Examining the trait and functional motive antecedents of four gambling activities: slot machines, skilled card games,

sports betting, and promotional games

Xiang Fang
Spears School of Business, Oklahoma State University, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA, and

John C. Mowen
Spears School of Business, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA
Abstract Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the functional motive and trait antecedents of four forms of gambling slot machines, skilled card games, sports betting, and participating in marketing promotional games such as sweepstakes and contests. Design/methodology/approach A hierarchical model of motivation and personality (3M model) was employed to investigate the trait and functional motive antecedents of four gambling activities. Five motives for gambling were identied money, excitement, social interaction, escape from problems, and self-esteem enhancement. In addition, the effects of demographic variables (i.e. age, gender, and education) on four gambling types were examined. A total of 1,158 responses were collected from an online consumer panel. Findings The results suggest that the four forms of gambling have divergent motives, traits, and demographic proles. Research limitations/implications Future research should further explore other possible traits in predicting different gambling activities (e.g. superstitious beliefs). Another limitation of the study is the online panel sample, which is somewhat older and more highly educated than the general public. Practical implications The ndings will help marketers better segment the market based on unique proles of personality traits, functional motives, and demographic variables associated with each gambling type and design communication strategies to reach the targeted consumers. Originality/value Previous researchers have neither investigated the functional motives for gambling nor compared the motives for divergent forms of gambling. This research employs a hierarchical model (3M model) to investigate the trait and functional motive predictors of multiple forms of gambling. Keywords Betting, Personality, Promotional methods Paper type Research paper

An executive summary for managers and executive readers can be found at the end of this article. Gambling has become an important industry in the USA and other industrial nations. Researchers have found that over 70 percent of adults gamble in the USA (NCPG, 2005). In 2004, gambling revenues were estimated to be $73 billion (McCormick, 2005). A total of 37 states allow casinos, and 39 hold lotteries (McCormick, 2005). A fast growing component of the industry is internet gambling. While illegal in the USA, it is widely practiced, and online gambling is estimated to be a $9.8 billion-a-year industry that is growing 13 percent annually (Goldman, 2005). Of course, these statistics do not include off-the-books gambling, such as ofce pools, golf wagers, and poker parties.
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0736-3761.htm

While gambling revenues make contributions to state revenues via taxes and lotteries, gambling also causes a variety of problems. Pathological gambling is said to infect nearly 2 percent of the population (McCormick, 2005). Crane et al. (2005) proposed that gambling contributes to homelessness, depression, bankruptcy, domestic violence, and suicide. Downey and Fuller (2001) argued that state-run lotteries are bait-and-switch proposal and therefore unethical. The study of gambling and its causes has relevance to marketing as well as society. First, marketers frequently use promotional games, such as sweepstakes and contests, to inuence consumers to purchase products. Participation in promotional games can be viewed as a form of gambling employed for the purpose of building brand awareness, inuencing consumers, and obtaining market research information (Schmidt, 2000). McDaniel (2002) found a positive relation between gambling participation and involvement in contests and sweepstakes. Browne et al. (1992) found that there were some similarities between promotional game players and lottery ticket purchasers.
Both authors contributed equally and are listed in alphabetical order.

Journal of Consumer Marketing 26/2 (2009) 121 131 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 0736-3761] [DOI 10.1108/07363760910940483]

121

Examining four gambling activities Xiang Fang and John C. Mowen

Journal of Consumer Marketing Volume 26 Number 2 2009 121 131

Second, marketing professionals and their rms are hired to develop and implement marketing strategies to encourage consumers to buy lottery tickets, visit casinos, and gamble in various ways (Lane, 2005). Third, because of the problems resulting from pathological gambling, organizations and federal/state governments may develop programs to demarket gambling. Given the high relevance of gambling studies to marketing and public policy, we pose the following research question. Are divergent motivational structures and personality traits predictive of different types of gambling? More specically, we compare the functional motive and trait antecedents of dispositions to engage in four forms of gambling slot machines, skilled card games, betting on ones own performance in a sport (e.g. golf, bowling, and pool), and participating in marketing promotional games such as sweepstakes and contests. These forms of gambling were chosen because of their popularity among average consumers (e.g. slots, skilled card games, and sports betting) and their relevance to marketing practice (e.g. participation in marketing games). Another important reason for selecting these forms of gambling is based on the skill/chance classication. Some gambling activities require skills. For example, skilled games require high mental skills while betting on self-performance in sports involves both physical skills (e.g. playing golf or bowling) and mental skills. In contrast, others involve pure luck (e.g. slot machines and lottery). Similarly, promotional games can be classied into games of chance (e.g. sweepstakes) and games of skill (contests such as writing advertising jingles). The inclusion of both skilled and chance games provides us an opportunity to further investigate different personality traits and functional motives on various game types. The research makes several contributions to the literature on gambling and consumer behavior. First, from a theoretical perspective, past research has examined the antecedents of gambling behavior in a piecemeal fashion. We provide a comprehensive model that investigates a system of constructs, including trait antecedents, functional motive predictors, and demographic predictors of multiple forms of gambling behavior in a single study. Second, we explore several constructs not previously investigated in the gambling literature, such as interest in numeric information, present time orientation, and need for material resources. Third, only limited research has investigated the predictors of involvement in promotional games, and we investigate the antecedents of this important marketing tool. Finally, our research ndings can be employed to better segment the market and develop targeted communications that inuence people to increase or decrease their level of gambling. The paper is organized along the following lines. The next section describes the 3M model of motivation and personality (Mowen, 2000) as the organizing framework and briey reviews the literature on factors inuencing the propensity to gamble with a particular focus on its trait and functional motive antecedents. After developing the rational for the choice of traits and functional motives, an empirical study is presented that involved collecting data from over 1,000 members of a consumer panel. After presenting the results, the paper identies the research and managerial implications of the ndings. 122

Literature review and 3M model

An important question concerns how to arrange the constructs into a model of the antecedents of the four forms of gambling under investigation. In the present research, we have selected the 3M model of motivation and personality (Mowen, 2000) as the basis for the structure of the model. The 3M model has been employed to investigate the antecedents and consequences of a variety of phenomena, including service employee performance (Licata et al., 2003), competitiveness (Mowen, 2004), word-of-mouth communications (Mowen et al., in press), and volunteerism (Mowen and Sujan, 2005). The 3M model proposes that individual difference variables can be arranged into four levels based on their level of abstraction elemental, compound, situational, and surface traits. These traits are briey dened below. For a more detailed discussion of the traits, see Licata et al. (2003) or Mowen (2000). Because of the exploratory nature of this study, we will not present formal hypotheses about traits and functional motive predictors of specic gambling types. Elemental traits Elemental traits reside at the most abstract level. These enduring dispositions to respond are proposed to result from genetics and the early learning history of individuals. Five of the elemental traits (i.e. emotional instability, openness to experience, introversion, and agreeableness) were derived from the ve-factor model developed by Saucier (1994). Based on evolutionary psychology principles, Mowen proposed three additional elemental traits the need for arousal, the need to protect/enhance the body, and the need to protect/enhance material resources. The 3M model proposes that more concrete traits result in part from combinations of elemental traits. As a result, in order to minimize missing variable problems, it is recommended that the elemental traits always be included as control variables (Mowen and Voss, in press). Researchers have investigated the big-5 traits as antecedents to gambling behavior. Gerdner and Svensson (2003) revealed that gambling problems were associated with anxiety, worries, and depression, which are characteristics of emotional instability. Balabanis (2002) investigated openness to experience as an antecedent of gambling interest. The results supported the anticipated negative relationship between openness to experience and use of lottery tickets. In the same study, Balabanis (2002) also found that gamblers who buy lottery tickets and scratch-cards tend to have higher levels of extroversion and to be lower in agreeableness. Similarly, Gerdner and Svensson (2003) found that helpfulness, empathy, and social acceptance (indicators of agreeableness) are negatively related to the severity of gambling problems. These ndings suggest that those who are low in agreeableness like to win at the expense of others and, therefore, enjoy gambling. Therefore, based on the research previously cited on the ve-factor model traits and gambling behavior, it was anticipated that emotional instability, openness to experience, extroversion, and agreeableness would be predictive of gambling activities. In addition, go beyond big-5 traits, Mowen proposed three additional elemental traits the need for arousal, the need to protect/enhance the body, and the need to protect/enhance material resources. Two of them, arousal needs and material

Examining four gambling activities Xiang Fang and John C. Mowen

Journal of Consumer Marketing Volume 26 Number 2 2009 121 131

needs, are directly related to gambling behavior. Our literature review found that the individual difference construct having the strongest support is arousal/sensation seeking. A number of studies have found a signicant positive correlation between this trait and gambling (e.g. McDaniel and Zuckerman, 2003; Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 1992). McDaniel (2002) obtained a positive relationship between sensation seeking and participation in promotional games. Thus, it was anticipated that the need for arousal would be positively related to gambling. Finally, because gambling involves obtaining money which is related to individuals needs for material resources, it was anticipated that material needs would be positively associated with gambling activities. Compound traits Using a physics metaphor, Mowen (2000) proposed that the elemental traits combine to form the next level of traits compound traits. Like elemental traits, compound traits are cross-situational. They are hypothesized to result from the effects of multiple elemental traits, as well as the early socialization of the individual. Our research investigates four compound-level traits: competitiveness, impulsiveness, present time orientation, and interest in numeric information. A consistent nding in the gambling literature is a positive relationship between competitiveness and gambling. For example, Parke et al. (2004) found a positive relationship between competitiveness and pathological gambling. They suggested that competitive people may be less likely to stop gambling after losses, resulting in a chasing behavior. This would occur in situations in which people are directly competing against each other, such as when they are betting on themselves in a golf or tennis match. Although their study focused more on pathological gamblers, we expect that competitiveness is likely to predict normal gambling behavior as well (positive relationship). Thus, a measure of competitiveness was included as a compound trait. A measure of impulsiveness was also anticipated to be a predictor of gambling. This construct was selected based on logical analysis. That is, some forms of gambling have an impulsive characteristic. For example, marketers frequently place opportunities to gamble via slot machines and promotional games in locations at which an impulsive act may occur, such as at check-out counters in grocery or convenience stores. Therefore, we expect a positive relationship between impulsiveness and gambling activities. A third compound trait investigated is present time orientation. Hershey and Mowen (2000) developed a measure of the construct, which represents an enduring disposition to consider outcomes in the present rather than in the future when making decisions. They found it to be negatively related to the extent of retirement planning of consumers. We anticipated that gamblers may have a short time horizon because they tend to seek immediate gratication instead of long-term rewards. Finally, the authors created a new scale for the present research interest in numeric information. It was reasoned that many forms of gambling require people to use numbers to calculate probabilities (e.g. card games). As a result, interest in numeric information should be predictive of some forms of gambling, especially skilled card games. Situational traits and functional motives At the next level in the 3M model hierarchy are situational traits. These enduring dispositions to respond occur within a 123

general situational context and result from the effects of elemental and compound traits, as well as from a persons reinforcement history within the situational environment. For example, health motivation (Moorman and Matulich, 1993) was conceptualized by Mowen (2000) as a situational trait. That is, the desire to protect ones health is a motive for a variety of surface level behavioral dispositions, such as an enduring desire to have a healthy diet. An alternative to the investigation of traits is the assessment of the functional motives for gambling. Functional motives represent the reasons and purposes that motivate a person to engage in a particular behavioral propensity (Clary et al., 1998). Based on past literature, we identied ve functional motives for investigation as potential antecedents to one or more of the four gambling activities. First, Gibson and Sanbonmatsu (2004), as well as Cotte (1997), suggest that one important motive for gambling is to make money. Indeed, an inherent component of gambling is the potential to gain or lose money. The second motive identied in the research is gambling for the purpose of having fun and excitement. For example, an important goal of casinos is to create an environment that is loud, full of ashing lights, and replete with sensory stimulation. The third gambling motive is based on one of those identied by Neighbors et al. (2002) to be with friends and to socialize with other people. This social motive may particularly apply to gambling while playing sports with others or playing skilled games with friends. Another motive suggested by Klingemann (1995) is to gain self-esteem. That is, people may gamble in part to make themselves feel better and enhance their self-image. Finally, Neighbors et al. (2002) proposed that people may gamble in order to escape their troubles and problems and cope with depression and anxiety. In sum, based on the literature, ve functional motives for gambling are identied money, excitement, social interaction, escape from problems, and self-esteem. Interestingly, these motives are strikingly similar to those identied by Clary et al. (1998) and Mowen and Sujan (2005) for volunteering. In sum, the ve functional motives are conceptualized as residing at the situational level. That is, like health motivation, functional motives cause a desire to engage in more specic sets of behavioral activities, such as the gambling activities investigated in the present research. Consistent with previous constructs, no predictions were made as to which functional motives would predict which gambling activities. Surface traits and four gambling types In the 3M model, the most concrete traits are surface traits. Because they assess enduring dispositions to respond within specic contexts, they are highly predictive of behaviors that occur at a particular time and place. For example, Mowen (2000) found that the situational trait of health motivation, predicted more specic behavioral dispositions, such as a propensity to maintain a healthy diet. In the present research, the four types of gambling are included as surface traits slot machines, skilled card games, betting on ones own performance in a sport (e.g. golf, bowling, and pool), and participating in marketing promotional games such as sweepstakes and contests. Demographic variables Finally, we also include the demographic variables of gender, age, and education in the model to explore their relationship

Examining four gambling activities Xiang Fang and John C. Mowen

Journal of Consumer Marketing Volume 26 Number 2 2009 121 131

with different forms of gambling. Past research suggests that these constructs inuence gambling propensity (e.g. Hraba and Lee, 1995; Welte et al., 2002). For example, researchers have investigated the tendency of men and women to gamble. Numerous studies have found differences in gambling activity, number of forms of gambling, and variety of those methods with men generally surpassing women (e.g. McDaniel and Zuckerman, 2003). Figure 1 shows the hierarchical model employed in the present research. As can be seen, the elemental traits are connected to the compound traits. The compound traits are connected to the situational traits, which are connected to the surface traits. It is important to note, however, that the 3M model proposes partial mediation between the levels. Thus, elemental traits may also inuence situational traits (i.e. functional motives in the present research) and surface traits. Similarly, compound traits can directly inuence surface traits. Because our research is exploratory in nature, specic hypotheses have not been made as to which compound and elemental traits are predictive of which functional motives and of which surface traits. Similarly, hypotheses have not been developed as to which functional motives predict which gambling types.

Methodology
Respondents were recruited from an online consumer panel run by Zoomerang.com. The four-page survey was posted on their web site and responses were collected through the web. It is possible to set parameters on the sample, and the authors requested groups of known gamblers and groups of nongamblers. A total of 1,158 completed surveys were received with a 45 percent response rate. A total of 288 respondents (24.9 percent) were non-gamblers and 870 (75.1 percent) were gamblers with gambling frequency ranging from a few times a year to almost every day. The demographic characteristics of the sample are: 58 percent are male; 63 percent have at least some college education; and 88 percent of the respondents were over 35 years old. As can be seen, the sample is somewhat older and more highly educated than the general public. Each of the four types of gambling was assessed by multiple items, which were developed to be similar across each form of gambling. Consistent with the conceptualization of surface traits, the items included measures of the frequency of an activity and the enjoyment of the activity. The scale items were assessed on seven-point Likert scales. For example, the items for slot machine gambling were: I really enjoy the slot Figure 1 The global hierarchical model (3M model)

machine gambling. Playing the slot machines is exciting for me. I frequently gamble on the slot machines. These items were slightly reworded to assess the other three types of gambling activities (see Appendix for the scales). The scales were all highly reliable (all as . 0.90). Consistent with previous research employing the 3M model, the elemental and compound traits were assessed by asking respondents how often they feel/act this way. Answers were assessed using nine-point scales bounded by never and always. In our study, we included a new four-item measure of impulsiveness as a compound trait. We included this measure because there are theoretical reasons for anticipating that individuals who gamble will be impulsive. The Eysenck Impulsive Scale (Eysenck and Eynsenck 1977, 1978) has been widely used in most of prior gambling studies (e.g. Clarke, 2006; Vitaro et al., 1999). The original Eysenck scales contained 23 impulsiveness items. Since the scale is long, we adapted several items with high factor loadings on the scale and developed a new four-item measure of impulsiveness as a compound trait. Because we sought to develop a compound level version of impulsiveness that would be cross-situational in nature, we reworded the items so that they did not have specic referents. For example, the rst item reads: I often do things spontaneously. Another reads: I often do things without thinking (see Appendix). For our study we also developed a new construct to assess interest in numeric information, which was tentatively placed at the compound level. As described previously, gambling frequently involves using numbers to calculation odds and how much can be won or lost. Five items were developed to assess the liking of numbers. An example is: I enjoy work that requires the use of numbers. Items for functional motives were adapted from past studies (e.g. Mowen and Sujan, 2005; Neighbors et al., 2002). The measures of the elemental traits can be found in Licata et al. (2003). Items assessing the rest of the constructs are found in the Appendix.

Results
The analysis began with a conrmatory factor analysis of the four types of gambling measures: slot machines, skilled games, sports betting, and promotional games. The results revealed good t indices (x2 561.82, df 71, CFI 0.98, TLI 0.97, RMSEA 0.08). Second, we did a conrmatory factor analysis on the ve gambling motives. The t indices of the model were good (x2 896.90, df 80, CFI 0.96,

124

Examining four gambling activities Xiang Fang and John C. Mowen

Journal of Consumer Marketing Volume 26 Number 2 2009 121 131

TLI 0.95, RMSEA 0.09). Finally, we also did a conrmatory factor analysis of the four compound traits: competitiveness, impulsiveness, interest in numeric information, and present time orientation. The t indices of the model were acceptable ( x2 788.13, df 113, CFI 0.95, TLI 0.94, RMSEA 0.07). In the next analysis we investigated the trait and functional motive predictors of the four gambling activities. First, we investigated a full mediation model in which paths were created from the elemental traits to the compound traits, from the compound traits to the functional motives, and from the functional motives to different gambling proneness. Three demographic variables were directly linked to the outcome variables (i.e. the gambling activities). Multiple indicators were employed for the compound traits, functional motives, and different gambling activities. Single item indicators were employed for the elemental traits and demographic variables (i.e. gender, education, and age). The t statistics for the model were adequate (x 2 5527.76, df 1428, CFI 0.93, TLI 0.92, RMSEA 0.05). Next, a partial mediation model was run in which paths were created from the elemental traits to the compound traits, functional motives, and gambling activities; paths were run from the compound traits to the functional motives and gambling activities; and paths were run from the ve functional motives to different gambling activities. The t statistics for the model were acceptable (x 2 5206.88, df 1340, CFI 0.94, TLI 0.92, RMSEA 0.05). A chisquare difference test revealed that the partial mediation model provided a better t than the full mediation model, x 2 diff (88) 320.88, p , 0.005. Therefore, the results of the partial mediation model are presented. Variance accounted for in each of the variables was: 1 four types of gambling activities: . slot machines 37.5 percent, . skilled games 52.7 percent, . sports betting 34.1 percent, . promotional games 15.2 percent; 2 ve motives: . money 15.6 percent, . excitement 16.8 percent, . social 12.5 percent, . escape 16.1 percent, . self-esteem 14.7 percent; and 3 four compound traits: . competitiveness 44.7 percent, . impulsiveness 24.8 percent, . present time orientation 15.2 percent, and . interest in numeric information 6.5 percent. Predictors of four gambling types In the following, we discussed signicant predictors of four specic gambling types (see Table I). 1 Slot machines. Three functional motives were signicant excitement ( p , 0.001), escape ( p , 0.001), and selfesteem (negative, p , 0.001). The compound traits of competitiveness (negative, p , 0.05) and impulsiveness ( p , 0.01) were signicant. Among the elemental traits material needs ( p , 0.001) and arousal needs (negative, p , 0.01) were signicant. Finally, the demographic variables of gender (females more likely, p , 0.001), age ( p , 0.001), and education (negative, p , 0.001) were signicant. 125

Skilled card games. The following constructs were signicantly related to consumers engaging in skilled games. Among the functional motives, the desire for money ( p , 0.02), excitement ( p , 0.001), social contact ( p , 0.001), escape (negative, p 0.005), and selfesteem ( p 0.001) were signicant. The compound traits of competitiveness ( p , 0.001) and interest in numeric information ( p , 0.05) were signicant. Finally, the elemental trait of introversion (negative, p 0.01) and the demographic variables of gender (males more likely, p , 0.001) and age (negative, p 0.001) were signicant predictors. Sports betting. Among the functional motives, the following constructs were signicant predictors of sports betting money ( p , 0.03), social contact ( p , 0.001), and selfesteem ( p 0.001). Two compound traits of competitiveness ( p , 0.001) and impulsiveness ( p , 0.05) were signicant. Finally, the elemental traits of agreeableness (negative, p , 0.02) and emotional instability (negative, p , 0.001) as well as the demographic variables of gender (males more likely, p , 0.001) and age (negative, p , 0.001) were signicant. Promotional games. The functional motive of money ( p , 0.001), the compound trait of impulsiveness ( p 0.001), and the elemental traits of agreeableness ( p , 0.02) and materialism ( p 0.05) were signicant predictors. In addition, the demographic variables: gender (females more likely, p , 0.04), education (negative, p , 0.03), and age (negative, p , 0.03) were signicant.

Predictors of ve functional motives The hierarchical model also allowed us to investigate the compound and elemental traits predictive of the functional motives. For the money motive, the signicant predictors were: materialism ( p , 0.02), agreeableness ( p , 0.01), competitiveness ( p , 0.001), present time orientation ( p , 0.001), impulsiveness ( p , 0.001), and need for numeric information ( p , 0.001). For the excitement motive, the signicant predictors were: materialism ( p , 0001), agreeableness ( p 0.001), need for body resources (negative, p , 0.005), competitiveness ( p , 0.001), present time orientation ( p 0.001), impulsiveness ( p , 0.001), and need for numeric information ( p , 0.001). For the social motive, the signicant predictors were: introversion ( p , 0.001), need for arousal ( p 0.002), competitiveness ( p 0.005), impulsiveness ( p , 0.001), and need for numeric information ( p 0.002). For the escape motive, the signicant predictors were: introversion ( p , 0.001), materialism ( p , 0.05), need for arousal ( p , 0.02), present time orientation ( p 0.001) and impulsiveness ( p , 0.025). For the self-enhancement motive, the signicant predictors were: introversion ( p , 0.001), materialism ( p , 0.01), present time orientation ( p 0.001), impulsiveness ( p , 0.01), and need for numeric information ( p , 0.02). Elemental traits and compound traits The 3M model proposes that combinations of elemental traits account for substantial variance in the compound traits, and the results support the proposal. The signicant predictors for competitiveness were: conscientiousness ( p , 0.001), agreeableness (negative, p , 0.001), need for arousal ( p , 0.001), and materialism ( p , 0.001). The signicant

Examining four gambling activities Xiang Fang and John C. Mowen

Journal of Consumer Marketing Volume 26 Number 2 2009 121 131

Table I The summary of the ndings

Trait Skilled games C.R. Sports betting C.R. 2 3.72 * 2 2.41 * * Slot machines C.R. Promotional games C.R.

Elemental traits Emotional Instability Agreeableness Openness Conscientiousness Introversion Material need Arousal needs Body needs Compound traits Present time orientation Competitive Impulsiveness Numeric interest Situational traits (motives) Money Social interaction Excitement Self-esteem Escape Demographics Gender Age Education
Notes: *p , 0.01; * *p , 0.05

2.38 *

2 2.57 * 4.07 * 2 2.71 * 1.96 * *

3.86 * 2.00 * * 2.52 * * 6.22 * 7.91 * 3.18 * 2 2.82 * 4.53 * 2 3.27 *

5.12 * 2.02 * *

2 1.98 * * 2.73 *

3.19 *

2.22 * * 6.37 * 3.19 * 9.32 * 2 3.45 * 5.25 * 2 5.06 * 4.36 * 2 3.86 *

3.47 *

6.65 * 2 6.26 *

2 2.11 * * 2 2.18 * * 2 2.18 *

predictors for impulsiveness were: introversion (negative, p , 0.001), conscientious (negative, p , 0.001), openness to experience ( p , 0.001), agreeableness ( p , 0.001), materialism ( p , 0.03), need for arousal ( p , 0.001), and emotional instability ( p 0.01). The signicant predictors for present time orientation were: introversion ( p , 0.001), conscientiousness (negative, p , 0.001), agreeableness ( p , 0.001), need for arousal ( p , 0.02), and emotional instability ( p , 0.001). The signicant predictors for interest in numeric information were: conscientious ( p , 0.001), agreeableness (negative, p , 0.001), and need for arousal ( p , 0.001).

General discussion
This study examined the relationship of functional motives, traits, and demographic variables on individuals engaging in divergent forms of gambling. The results suggest that elemental traits and compound traits not only have direct impact on four forms of gambling but also have indirect impact on them via functional motives. In addition, demographic variables inuence individuals participation in the four types of gambling games. The results answered the key research question. That is, the four forms of gambling (i.e. slots, skilled card games, sports betting, and promotional games) have divergent motives, traits, and demographic proles. 126

Comparing the proles of slots and promotional game gamblers It was anticipated that the proles of the slots gamblers and the promotional game gamblers (e.g. those participating in sweepstakes) may be similar because both involve chance outcomes. Interestingly, the results revealed signicant differences in their proles. Slots gamblers have the motives of excitement, escape, and low self-esteem. Slots gamblers are also low in competitiveness and arousal needs and high in impulsiveness and materialism. Finally, they tend to be older females with lower education. In contrast, the functional motive prole of individuals who participate in promotional games is based solely on a motive for money. They also have the traits of impulsiveness, agreeableness, and materialism. Finally, they tend to be younger females with lower education. In sum, the similarities between the two groups are that in both cases the individuals tend to be impulsive, materialistic, and women with lower education. The groups are different in that those who participate in promotional games are motivated by money, while slots gamblers are motivated by excitement, escape, and a lack of desire to enhance selfesteem. Finally, slots gambling is associated with the traits of low competitiveness and low arousal needs, while those who participate in promotional sweepstakes have the trait of agreeableness.

Examining four gambling activities Xiang Fang and John C. Mowen

Journal of Consumer Marketing Volume 26 Number 2 2009 121 131

Comparing the proles of sports gamblers and skilled card gamblers It was also anticipated that the proles of sports gamblers and skilled card gamblers would be similar. This expectation was based on the idea that in each case some level of skill is involved. (Recall that sports gambling was assessed by measuring the extent that individuals would place bets on their own performance in sports.) The results revealed that sports bettors have the functional motives of money, social contact, and self-esteem. They possess the traits of competitiveness, impulsiveness, low agreeableness, and high emotional stability. Also, they tend to be younger males. The prole of card gamblers suggested that they have high motives for money, excitement, social interaction, self-esteem, and low motive for escape. They are competitive, numerically interested, and extroverted. In addition, they tend to be younger males. There was some overlap in the proles of the predictors of sports gambling and skilled games. Both shared the functional motives of money, social interaction, and self-esteem. In both cases, the individuals are competitive and younger males. There were also substantial differences in the proles, however. Thus, card gamblers have a strong motive for excitement and a low motive for escape. They are also interested in numbers and extroverted. In contrast, sports bettors are impulsive and less agreeable, yet high in emotional stability. How are skilled versus chance games different? It was anticipated that the proles of the skilled gambling types (card games and sports betting) would diverge from those for the chance gambling type such as slot machines. The results suggest that there are some key differences. First, in both skilled games, social interaction and enhancement in self-esteem are strong motives. In contrast, the motive of social interaction is not associated with slots gambling, and self-esteem is negatively related to it. Second, competitiveness was positively associated with both types of skilled gambling while negatively related to slots gambling. Third, need for material resources is strongly associated with slots gambling but not with both skilled games. Next, the gamblers engaging in skilled games tended to be men while the chance gamblers tended to be women, which is consistent with the ndings in past research (e.g. Welte et al., 2002). Finally, low education seems to be more associated with chance games but not with skilled games. The possible explanation is that individuals with low education may not have the knowledge to play skilled games and they may be more interested in those chance games. Contributions to the literature The ndings make several contributions to the literature. Foremost, the research is the rst to investigate the trait and functional motive predictors of multiple forms of gambling. The results revealed similarities and differences in the proles of betting across the four forms of gambling. Indeed, among all of the predictor variables, there was not one that was common to each gambling form. The two most consistent predictors were the motive for money and impulsiveness, which predicted three of the four gambling forms. Overall, the ndings suggest that divergent communications should be employed in efforts to inuence the four gambling types. In addition, the results revealed that the functional motives did 127

not fully mediate the effects of trait predictors. A similar nding was obtained by Mowen and Sujan (2005) in their investigations of volunteerism. Thus, it is recommended that future researchers should include both traits and functional motives in their models. A second contribution to the literature is the investigation of constructs not previously assessed as predictors of gambling. First, the results revealed that numerical interest was a signicant predictor of skilled card gambling. This nding makes sense that skilled card games require more mathematic skills to calculate the odds of winning or losing. Second, the need for material resources was found to be predictive of slots gambling and promotional games. However, we failed to nd direct effects of the present time orientation on any of the four gambling activities. It should be noted, however, that present time orientation was predictive of the functional motives of money, excitement, escape, and self-enhancement. Thus, its effects on gambling activities were mediated by the functional motives. A third contribution is the examination of trait, functional motive, and demographic predictors of interest in promotional games. We found that playing for money is the single most important functional motive. This result suggests that marketers should focus more on the extrinsic motives for playing promotional games. As Ward and Hill (1991) propose, extrinsic values consist of the perceived odds of winning and the perceived value of prizes. Our results suggest that marketers should strive to direct consumers attention to the monetary benets of playing promotional games. Participants in promotional games are also impulsive, high in the need for material resources, and agreeable. They tend to be younger women with lower education. These ndings will help marketers to better segment the market and design communication strategies to reach the targeted consumers. Finally, the results for the demographic variables are generally consistent with prior literature. Thus, we found that males tend to gamble more heavily than females for the skilled games of sports betting and skilled games. The opposite is true for the chance games like slot machines and promotional games. These are consistent with the ndings of a national survey by Welte et al. (2002). Education is negatively related to both slot machine and promotional game gambling. These results make sense because individuals with low education have less knowledge to participate in games which require high skills. Finally, as age increases, more people tend to participate in the slot machines gambling but fewer participate in skilled games, sports betting, and promotional games. Managerial implications In their self-schema theory, Fiske and Taylor (1984) proposed that an individuals self-schema inuences information processing. From this perspective, individual difference constructs, such as personality traits and functional motives, inuence how people respond to stimuli. For example, a person who is highly competitive is more likely to pay attention and respond favorably to messages having a competitive theme (Mowen, 2004). As applied to the present research, by identifying the traits predictive and functional motives of the propensity to engage in different types of gambling activities, it is possible to develop strategies for marketing or demarketing gambling. Our results suggest that different strategies should be employed to inuence the

Examining four gambling activities Xiang Fang and John C. Mowen

Journal of Consumer Marketing Volume 26 Number 2 2009 121 131

behavior of the four types of gamblers. For example, money is one of the primary motives for most gambling types (except slots machine in our study). Thus, messages focusing on nancial rewards should be effective for most gamblers. For slots machine gambling, however, marketers should employ messages emphasizing excitement or escape from problems/ troubles. Similarly, one important trait predictor for skilled card games and sports betting is competitiveness. This suggests that marketers for these two skilled games should develop messages having a competitive theme. In addition, different demographic proles of various gambling types provide marketers useful guidelines for better segmentations. Finally, organizations or governments may better segment the market and develop more effect messages to demarket the gambling. Limitations and future research A limitation of our study is the online panel sample, which is somewhat older and more highly educated than the general public. Whether these particular sample characteristics bias the results merits further investigation. Future research should further explore other possible compound traits in predicting different gambling activities. For example, individuals with strong superstitious beliefs may more frequently gamble, particularly on games focusing on chance rather than skill. Similarly, future research should also investigate whether there are additional functional motives predictive of gambling activities. Finally, additional work needs to be performed that develops the theoretical relationships explaining the relationships between functional motives and traits. In the present research, the authors propose that functional motives act like situational traits and function as goals that inuence highly specic sets of behavioral activities. The authors invite alternative proposals as to the mechanism through which functional motives inuence behavioral dispositions.

References
Balabanis, G. (2002), The relationship between lottery ticket and scratch-card buying behavior, personality and other compulsive behaviors, Journal of Consumer Behavior, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 7-22. Browne, B.A., Kaldenberg, D. and Brown, D.J. (1992), Games people play: a comparative study of promotional game participants and gamblers, Journal of Applied Business Research, Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 93-9. Clarke, D. (2006), Impulsivity as a mediator in the relationship between depression and problem gambling, Personality and Individual Differences, Vol. 40, pp. 5-15. Clary, E.G., Snyder, M., Ridge, R.D., Copeland, J., Stukas, A.A., Haugen, J. and Miene, P. (1998), Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: a functional approach, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 74 No. 6, pp. 1516-30. Cotte, J. (1997), Chances, trances, and lots of slots: gambling motives and consumption experiences, Journal of Leisure Research, Vol. 29 No. 4, pp. 380-406. Crane, M., Byrne, K., Fu, R., Lipmann, B., Mirabelli, F., Rota-Bartelink, A., Ryan, M., Shea, R., Watt, H. and Warnes, A.M. (2005), The causes of homelessness in later life: ndings from a 3-nation study, Journals of Gerontology 128

Series B: Psychological Sciences & Social Sciences, Vol. 60B No. 3, pp. 152-9. Downey, A. and Fuller, C. (2001), North Carolina: dont bet on a lottery, Freedom Works, available at: http:// freedomworks.org/processor/printer/php?issue_id 59 (accessed 18 June 2005). Eysenck, S.B. and Eysenck, H.J. (1977), The place of impulsiveness in a dimensional system of personality description, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol. 16, pp. 57-68. Eysenck, S.B. and Eysenck, H.J. (1978), Impulsiveness and venturesomeness: their position in a dimensional system of personality description, Psychological Reports, Vol. 43, pp. 1247-55. Fiske, S.T. and Taylor, S.E. (1984), Social Cognition, Addison Wesley, Reading, MA. Gerdner, A. and Svensson, K. (2003), Predictors of gambling problems among male adolescents, International Journal of Social Welfare, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 182-92. Gibson, B. and Sanbonmatsu, D.M. (2004), Optimism, pessimism, and gambling: the downside of optimism, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 30 No. 2, pp. 149-60. Goldman, L. (2005), The wages of sin, Forbes, Vol. 175 No. 9, p. 46. Hershey, D.A. and Mowen, J.C. (2000), Psychological determinants of nancial preparedness for retirement, The Gerontologist, Vol. 40 No. 6, pp. 687-97. Hraba, J. and Lee, G. (1995), Problem gambling and policy advice: the mutability and relative effects of structural, associational and attitudinal variables, Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 11 No. 2, pp. 105-21. Klingemann, H.K.H. (1995), Games, risk and prevention: the rehabilitation of Homo Ludens, Journal of Drug and Alcohol Education, Vol. 41, pp. 99-123. Lane, A. (2005), Deal to put ads on lottery tickets contested, Crains Detroit Business, Vol. 21 No. 18, p. 6. Licata, J.W., Mowen, J.C., Brown, T. and Donovan, T. (2003), On the trait antecedents and outcomes of service worker job resourcefulness: a hierarchical model approach, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Sciences, Vol. 31 No. 3, pp. 256-71. McCormick, P. (2005), A bad bet for the poor, US Catholic, Vol. 70 No. 5, p. 44. McDaniel, S.R. (2002), Investigating the roles of gambling interest and impulsive sensation seeking on consumer enjoyment of promotional games, Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, Vol. 30 No. 1, pp. 53-64. McDaniel, S.R. and Zuckerman, M. (2003), The relationship of impulsive sensation seeking and gender to interest and participation in gambling activities, Personality and Individual Differences, Vol. 35 No. 6, pp. 1385-400. Moorman, C. and Matulich, E. (1993), A model of consumers preventive health behaviors: the role of health motivation and health ability, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 208-28. Mowen, J.C. (2000), The 3M model of Motivation and Personality, Kluwer Academic Press, Boston, MA. Mowen, J.C. (2004), Exploring the trait of competitiveness and its consumer behavior consequences, Journal of Consumer Psychology, Vol. 14 Nos 1-2, pp. 52-63.

Examining four gambling activities Xiang Fang and John C. Mowen

Journal of Consumer Marketing Volume 26 Number 2 2009 121 131

. .

Mowen, J.C. and Sujan, H. (2005), Volunteer behavior: a hierarchical model approach for investigating its trait and functional motive antecedents, Journal of Consumer Psychology, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 170-82. Mowen, J.C. and Voss, K. (in press), Perspectives on scale development: implications of a hierarchical model approach for building construct measures, Psychology and Marketing. Mowen, J.C., Park, S. and Zablah, A. (in press), Toward a theory of motivation and personality with application to word-of-mouth communications, Journal of Business Research. National Council on Problem Gambling (2005), G2E yer, available at: www.ncpgambling.org/media/pdf/g2e_yer.pdf (accessed 17 May 2005). Neighbors, C., Lostutter, T.W., Cronce, J.M. and Larimer, M.E. (2002), Exploring college student gambling motivation, Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 18 No. 4, pp. 361-9. Parke, A., Grifths, M. and Irwing, P. (2004), Personality traits in pathological gambling: sensation seeking, deferment of gratication and competitiveness as risk factors, Addiction Research and Theory, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 201-12. Saucier, G. (1994), Mini-markers: a brief version of Goldbergs unipolar big-ve markers, Journal of Personality Assessment, Vol. 63, pp. 506-16. Schmidt, K.V. (2000), Marketers win big in giveaway gamble, Marketing News, 28 February, p. 7. Steenkamp, J.-B.E.M. and Baumgartner, H. (1992), The role of optimum stimulation level in exploratory consumer behavior, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 19, pp. 434-48. Vitaro, F., Arseneault, L. and Tremblay, R.E. (1999), Impulsivity predicts problem gambling in low SES adolescent males, Addiction, Vol. 94 No. 4, pp. 565-75. Ward, J.C. and Hill, R.P. (1991), Designing effective promotional games: opportunities and problems, Journal of Advertising, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 69-81. Welte, J.W., Barnes, G.M., Wieczorek, W.F., Tidwell, M.-C. and Parker, J. (2002), Gambling participation in the US results from a national survey, Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 18 No. 4, pp. 313-37.

The future seems very vague and uncertain to me. I focus on the present time more than the future.

Interest in numeric information a 0.94 . I enjoy work that requires the use of numbers. . It is satisfying to solve day-to-day problems involving numbers. . I like to make calculations using numerical information. . I like to go over numbers in my mind. . Numerical information is useful in everyday life. Situational traits (functional motives) Gambling for money a 0.87 . I gamble in order to make money. . Winning money is the reason why I gamble. . Gambling is fun because I can make money at it. Gambling for socialization a 0.95 . I gamble in order to socialize with other people. . Socializing with other people is the reason why I gamble. . Gambling is fun because I can make new friends or socialize with friends. Gambling for self-esteem a 0.97 . Gambling helps me maintain my self-concept. . Gambling helps me increase my self-esteem . Gambling makes me feel better about myself. Gambling for excitement a 0.95 . Gambling is fun because it is so stimulating. . I really like the feelings and emotions that come from gambling. . Gambling brings excitement to my life. Gambling for escape a 0.92 . I gamble in order to escape from my troubles. . Gambling helps me work through my personal problems. . No matter how bad I am feeling, gambling helps me forget about it Surface traits Slot machines a 0.93 . I really enjoy the slot machine gambling. . Playing the slot machines is exciting for me. . I frequently gamble on the slot machines. Skilled games a 0.94 . I enjoy gambling for money in games involving skill, such as poker, blackjack, and craps. . I frequently play gambling games, such as poker, blackjack, and craps. . I see myself frequently playing poker, blackjack, and craps in the future. Sports Betting a 0.97 . When I play a sport (e.g., golf, bowling, tennis), I frequently make a bet that I can beat an opponent. . Betting on my performance in a sport or game is fun for me. . Betting is just part of playing a sport or game against an opponent. . I enjoy betting when I play a sport or game against an opponent. Promotional Games a 0.97 . I frequently participate in drawings, sweepstakes, and contests. 129

Appendix. Scales for compound traits, functional motives, and gambling types
Compound traits Impulsiveness a 0.82 . I often do things spontaneously. . Just do it describes the way I act. . I often do things without thinking. . Sometimes I feel like doing things on the spur of the moment. Competitiveness a 0.92 . Enjoy competition more than others. . Feel that it is important to outperform others. . Enjoy testing my ability against others. . Feel that winning is extremely important. Present time orientation a 0.82 . The distant future is too uncertain to plan for. . I pretty much live on a day-to-day basis.

Examining four gambling activities Xiang Fang and John C. Mowen

. .

Journal of Consumer Marketing Volume 26 Number 2 2009 121 131

.

I enjoy entering drawings, sweepstakes, and contests. I anticipate frequently entering drawings, sweepstakes, and contests in the future. Participating in drawings, sweepstakes, and contests is fun for me.

negative correlation between different indicators of agreeableness and extensive gambling; and a need for arousal strongly motivates participation in gambling activities.

Corresponding author
Xiang Fang can be contacted at: xiang.fang@okstate.edu

Executive summary and implications for managers and executives

This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives a rapid appreciation of the content of this article. Those with a particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the research undertaken and its results to get the full benets of the material present. Statistics show that gambling merits extensive study. The industry is well-established in many developed nations and revenues from gambling in 2004 reached around $73 billion in the USA, where more than 70 percent of adults participate in the practice. Gambling has been identied as a contributory factor in various problems including bankruptcy, homelessness, depression, domestic violence and suicide. But marketers also have a vested interest in the activity as it is common to use promotional games like sweepstakes or contests to persuade consumers to buy a specic product. Previous research suggested that people playing these games are inclined to gamble. Marketing is likewise used to inform the consumer about lotteries, casinos and other gambling opportunities. Gambling inuences Fang and Mowen aim to supplement previous research by carrying out an exploratory study to ascertain whether personality traits, functional motives and demographic variables can be used to predict involvement in specic forms of gambling. Skilled card games, betting on ones own performance in sport, slot machines and promotional games like sweepstakes and contests were the four gambling types selected for the study. These activities are popular, relevant to marketing and reect the division of gambling into games requiring skill and those based entirely on chance. The 3M model of motivation and personality provided the foundation for the present work. A hierarchical structure, the model assumes the existence of four separate trait levels that differ by their level of abstraction. A feature of the model is the possibility that traits at one level will inuence those at a different one. Elemental traits This category houses the most abstract traits that include emotional instability, openness to experience, agreeableness and need for arousal. In relation to these traits, previous studies have found: . anxiety, worry and depression are closely linked to gambling problems; . individuals who purchase lottery tickets and scratch-cards are more extrovert and less agreeable; 130

Compound traits It is suggested that elemental traits combine to form competitiveness, impulsiveness, present time orientation and interest in numeric information, the traits at this level. Among studies ndings are that: . Positive links exist between competitiveness and gambling. When competitive people lose at gambling, they are likely to chase rather than cut their losses. . Some forms of gambling elicit impulsive behavior. One example is the strategic positioning of slot machines in different outlets. . Gamblers desire instant rewards and therefore adopt a present rather than future orientation. . Some individuals with an interest in numeric information may be drawn towards gambling activities that involve calculation. Situational traits and functional motives Traits here relate to enduring dispositions to respond within a general situational context and are inuenced by the individuals experience of the situation concerned. These dispositions are also the product of elemental and compound traits. Five functional motives are also proposed as potential antecedents to the four gambling activities. Participants may be motivated by the prospect of: making money, having fun and excitement, socializing with friends and other people, gaining self-esteem and escaping from their problems. The premise is that these functional motives inspire a longing to participate in more specic activities. Surface traits In the model, these traits are the most concrete and are highly predictive that certain behaviors will occur at a specic time and place. Based on results generated by study into healthy eating, Fang and Mowen include as surface traits the four gambling activities selected for investigation in the current work. Demographic variables of gender, age and education are also examined as their potential inuence on gambling predilection is indicated by earlier research. For instance, studies have concluded that men indulge more than women in many types of gambling. Survey and ndings The study involved completion of an online survey relating to the four gambling types. Of the 1,158 respondents, 58 percent were male and 42 percent female 88 percent were older than 35. A total of 870 non-gamblers and 288 gamblers completed the survey. Frequency of involvement varies considerably among the latter group. Data analysis corroborated the main assumption that different traits, motives and demographic proles would be associated with the four gambling types. The authors also anticipated that the chance element of slot machines and promotional games would mean that those engaging in the respective activities would share similar proles. Equivalent assumptions were made about skilled card games and betting on ones own performance in sport due to the shared attribute of skill.

Examining four gambling activities Xiang Fang and John C. Mowen

Journal of Consumer Marketing Volume 26 Number 2 2009 121 131

However, these assumptions were only partly conrmed because the ndings indicated that: . Slot machine players are likely to be less-educated older females who are impulsive and materialistic and rate low on self-esteem, competitiveness and need for arousal. They are motivated by excitement and escape. . The only functional motive to inuence those who participate in promotional games is money. The impulsiveness, agreeableness and materialism traits are also signicant among these players, who tend to be younger women of lower education. . Money also motivates sports gamblers as do the other functional motives of social contact and self-esteem. Mainly younger males, these players are competitive and impulsive with high emotional stability and low agreeableness. . Card game gamblers are typically younger males motivated by money, excitement, self-esteem and social interaction but not escape. They are competitive, extrovert characters who are interested in numerical information. The above reects also some key differences between games involving skill and games in respect of variables such as competitiveness, social interaction and materialism. Education was also signicant. Low education was associated with chance games but not with those demanding skill. The authors suggest that this indicates such players lack sufcient capability to participate in more complex games.

Marketing recommendations and further research Fang and Mowen point out that none of the predictor variables positively inuenced all gambling types. This fact, together with the variation of the proles, prompts the recommendation that marketers should communicate differently to inuence each form of gambling. Money provided a motive for all but slot machines and the authors believe that a marketing focus that highlights any nancial benets is therefore advisable, particularly with playing promotional games. Where slot machine gambling is concerned, a focus on excitement or escape may prove effective. And since competitiveness was a driving force behind participation in the skilled forms of gambling, this segment could be appropriately reached through messages that incorporate a suitable theme. That respondent age and education did not accurately reect the general population may limit the study. Future research could use a more representative sample and also consider the inuence of other compound traits on gambling behavior. For example, superstition may prove signicant for games of chance. Identication of other functional motives is another possible objective to pursue. cis of the article Examining the trait and functional motive (A pre antecedents of four gambling activities: slot machines, skilled card games, sports betting, and promotional games. Supplied by Marketing Consultants for Emerald.)

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints

131