutron 1

electron negligible 1+ombined with the information in the table above! the information which can therefore be deduced from mass number and atomic number for sodium can be summarised:

and! moreover! relative atomic mass also ( 2#! the same as the mass number. 1.2. MOLES !AMS AN" MOLA! MASSES 1.2.1. At this sta#e it is sensible to sort out some terminology which causes confusion well beyond this level of chemistry. ,f you are happy with the concepts of moles! -'% and molar masses and with the two main measures of concentration (molarity and gdm&#)! skip to the ne.t chapter! but do so with caution. The ultimate cause of the confusion is historical. /ecause of the way our understanding of atoms has evolved! we have been left with some very clumsy concepts. ,f the history of everyday language had been similar! we might have been left with these definitions: 1.2.2. One $o%en of any substance is the amount of substance which contains as many elementary units as there are eggs in 2 /ritish supermarket bo.es (e.actly) of chickens0 eggs. 1.2.#. The &o'( constant is the constant of proportionality between amount of substance measured in do1ens and the number of specified particles of that substance. ,t is represented by the symbol 2! and has a numerical value of 123 its unit is do1&1. $ortunately! do1en has always simply been regarded as a name for the number 12. There is no need for 2olk +onstants. $or all practical purposes! you won0t go far wrong at this level if you consider mole as a name for the number 4.52# . 152#! 6ust as do1en is is another name for the number 12! and don0t worry too much about 'vogadro constants. trictly speaking this is a little ris"u7. 2ou should remain aware of the following definitions: 1.2.*. One mo'e of any substance is the amount of substance which contains as many elementary units as there are atoms in 12 grams (e.actly) of pure carbon& 12. 1.2.8. The A)o#a$ro Constant is the constant of proportionality between amount of substance measured in moles and the number of specified particles of

that substance. ,t is represented by the symbol 9! and has a numerical value of 4.52# . 152#3 its unit is mol&1. ,n this conte.t :specified particles: means molecules! atoms! ions! electrons! etc. To work out the number of molecules in 2 moles of o.ygen we need to multiply by the 'vogadro +onstant: No. molecules in 2 moles (2.9 ( 2 . 4.52# . 152# ( 12.5*4 . 152#. imilarly! to work out the number of eggs in 2 do1en we would need to multiply by the 2olk +onstant (see above): No. eggs in 2 do1en (2.2 ( 2 . 12 ( 2*. ;ere! all we are doing is multiplying by the number of eggs in 1 do1en. imilarly! in the preceding molar calculation we are multiplying by the number of molecules in 1 mole. $ortunately! the controversy rarely arises. %oles are usually left as moles and not 6ust because the large numbers are unmanageable: 1.*. T+E IM,O!TANCE O- T+E MOLE 1.#.1. The mo'e has not become important by chance. ,ts importance stems from the following fact. ,f an element has a relative atomic mass (-'%) of <! one mole of its atoms (i.e. 4.52# . 152# atoms) will have an actual mass of < grams. ,n other words! the molar mass is numerically e"ual to the relative atomic mass. Thus o.ygen has a relative atomic mass of 14 and 4.52# . 15 2# (one mole) of its atoms has an actual mass of 14g! i.e. a molar mass of 14g. Note that relative atomic mass and molar mass are not the same thing. ;owever! they are numerically e"ual. ;ere are the relevant definitions! plus a definition of relative molecular mass: 1.#.2. The re'ati)e atomic mass of an element is the ratio of the average mass of its atoms to 1=12 of the mass of a carbon&12 atom3 1.#.#. The re'ati)e mo'ecu'ar mass of a compound is the ratio of the average mass of its molecules to 1=12 of the mass of a carbon&12 atom3

1.#.*. Mo'ar mass is the actual mass in grams of 4.52# . 152# (one mole of) specified particles of a substance (e.g. atoms of an element! molecules of a covalent compound etc.). 1... OT+E! TE!MS 1.*.1. !e'ati)e mo'ecu'ar mass is also used (loosely) for ionic compounds! but it is more correct to use the term! re'ati)e /ormu'a mass because ionic substances obviously do not contain molecules. They contain minimum groupings of ions! as specified by the chemical formula. Thus it is the relative mass of an Na)=+l& ion pair which concerns us in sodium chloride (Na+l). imilarly! it is the relative mass of the 2Na )= >*2& grouping in sodium sulphate (Na2 >*)! and so on. +ertainly there is no shortage of terms and abbreviations used for these few concepts. ;ere are some of them: 1.*.2. Mo'e0 gram atom! gram molecule (old names)3 1.*.#. !e'ati)e atomic mass0 -'%! 'r! atomic mass (sloppy)! atomic weight (even worse)3 1.*.*. !e'ati)e mo'ecu'ar mass0 -%%! %r! molecular mass (sloppy)! molecular weight (even worse)! relative formula mass (old but correct! and more correct than relative molecular mass when applied to ionic compounds)3 1.*.8. Mo'ar mass0 %%! gram molecular mass (old name)! gram formula mass (old name)! atomic mass and molecular mass (bound to cause confusion)! atomic weight and molecular weight (hopeless). 1.1 ISOTO,ES 1.8.1. The re'ati)e atomic mass o/ ch'orine is #8.8. This is because naturally occurring chlorine comprises two types of atom. /oth types have 1? protons! as shown by the atomic numbers of 1?. (,n fact! it is the number of protons in an atom which ultimately determines its chemical properties and makes it the atom of a particular element.) ;owever! one type of chlorine atom has 1@ neutrons and thus a relative atomic mass of #8! whereas the other type has 25 neutrons and thus a relative atomic mass of #?. +hlorine&#8 and chlorine&#? occur naturally in a ratio of #:1! so the average relative mass of the atoms is therefore #8.8.

The two forms of chlorine are known as isotopes. 1.8.2. Isoto2es are different atoms of the same element! having the same numbers of protons! but different numbers of neutrons and therefore different relative atomic masses. 1.3 T+E MASS S,ECT!OMETE! The mass numbers of the isotopes of an element together with their relative abaundances may be found using a mass spectrometer (see fig1.1).

The vapourised element enters the ionisation chamber where it is bombarded by a stream of high energy electrons. The collision between atoms of the element and the high energy electrons causes one (or sometimes two) of the atoms electrons to be knocked out forming positive ions. $or e.ample! neon comprises two isotopes! neon&25 and neon&22 occuring in the ratio A:1. Thus considering 15 atoms of neon entering the ionisation chamber and being ionised we could write:

The positive ions so formed then pass through holes in parallel plates across which an electric field is applied. The field accelerates the ions as a single stream which ne.t passes through a magnetic field. The magnetic field deflects them according to their mass and charge. ,t follows that the settings of the electric and magnetic fields can be ad6usted so that only particles of a particular mass=charge ratio will hit the ion detector. (B.g. for neon! one combination of settings will send neon&25 to the ion detector and another setting will send neon&22 to the ion detector.) The actual mass=charge ratio of a particular ion hitting the ion detector may be calculated from the strength of the electric field! the strength of the magnetic field and the arc of curvature. 'nd! since most of the ions produced will be 1) ions! the masses of the different isotopes present may be calculated. %oreover! the relative proportions of different ions hitting the detector is measured by the relative currents produced in the ion detector. ,n the graph below (fig 1&2) the heights of the peaks (or more correctly the areas under the peaks) give a measure of "uantities and the relative areas give a measure of relative "uantities of the different ions=isotopes present.

's shown in the diagram! for neon the neon&25 and neon&22 isotopes are found to be in the ratio A:1 and this enables the relative atomic mass of neon to be calculated as 25.2. 1.4 MOLA!IT5 AN" OT+E! MEASU!ES O- CONCENT!ATION 1.?.1. +a)in# 2re)ious'& c'eare$ u2 the mo'e! we can sort out molarity before returning to the sub6ect of atomic structure. %olarity is a measure of concentration and should not be confused with the pure and simple mole. Nor should it be confused with another measure of concentration! gdm &# (grams per cubic decimetre). 'nd! whilst sorting out confusion! be warned: molarity also goes by other names. Chen dealing with solutions! we can easily measure volumes. o! if we want to know how much dissolved substance (solute) there is in a particular volume of solution! it is useful to know how much solute there is in a standard volume of solution. That is! we need a measure of concentration. The standard volume of solution which has been chosen is 1dm # (1 litre). The amount of solute dissolved in 1dm # can be given in grams or moles. This gives rise to two different measures of concentration: 1.?.2. Concentration in #$m6* is the mass in grams of solute dissolved in 1dm# of solution. 1.?.#. Concentration in mo'es $m6* 7mo'arit&8 is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1dm&# of solution.

Note also that a solution with a molarity of 2 (i.e. containing 2 mol dm &#)is also known as a 2 molar! or 2%! solution. The interrelationships between the measures of amount of substance (moles and grams) and the measures of concentration (molarity and gdm &#) are summarised in $,D. 1.#. $,D 1&# (+lick on diagram to enlarge on a new web page)

Think of it like this: I/ &ou /in$ these ca'cu'ations eas& 7#i)en 5ou shou'$ /in$ these eas& 7#i)en the the in/ormation that a $o%en (12) e##s has a in/ormation that a mo'e (4.52# . 152# ion mass o/ 49:#80 pairs) o/ so$ium ch'ori$e has a mass o/ 19.1#80 Chat is the mass of 4 do1en eggsE Chat is the mass of 4 moles of sodium chlorideE ;ow many do1en eggs are there in *4@5gE ;ow many moles of sodium chloride are there in #81gE ,f you have 4 do1en eggs in # bags! how many ,f you have 4 moles of sodium chloride in # dm# do1en eggs are there in Feach bagE of solution! how many moles are there in each dm# of solution (i.e. what is the molar concentration)E ,f you have *4@5g of eggs in # bags! what ,f you have #81g of sodium chloride in # dm# of mass of eggs do you have in Feach bagE solution! what mass is there in each dm # of solution (i.e. what is the concentration in g dm & # )E

1 2 #

8 ,f you have 2 do1en eggs per bag! what mass ,f you have 2 moles of sodium chloride per dm#! of eggs do you have Fper bagE what mass of sodium chloride do you have per dm#E 4 ,f you have 1845g of eggs per bag! how many ,f you have 11?g of sodium chloride per dm#! do1en eggs do you have Fper bagE how many moles of sodium chloride do you have per dm#E ? G+oncentrationH measured in amount of +oncentration measured in amount of substance (eggs) per bag: substance (sodium chloride) per dm#:

FAssumin# the eggs are evenly distributed amongst the bags. (>f course! in a solution the ions are evenly distributed.) Note that the calculations on line 1 are the same as the calculations on line 8! e.cept that on line 8 youIre doing the calculations for amounts contained in 1 bag or in 1 dm#. Note a'so that the calculations on line 2 are the same as the calculations on line 4! e.cept that on line 4 youIre carrying out the calculations for amounts that happen to be contained in 1 bag or in 1 dm #.

1.9. QUESTIONS 1) ,f an element! <! has an atomic number of #8! and one mole of its atoms has a mass of @5g! deduce the following "uantities for the element: i) relative atomic mass ii) probable actual mass (in grams) of one of its atoms3 iii) probable mass number of one of its atoms3 iv) number of protons in each atom3 v) number of electrons in a neutral atom3 vi) mass of <2 molecules which must be dissolved in 1dm # of

of tetrachloromethane to produce a 1 molar solution. 2) Chy has the word :probable: been used in parts ii and iii of "uestion 1E (+lue: see section 1.8. if you get stuck.) #) Chat pieces of information in section 1.1 have been used to deduce: i. the number of electrons in a neutral atom3 ii. the relative atomic massE