JFS:

Food Engineering and Physical Properties

Impact of Roasting Conditions on the Formation of Aroma Compounds in Coffee Beans

S. SCHENKER, C. HEINEMANN, M. HUBER, R. POMPIZZI, R. PERREN, AND F. ESCHER ABSTRACT: Hot air roasting of coffee beans results in a large number of aroma compounds. For a given coffee, the aroma profile is determined by the specific conditions for chemical reactions as controlled by the process parameters. Therefore, the influence of roasting temperatures on the formation of key aroma compounds was investigated. Coffee was roasted in 6 different processes to equal degrees of roast and the developing aroma compound profiles were characterized by gas chromatography, mass spectrometry, and olfactometry. A majority of aroma compounds showed the highest increase in concentration at medium stage of dehydration with bean water content from 7 to 2% (wb). Different time-temperature histories led to distinct aroma compound profiles. To reach a specific flavor profile, precise control of roasting time and temperature is required. Keywords: coffee beans, roasting, aroma compounds, process temperature, olfactometry

Introduction
thermal process of great technological and commercial importance. Its primary objective is to produce roasted coffee beans and, eventually, the desired taste and aroma in brewed coffee, but also to generate in the beans a dark color and a dry brittle texture. The coffee bean that is exposed to temperatures exceeding 200 C during roasting can be regarded as a complex bioreactor in which drying takes place, microstructure is changed (Schenker and others 2000), and extensive chemical reactions are induced (Clarke and Macrae 1985; Illy and Viani 1995). Upon roasting, the Maillard reaction, Strecker degradation, pyrolysis, and other chemical reactions produce a large number of different volatiles. So far, more than 800 different compounds from a wide range of chemical classes have been identified in roasted coffee (Flament 1989; Nijssen and others 1996). In recent years, research has centered around the sensory relevance of these volatiles and the identification of key odorants in coffee beans and brewed coffee beverage (Holscher and others 1990; Blank and others 1991, 1992; Semmelroch and others 1995; Grosch and others 1996; Semmelroch and Grosch 1996; Czerny and others 1999). Roasting conditions have a major impact on the physical and chemical properties of roasted coffee beans, the mode of heat transfer, and the applied temperature profile being the most critical process parameters (Schenker 2000). The parameters determine the rate of dehydration and the bean temperature and, in turn, set the specific conditions for chemical reactions. In spite of its great importance, process optimization toward a desired target flavor is, to a large extent, still empirically based. So far, very little literature data are available on the formation rates of aroma compounds during roasting and the influence of different roasting conditions on the profile of key aroma compounds in the roasted beans. Silwar and Lllmann (1993) reported on the influence of roasting temperature in an investigation with Robusta coffees. Coffee samples were roasted at different temperatures for a constant duration of 5 min, resulting in products of various degrees of roast. The authors concluded from tasting cups of brewed coffee that aroma formation starts at around 170 C, when a peanut-like roast note can be perceived. At
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OT AIR ROASTING OF COFFEE BEANS IS A LONG-ESTABLISHED

180 to 190 C a coffee-like flavor originated, whereas the real flavor of roasted coffee only appeared at 220 to 230 C. Beyond this point, the flavor was judged to be slightly overroasted (240 C) and typically over-roasted (250 to 260 C). This study also showed a continuous increase in the total number of volatiles with increasing temperature up to 250 C, followed by decreasing numbers beyond this temperature. Similar developments were described for furans and pyrazines. Furans and caramel compounds were found to be fully developed at 230 to 240 C. In contrast, 2-furfurylthiol continued to be formed up to 260 C. The formation of pyrazines generally reached a maximum at 250 C. Previous researchers assumed that beyond this temperature, these pyrazines were incorporated in melanoidins. Mayer and others (1999) investigated the influence of geographical coffee bean origin and the degree of roast on concentrations of aroma compounds in Coffea arabica. The degree of roast had an impact on the concentrations of a series of important compounds in roasted coffee beans. Guaiacol and 2-furfurylthiol developed in an unhindered way in Colombian and Kenyan coffees, and greatly increased with increasing degree of roast. 2,3-Butanedione and 2,3-pentanedione developed to a maximum concentration for a medium degree of roast and exhibited lower concentrations in dark-roasted coffee beans. Gretsch and others (1999) presented a comprehensive study on the formation of aroma compounds during roasting and their sensory impact when sniffing roast and ground coffee samples. Colombian coffee was roasted at 230 C for various periods of time to generate different degrees of roast, ranging from unroasted, light-, medium-roasted, to dark-roasted coffee beans. Sensory evaluation and instrumental analysis of the samples showed developments for concentrations of single aroma compounds and the corresponding sensory attributes during roasting. The authors found a restricted correlation between concentrations and the sensory intensities of their corresponding notes. They stated that some strong compounds, formed during the later stages of roasting, tend to mask the perception of other compounds present. Our objective was to investigate the formation of aroma impact compounds during roasting as influenced by differ 2002 Institute of Food Technologists

Food Engineering and Physical Properties

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Formation of aroma in coffee roasting . . .

ent temperature profiles. The experimental approach in the present work intended to combine process technology with relevant elements of aroma analysis. The methodology for aroma analysis was selected in such a way that the time consumption needed for analytical work to reach the relevant information within the processing experiments could be kept within reasonable limits. This study aims to contribute to a better understanding of roasting and to move process optimization to a more rational base.
Table 1Hot air temperature-time conditions in different coffee bean roasting processes to achieve a medium degree of roast (set values) Roasting time Process HTST LTLT HL LHC PLHC PHL Temperature 260 0.5 C (isothermal) 220 0.5 C (isothermal) 240 C 220 C continuous increase 150 240 C 240 C 150 C (pre-heating) continuous increase 150 240 C 240 C 150 C (pre-heating) no hot air flow (technical) 240 C 220 C individual step 150 s 210 s 270 s 55 s 180 s 270 s 50 s 180 s 90 s 140 s 210 s total 160 s 600 s 360 s 325 s 500 s

Materials and Methods

Raw material and roasting
A wet-processed Coffea arabica Linn. variety from Colombia was obtained from a Swiss import company. The water content in different lots of green beans was around 11.0 g/100 g beans. Roasting experiments were carried out with a fluidized-bed hot air laboratory roaster in batches of 100 g green beans under well-defined process conditions (Schenker 2000; Schenker and others 2000). The effects of isothermal high or low temperatures, preheating, continuous temperature increase, or reduced temperature in the final stage of roasting were studied by applying 6 different hot airinlet temperature conditions (Table 1): (a) isothermal high temperature (HTST); (b) isothermal low temperature (LTLT); (c) high temperature with a reduced final stage (HL); (d) continuous temperature increase from low to high (LHC); (e) preheating temperature with subsequent LHC process (PLHC); (f ) preheating temperature, high temperature at medium stage, and reduced temperature at final stage (PHL). Bean roasting was monitored and controlled by online temperature measurements. To be able to compare the processes, roasting was targeted to the same medium degree of roast, based on overall weight loss (roast loss) and final product color. Typical product properties have been described previously (Schenker and others 2000). In order to follow dehydration and aroma formation during high- and low-temperature isothermal roasting, samples were removed at regular intervals and analyzed.

620 s

HTST = Isothermal high temperature short time roasting LTLT= Isothermal low temperature long time roasting HL= High temperature roasting with a reduced temperature final stage LHC= Roasting with continuous temperature increase from low to high PLHC= Roasting with a pre-heating temperature and subsequent LHC process PHL= Roasting with a pre-heating temperature, high temperature at medium stage, and reduced temperature at final stage

ethyl ether mixture 1:1) for 2 h. After drying with anhydrous sodium sulfate, the extract was concentrated to less than 1 mL by means of a Vigreux column (10-cm height, 1 cm dia).

Gas chromatography
Gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (GCFID) was used for separation and semiquantitative determination of aroma compounds from isolates, as well as for characterization of reference substances. The analytical conditions for separation are given in Table 2. A high-resolution capillary column assured maximum separation performance, but with no prefractionation of the isolates. Peaks in the chromatograms were characterized by retention indices (RI), calculated according to van den Dool and Kratz (1963). The relative amount of a compound was defined as the peak area ratio of the compound X and the internal standard (AX/AIStd).

Color measurement
Color was measured with a tristimulus colorimeter Chroma Meter CR-310 (Minolta, Japan). Ground coffee bean samples were placed in a Petri dish and gently pressed by hand with equal force using a cylindric plastic piece to form an even surface. Results are presented in the CIE L*a*b* color space.

Measurement of water content

Samples of roasted coffee beans were finely ground in a household 2-disk coffee grinder (Espresso E20, Turmix, Rapperswil, Switzerland). Gravimetric determination was carried out according to the Swiss Food Manual (1973). A portion of 5 g ground coffee beans was dried at 103 C for 5 h.

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)

The analytical conditions for GC-MS measurements (Table 3) were kept close to those applied in GC-FID analysis. Compounds were generally identified by comparison of mass spectra and RI with reference substances and with literature data. As an alternative to semi-quantification via GC-FID, relative amounts of a few compounds were calculated using GCMS peak areas (Reconstructed Ion Current, RIC). In a few occasions of co-eluted compounds, a semiquantitative evaluation according to Eq. 1 was applied, based on a characteristic ion of the compound in question. A (MS)X is the MS peak area (RIC) of compound X and the co-eluted compound; SCI is the peak area portion of the characteristic ion (%), and A(MS)IStd is the MS peak area (RIC) of the internal standard.

Isolation of the volatile fraction

Two different techniques for isolation of volatiles were applied initially in order to avoid potential artifacts. Therefore, aroma isolates were obtained from simultaneous distillation/ extraction (SDE) and from vacuum distillation (Schenker 2000). The results presented here were obtained from SDE carried out with a Likens-Nickerson apparatus (Likens and Nickerson 1964; reviewed by Marsili 1997). A portion of 30 g ground coffee beans was combined with 500 mL distilled water and an internal standard of 2-butanol (Fluka, Buchs, Switzerland) and was extracted with 50 mL solvent (pentane/di-

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Food Engineering and Physical Properties

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Table 2Analytical conditions for GC-FID analysis of coffee volatiles Gas chromatograph Capillary column Hewlett-Packard GC 5890 series II Supelcowax 10, 60 m, ID 320 m, film thickness 0.25 m (Supelco, Buchs, Switzerland) FID, 250 C 220 C Iso-stage 1: 46 C, 3 min Rate 1: 4 C min1 Iso-stage 2: 240 C, 5 min Helium 5.0 90 kPa column head pressure 1 L (due to column end split detector / sniffing port) Split 1:12 Chemstation, version A.03.34 Table 3Analytical conditions for GC-MS analysis of coffee volatiles Gas chromatograph Mass spectrometer Capillary column Injector temperature Oven temperature programming Carrier Carrier flow Injection volume Ionization potential Interface heating Mass range Software Fisons 8065 SSQ 710 (Finnigan MAT, San Jose, Calif., USA) Supelcowax 10, 60 m, ID 320 m film thickness 0.25 m (Supelco, Buchs, Switzerland) 220 C Iso-stage 1:46 C, 3 min Rate 1:4 C min1 Iso-stage 2: 240 C, 5 min Helium 5.0 90 kPa column head pressure 0.5 L 70 eV 240 C 40 ... 300 amu ICIS, version 7

Detector Injector temperature Oven temperature programming Carrier Carrier flow Injection volume Injection mode Software

Aroma extract dilution analysis

The GC-FID system was equipped with a column end split, leading to a sniffing port for olfactometry (split 1:1). Aroma extract dilution analysis was carried out with undilut-

ed isolates and dilutions 1:4, 1:16, 1:32, 1:64, 1:128, 1:256, 1:512, and 1:1024. Each sequence of GC effluents was sniffed by at least 2 persons. They marked onset and end point of a perceived odor by pressing a computer button and indicating odor quality to an assisting person. Online acquired data of a complete dilution series were processed into CHARM response chromatograms (Acree and others 1984; reviewed by Marsili 1997). The Flavor Dilution factor (FD-factor) for a specific compound was defined as the greatest dilution at which this compound was still perceivable in the GC effluent. It is a measure for the possible aroma relevance of a compound. FD-factors were derived from the CHARM data and used in our screening test. Each compound with an FD-factor of 1024 or more was specified as an aroma impact compound (AIC) for the respective roast coffee.

Food Engineering and Physical Properties

Figure 1Development of roast loss (RL) and bean water content (X) during isothermal HTST and LTLT roasting. A medium degree of roast is reached after 160 s (HTST) and 600 s (LTLT) of roasting, respectively, and is indicated by perpendicular dotted lines. 62

Results and Discussion

HE APPLIED SDE TECHNIQUE FOR ISOLATION OF VOLATILES

turned out to be advantageous and suitable for relative (semi-quantitative) evaluation of aroma compounds profiles from differently roasted coffee beans (Schenker 2000). Aroma isolates subjected to GC without prefractionation

Figure 2Development over time of relative quantities of 3 selected aroma impact compounds during HTST (solid symbols) and LTLT (open symbols) roasting. Sampling took place at 1/3, 2/3, 3/3, and 4/3 of the normal roasting time to achieve a medium degree of roast.

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Table 4Alphabetical listing of selected aroma compounds from isothermal high- and low-temperature laboratoryroasted Colombian coffee beans and their sensory relevance No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
a b c d e

Compound Acetic acid p-Anis aldehyde (4-methoxy-benzaldehyde) 2,3-Butanedione (Diacetyl) -Damascenone 2,3-Diethyl-5-methyl pyrazine 2,3-Dimethyl pyrazine 2,5-Dimethyl pyrazine 2,6-Dimethyl pyrazine 2-Ethenyl-5-methyl pyrazine 2-Ethyl-3,5-dimethyl pyrazine 3-Ethyl-2,5-dimethyl pyrazine 4-Ethyl guaiacol 2-Ethyl-3-methyl pyrazine 2-Ethyl-5-methyl pyrazine 2-Ethyl-6-methyl pyrazine Ethyl pyrazine 2-Furfurylthiol Guaiacol Hexanal 4-4-Hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3[2H]furanone (Furaneol5) 2-2-Hydroxy-3-methyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one 2-Isobutyl-3-methoxy pyrazine Kahweofuran Linalool Methional 2-Methyl butanal 3-Methyl-2-buten-1-thiol 3-Methyl butyric acid M Methyl dihydro cyclopenta pyrazine 2-Methyl-3-furanthiol 3-3-Methyl mercapto-3-methyl butyl formate 1-Octen-3-one 2,3-Pentanedione Propyl pyrazine 2,3,5-Trimethyl pyrazine Unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown Vanillin 4-Vinyl guaiacol

RI1 1461 2070 908 1851 1505 1334 1304 1311 1493 1468 1443 2025 1403 1388 1380 1320 1440 1889 1016 2058 1851 1525 1769 1555 1462 857 1042 1680 1304 1525 1274 989 1418 1402 1625 1667 2093 2139 2329 2245

Aroma quality 2 present study / (literature) (pungent) grass, hay, (sweet, mint) butter (butter) fruits, flowers, (honey, fruits, tea) (earthy, roasty) roasty, nuts sulfur-like, nuts musty, burnt (earthy, roasty, potatoes) flowers (spicy) roasty, nuts caraway cheese, caraway bouillon, potatoes, (roasty, sulfur-like, coffee-like) medical, adhesive, (smoky, phenolic, aromatic, spicy) grass roasty, sweet, (caramel)

FD factor3 HTST roasting LTLT roasting 1024 16 n.a.4 4 4 64 1024 4 4 4 4 1024 512 1 1024 1024 64 4 256 1024 128 256 1024 n.a. 32 1024 16 128 1024 16 512 1024 256 256 128 n.a. 4 4 4 1024 16 32 1 1024 1024 256 32 4 1 4 1024 16 64 1024 n.a. 32 1024 32 4 64 32 256 4 256

(spices, celery-like) herbs, smoky, (earthy, paprika) coffee-like, smoky grass, vegetables, (flowers) potatoes, (cooked potatoes, sweet) caramel, nuts, (malt) vegetables, green, (sulfur-like, foxy, amine-like) SS Sweaty, pungent, (sweaty, fermented) (roasty, sweet) sulfur-like, (roasty, meat-like) herbs fungus, hay butter, (butter) potatoes, vegetables herbs, bouillon, (roasty, earthy) roasty, nuts spicy, bouillon muck, manure herbs, smoky sweet, medicine (sweet, vanilla) sweet, flowers, (spicy-phenolic)

Retention index on Supelcowax10, 60 m Perception at GC sniffing port Flavor dilution factor not analyzed by GC-Olfactometry Tradename of Firmenich SA

resulted in acceptable, but incomplete separation of compounds. Co-elution of compounds with subsequent restrictions for identification and quantification had to be accepted in some cases. Table 4 gives a survey on selected identified aroma compounds, their aroma qualities, and sensory relevance in isothermally roasted coffees as analyzed by GC-Olfactometry. FD-factors show that the degree of contribution to the overall aroma perception varies widely from compound to compound. A group of 11 AICs was identified for isothermal high-temperature-roasted (HTST) Colombian coffee beans, whereas 6 AICs of those 11 made up the respective group for low-temperature-roasted (LTLT) coffee beans. The majority of these compounds (for example 2,3-butanedione, 2-furfurylthiol, methional, 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethyl pyrazine, methylbu-

tyric acid, guaiacol, and 4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3[2H]-furanone) is known to contribute to the group of AICs (Holscher and others 1990; Blank and others 1991, 1992; Grosch and others 1996; Semmelroch and Grosch 1996; Czerny and others 1999). To our knowledge, 2-hydroxy-3-methyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one, 3-methyl-mercapto-3-methyl-butylformate, and propylpyrazine have not yet been identified as AICs of coffee. They appear to be characteristic for the specific area of coffee origin. In the case of propylpyrazine, a similar compound, namely dimethyl-propylpyrazine, has been described in the literature. 2,3-butanedione, propylpyrazine, 2hydroxy-3-methyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one, 4-hydroxy-2,5dimethyl-3[2H]-furanone, and the unknown compound with RI = 2329 did not reach an FD-factor 512 or greater in LTLT roasted coffee. They were exclusively AICs of HTST-roasted
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Table 5Influence of different temperature conditions as defined in Table 1 on the relative quantities of important aroma compounds in differently roasted coffees of identical degree of roast AX/AIStd (-) Compound 2,3-Butanedione (diacetyl) -Damascenone 2,3-Diethyl-5-methyl pyrazine 2-Furfurylthiol Guaiacol 2- 2-Hydroxy-3-methyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one Linalool Methional 3-Methyl butyric acid M Methyl dihydro cyclopenta pyrazine 3- 3-Methyl mercapto-3-methyl butyl formate 2,3-Pentanedione Propyl pyrazine 4-Vinyl guaiacol LTLT 0.130 0.019 2.695 0.019 0.107 0.042 0.025 0.098 0.567 0.011 0.125 0.404 0.015 0.304 HTST 0.204 0.015 2.273 0.035 0.144 0.041 0.017 0.154 0.653 0.015 0.180 0.512 0.019 0.614 HL 0.110 0.016 3.308 0.027 0.131 0.041 0.023 0.143 0.777 0.014 0.127 0.416 0.014 0.445 LHC 0.171 0.016 3.638 0.029 0.160 0.050 0.022 0.193 1.001 0.014 0.183 0.533 0.020 0.740 PLHC 0.196 0.016 3.572 0.022 0.141 0.042 0.018 0.178 0.750 0.013 0.175 0.551 0.018 0.554 PHL 0.130 0.019 4.033 0.024 0.148 0.042 0.022 0.170 0.816 0.015 0.143 0.478 0.016 0.446

beans. In turn, the AIC guaiacol and -damascenone were important aroma contributors characteristic for low-temperature-roasted beans. The formation of those aroma compounds which exhibited large differences in FD-factors, when comparing HTST and LTLT roasting, obviously was highly sensitive to changes in roasting conditions. Therefore, these compounds may serve as process indicator aroma compounds. Most typical representatives of this group are 2,3-butanedione, 2,3-pentanedione, propylpyrazine, linalool, 2-hydroxy-3-methyl-2cyclopenten-1-one and again, the unknown compound with RI = 2329. The potential and spectra of aroma impact compounds in roasted coffee are assumed to be determined by the raw material, whereas the degree of expression of each AIC within the entire profile of aroma compounds is subject to roasting conditions. Some AICs are found to be ubiquitous in roasted coffee and therefore seem to be essential for the general sensory perception of coffee, whereas others mainly represent the different potential due to different coffee origin. During the roasting process, the constituent water in the green beans evaporates, and dry matter is partially transformed into volatiles. Moreover, a substantial amount of water is generated as a result of chemical reactions, and is also

evaporated. Roasting generally results in a weight loss of the beans from 14 to 20%. Figure 1 shows the relationship between roast loss and water content for HTST and LTLT isothermal roasting. Dehydration and weight loss took place in a steady and continuous manner. Stepwise dehydration due to different dehydration mechanisms was not observed. Figure 2 and 3 show the formation of the 3 AICs 2-ethyl3,5-dimethylpyrazine, propylpyrazine, and 3-methylbutyric acid during different roasting stages. Their development was similar in HTST and LTLT isothermal roasting, and is characterized by low formation rates during the first third of roasting time, and a rapid formation in the second third. During the final third of the roasting stage, the concentrations of 2ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine, propylpyrazine, and 3-methylbutyric acid were found to decrease again, which indicated that aroma formation was already superimposed by an accelerated degradation of compounds due to the high temperatures. A group of pyrazines, as shown in Figure 4, as well as 2,3-pentanedione (shown in Figure 5), exhibited remarkably consistent behavior in the ways described above. In contrast, a group of other important compounds did not follow the above-described pattern of superimposed degradation in the final process stage. For example, the smoky, aromatic, and spicy AIC guaiacol, the buttery AIC

Food Engineering and Physical Properties

Figure 3Development of relative quantities of 3 selected aroma impact compounds in relation to the degree of roast (color). Solid symbols: HTST roasting; open symbols: LTLT roasting. Medium degree of roast is marked by a perpendicular line. 64

Figure 4Quantitative development of pyrazines during high temperature roasting (HTST) related to the degree of roast (roast loss). A roast loss of 13% corresponds to a medium degree of roast.

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2,3-butanedione, the spicy and roasty AIC 2-furfurylthiol (Figure 5), as well as the spicy AIC 2-hydroxy-3-methyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one, continuously increased in concentration, even during excessive roasting at high final temperatures. The first roasting stage, during which the beans water content is still high, does not result in large aroma compound quantities, but may be important in the development of aroma precursors. The greatest aroma increase rates are found as soon as dehydration proceeds to a water content below 5 g/100 g bean. It is clear from Figure 3 that, with both isothermal processes, aroma quantities of a number of important compounds had already decreased when the process was terminated at a medium degree of roast. Therefore, high degrees of roasting do not necessarily result in a higher aroma level. Of course, other flavor compounds (such as organic acids and bitter components) must be considered as well to define the target degree of roast. Guaiacol and 2-furfurylthiol may greatly contribute to the aroma of dark-roasted coffees. Our results cannot be compared directly to those presented by Mayer and others (1999). The part of their study dealing with the influence of the degree of roast is limited to a narrow range (light, medium, and dark roast). Nevertheless, some consistent formation trends can be found. Our results cover the development from green to roasted beans, even beyond the usual degrees of roast, and can be compared with the results of Gretsch and others (1999). Their data confirm that 2furfurylthiol and guaiacol are both important AICs formed preferentially at higher temperatures, and with unbroken formation trends up to dark-roasted coffees. Also consistent with our results were those authors findings that the formation of 2,3-pentanedione is superimposed by an accelerated degradation at high temperatures. The same was true in our study with 2,3,5-trimethylpyrazine, but this trend deviated from the findings of Gretsch and others (1999). A comparison of dehydration and temperature in the beans during the different processes would be required to derive further conclusions. Table 5 provides a semiquantitative survey on the influence of the 6 different roasting processes on the generation of aroma compounds. The same compounds were formed with all processes, although the quantities and the relative importance of each compound within the profile are specific for a certain process. The formation of most compounds was found to be dependent on the temperature conditions during roasting, with 2-hydroxy-3-methyl-cyclopenten-1one being an exception. Neither the sulfur-containing compounds nor the pyrazines showed a common trend, and aroma compounds responded rather individually to varying roasting processes. The majority of the compounds was formed to a greater extent with higher heat impact. Roasting temperatures below 220 C (LTLT) resulted in roasted coffee beans of low aroma concentrations. As an exception, -damascenone was formed preferentially at low temperature conditions. On the other hand, HTST-roasting with the most severe temperature conditions and the shortest roasting time did not develop the greatest quantities of aroma compounds. It favored the formation of 2,3-butanedione, 2-furfurylthiol, and methyldihydro-cyclopenta pyrazine, but caused lower concentrations of the other compounds when compared to the LHC process. The high final bean temperature in this process may have induced a more extensive degradation of aroma compounds. An intense flavor (but including some unpleasant notes) was perceived from coffee brews prepared from these HTST-roasted beans (Schenker 2000). The greatest overall quantities were achieved with the LHC process in which the temperature did not exceed 240 C. However, it should be noted that maximum quantities of aroma compounds are not necessarily related to superior sensory quality. A comparison of the LHC and PLHC processes revealed that a predrying stage was generally not effective in generat-

Figure 5Development of relative quantities of various important aroma compounds during HTST roasting. A roast loss of 13% corresponds to a medium degree of roast.

Figure 6Influence of time-temperature roasting conditions, leading to identical degree of roast, on aroma compounds grouped according to sensory properties as derived from Table 4 and 5. Normalized presentation with the highest quantity of an aroma compound receiving the value 100, values added up in each group, and divided by the number of compounds in the group Vol. 67, Nr. 1, 2002JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE 65

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ing higher concentrations of aroma compounds. Obviously, there is sufficient time for the reactants to form precursors and final aroma compounds, even during short-time roasting processes. Including a temperature-reduced final stage in the process (PHL as opposed to PLHC) did not affect the overall aroma quantities, but it caused a shift in profile. It may thus be concluded that such a reduction is beneficial for temperature-sensitive compounds, but disadvantageous to the formation of the more stable compounds. A comparison of HL and LHC roasting shows that high temperature during the initial roasting stage, combined with low temperature during the following stages, was not efficient in producing high aroma concentrations. Therefore, a sufficiently high temperature during the medium or final roasting stages is required. This finding is consistent with data obtained from sensory analysis (Schenker 2000). Distinct time-temperature histories resulted in roasted coffee beans of individual profiles of aroma compounds, and may therefore influence the aroma as perceived. Figure 6 shows a visualization of these different aroma compound profiles. It is based on relative comparisons of aroma compound quantities in combination with their related sensory aroma quality. Although this charts simple grouping of compounds into classes of sensory aroma quality does not take different FD-factors into account, the chart nevertheless shows that development of aroma can be controlled by the temperature conditions during roasting, and that a wide range of distinct profiles of aroma compounds can be obtained from the same raw material.

References
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The authors gratefully acknowledge the funding of this work by G.W. Barth GmbH & Co., Ludwigsburg, Germany, as well as support by Keme Food Engineering AG, Haco AG, and Migros Betriebe Birsfelden AG, Birsfelden, Switzerland.

Food Engineering and Physical Properties

Conclusions

OASTING TECHNOLOGY CANNOT MAKE UP FOR POOR QUALI -

ty of coffee beans. However, for a given type of green coffee bean blend, roasting is the main flavor (odor and taste) determinant. Water content and temperature in the bean control the specific conditions for aroma formation reactions during roasting. They are the major factors which determine whether the potential of green coffee beans will lead to the formation of the distinct and desirable profile of aroma compounds. The greatest aroma formation rates during roasting were found at the medium stages of product dehydration. At least one roasting phase at a medium temperature level is essential in generating sufficient aroma intensity, while high-temperature conditions may alter the aroma profile and should be avoided. A final phase at reduced temperature causes a shift in the aroma profile. The target product color should be limited in darkness, and the process should be terminated in time because degradation of aroma compounds sets in during the final roasting stage.

Authors Schenker, Heinemann, Huber, Pompizzi, Perren, and Escher are with the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH)s Institute of Food Science, CH-8092, Zurich, Switzerland. Address inquiries to author Escher (Email: escher@ilw.agrl.ethz.ch).

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