Epistemologia de Las Ciencias Sociales

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Presentacin
En cumplimiento de su misin y de sus funciones, el Instituto Colombiano para el Fo-
mento de la Educacin Superior ha realizado diversas acciones que permitan a las
instituciones de Educacin Superior no solamente enfrentar los retos del desarrollo cien-
tfico, tcnico y tecnolgico sino hacer del conocimiento y de la cultura, ejes de calidad
y desarrollo. Esto implica necesariamente fomentar procesos de formacin que adems
de articular y hacer coherentes los campos de conocimiento y sus campos especficos
de prcticas, contribuyan a identificar problemas en diversos contextos y a encontrar o
crear soluciones a partir de procesos de reflexin.
Dentro de este contexto, el ICFES promovi la creacin del Programa de Especializacin
en teora, mtodos y tcnicas de investigacin social, ofrecido en la actualidad por cinco
universidades pblicas a saber: Universidad de Antioquia, Universidad del Valle, Universi-
dad Industrial de Santander, Universidad de Cartagena y Universidad Pedaggica Nacio-
nal, las cuales atendieron el reto propuesto por el Instituto y despus de siete aos de
iniciado el programa, en conjunto han graduado ms de 300 especialistas.
La estructura temtica de esta serie de Investigacin Social la constituyen siete mdulos
orientados al desarrollo de competencias para la apropiacin de metodologas y tcnicas
de investigacin fundamentadas por las teoras que enmarcan las ciencias sociales. Los
primeros cuatro mdulos ofrecen elementos que permiten profundizar e indagar sobre el
objeto y los procesos de conocimiento en las Ciencias Sociales, las principales escuelas
que han surgido a travs de los tiempos y las diferentes perspectivas de anlisis que
conducen a la comprensin de los hechos sociales. Los tres ltimos mdulos orientan la
aplicacin de estas ciencias en el campo de la investigacin educativa, la evaluacin y el
estudio de localidades.
Dada la pertinencia y vigencia de esta serie y aprovechando el desarrollo de las tecnolo-
gas de informacin y comunicacin que nos permite una socializacin ms amplia y gil
de sus contenidos, la presentamos hoy en formato CD ROM con la expectativa que esta
estrategia de aprendizaje sea aprovechada por un mayor nmero de profesores y estu-
diantes de las instituciones de educacin superior del pas.
DANIEL BOGOYA M.
Director General ICFES
12
Soore |a natura|eza
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odu|os. Cada odu|o |oooc uoos oojct|vos uc dcoco |oq|a|sc a eaoa||dad o| c|
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odu|o s|qu|cotc.
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o|||dad c|sooa| cs, dcsdc c| eo|cozo dc| cstud|o, uo uoto dc a|t|da uy |o|taotc
a|a avaoza| eoo cx|to a |o |a|qo dc |as atc||as t|atadas co cstc eu|so.
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e|a| |csoosao|||dad eoo todos y eada uoo dc |os a|uoos uc ut|||zao oucst|os atc||a-
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to y eoo c| |oq|o dc |os oojct|vos uc oos ocos |oucsto co eouo.
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|csa|ta| c| va|o| uc t|coc c| cstud|o co q|uo. lo| |o |so, oos c||t|os |ceocoda|-
|c, co |a cd|da dc |as os|o|||dadcs uc ucdao |cscota|sc|c, uc t|atc dc toa| eoo-
taeto eoo ot|as c|sooas uc scao a|uoos dc cstc eu|so, eoo c| |oos|to dc io|a| uo
q|uo dc d|seus|oo auouc sca cuco, co c| eua| sc aoa||eco a|quoos dc |os tcas
uc ucdao |cscota| ayo| d|i|eu|tad o |otc|cs.
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cstao co sus aoos:
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odu|os, eoo tao|co |as dudas y eocota||os as |o|taotcs uc |c su|jao. Lse||oa
csas |dcas y eocota||os co uoa ||o|cta o euadc|oo.
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eoooe||cotos uc sc oscco, a|a od|i|ea||as o eo|ccota||as. Lse|ioa|as.
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coeoot|a| a||eae|oocs dc |os oucvos eoooe||cotos adu|||dos. 1oc ootas dc c||os.
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as||so dcoc aoota| |as dudas uc |c oayao su|q|do a|a |cscota||as a| tuto|, s| cs c|
easo, y ootcoc| |csucstas a sus |ou|ctudcs.
l|oa|cotc, s| oo ucda sat|siceoo eoo |as autocva|uae|oocs uc oa |ca||zado co eada
uo|dad, vuc|va a |casa| co c| tcxto |os uotos co |os eua|cs oa ucdado coos sat|sic-
eoo. Soo|c csta |cv|s|oo, |ceuc|dc uc ustcd, y oo c| tuto|, cs c| ||oe|a| cva|uado| dc
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a|cod|zajc y c|icee|ooa|coto. Soo|c c| eootco|do dc csta advc|tcoe|a, oo dcocos
coqaa|oos dc aoc|a a|quoa.
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|ntroducc|on
En trminos generales, la epistemologa se define como el anlisis del conocimiento
cientfico. En trminos ms especficos, esta disciplina analiza los supuestos filosfi-
cos de las ciencias, su objeto de estudio, los valores implicados en la creacin del
conocimiento, la estructura lgica de sus teoras, los mtodos empleados en la investi-
gacin y en la explicacin o interpretacin de sus resultados y la confirmabilidad y
refutabilidad de sus teoras.
Los epistemlogos de las ciencias sociales han tratado esos problemas en diversos
momentos de su construccin . En particular, se han referido a cinco problemas princi-
pales: 1 Los supuestos ontolgicos y gnoseolgicos de las ciencias sociales. 2 El
objeto de estudio propio de estas ciencias. 3 La naturaleza de conocimiento que se va a
obtener por la investigacin cientfica. 4 La relacin entre las caractersticas del objeto
investigado y los valores del investigador. 5 La funcin final que debe cumplir la inves-
tigacin cientfica de acuerdo con el modelo elegido para la construccin de las ciencias
sociales. Las diversas posiciones filosficas frente a esos problemas ayudan a compren-
der las distintas escuelas que han surgido en la construccin de las ciencias sociales .
Si bien en este texto no se tratarn los problemas referentes a los puntos 2, 3 y 4, se
plantearn algunos aspectos sobre ellos y se anticiparn los contenidos de los otros dos
problemas. La respuesta al objeto de las ciencias sociales ( segundo problema ) ha
oscilado en la dicotoma estudio de la sociedad global frente al estudio de pequeos
grupos, es decir, para algunos constructores de la ciencias sociales, stas deben estu-
diar el sistema social en su totalidad, y utilizar, por lo tanto, un enfoque macro social.
Para otros, el objeto propio de estas ciencias debe ser el anlisis de los pequeos gru-
pos, de tal modo que el investigador pueda conocer, directa y experimentalmente, el
funcionamiento de esos grupos empleando un enfoque microsocial.
El tercer problema tiene que ver con la naturaleza del conocimiento que debe obtener la
investigacin social de los objetos que estudia. Aqu, la dicotoma se presenta en la elec-
"
cin de un enfoque cuantitativo, por un lado, o un enfoque cualitativo, por otro. El enfoque
cuantitativo buscar la medicin de los fenmenos sociales, en particular, la medicin
individual de las propiedades que se dan en esos objetos, mediante las llamadas variables,
de tal modo que sea posible la utilizacin de las tcnicas estadsticas del caso. La alterna-
tiva cualitativa, por su lado, emplea un enfoque holstico, o sea, un estudio del objeto
tomado en su totalidad, para lo cual deber utilizar tcnicas cualitativas adecuadas para
ese propsito.
El cuarto problema se refiere a la relacin entre el objeto que se investiga y el investiga-
dor. En el fondo del problema se encuentran las siguientes preguntas: influye o no el
investigador en el objeto de investigacin que, en la mayora de los casos, est consti-
tuido; por personas? En otras palabras: es posible obtener mediante la investigacin
social un conocimiento que no est perturbado por los valores del investigador, por sus
creencias, preferencias y prejuicios? Existe una ciencia libre de valores? O, finalmente,
es posible la objetividad en las ciencias?
El primer problema, que ser tratado en este mdulo, los supuestos ontolgicos y
gnoseolgicos de nuestras ciencias, est constituido por la adhesin mayor o menor,
consciente o inconsciente, de los investigadores a ciertas concepciones acerca de la
naturaleza ltima de las cosas y de su posibilidad de conocerlas.
El quinto y ltimo problema, que tambin ser abordado en este texto, tiene que ver con la
funcin final que debe cumplir la investigacin, funcin que corresponde a la pregunta cun-
do podemos entender determinado suceso social? Qu deben buscar en ltima instancia
las ciencias sociales mediante sus teoras y sus mtodos de investigacin? Como sabe-
mos, la respuesta se da tambin en la forma de una alternativa: por un lado, para algunos
epistemlogos e investigadores, las ciencias sociales deben explicar los fenmenos que
estudian mientras que para otros, el objetivo final de estas ciencias consiste en la interpre-
tacin de los fenmenos investigados. Este ltimo dilema ha acompaado el proceso de
construccin de las ciencias sociales desde sus primeros momentos y llega hasta nuestros
das en la forma en que se presentarn en algunos captulos de este mdulo.
Para una mejor delimitacin de nuestra exposicin se establecer que el trmino cien-
cias sociales se utiliza aqu para referirnos a ciencias como la sociologa, la ciencia
poltica, la psicologa social, la educacin, la antropologa social y la geografa social.
"
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Otras ciencias sociales, como la historia, la economa, el derecho, para citar algunas,
tienen sus propios enfoques tericos y metodolgicos de tal modo que solo algunos
temas y problemas especficos de esas ciencias caen en los marcos epistemolgicos
presentados en este texto.
La primera unidad del primer mdulo est dedicada a los principales supuestos que
desde la filosofa soportan la construccin de las ciencias sociales. La segunda unidad
presenta el principal problema que se ha dado en esa construccin dado en la alternativa
explicacin frente a interpretacin. La tercera unidad expone, tambin como una intro-
duccin ordenada, el tema de los paradigmas en las ciencias sociales y algunas pro-
puestas de integracin de diversos elementos de esos paradigmas. La cuarta unidad
est destinada a presentar los rasgos generales de algunas nuevas teoras derivadas de
los grandes paradigmas.
El lector no debe, en ningn momento, perder de vista que este trabajo tiene carcter
introductorio. La ampliacin de los temas que puedan interesarle en mayor grado ser
posible con la bibliografa que se indica en el cuerpo del texto como la que hemos sea-
lado al trmino de cada unidad. Nuestro objetivo ha sido el de presentar los conceptos
ms directos e importantes que tienen que ver, desde el punto de vista epistemolgico,
con las respuestas que, desde mediados del siglo pasado, han dado los principales
constructores a la pregunta central de cul debe ser la caracterstica final que deben
tener las ciencias sociales.
LA SOCIOLOGA DE LAS CIENCIAS. UNA NOTA A LA SEGUNDA PARTE
Con antecedentes lejanos en Marx, Engels y Durkheim y, ms recientemente, en Merton
y otros autores, se ha desarrollado la sociologa de las ciencias, que complementa, en
varios aspectos, el tratamiento que la epistemologa hace de esas disciplinas. Bunge,
que tambin ha escrito sobre esa materia, se refiere, de manera controversial en algunas
calificaciones, a diferentes corrientes que se dan en la sociologa de la ciencia como
podemos apreciarlo en la cita que sigue:
Desde el decenio de 1960 han venido surgiendo nuevas orientaciones en la sociologa
de la ciencia. Si bien los estilos respectivos representan mltiples diferencias, no dejan
por ello de adherirse a una cantidad de dogmas compartidos. Se trata del externalismo,
tesis en cuyos trminos el contenido conceptual (de la ciencia. GB) es determinado por
el marco de referencia social; el constructivismo o subjetivismo, segn el cual el sujeto
investigador construye no solo su propia versin de los hechos sino tambin los hechos
mismos y eventualmente el mundo entero; el relativismo, para el que no existen verda-
des objetivas y universales; el pragmatismo, que destaca la accin y la interaccin a
expensas de las ideas e identifica a la ciencia con la tecnologa; el ordinarismo, que
reduce la investigacin cientfica a pura transpiracin sin inspiracin, negndose a reco-
nocer a la ciencia un rango especial y a distinguirla de la ideologa, de la pseudociencia
y hasta de la anticiencia; la adopcin de doctrinas psicolgicas obsoletas, como el
conductismo y el psicoanlisis, y la sustitucin del positivismo, el racionalismo y otras
filosofas clsicas por multitud de filosofas ajenas a la ciencia e inclusive
anticientficas, como la filosofa lingstica, la fenomenologa, el existencialismo, la her-
menutica, la teora crtica, el postestructuralismo, el descontructivismo, o la escuela
francesa de semitica, segn el caso. Mario Bunge. Sociologa de la ciencia . Buenos
Aires: Ediciones Siglo Veinte, 1993, pp. 17 -18)
Finalmente, la cuarta unidad del mdulo est dedicada a diversos temas y problemas
especficos que se dan en el campo de la investigacin social propiamente tal, todos
relacionados ms o menos directamente con los paradigmas expuestos en las anteriores
unidades, pero, tambin, en el trasfondo lejano, con las elaboraciones epistemolgicas y
las escuelas filosficas que aportan las ltimas fundamentaciones de la ciencia.
Aotcs dc eocoza| eoo |a cxos|e|oo dc |os tcas eootco|dos co |as ||c|as dos
uo|dadcs dc cstc odu|o, cs eoovco|cotc sca|a| |as d|i|eu|tadcs dc |cscota| co io|a
|csu|da cseuc|as i||osoi|eas y os|e|oocs c|stco|oq|eas dc csce|a| eo|cj|dad
i|cotc a ueoas dc |as eua|cs oo cx|stc aectae|oo uoao|c dcot|o dc |as e|coe|as
soe|a|cs. Dc aoi |a ocecs|dad dc uc ustcd |ceu||a a |a o|o||oq|aiia e|tada co eada
uo|dad a|a a||a| sus eoooe||cotos dc aeuc|do eoo sus |o|as cx|qcoe|as dc
autoio|ae|oo. 1ao|co od|ao sc||c ut||cs |as suqc|coe|as uc oaecos a| eo|cozo
dc cstc odu|o a| |cic|||oos a |a oatu|a|cza dc |a cdueae|oo a d|staoe|a.
Oojet|voa de| modu|o
Al terminar el estudio del mdulo y de las lecturas complementarias que lo acompa-
an, el alumno deber haber logrado los siguientes objetivos:
1. Identificar los principales supuestos filosficos implcitos o explcitos que estn en
las bases tericas y metodolgicas de las ciencias sociales.
2. Conocer las diversos tipos de explicacin y de interpretacin que se utilizan en las
ciencias sociales.
3. Diferenciar los principales paradigmas contrapuestos que se dan en las ciencias
sociales y los niveles de integracin que se dan actualmente.
4. Conocer los principios fundamentales de nuevas teoras derivadas de los grandes
paradigmas tericos de las ciencias sociales.
Supueatoa
t||oaot|coa
de |aa c|enc|aa aoc|a|ea
SUPUESTOS FILOSFICOS DE LAS CIENCIAS SOCIALES

Cap|tu|o 1
Supueatoa de |aa pr|nc|pa|ea eacue|aa t||oaot|caa
Coo sc coe|ooo co |a lot|oduee|oo, |a d|vc|s|dad dc uotos dc v|sta y oe|oocs tco||-
eas uc sc oao oa|ajado co |a eoost|uee|oo dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs sc dcoc a |a va||c-
dad dc o|otcs|s i||osoi|eas co |as eua|cs sc oasa csa ta|ca tco||ea y ctodo|oq|ea. Lo
scot|do cst||eto, c| eootco|do |so dc |as e|coe|as oo eo|codc eooectos i||osoi|eos
eoo ta|cs, c|o c||os soo|tao, co u|t|a |ostaoe|a, |os suucstos oas|eos |cic||dos a |a
oatu|a|cza dc |os oojctos a |os eua|cs sc |ci|c|co y |as os|o|||dadcs y o|vc|cs dc| eooo-
e||coto uc sc ucdco |oq|a| dc c||os. Ls dce||, co c| oo||zootc dc su io|ae|oo, |as
e|coe|as soe|a|cs y oatu|a|cs eoot|coco d|vc|sas iijesis ipias y pisepias
|as eua|cs, co uoa d|cos|oo as a||a, tao|co sc coeucot|ao co d|ic|cotcs eooec-
e|oocs dc| uodo.
tas o|otcs|s coe|ooadas io|ao a|tc dc d|vc|sas cseuc|as i||osoi|eas. Dc auc||as
uc sc |c|ae|ooao dc aoc|a as d||ceta eoo |a iuodacotae|oo dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs
daos uo |csuco uc, co su o|cvcdad, |ctcodc cot|cqa| a|quoos dc sus eooectos
as |o|taotcs.
Lo |a |cscotae|oo uc s|quc sc oa ucsto coias|s co |a io|a uc co cstas cseuc|as
coi|cotao c| |oo|ca dc| eoooe||coto dc |os oojctos oatu|a|cs y soe|a|cs. Lo cstc
tca, c| |ceto| dcoc tcoc| |cscotc uc |cot|as a|quoas |o t|atao eoo csce|a| |cic|co-
e|a a| o||qco dc| eoooe||coto (c| c|||so y c| |ae|ooa||so, co a|t|eu|a|,, ot|as cs-
euc|as |o oaeco dcsdc |a c|scet|va dc su cscoe|a, cs dce||, dc |a |c|ae|oo cot|c oojcto
y sujcto (|dca||so, atc||a||so y |ca||so,. 1ao|co sc dcoc tcoc| co eoos|dc|ae|oo c|
oceoo |c|cscotado o| d|vc|sas os|e|oocs |otc|cd|as uc sc dao cot|c s|tuae|oocs
cxt|cas, uc eoo|oao eooectos dc uoas y ot|as dc cstas u|t|as.
SUPUESTOS DE LAS PRINCIPALES ESCUELAS FILOSFICAS

B| mater|a||amo
En trminos generales, el materialismo es la doctrina ( o doctrinas ) segn la cual todo lo
que existe es materia, es decir, solo existe, en ltima instancia, un solo tipo de realidad
que es la realidad material. La materia es, as, el fundamento de toda realidad y la causa
de todas las transformaciones que se dan en ella.
Los orgenes del materialismo son muy antiguos. Para el presocrtico Demcrito y para
Epicuro (342- 270 a. C.) los elementos ltimos de la realidad son los tomos, partculas
indivisibles e indestructibles que se mueven en el espacio vaco. Las cosas fsicas, los
animales y los hombres estn formados por tomos. Cuando cualquiera de ellos se
desintegran se forman nuevas combinaciones de tomos. El pensamiento es una forma
de sensacin que, a su vez, es explicada como una forma de cambio que se produce en
el alma de las personas. El alma resulta de la combinacin de tomos que provienen de
los objetos exteriores los cuales entran al cuerpo a travs de los sentidos. Cuando la
persona muere, el alma se desintegra en sus tomos componentes.
En el siglo XX el materialismo est representado de manera principal por el materialismo
dialctico y por el fisicalismo. El materialismo dialctico es la posicin filosfica de Marx
y Engels. Para ellos, la naturaleza es la materia que tiene existencia con independencia
de ser pensada. El pensamiento y los fenmenos mentales se desarrollan a partir de la
materia y deben ser explicados en trminos fsicos. El materialismo dialctico tiene
como una de sus preocupaciones centrales el cambio de la realidad. Consecuentemen-
te, considera al mundo como un proceso en el cual, histricamente, se dan fenmenos
nuevos y cada vez ms complejos a partir de los ms simples, siguiendo las leyes de la
dilctica: a ) la ley de transformacin de los cambios cuantitativos en cualitativos; b ) la
ley de interpenetracin de los opuestos que reconoce la existencia de contradicciones
en la naturaleza; y c ) la ley de la negacin de la negacin, o sea, una situacin dada es
reemplazada por otra, de tal modo que lo nuevo surge de la negacin de la situacin
anterior y sta es de nuevo negada y reemplazada, por otra nueva situacin ( el feudalis-
mo es negado por el capitalismo; ste, a su vez , ser negado por el socialismo).
El trmino dialctica en la filosofa de Marx y Engels deriva del concepto de Hegel para
referirse al proceso de cambio en la historia y en la naturaleza. Pero mientras para este
!
ltimo la base de tal proceso era el espritu, para los primeros esa base era la materia. De
ah que se diga que la dialctica de Hegel fue puesta de cabeza por Marx y Engels.
La segunda forma de materialismo presente en el siglo XX es el fisicalismo, propuesto
por algunos miembros del positivismo lgico ( Crculo de Viena ). Segn ellos, un enun-
ciado solo tiene significado si puede ser verificado. Con relacin a enunciados de tipo
psicolgico, ellos solo tienen significado si se expresan en una conducta corporal. De
este modo, la psicologa es una parte de la fsica. Al respecto, conviene hacer notar que
el conductismo que admite solo los datos que pueden ser observados es una forma de
fisicalismo.
B| rac|ona||amo
Hay varias formas de racionalismo, como el metafsico (toda la realidad es de carcter
racional), psicolgico (el pensamiento es superior a las emociones y a la voluntad) y el
racionalismo gnoseolgico o epistemolgico cuyos conceptos centrales tienen mayor
pertinencia con nuestro tema de los supuestos filosficos de las ciencias sociales. En
esa forma el racionalismo afirma que es posible conocer la realidad mediante el pensa-
miento puro, sin necesidad de ninguna premisa emprica. En esencia, esa es la posicin
de tres de los ms destacados representantes del racionalismo: Descartes, Leibniz y
Spinoza. Por ejemplo, Descartes prob la existencia de Dios y del mundo fsico a partir
de la premisa racionalmente indudable pienso, luego existo .
El conocimiento es propiamente tal cuando tiene necesidad lgica y validez universal.
Slo la razn puede permitir decir que una cosa es como es y no puede ser de otra
manera. Slo la razn tiene la capacidad de obtener por s misma, mediante la deduccin
a partir de las ideas innatas, otros conocimientos del tipo todo efecto tiene una causa,
que es evidente pues establece una relacin necesaria. Tales conceptos reciben el nom-
bre de juicios sintticos, que por tener su origen en la razn son conocimientos a priori!
El racionalismo moderno ha tomado diversas formas, alejadas de las pretensiones ms
extremas expresadas en los siglos XVII y XVIII. Se mantiene, desde luego, la importancia
de la razn en el conocimiento de la realidad dentro de los diversos usos del trminos
"
racionalismo. A ellos corresponden las posiciones epistemolgicas de Gastn Bachelard
y de Karl Popper que destacan tanto el papel de la razn y de la experiencia emprica en
la investigacin cientfica.
B| emp|r|amo
El empirismo (del griego empeira = experiencia) sostiene que todo conocimiento se
basa en la experiencia, afirmacin con la cual se opone directamente al racionalismo
para el cual, segn acabamos de ver, el conocimiento proviene, en gran medida, de la
razn. Para el empirismo radical, la mente es como una tabla rasa que se limita a
registrar la informacin que viene de la experiencia.
De manera semejante al racionalismo, se distinguen tres tipos de empirismo: 1) el psico-
lgico, para el cual el conocimiento se origina totalmente en la experiencia; 2) el empirismo
gnoseolgico que sostiene que la validez de todo conocimiento tiene su base en la expe-
riencia; y 3) el empirismo metafsico segn el cual no hay otra realidad que aquella que
proviene de la experiencia y, en particular, de la experiencia sensible.
El empirismo fue desarrollado esencialmente por una serie de filsofos ingleses entre los
que se destacan Locke, Hume y J. S. Mill.
El empirismo niega la existencia de ideas innatas, invocadas por los racionalistas, las
cuales, segn ellos, pueden ser descompuestas en conceptos ms simples que se deri-
van de la experiencia o bien esos conceptos no son conceptos genuinos ya que no se les
puede asignar ningn significado ( por ejemplo, el concepto de sustancia de los racionalistas
que es una mera palabra de carcter metafsico, pero que no significa nada ).
Tambin los empiristas niegan que haya verdades necesarias a priori, como dicen los
racionalistas. Por otro lado, el empirismo acepta los juicios sintticos a priori, pero basa-
dos en la experiencia, a diferencia de los racionalistas para quienes eso, juicios seran
verdades autoevidentes, vlidos con independencia de la experiencia.
Finalmente, el empirismo rechaza toda metafsica y, de manera inversa, da a la ciencia
un alto valor como medio superior de adquirir conocimientos.
#
Una parte importante de la investigacin en ciencias sociales tiene bases en algunos
supuestos principales del empirismo, desde luego, el valor dado a la experiencia como
origen del conocimiento y como ltima instancia de contrastacin de las teoras. Pero,
justamente, en cuanto reconoce que la ciencia est compuestas de teoras, el empirismo
cientfico reconoce el papel de la razn en la prctica cientfica y en el desarrollo de la
ciencia. En tal posicin se puede clasificar al socilogo francs Emile Durkheim que
para sus opositores es uno de los ms destacados empiristas dentro de las ciencias
sociales, como lo es tambin para ellos un positivista, en cuanto a la importancia dada al
mtodo de las ciencias naturales en la investigacin social.
B| rea||amo
De igual manera que en las otras escuelas filosficas, es posible distinguir varios tipos de
realismo. Como realismo metafsico, el termino realismo fue utilizado por primera vez
para designar la posicin segn la cual las ideas generales o universales, como se deca
entonces, tienen existencia real, independientes de ser pensadas o no. Como realismo
gnoseolgico afirma que el conocimiento es posible sin necesidad de que la conciencia
imponga sus propias categoras a la realidad. Dentro de esta corriente se encuentran
filsofos y epistemlogos como Bertrand Russell, G. E. Moore y Mario Bunge, en nues-
tros tiempos. Todos ellos se oponen a toda forma de idealismo.
Dcot|o dc| |ca||so qoosco|oq|eo sc d|st|oquco t|cs vc|s|oocs: 1, c| |ca||so |oqcouo
a|a c| eua| c| eoooe||coto cs uoa |c|oduee|oo cxaeta dc |a |ca||dad, z, c| |ca||so
e|it|eo, uc ai||a uc oo odcos aecta| s|o e|it|ea c| eoooe||coto dado o| |os
scot|dos, ucs dcocos soctc| a cxaco ta| eoooe||coto a|a eo|ooa| co uc
cd|da eo||csoodc a |a |ca||dad ta| eua| c||a sc da, ta| cxaco aec|ea cstc t|o dc
|ca||so a| |ae|ooa||so, y s, c| |ca||so e|cotii|eo a|a c| eua| cs |a e|coe|a |a uc
|oo|e|ooa c| cjo| eoooe||coto dc |a |ca||dad, co c||a, |a |azoo y |a cxc||coe|a sc
ocecs|tao a|a eoooec| |a vc|dad. Scquo su ||oe||o oas|eo, c| |ae|ooa||so e|cotii|eo
|ceoaza ot|o t|o dc eoooe||coto uc |ctcoda tcoc| c| va|o| dc vc|dad, eoo c| eooo-
e||coto o|d|oa||o, c| eoooe||coto |c||q|oso, c| eoooe||coto ist|eo y c| ctaiis|eo.
$
L IisI ue as ieiias Mari S:ipe ieiue, uesue a jsiii ue reais-
n iei:Ii, a a :a se auiiere, :i j:eie iaia e naeriaisn ei a
Irna :e se iiuia a iii:aii:
1u eie naeria es aniiaie :aiu neis ei :e se reIiere a s:
jsiii resje ue rs eies naeriaes. Iara ueir ei Irna iepai-
va, ei iiip:i nnei a ieiia ia aIirnau a iin:aiiiuau ue a na-
eria.
Dra eii :e juens eraer ue :e jreeue es :e, ejs ue aejar-
se ue naeriaisn, a ieiia se esa rnaiu aua vez nas naeriaisa
ei Irna ej:ia. L esa iaieiu i s eviaiu e neri i ije-
s iinaeriaes ,I:erzas viaes, Iaiasnas, jeisanieis ueseiariaus,
I:erzas iisrias s:jranaeriaes, e.), sii aniiei, y ue iei esje-
ianeie, es:uiaiu eies naeriaes. Li eIe, a ieiia iivesipa -
sas I:sias aes n s :aia, anjs y :erjs, sisenas ii::nis
n s njieies ue a e:a, iisisenas aes n iaerias y
iips, y sisenas siaes aes n ein:as y ::ras. De nu,
j:es, :e a ieiia ienjraiea j:eue araerizarse n e es:ui
oe oh]etos mnterinies or meoio oei metooo oieutrioo y oou ei riu oe
euooutrnr y sistemntiznr ins ieyes oe tnies oh]etos. Li ras jaairas, a
iivesipaii iei:Iia jres:jie :ia ip:a naeriaisa y aniiei a
eiri:ee.
Va||o uuoqc, Vatc||a||so y e|coe|a. ua|ec|ooa: Ld|to||a| A||c|. |us1, aq. zu.
B| |dea||amo
L| |dca||so cs, co qcoc|a|, |a cseuc|a oucsta a| atc||a||so y a| |ca||so: co oos|-
e|oo a cstc u|t|o sost|coc uc |os oojctos iis|eos oo ucdco tcoc| cx|stcoe|a aa|tc dc
uoa cotc uc sca eoose|cotc dc c||os. Lo su |a|qa o|sto||a, c| |dca||so oa toado uy
d|vc|sas va||aotcs y cx|cs|oocs, c|o todas c||as ucdco ea|aetc||za|sc o| |a |o|-
taoe|a ecot|a| dada a |a eooe|coe|a, a |as |dcas, a| cosa|coto, a| sujcto, a| yo, co c|
|oecso dc| eoooe||coto.
%
la|a eocoza| csta o|cvc siotcs|s, d|qaos uc a|a c| iueaisn ijeiv pi ,dc
l|atoo, tc|oo|tz, lcqc| y ot|os i||osoios, |os oojctos soo coqcod|ados, dc uoa io|a u
ot|a, o| iaeto|cs, eausas, e|ccoe|as o |dcas uc soo |odccod|cotcs dc |a eooe|coe|a
ouaoa. la|a c| iueaisn s:ijeiv (dc uc|sc|cy, co a|t|eu|a|, |os oojctos uc eoooec-
os eo||csoodco a oucst|as scosae|oocs: |a cx|stcoe|a dc |os oojctos eoos|stc co sc|
c|e|o|dos. L||os soo so|o |dcas (dc aoi c| tc||oo |dca||so,.
kaot oaso su iueaisn raseiueia co c| a|qucoto scquo c| eua| c| eoooe||coto sc
aoya co scosae|oocs |cic||das a uo uodo eoucsto dc icoocoos (uc dcoo|oa
eosas co si,, c|o dc euya |ca||dad oada saocos o| od|cos saoc|. S|o coa|qo, s|
o|co |a cotc, |a |azoo, oo ucdc |ooc| uoa cst|uetu|a a |a |ca||dad eoo ta|, ucdc
oaec||o soo|c |as aa||coe|as ya uc c||a (|a |azoo, oscc e|c|tas eatcqo|ias a jriri
(eoo sustaoe|a y eausa, uc soo |odccod|cotcs dc toda cxc||coe|a scoso||a|. Dc
aeuc|do eoo cstas ai||ae|oocs, kaot |os|stia uc su os|e|oo oo a||ojaoa o|oquoa duda
soo|c |a e|coe|a y uc, o| c| eoot|a||o, c|a |a uo|ea io|u|a a|a sa|va||a dc| csect|e|s-
o. ta e|coe|a d|ec |a vc|dad, ai||a, c|o so|o |a vc|dad soo|c |as aa||coe|as.
Lo os|e|oo e|it|ea i|cotc a |as |dcas dc kaot dcot|o dc c||a, c| |ceoazo a |as eosas co
si, |oeoqoose|o|cs sc |cvaota |a q|ao i|qu|a dc lcqc| (|o - |ss1,. A| |ceoaza||as, c|
i||osoio dcja so|acotc |a cotc y |os oojctos dc |a cxc||coe|a eoo cx|stcotcs y ai||a
uc c| eoooe||coto dc |a |ca||dad cs os|o|c, c|o csa |ca||dad cs cs|||tua|, co u|t|a
|ostaoe|a. L| csi||tu ucdc da|sc eucota dc si |so so|o a| cot|a| co |c|ae|oo eoo uo
c|ccoto oojct|vo. Ls dce||, |os oojctos |||eao uo sujcto, c|o c| sujcto tao|co |||-
ea uo oojcto auo euaodo c| sujcto cs eoos|dc|ado aotc||o| a auc|. Lo dci|o|t|va, |a
atc||a cs uoa ao|icstae|oo dc| csi||tu.
A eo|cozos dc oucst|o s|q|o, c| |dca||so csta |c|cscotado o| Lduodo lussc||
(|ssu - 1uss, co |a io|a dc |a Ieineip:a. uoa siotcs|s dc cstc io|a dc |dca||so
sc|a |cscotada co uoa |ox|a scee|oo, dco|do a |a |o|taoe|a uc t|coc a|a a|quoos
a|ad|qas |otc||ctat|vos.
&
Lstc voeao|o (iueaisn) sc usa as||so co |c|ae|oo eoo |os |dca|cs. Sc
||aa, cotooecs, |dca||so a toda doet||oa y a toda aet|tud scquo |a
eua| |o as iuodacota|, y auc||o o| |o eua| sc suooc uc dcoco |cq||sc
|as aee|oocs ouaoas, soo |os |dca|cs, |ca||zao|cs o oo, c|o eas| s|c|c
|aq|oados eoo |ca||zao|cs. Lotooecs, c| |dca||so sc eoot|aooc a| |ca-
||so, cotcod|do cstc u|t|o eoo |a doet||oa o s||ccotc |a aet|tud-
scquo |a eua| |o as iuodacota|, y auc||o o| |o eua| sc suooc uc
dcoco |cq||sc |as aee|oocs ouaoas, soo |as |ca||dadcs, |os oceoos eoos-
taotcs y sooaotcs. Lstc scot|do dc| |dca||so suc|c sc| ct|eo o o|it|eo, o
aoas eosas a |a vcz.
Josc lc||atc| Vo|a. Diiiari ue IisI:a aireviau. ua|ec|ooa: Ld|to||a|
Sudac||eaoa, |uss, . zoz-zos.
B| poa|t|v|amo
Lo scot|do a||o, c| jsiivisn cs |a cseuc|a i||osoi|ea scquo |a eua| todo eoooe||co-
to, a|a sc| qcou|oo, dcoc oasa|sc co |a cxc||coe|a scos|o|c. L| |oq|cso dc| eoooe|-
|coto so|o cs os|o|c eoo |a oosc|vae|oo y c| cxc||coto y, scquo csta cx|qcoe|a, sc
dcoc ut|||za| c| ctodo dc |as e|coe|as oatu|a|cs. ta |ctcos|oo dc a|quoos i||osoios dc
ousea| eoooe||cotos o| cd|o dc csceu|ae|oocs ctaiis|eas soo |otcotos c|d|dos,
s| o|co |a i||osoiia dcoc|ia tcoc| eoo uo|ea ta|ca |a dc oaec| eo|cos|o|cs |os ctodos
dc |as e|coe|as oatu|a|cs y dcsa||o||a|, adcas, |as eooece|oocs qcoc|a|cs uc sc
dc||vao dc |as |csu|tados dc |as d|ic|cotcs e|coe|as a|t|eu|a|cs.
l|aoe|seo uaeoo (1s1 - 1z,, uc ucdc sc| ||aado c| ad|c dc |a cseuc|a, a |a eua|
d|o su ooo|c, sost|coc uc |os i||osoios oo dcoco ousea| as a||a dc |os |i|tcs dc |a
oatu|a|cza. lay oceoos uc dcoco sc| aoo|dados s|o o|oquoa eooece|oo |cv|a y a|qu-
oos dc csos oceoos oceoos os|t|vos dcoco sc| aectados o| |a ic co |a cxc||co-
e|a. Sa|ot - S|oo a||ea |a a|ao|a os|t|vo a |as e|coe|as uc sc oasao co |os oceoos
uc oao s|do oosc|vados y aoa||zados.
'
Auqusto Cotc (1us - 1ss,
ta| vcz c| auto| as |dcot|i|eado eoo csta cseuc|a
dcsta-
eo c| tc||oo ya aeuado co c| titu|o dc su oo|a ||oe|a| C:rs ue IisI:a jsiiva ,|sso
- 1s!z, a|a ooc| dc |c||cvc uc |a iuoe|oo dc |a tco|ia eoos|stc co eoo|d|oa| |os oceoos
oosc|vados o| |as e|coe|as y dc o|oquoa aoc|a ousea| |as eausas dc su oeu||coe|a.
La jsiii eira ue Cne se araeriza jr s: naiiIiesa aversii a
esjiri:aisn neaI:si y reipis y s: auniraii jr s jueres y rea-
izaiies eiiiius jr e jeisaniei iei:Ii. Li ese seiiu, y ue
naiera :e aera I:ereneie a ij ue js:ra as:niua jr Iraiis
Sai ei e sip XVII, e iieres jriiija ue Cne i isise ei eairar
:i i:ev sisena IisIi, sii ei jrnver :ia jrI:iua reIrna sia.
Li :ai a reIrna re:iere ue :ia rauia raisIrnaii iiee:a,
Cne uesarra s: jsiii jsiivisa.
1a iejii uesaa a injraiia ue esj:ri: iei:Ii ei a sie-
uau: jara Cne, as uiIereies ieiias rejreseiai :ia aeriaiva ue
iiniei ue araer :iiari. Lsa :iiuau :e, nas aa ue as uiIerei-
ias, iserva as uiIereies uisijiias iei:Iias, esa sep:raua jr e
ajep ue uas eas a neu iei:Ii. La :iiuau ue neu asep:ra a
:iiuau ue a ieiia.
Cne i:sa ajiar a anj ue a aiviuau i:naia e neu iei:Ii
ue a naiera :e se j:eua peierar :i ij ue iiniei sire e in-
ire y a sieuau i a siuez ue ieiiu ei as ieiias ia:raes: ei
ese iiei, iisise ei a jrina:a ue iej ue jres y se jre:ja,
ue naiera jari:ar, jr Ireer :ia ejiaii iei:Iia sire s jre-
ss iisris. L ijeiv ue Cne es ues:irir as eyes :e ejiai e
ueveiir iisri.
aiac| Leocvc||ia. L| ouoo dc V|oc|va. Iiru:ii a a IisI:a nueria.
1uss, aq. 11s.
Hesje ue ijeiv i:sau jr Cne ueie reruarse s: ey ue s
res esauis. Desj:es ue s esauis epi y neaI:si veiur:a e
esaui jsiiv iei:Ii ei e :a se s:si:yei as ejiaiies ne-
aI:sias jr as ejiaiies jrjianeie iei:Iias.
!
L| cosa|coto dc Cotc cjc|e|o uoa |o|taotc |oi|ucoe|a co |as eooece|oocs ctodo-
|oq|eas dc L||c Du|oc|, co c| eao dc |a soe|o|oqia.
B| poa|t|v|amo |oq|co
L| jsiivisn pi, eoooe|do tao|co eoo enjirisn pi, cs |a eo|||cotc su|q|da a
i|ocs dc| dceco|o dc 1uzo, y euyos ||oe|a|cs |c|cscotaotcs sc aq|ua|oo co c| ||aado
Ci|eu|o dc v|coa: Seo||es, Ca|oa, Ncu|ato, l|aos, kauiiao, Godc| y ot|os. Su os|e|oo
oas|ea sc iuoda co c| ocoos|t|v|so dc Vaeo, lca|soo y dc a|quoos c|||stas |oq|c-
scs, eoo luc. lostc||o|cotc, |ce|o|c|oo |a |oi|ucoe|a dc w|ttqcostc|o.
L| oue|co dc| os|t|v|so |oq|eo csta eoost|tu|do o| uo c|||so tota|, aoyado co |os
|ceu|sos dc |a |oq|ea odc|oa, uoa a|ta va|o|ae|oo dc |a e|coe|a, uo |ceoazo tao|co
tota| a |a ctaiis|ea y a| |oos|to dc uo|i|ea| c| |coquajc dc |as d|ic|cotcs e|coe|as eoo
uo dcoo|oado| eouo co c| |coquajc dc |a iis|ea (i|s|ea||so,.
la|a csta cseuc|a, uoa |oos|e|oo so|o t|coc scot|do s| sc aoya co uo odo cicet|vo
dc vc||i|eae|oo. Coo d|eco: L| s|qo|i|eado dc uoa |oos|e|oo cs su odo dc vc||i|ea-
e|oo. tas |oos|e|oocs uc oo sc aoyao co uo odo dc vc||i|eae|oo o| |a cxc||coe|a,
dc aoc|a scos|o|c, oo ucdco sc| vc|dadc|as o| ia|sas. lo| |o taoto, so|o |as |oos|-
e|oocs ci||eas soo autcot|eas |oos|e|oocs. Coo |os couoe|ados dc |a ctaiis|ea
oo ucdco sc| |ooados o| |a cxc||coe|a, soo scudo|oos|e|oocs o |oos|e|oocs
s|o scot|do, s|o s|qo|i|eado.
uoa ea|aetc|ist|ea |o|taotc dc| Ci|eu|o dc v|coa cs su aoyo co |a |oq|ea odc|oa.
Sus t|aoajos sc cxooco eoo todo ||qo| eoo c| |oos|to dc c|ud|| |a ao|qucdad. Lo csta
|cq|a |ad|ea su ao|tc a |a cx|cs|oo as e|a|a dc |os eootco|dos dc| t|aoajo e|cotii|eo.
ta |oi|ucoe|a dc| os|t|v|so |oq|eo cs e|a|a co |a ctodo|oqia euaot|tat|va dc |as e|co-
e|as soe|a|cs y, co a|t|eu|a|, co |ovcst|qado|cs eoo lau| taza|sic|d, lc|oc|t lyao,
ayood uoudoo y uo q|ao ouc|o dc sus scqu|do|cs.
!
SUPUESTOS FILOSFICOS DE LAS CIENCIAS SOCIALES
Cap|tu|o z
Otraa eacue|aa t||oaot|caa
Coo sc |od|ea co |as scee|oocs dc cstc eaitu|o, ot|as cseuc|as i||osoi|eas, eoo |a
icoocoo|oqia, |a i||osoiia dc| |coquajc y |a oc|cocut|ea, s||vco dc aoyo, dc aoc|a
as o coos d||ceta, a |a eoost|uee|oo dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs eoo |as eoooecos
aetua|cotc.
La tenomeno|oq|a
Lo |a coea aetua|, o| icoocoo|oqia sc cot|codc |a doet||oa dcsa||o||ada o| Lduod
lussc|| (|ssu - 1uss, eoo csc |so ooo|c. Lo c||a oos |cic||os co csta uy o|cvc y
eas| |os|o|c siotcs|s, cotcod|codo|a eoo ctodo y eoo uoa aoc|a dc vc| c|
uodo. lussc|| sc oooc a| os|t|v|so y a| |aqat|so, s| o|co |ceoooec c| va|o|
|||tado dc |a ||c|a cseuc|a. 1ao|co |ceoaza |a e|ccoe|a co uoa i||osoiia aoso|uta.
tas tcs|s iuodacota|cs dc |a icoocoo|oqia oussc|||aoa cxucstas co su oo|a Iives-
ipaiies pias soo oas|eacotc dos:
1. la|a eata| c| i|u|| y c| eootco|do dc |a eooe|coe|a dcocos |||ta|oos a uesriiir |o
uc sc |cscota co c||a, s|o dcja|oos eood|e|ooa| o| |as tco||zae|oocs uc ud|os
oaoc| oceoo soo|c csc eootco|do.
z. ta dcse||e|oo sca|ada aotcs, ucst|a uc co c| i|u|| dc |a eooe|coe|a sc |cscotao,
adcas dc |cic|coe|a a oojctos eooe|ctos, |cic|coe|as a cscoe|as |dca|cs.
vcaos a|quoos csce|i|eae|oocs dc csas dos tcs|s iuodacota|cs.
ta eooe|coe|a a|a lussc|| cs s|c|c uoa eooe|coe|a iieiiia, cs dce||, eooe|coe|a
dc a|quoa eosa. l||ea uoa |c|ae|oo: |c|ae|oo eoo uo oojcto. la|a aeecdc| a |as csco-
!
OTRAS ESCUELAS FILOSFICAS
e|as uc aa|ceco co |os icoocoos uc sc dao co |a eooe|coe|a cs ocecsa||o u||i|-
ea||os cd|aotc c| |oecd||coto ctodo|oq|eo dc |a |cduee|oo eiueia dcoo|oada
ejie. Lsta |cduee|oo s|qo|i|ea ooc| cot|c a|cotcs|s todo |o |od|v|dua| y eoot|oqcotc
uc aa|cec co c| icoocoo dado co |a |otu|e|oo ci||ea o o| |as |aqcocs dc |a
iaotasia a|a ucda|sc eoo |a cscoe|a dc| icoocoo.
ta |cduee|oo c|dct|ea sc aeoaa dc |a reu:ii raseiueia o reu:ii Ieinei-
pia uc tao|co ooc cot|c a|cotcs|s iuc|a dc jucqo |a cx|stcoe|a dc| uodo uc
c |odca y |a cx|stcoe|a dc| |o|o aoa||sta, eoo sus aetos siu|eos, sus |otc|cscs, cte.
to uc ucda dcsucs dc cstas |cduee|oocs cs |a iieiia j:ra: sus v|vcoe|as y sus
eootco|dos. lussc|| |a dcoo|oa iieiia raiseiueia.
ta |cduee|oo icoocoo|oq|ea cs c| ctodo a|a ||cqa| a| eao co c| eua| dcoc aetua| |a
oucva e|coe|a (oucva, co euaoto sc t|ata dc suc|a| |a e||s|s a |a eua| oao s|do a||ast|a-
das |as e|coe|as o| c| os|t|v|so,. Ls dce||, s| sc u|c|c i||osoia|, cs ocecsa||o aoaodo-
oa| |a |oio|ae|oo uc oos da |a aet|tud oatu|a| y s|tua|sc co c| ao|to dc |a eooe|coe|a
u|a. S| o|co |a |cduee|oo icoocoo|oq|ea, eoo |a eua| sc ||cqa a cstc eao, |||ea |a
aectae|oo dc uo iueaisn raiseiueia, lussc|| oo o|cqa |a cx|stcoe|a dc uo uodo
|ca|: so|o |a oa ucsto cot|c a|cotcs|s. Lo |a eooe|coe|a u|a sc |ca||za |a eoost|tue|oo
dc| scot|do dc |os icoocoos eatados, c|o |cdue|dos o| c||a.
lussc|| aeusa a| os|t|v|so dc sc| |csoosao|c dc |a e||s|s dc |a e|coe|a, ucs a| |cdue||
c| vc|dadc|o eoooe||coto a| eoooe||coto e|cotii|eo dcjo dc |ado |a iuodacotae|oo
i||osoi|ea dc c||a. la|a |ccd|a| csta e||s|s cs ocecsa||o eoovc|t|| |a i||osoiia co e|co-
e|a, cs dce||, co uo s|stca eooectua| dc va||dcz uo|vc|sa| y ocecsa||a. Coo ta|, dc
c||a dcoco a|t|| todas |as d|se|||oas i||osoi|eas y |os iuodacotos dc todas |as e|co-
e|as.
ta icoocoo|oqia dc lussc|| t|coc su ||oe|a| |oycee|oo co |a soe|o|oqia dc A|i|cd
Seoutz y, co a|tc, a t|avcs dc c|, co |a ctooctodo|oqia y co auto|cs, cot|c ot|os, eoo
lctc| uc|qc| y 1ooas tesaoo ta| eoo c||os |o |ceoooeco co su ||o|o La isr:ii
sia ue a reaiuau.
!!
Iipa aeiii a esa r:ia a a jreeisii ue I:sser ue eiirar, ne-
uiaie a reu:ii Ieineipia ei a iieiia j:ra, s I:iuaneis
ue a ieiia.
Ls veruau, ei :ia jaaira,:e I:sser ueIieiue i eierp:a e raiiais-
n, jer u is iae jres:nir :e i :er:a ii:ir ei a razi aniiei
e eieiuiniei ,jara :sar a vieja erniip:a iepeiaia). Y si ieie re-
iazs ue Iiu ira e raiaj ue iiee ya sea :e se eji:e ue
naiera a:ina ei as naenaias j:ras y ei a pia, ei esreia
vii:aii ei as ieiias ue a ia:raeza es n:y eieiuiie :e i
pre njreiuer a a:eiia esr::ra ue a ieiia nueria ,n i a
njreiuerai s:s uis:j:s eiseiiaisas, Iiees, a neis ei ese j:i
a naesr). A res:a ei vai e iei ue :e I:sser i:ia aiaie a
I:iii ue ejerinei, eieiuiu n iierrpaii ue a ejerieiia
aies :e n sinje uesrijii ue :e vens ei ea. Si eiens
ei :eia u es, a vez ueians epar a a i:sii ue :e a ra:z
ejaia ue a aiiieiiIiiuau ue a Ieineip:a ueie i:sarse ei a jrini-
iva auiesii ue I:sser a a jsip:a j:raneie uesrijiva ue Sreiai.
tudov|eo Gcyooat. Iisria ue jeisaniei IisIi y iei:Ii Sip
xx (l,, ua|ec|ooa: Ld|to||a| A||c|, 1us!, aq. !s.
La t||oaot|a ana||t|ca de| |enquaje de w|ttqenate|n
ta oo|a dc tudW|q w|ttqcostc|o (1ssu-1us1,, i||osoio aust|iaeo uc |c|cscota asce-
tos a|t|eu|a|cs dc| c|||so y dc| os|t|v|so |oq|eo, eo|codc dos eooece|oocs
dc| |coquajc co |c|ae|oo eoo |os oojctos dc |a |ca||dad. ta ||c|a dc csas eooece|o-
ocs sc coeucot|a dcsa||o||ada co su su oo|a 1raa:s pi - jiisjii:s, uo||ea-
do co 1uzz y |a scquoda, co sus Iivesipaiies pias, dc |uss. Dc c||as oa|cos uo
o|cvc |csuco, dcot|o dc oucst|a |ctcos|oo dc ost|a| |os c|ccotos i||osoi|eos dc
|as d|vc|sas doet||oas uc t|coco uoa |c|ae|oo as d||ceta eoo |a iuodacotae|oo dc
|as e|coe|as soe|a|cs.
!"
L| oojct|vo dc| 1raa:s cs c| dc cstao|cec| |os |i|tcs dc auc||o uc ucdc dce||sc eoo
s|qo|i|eado. L| |coquajc t|coc eoo |oos|to ||oe|a| cstao|cec| oceoos a|a |o eua|
ocecs|ta oaec| uoa i|qu|a dc c||os, |oecso uc |||ea cstao|cec| uoa eo||csoodcoe|a
cot|c c| |aoo dc |o |ca| y c| |aoo ||oquist|eo. C, co ot|as a|ao|as, cs ocecsa||o cstao|c-
ec| uoa s|||a||dad cst|uetu|a|. ta tcs|s ecot|a| co csta |c|ae|oo |a cx|csa w|ttqcostc|o
eoo |a i|asc: |o uc ucdc sc| d|eoo, ucdc sc| d|eoo eoo toda e|a||dad, y soo|c |o uc oo
sc ucdc oao|a| sc dcoc qua|da| s||coe|o. L| uodo oo cs |a tota||dad dc |as eosas, s|oo
|a tota||dad dc |os oceoos, uc soo i|qu|as dc |as eosas, dc |os oojctos. 1odo |o uc
ucdc sc| cosado ucdc sc| cx|csado o| c| |coquajc. lc|o |a uo|ea iuoe|oo s|qo|i|ea-
t|va dc| |coquajc eoos|stc co dcse||o|| |os oceoos.
Vas a||a dc |as dcse||e|oocs, c| |coquajc so|o ucdc cstao|cec| tauto|oqias (t|ucvc
o|uc csta ||ov|codo,. lo| cso, eua|u|c| uso as a||a dc csos dos oo t|coco scot|do,
|os couoe|ados ct|eos o| |a ctaiis|ea, o|uc oo soo ci||eos.
ta scquoda eooece|oo i||osoi|ea dc w|ttqcostc|o sc dcsa||o||a ||oe|a|cotc dc sus
Iivesipaiies pias. Aui d|ec uc oo |ctcodc tco||za| o| cx||ea| oada, sa|vo dcs-
e||o|| c| icoocoo dc| |coquajc. A| |csceto, sca|a uc c| |coquajc eo|codc va||os
j:eps iip:sis, eada uoo dc |os eua|cs csta soct|do a sus |o|as |cq|as. lo| ot|o
|ado, d|ec uc c| s|qo|i|eado dc |as a|ao|as sc dci|oc o| su uso. So|o euaodo sc saoc
eoo oao dc sc| usadas |as a|ao|as, sca a|a |otc||oqa|, dcse||o|| oojctos, ooo|a|,
cte, so|o, cotooecs, ucdc dce||sc uc sc eoooec y sc udc oao|a| uo e|c|to |coquajc.
tos jucqos ||oquist|eos cx|csao |a Irna ue viua dc uoa eouo|dad.
Lo |os u|t|os t|aoajos dc| i||osoio, c| |coquajc ya oo sc eooe|oc eoo i|qu|a dc |a
|ca||dad, s| oo eoo uo i isr:nei, eoo uoa ierrani eia. ta ta|ca dc| i| | osoio eoo-
s| st c co eo| oea| | as a| ao| as co su uso eot | d| aoo, | as eua| cs cx| csao | a Irna ue
vi ua ue a n:ii uau. L| |cst o dc su oo|a cst a dcd| eada a a| | ea| su ct odo | | oqui s-
t| eo a uoa va|| cdad dc |oo| cas: toa eooj uotos dc eooectos, sca dc | as atca-
t|eas o dc |a eoovc|sae|oo o|d|oa||a, sca|a |as eosas a|adoj|eas uc dce|os dcsdc
| a c|| cj | dad i| | osoi| ea, a|a t|ata| dc dcsvaocec|| a |ceo|daodooos c| uso oo|a| dc
| os eooect os, cd| aot c | a dcse|| e| oo dc | os usos |ca| cs y os| o| cs dc| | coquaj c co
sus d| vc| sos eoot cxt os.
!#
La IisI:a, a n isrs :iizans a jaaira, es :ia :ia ira a
Iasiiaii :e ejerei sire isrs as Irnas ue ejresii.
D:ier :e re:eruei :seues :e as jaairas ieiei s sipiiIiaus :e
isrs es iens uau, y isrs es uans sipiiIiaus neuiaie e-
jiaiies. Y j:eu iaier uau :ia ueIiiiii ue :ia jaaira y :iizar a
jaaira ue a:eru i ea, :ieies ne eiseari e :s ue a jaaira
j:euei iaierne uau a ejiaii. Ir ejiaii ue :ia jaaira j-
ur:ans eieiuer aniiei a ejiaii :e iisans a uar :aiu se is
jrep:ia. Ls ueir, si esans uisj:ess a uar :a:ier ejiaii, ei a
nayr:a ue s ass i esans. Li ese seiiu, j:es, n:ias jaa-
iras i ieiei sipiiIiaus esris. Ier es i es :i ueIe. Creer :e
es,ser:a n ueir :e a :z ue a anjara ue ni nesa i es ei nu
ap:i :z rea jr:e i ieie :i :nie jreis.
Ls IisIs iaiai n:y Ire:eieneie ue iivesipar y aiaizar e sipiiIi-
au ue as jaairas. Ier i viuens :e :ia jaaira i ieie :i sipii-
Iiau uau, jr as: ueir, jr :i juer iiuejeiuieie ue isrs, ue a
nu :e j:uiese iaier :ia esjeie ue iivesipaii iei:Iia sire
:e a jaaira renimeute sipiiIia. Lia jaaira ieie e sipiiIiau :e
ap:iei e ia uau.
Iay jaairas i varis sipiiIiaus araneie ueIiiius. Ls Iai asiIiar
ess sipiiIiaus. Y iay jaairas ue as :e jur:a ueirse: se :iizai ue
ni nus uiIereies :e vai aniiaiu prau:aneie ue :i ei r. A es
ue srjreiuer :e i juans esaieer repas esrias ue s: :s.
Ls errie ueir :e ei IisI:a isiuerans :i eip:aje iuea, n
j:es a i:esr eip:aje ruiiari. I:es es iae :e jareza n si
jeisasens :e jur:ans jerIeiiar e eip:aje ruiiari. Ier e ei-
p:aje ruiiari esa jerIeaneie. C:aiu eairans eip:ajes iuea-
es , i es jar a :e r eenj aei a i:es r eip:aj e r ui iar i , si i
jreisaneie jara einiiar ap:ia uiIi:au a:saua ei a neie ue a-
p:iei a jeisar :e ia njreiuiu e :s ea ue :ia jaaira n:i.
Lsa es aniiei a razi jr a :e i:esr neu i isise sinje-
neie ei ei:nerar s :ss a:aes ue as jaairas, sii nas iiei ei
iiveiar rs i:evs ue nu ueiierau, ap:is ue es, a a:sa ue s:
ajarieiia ais:rua.
(t. w|ttqcostc|o. Cuadc|oo azu|. 1uss - s!,.
!$
La hermenut|ca
uoa dc |as ||c|as a|ox|ae|oocs a |a oc|cocut|ea aetua| |a o|zo D||tocy a|a u|co
csta d|se|||oa dcoc sc| c| ctodo dc |as e|coe|as dc| csi||tu. Lo c||a, |a eo|cos|oo
t|coc uo ea|aetc| oojct|vo uc sc d|||qc oae|a |as oojct|vae|oocs dc |a v|da, cs dce||,
oae|a |as oo|as y va|o|cs o|sto||eo - eu|tu|a|cs uc ucdco sc| eatados o| |a v|vcoe|a.
Coo lc|dcqqc|, |a oc|cocut|ea qaoa co |oiuod|zae|oo y |a eo|cos|oo asa a sc| uoa
cst|uetu|a iuodacota| dc| sc| ouaoo: ta| i||osoiia oo cs ya uoa io|a a|t|eu|a| dc
eoooe||coto s|oo uc cs |a eood|e|oo cscoe|a| dc eua|u|c| t|o dc eoooe||coto.
A a|t|| dc laos - Gco|q Gadac| (oae|do oae|a 1uoo,, eoo su oo|a iuodacota| Veruau
y neu (1uo,, |a oc|cocut|ea dcja dc sc| uo ctodo, eoo uc|ia D||tocy, a|a
eoovc|t||sc co uoa doet||oa i||osoi|ea eoo uoa |oucsta eooc|cotc aec|ea dc |a eo-
|cos|oo. Ya su oojcto oo cs |a cx|o|ae|oo dc| sc| |od|v|dua| s|oo |a |ovcst|qae|oo dc|
sc| o|sto||eo.
Lo csta vc|s|oo dc Gadac|, |a eo|cos|oo, uc t|coc uo ea|aetc| oojct|vo, oo eoo-
s|stc co cotcodc| a| ot|o, s|oo cotcodc|sc eoo ot|o soo|c uo tcxto. uo tcxto ucdc
sc| uo aeootce||coto o|sto||eo, uoa oo|a dc a|tc, cte., c|o co eua|u|c|a dc csos
easos, |a eo|cos|oo uc sc |oq|a cs o|sto||ea, co euaoto csc aeootce||coto u oojc-
to csta cd|ado o|sto||eacotc. lo| ot|a |ado, oo cs os|o|c |oq|a| uoa eo|cos|oo
||o|c dc todo |cju|e|o (uc a|a Gadac| s|qo|i|ea ju|e|o |cv|o,. ta eo|cos|oo dc uo
tcxto, so|o cs os|o|c dcsdc uoa |ceo|cos|oo o dc uo |cju|e|o uc c| |ovcst|qado|
|oyceta soo|c csc oojcto, |cju|e|o uc sc|a od|i|eado o| cstc, |o eua| eoodue||a a
uoa oucva eo|cos|oo dc cstc y asi, suecs|vacotc, s|o uo i|o dc |a eo|cos|oo.
Lo a|ao|as dc| i||osoio, toda eo|cos|oo sc |ca||za dcot|o dc uo :r: ierneie:-
i. Co|codc| oo s|qo|i|ea t|as|ada|sc a |a coea dc| auto| dc| tcxto o dc| aeootce|-
|coto cstud|ado, s|oo uc suooc uoa ius|oo dc oo||zootcs eoo |o eua| sc dci|oc uo
oo||zootc as a||o uc |os aoa|ea. lo| c||o, Gadac| d|ec uc c| |otc||ctc dc uo
tcxto |o eo|codc cjo| uc su auto|.
!%
la| a lao| o | e ocu| ( ia i u ei s!a, r ejr es ei ai e I r ai es ue a ier-
neie:ia, i ajraiies jrjias, n se j:eue ver ei s: ira L
iIi ue as iierjreaiies. !scs), uoa dc |as ||oe|a|cs d|i|eu|tadcs
a|a eoost|tu|| uoa i||osoiia oc|cocut|ea |ad|ea co uc oo cx|stc uoa uo|ea
oc|cocut|ea, cs dce||, uoa uo|ea io|a dc |otc||ctae|oo dc |os a|moo|oa
de| |enquaje. la|a l|cud, o| cjc|o, |os sioo|os soo uo d|si|az dc
dcscos |c|||dos, co eao|o, a|a |a icoocoo|oqia dc |a |c||q|oo (V||eca
L||adc, cot|c ot|os, soo |cvc|ae|oocs dc |o saq|ado. Sc ucdc oao|a|, asi,
dc uo eooi||eto dc |otc||ctae|oocs cot|c dos eooece|oocs eoot|aucstas:
1, ta |otc||ctae|oo eoo ejerc|c|o de |a aoapecha. |otc||cta| cs dcs-
coasea|a| |as ||us|oocs y |as cot||as dc |a eooe|coe|a, |a eua| cs eooec-
o|da eoo uoa eooe|coe|a ia|sa, ya uc e|ca va|o|cs (N|ctzseoc,, |dco|oqias
coqaosas (Va|x, o d|si|aza |as u|s|oocs |oeoose|cotcs (l|cud,. z, ta |o-
tc||ctae|oo eoo reataurac|on de| aent|do : |otc||cta| cs |ceo|ceta|
c| scot|do dc |os sioo|os (ucsto uc oay uoa vc|dad dc| sioo|o,.
Hie:r, :e ei jriiiji se a ueir ue a sep:iua Irna ue iierjre-
aii, jieisa, sii eniarp, :e a ierneie:ia ueie :iir, uiaeianei-
e, a ssjeia y a iIiaiza, a uesnipizaii y a resa:raii ue
seiiu. D aniiei: :e a ierneie:ia ueie ser, a nisn ienj, :ia
ar:ep:a ue s:je ,a nu ue Ire:u: ues:iriniei ue aiesra y
jriniiv) y :ia eep:a ue a iieiia ,a nu ue Iepe: i:s:eua
ue s:nis Iip:ras :e uai seiiu a jrpres ue a iieiia ue s:
nisn).
(Ccsa| 1cjcdo|. C. e|t., aq. !so,
!&
B|o||oqrat|a recomendada para |a un|dad
uuoqc, Va||o. La Cieiia. S: neu y s: IisI:a. uucoos A||cs: Ld|e|oocs
S|q|o vc|otc, 1us1.
. Ljisenp:a. Cieiia ue a ieiia. ua|ec|ooa: A||c|, 1uso.
Cooco, V.. y L. Naqc|. Iiru:ii a a pia y e neu iei:Ii. uucoos
A||cs: Ao||o|tu, 1us.
1cjcdo|, Ccsa|. Iisria ue a IisI:a ei s: nar ::ra. Vad||d: Ld|e|oocs
Catcd|a. 1uus.
u|soo, J.C. Dc. De IisI:a y IisIs. Vad||d: Ld|e|oocs Catcd|a,1usz.
!'
Autoeva|uac|on N 1
1. S| ustcd aet ua| a eoo | ovcst | qado| co c| eao dc | as e| coe| as soe| a| cs,
_eoo eua| o eua| cs dc | as eo| | | cot cs i | | osoi | eas t | at adas co cst a uo| dad sc
| dcot| i| ea|ia? _lo| uc?
z. a, _Cuc d|ic|coe|as y sccjaozas cx|stco cot|c c| c|||so y c| |ca||so? o,
_Cua| doet||oa i||osoi|ea ai||a uc |a |azoo y c| eoooe||coto soo ocecsa||os
a|a eoooec| |a |ca||dad?
s. Sca|c co eada easo |os q|aodcs eoost|ueto|cs dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs uc,
scquo c| tcxto, sc uo|eao co |as d|vc|sas cseuc|as i||osoi|eas.
!. Sca|c |as ||oe|a|cs ea|aetc|ist|eas dc |a icoocoo|oqia dc lussc||. tucqo,
cx||uc eua| cs c| oojct|vo i|oa| dc lussc|| y o| uc.
s. _Cua|cs soo |os dos ocotos uc sc d|st|oquco co |a i||osoiia dc| |coquajc dc
w|ttqcostc|o? Ca|aetc||ec |os jucqos ||oquist|eos dc aeuc|do eoo cstc i||osoio.
"
Contro| de |ectura N 1
1. Dc dos cjc|os, co eada eatcqo|ia, dc: a. |oo|cas ci||eos y o. |oo|cas
eooectua|cs.
z. _Soo o oo cxe|uycotcs |as euat|o eatcqo|ias cxucstas co |a |cetu|a a|a |a
e|as|i|eae|oo dc |os |oo|cas? _lo| uc?
s. _lo| uc |as e|coe|as dc| ooo|c so|o |aotcao, scquo c| auto|, |oo|cas
odcstos?
!. _Cua|cs soo |as eood|e|oocs a|a uc uo |oo|ca tcoqa |a |o|cdad dc sc| uo
|oo|ca e|cotii|eo o|co io|u|ado?
s. _Coo sc dci|oc uo s|stca tco||eo?
. Dc uo cjc|o dc uo icoocoo o oceoo soe|a| y |aotcc, co eada uoa dc |as 1o
suoeatcqo|ias, |as |cquotas c|t|ocotcs co |a io|a uc uuoqc |o oaec eoo c|
eooecto dc odc|.
. lod|uc, co eada cstad|o, dos o t|cs |cquotas soo|c |oo|cas a|t|eu|a|cs
dcot|o dc| csuca qcoc|a| dc |cso|ue|oo dc |oo|cas co |as e|coe|as iaet|eas,
dc oceoos dc |a |ca||dad.
s. _Lo uc eoos|stco |os |oo|cas i||osoi|eos? _Cua|cs soo sus ||oe|a|cs ea-
|aetc|ist|eas?
"
La conatrucc|on
ep|atemo|oq|ca
de |aa c|enc|aa aoc|a|ea
"
LA CONSTRUCCIN EPISTEMOLGICA DE LAS CIENCIAS SOCIALES
"!
|ntroducc|on
Coo |o adc|aotaos co |as ||c|as aq|oas dc cstc odu|o, |a scquoda uo|dad csta
dcst|oada a t|ata| c| d||ca ||oe|a| uc sc d|o co |a eoost|uee|oo dc |as e|coe|as soe|a-
|cs, ecot|ado, co tc||oos qcoc|a|cs, co |a c|cee|oo dc| odc|o dc |as e|coe|as oatu|a|cs
a|a csa eoost|uee|oo o co |a c|cee|oo dc| odc|o uc t|coco |as e|coe|as dc |as eu|tu|a.
Cada uoo dc csos odc|os t|coc, dcsdc c| uoto dc v|sta dc |a c|stco|oqia, va||as
d|ic|coe|as sustaot|vas, eoo |os |cjaoos oo||zootcs i||osoi|eos co |os eua|cs coeuco-
t|ao su u|t|o iuodacoto, |a ea|aetc||zae|oo dc| oojcto dc eoooe||coto, a |as eua|cs
dcoc|iao |cic|||sc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs, |a cst|uetu|a dc sus tco|ias, dc sus ctodos y
tceo|eas y, c| ||oe|a| dc c||os, uc d|st|oquc octacotc dos t|os dc e|coe|as soe|a|cs,
|a i|oa||dad u|t|a dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo soe|a|.
Lo c| |oecso dc eoost|uee|oo dc oucst|as e|coe|as, uc sc |o|e|a co io|a iuodacota-
da y s|stcat|ea dcsdc cd|ados dc| s|q|o asado, c| d||ca uc sc da |csceto dc |a
i|oa||dad u|t|a dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs y, co tc||oos csceii|eos, |a dc| oojct|vo dc |a
|ovcst|qae|oo soe|a|, sc eoooc dc dos |oucstas aotaqoo|eas. lo| uo |ado, cstao |os
e|cotii|eos soe|a|cs a|a u|cocs |a i|oa||dad u|t|a dc cstas e|coe|as cs |a dc cx||ea|
|os icoocoos uc cstud|a, o| c| ot|o, cstao |os e|cotii|eos soe|a|cs a|a u|cocs csa
i|oa||dad cs |a dc eo|codc| o |otc||cta| |os icoocoos dc |a |ca||dad soe|a|. Lo aoos
easos, csa i|oa||dad |||ea uo ctodo d|ic|cotc uc, co qcoc|a|, cs c| dc |as e|coe|as
uc |cs s||vco dc odc|o. lc|o, |cct|os, |a d|ic|coe|a cscoe|a| sc cx|csa co |a io|a
dc da| eucota dc |os |csu|tados uc oot|coc |a |ovcst|qae|oo uc sc |ca||za co eada uoa
dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs.
S| o|co, eoo d|j|os co c| a||aio aotc||o|, |a eooi|ootae|oo dc csas dos os|e|oocs sc
c|cza a da| co io|a d||cetacotc oucsta dcsdc cd|ados dc| s|q|o asado y ||cqa
oasta oucst|os dias. ta d|ic|coe|a cot|c cx||eae|oo c |otc||ctae|oo sc |coota, eoo |o
sca|a voo w||qot, a dos q|aodcs t|ad|e|oocs dcot|o dc |a i||osoiia dc |a e|coe|a: |a
t|ad|e|oo a||stotc||ea y |a t|ad|e|oo qa|||caoa ( Ljiaii y njreisii. Vad||d, A||ao-
""
za.1uso,. ta ||c|a t|coc su uoto dc a|t|da co A||stotc|cs, a|a u|co |a |ovcst|qae|oo
e|cotii|ea dc |os icoocoos so|o tc||oa euaodo sc da uoa |azoo dc su oeu||coe|a, cs
dce||, euaodo sc |os ucdc eo|codc|. S| o|co c| i||osoio usa c| tc||oo cx||eae|oo, oo
eoos|dc|aoa |a cx||eae|oo co tc||oos dc eausas atc||a|cs, s|oo co tc||oos dc eau-
sas i|oa|cs, dc oatu|a|cza tc|co|oq|ea uc ud|c|a da| eucota, co io|a e|a|a, eoo uc i|o
oeu||iao |os icoocoos o|o|oq|eos y atc||a|cs. Coo sc od|a a|ce|a| co c| tc|ec|
eaitu|o dc csta uo|dad, csa eooece|oo a||stotc||ea dc eausa t|coc sccjaozas eoo |a
ousucda |a eo|cos|oo y |a |otc||ctae|oo uc sc da eoo uoa dc |as a|tc|oat|vas dc
eoost|uee|oo dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs |o|e|ada dcsdc c| s|q|o xlx.
ta ot|a t|ad|e|oo, |a qa|||caoa, s| o|co t|coc |aiecs uy aot|quas co |a i||osoiia q||cqa,
coeucot|a uo |c|cscotaotc dcstaeado co Ga|||co (s|q|o xvll, , co |a eoos|dc|ada eoo
oucva e|coe|a, y dci|oc |a cx||eae|oo e|cotii|ea eoo auc||a uc sc da co tc||oos dc
|cycs eausa|cs uc ucdco sc| cx|csadas co tc||oos atcat|eos. tas o|otcs|s
eausa|cs tcod|ao va|o| cx||eat|vo euaodo sus couoe|ados eo|oe|dao eoo |a oosc|vae|oo
dc |a |ca||dad cicetuada eoo c| aoa||s|s cxc||cota|.
L| eaitu|o z, uc |o|e|a |a uo|dad, ucst|a c| dcsa||o||o o|sto||eo dc |a oe|oo dc toa|
eoo odc|o dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs c| dc |as e|coe|as oatu|a|cs co euaoto csc odc-
|o, adcas dc csta| cst|uetu|ado o| tco|ias, t|coc eoo iuoe|oo i|oa| cx||ea| |os |csu|-
t ados dc | a | ovcst | qae| oo. vc| cos, s| o coa| qo, uc s| o| co sc aot | coco | as
ea|aetc|ist|eas oas|eas dc |a cx||eae|oo, sc dao |o|taotcs d|ic|coe|as co sus ||c-
|as io|u|ae|oocs oasta ||cqa| a uoa dci|o|e|oo eouocotc aectada dc ta| eooecto .
Lo c| eaitu|o s, sc oa|a uoa |cscotae|oo a|a|c|a dc |a eoost|uee|oo dc |as e|coe|as
soe|a|cs eoo e|coe|as uc ouseao |a eo|cos|oo o |a |otc||ctae|oo dc |os icoocoos
uc cstud|ao. vc|cos tao|co eoo csc eooecto cs ut|||zado co io|as uy d|ic|co-
tcs o| |os ||oe|a|cs |c|cscotaotcs dc ta| odc|o s|o uc, eoo co |a a|tc|oat|va
cx||eat|va, sc oaya ||cqado a uo aeuc|do soo|c c| s|qo|i|eado dc |a eo|cos|oo y dc |a
|otc||ctae|oo.
"#
Cap|tu|o s
La exp||cac|on en |aa c|enc|aa aoc|a|ea
Cooio|c a |o cx|csado co |a |ot|oduee|oo dc csta uo|dad, co cstc eaitu|o oa|cos
uoa |cscotae|oo |csu|da dc| eooecto dc cx||eae|oo, co a|quoos dc |os ||oe|a|cs
|c|cscotaotcs uc t|coco eoo odc|o c| dc |as e|coe|as oatu|a|cs a|a eoost|u|| |as
e|coe|as soe|a|cs.
Comte. La oaqueda de |eyea |nvar|antea
Auqusto Cotc ( 1us - 1ss , cs eoos|dc|ado c| ||c| |c|cscotaotc dc| os|t|v|so,
csce|a|cotc o| u|cocs ataeao |a |oucsta dc eoost|u|| |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs dc
aeuc|do eoo c| odc|o dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs, auo euaodo c| tc||oo os|t|v|sta aoa|-
ea ot|os uotos dc v|sta uc oada t|coco uc vc| eoo |a doet||oa eot|aoa.
tas oo|as dc Cotc C:rs ue IisI:a jsiiva y Dis:rs sire e esj:ri: jsiiv
eoot|coco |o cscoe|a| dc su i||osoiia dc |as e|coe|as. Lo c||as, ai||a uc c| vc|dadc|o
eoooe||coto cs c| |oo|e|ooado o| |as e|coe|as y |ceoaza, eoosceucotccotc, todo
eoooe||coto uc oo |ov|coc dc |os oceoos, csce|a|cotc c| io|ado o| c|aoo|ae|o-
ocs ctaiis|eas.
L| csi||tu os|t|vo ( c| os|t|v|so eot|aoo , sc aoya co c| eoooe||coto dc |as e|co-
e|as, todas |as eua|cs dcoco ut|||za| uo |so ctodo uc cs c| ctodo dc |as e|coe|as
cxaetas iis|eo-atcat|eas. ta e|coe|a asi qu|ada c||tc da| cx||eae|oocs dc |os ic-
oocoos cstud|ados a| |od|ea| |a eausa dc c||os. A csa| dc |a |o|taoe|a ecot|a| dada
a |os oceoos, io|u|a uoa sc||c dc |cycs |ova||aotcs oasadas co c|as eooectua||za-
e|oocs, aoyada co uoa tco|ia dc |a oatu|a|cza ouaoa, cot|c c||as |a uy eoooe|da ey
ue s res esauis scquo |a eua| c| dcsa||o||o dc |a cotc, c| eoooe||coto y |a o|sto||a
dc| uodo asaoa o| c| esaui epi, e esaui neaI:si y e esaui jsiiv. Ls
"$
LA EXPLICACIN EN LAS CIENCIAS SOCIALES
co cstc u|t|o cstad|o doodc |os |ovcst|qado|cs ouseao |as |cycs |ova||aotcs co todas
|as |aas dc |as e|coe|as ootco|das cd|aotc |a tco||zae|oo aost|aeta. S|o coa|qo,
|oq|cs|vacotc, |as |cycs aost|aetas ||ao dcsaa|ce|codo a|a sc| |cc|azadas o|
|cycs as eooe|ctas.
Dcot|o dc su os|t|v|so, Cotc tcoia uoa eooece|oo uo|i|eada dc |as e|coe|as ya uc,
scquo c|, todas |ovcoiao dc uo t|ooeo eouo |o uc c||tia e|as|i|ea||as scquo c|
||oe||o dc qcoc|a||dad dce|ce|cotc: ||c|o, |as atcat|eas, eoo |a e|coe|a as
qcoc|a|, |ucqo, |a ast|oooia: dcsucs, |a iis|ea ceao|ea, |a ui|ea, |a o|o|oqia y,
i|oa|cotc, |a soe|o|oqia o iis|ea soe|a|. Ls dc oaec| oota| uc iuc Cotc c| ||c|o co
ut|||za| c| tc||oo soe|o|oqia a|a |cic|||sc a |a e|coe|a dc |a soe|cdad.
uarx. La exp||cac|on d|a|ct|ca
Coo co |os ot|os q|aodcs eoost|ueto|cs dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs, co Ca||os Va|x (1s1s
- 1ssz , |a cx||eae|oo csta eo|cod|da dcot|o dc| ctodo. Dc aoc|a |csu|da, csc
ctodo sc coeucot|a co c| Irp ue a irii:ii a a r:ia ue a ein:a j:ia,
L| ctodo dc |a ceoooia o|it|ea co Leneis I:iuaneiaes jara a r:ia ue a
ein:a j:ia, co d|vc|sas eoos|dc|ae|oocs ctodo|oq|eas uc oaec co L ajia,
Miseria ue a IisI:a y co La iuep:a aenaia.
la|a eocoza|, d|qaos uc co todo ocoto Va|x oaec uoa d|st|oe|oo octa cot|c |a
|ca||dad eooe|cta y c| cosa|coto uc sc |oyceta soo|c csa |ca||dad. Su i||osoiia
atc||a||sta |ceoooec |a ||aeia dc |o |ca| soo|c |a cotc, soo|c c| cosa|coto. Dcsdc
csc uoto dc a|t|da ai||a uc |o eooe|cto oo cs |odueto dc| cosa|coto, s|oo uc c|
oojcto |cic||do a |a |ca||dad uc aa|cec co |a cotc cs |odueto dc| cosa|coto, uc
cs |a uo|ea aoc|a dc a|o|a|sc dc |a |ca||dad eooe|cta.
Scquo Va|x, toda |a |ca||dad soe|a| csta soct|da a| ov||coto d|a|cet|eo uc s|qo|i|ea
uo |oecso c|aocotc dc eoot|ad|ee|oocs (o| cjc|o, eoot|ad|ee|oo cot|c |as iuc|zas
dc |oduee|oo y |as |c|ae|oocs dc |oduee|oo, cot|c |a ou|qucsia y c| |o|cta||ado,. Lsc
|oecso cs, eoos|dc|aodo |as e||euostaoe|as o|sto||eas eooe|ctas, |o uc dcoc|ia io|a|
c| oojcto qcoc|a| dc cstud|o dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo soe|a|, c|o co tc||oos csceii|eos,
eoo |o |otcota co L ajia, c| oojcto eoos|stc co dcseuo||| |a |cy uc |cs|dc c| ov|-
|coto dc |a soe|cdad odc|oa.
"%
Soo|c |as |c|ae|oocs cot|c |a |ca||dad eooe|cta y |a eooe|coe|a, o| uo |ado, y |as eoot|a-
d|ee|oocs uc sc dao co c| dcsa||o||o dc |a o|sto||a soe|a|, d|ec Va|x:
Li a jru:ii sia ue s: viua, s inires iraei ueerniiauas reaiies iee-
sarias e iiuejeiuieies ue s: v:iau, reaiies ue jru:ii :e rresjiuei a
:ia ueerniiaua Iase ue uesarr ue s:s I:erzas jru:ivas naeriaes. L ij:i
ue esas reaiies Irna a esr::ra einia ue a sieuau, a iase rea sire a
:e se evaia a s:jeresr::ra j:r:uia y j:ia y a a :e rresjiuei ueerniia-
uas Irnas ue iieiia sia. L nu ue jru:ii ue a viua naeria iuiiia
e jres ue a viua sia, j:ia y esjiri:a, ei peiera. A es a iieiia ue
inire a :e ueerniia s: ser, sii, jr e irari, e ser sia es :e ueerniia
s: iieiia. 4 epar a :ia ueerniiaua Iase ue uesarr, as I:erzas jru:ivas
naeriaes ue a sieuau eirai ei irauiii i as reaiies ue jru:ii eis-
eies, , :e i es nas :e :ia ejresii j:r:uia ue es, i as reaiies ue
jrjieuau ueir ue as :aes se iai ueseiv:e iasa a:. De Irnas ue uesarr ue
as I:erzas jru:ivas, esas reaiies se ivierei ei raias s:yas. Y se aire as:
:ia eja ue rev:ii sia. 4 aniiar a iase einia, se rev:iia, nas
neis rajiuaneie, ua a iineisa s:jeresr::ra eripiua sire ea ...
... ue nisn nu :e i juens j:zpar a :i iiuiviu: jr :e e jieisa ue s:, i
juens j:zpar anj a esas ejas ue rev:ii jr s: iieiia, sii :e, jr
e irari, iay :e ejiar esa iieiia jr as irauiiies ue a viua naeria,
jr e iIi eiseie eire as I:erzas jru:ivas siaes y as reaiies ue jr-
u:ii. Ca||os Va|x. l|o|oqo a |a eoot||oue|oo dc |a e|it|ea dc |a ceoooia o|it|ea co
C. Mar I. Lipes. Diras espiuas. Voseu: Ld|to||a| l|oq|cso s/i, . 1sz-1ss.
Lo c| |oecso d|a|cet|eo dc aee|oocs y eoot|ad|ee|oocs, |os icoocoos soe|a|cs cstao
|c|ae|ooados cot|c si co uoa eausa||dad d|a|cet|ea, scquo |a eua| uoo dc c||os ucdc sc|
|a eausa dc ot|o, c|o, a su vcz, cstc ucdc aetua| soo|c su eausa. Ls dce||, co |a
soe|cdad, y co tc||oos o|sto||eos, sc da uoa eausa||dad |cei|oea. lc|o, co |a soe|cdad
eooe|cta oada csta tota|cotc dctc||oado, coos auo, |as io|as uc toa|a |a |c|a-
e|oo cot|c |a aee|oo y |a eo||csood|cotc |caee|oo. lo| cjc|o, c| soe|a||so oo sc da|a
|ocxo|ao|ccotc, s|oo uc |cuc|||a |a aee|oo o|it|ea c|aocotc dc| |o|cta||ado a|a
uc asi suecda.
"&
ta eooece|oo atc||a||sta dc Va|x aa|cec |cai||ada co su eoac|o Loqc|s, eoo
sc a|ce|a co csta e|ta: Asrs rerians a as jsiiies naeriaisas y vvins
a ver ei s iejs ue i:esr ereir as inapeies ue s ijes reaes, ei vez ue
isiuerar a ess ue a :a Iase ue iej ais:... Ier i es, a jrjia
uiaeia ue iej se iver:a sinjeneie ei e reIej isieie ue n:iu
rea, :e e:ivae a jier a uiaeia iepeiaia aieza aiaj , nejr uii, a iiver-
ir a uiaeia, :e esaia aieza aiaj, jiieiua ue jie... (l. Loqc|s. L:uwip
Ie:eriai y e Iii ue a IisI:a asia aenaia. 1sss.,
Coo |cic|coe|a a ot|o dc |os tcas coe|ooados co |a |ot|oduee|oo a cstc odu|o, oay
uc dce|| uc a|a Va|x oo cs os|o|c sca|a| |os va|o|cs dc| |ovcst|qado| dc |os oceoos
o icoocoos soe|a|cs uc cstud|a.
Durkhe|m. La exp||cac|on por cauaaa
L| soe|o|oqo i|aoecs L||c Du|soc| (1sss - 1u1, cs c| ||oe|a| |c|cscotaotc dc|
a|ad|qa os|t|v|sta co |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs, scquo |a as|qoae|oo uc sc |c oaec dcsdc
|as os|e|oocs |dca||stas dc csas e|coe|as. S| o|co t|coc |oi|ucoe|as dc Cotc oo eo-
a|tc eoo c| sus c|ueuo|ae|oocs tco||eas y i||osoi|eas. Ls, si, uo c|||sta y |ca||sta
dce|d|do a|a u|co |a soe|o|oqia dcoc cstud|a| |os ieis siaes, eoo |oiuodas |o-
i|ucoe|as, eoo Va|x y wcoc|, co c| dcsa||o||o dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs.
_Cuc soo, a|a Du|soc|, |os oceoos soe|a|cs? Lo sus |o|as a|ao|as: .. isisei
ei naieras ue a:ar, ue jeisar y ue seiir :e esai uauas ue :i juer ue erii
ei vir:u ue :a se injiei a e ... (L. Du|soc|. Les Hepes ue a Meiue Sipi:e
la|is: l|csscs uo|vc|s|ta|||cs dc l|aoec, 1us, . s,.
Du|soc| d|st|oquc octacotc cot|c oceoos atc||a|cs y oceoos |oatc||a|cs. Soo cs-
tos u|t|os, eoo sus ea|aetc|ist|eas dc eoc|e|oo, |os uc eoost|tuyco c| oojcto dc cstud|o
dc |a soe|o|oqia. Lo a|ao|as aetua|cs, ta|cs oceoos eo||csoodco a va|o|cs y oo|as
|otc|oa||zadas euya eoc|e|oo eoos|stc co uc su oo eu|||coto ||cva a|quo q|ado dc
coo| o ayo| saoe|oo soe|a|.
Coo |c|ae|oo a |a cx||eae|oo, c| soe|o|oqo i|aoecs d|ec uc |os oceoos soe|a|cs dcoco
cx||ea|sc o| ot|os oceoos soe|a|cs. ta cx||eae|oo, eoo |o d|ec co |a |sa oo|a
"'
ctodo|oq|ea ya coe|ooada, eo|codc taoto |a eausa uc |o |oduec eoo |a iuoe|oo
uc eu|c.
tas |cq|as ctodo|oq|eas dc Du|soc| iuc|oo a||eadas co su oo|a L s:iiui, |ceoooe|-
da eoo c| odc|o o|sto||eo dc| odc|o eausa| u|t|va||ado uc tuvo uo a||o dcsa||o-
||o co |a ctodo|oqia euaot|tat|va eoo c| uso dc odc|oas tceo|eas cstadist|eas a||eadas
a |a |ovcst|qae|oo o| a|tc dc taza|sic|d, lyao, uoudoo y va||os ot|os |ovcst|qado|cs.
Su eooecto dc iuoe|oo soe|a|, cotcod|da eoo |a eoot||oue|oo os|t|va o ocqat|va dc uo
e|c|to oceoo soe|a| (o| cjc|o, c| east|qo, a| aotco||coto o eao|o dc |a cst|uetu|a
soe|a|, cs c| aotcecdcotc d||ceto dc| iuoe|ooa||so dc aot|oo|oqos eoo Va||ooWss|,
ade|iic - u|oWo y dc| cst|uetu|a| iuoe|ooa||so dc la|soos y Vc|too.
ua||nowak| y uerton. La exp||cac|on tunc|ona||ata
L| iuoe|ooa||so t|coc uoa |a|qa t|ad|e|oo co |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs, uc oa toado dc |a
o|o|oqia c| eooecto dc iuoe|oo. la|a Va||ooWss|, uoo dc |os ||oe|a|cs aot|oo|oqos
iuoe|ooa||stas juoto eoo ade||iic - u|oWo, c| aoa||s|s iuoe|ooa||sta dc |a eu|tu|a raa ue
ejiar ieis airjpis, ei us s iivees ue uesarr, jr e jaje :e ue-
senjeai ueir ue sisena a ue a ::ra, jr a naiera n se reaiiai eire
s: ueir ue sisena y jr a naiera n ese sisena se reaiia i e n:iu
I:si... L j:i ue visa I:iiia ue a ::ra iisise, j:es, ei e jriiiji ue :e ei
u ij ue iviizaii, u iaii, u ije naeria, ua iuea y ua reeiia
:nje ap:ia I:iii via, ieie ap:ia area :e reaizar , rejreseia :ia jare iiuis-
jeisaie ueir ue :i u ei I:iiianiei. u|oo|s|aW Va||ooWss|. Liyjaeuia
Sriaiiia. V. I . Nu|cva Yo|s y tood|cs, 1us, . 1sz-1ss . Ct|a dc |as oo|as as
|o|taotcs dc cstc aot|oo|oqo cs 4 SieiiIi 1iery I C::re.,
lo| |a d|vc|s|dad dc uotos dc v|sta uc sc oao dado dc| iuoe|ooa||so eoo ctodo dc
|ovcst|qae|oo y dc cx||eae|oo co |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs, c| soe|o|oqo oo|tcac||eaoo
1ooas Vc|too, co su ||oe|a| oo|a Sia 1iery aiu Sia Sr::re , G|coeoc, l||.,
1oc l|cc l|css, 1us,, |cscota uo a|eo eooectua|, dcoo|oado o| c| eoo c| ooo|c
dc :i jarauipna jara e aiaisis I:iiia ei sip:a, uc |ctcodc ooc| o|dco y
e|a||dad tco||ea y ctodo|oq|ea co csc eao cd|aotc c| aoa||s|s dc 11 eooectos
#
oas|eos dc| |so: 1. tos oojctos soe|a|cs y eu|tu|a|cs uc ucdco sc| soct|dos a|
aoa||s|s iuoe|ooa|, z. c| s|qo|i|eado dc d|sos|e|oocs suojct|vas, s. |os eooectos dc
eoosceucoe|as oojct|vas, cs dce||, |as iuoe|oocs y d|siuoe|oocs, !. uo|dadcs soe|a|cs
uc soo aicetadas o| |as iuoe|oocs, s. eooecto dc |c||cu|s|tos iuoe|ooa|cs, . eoo-
ecto dc |os ceao|sos soe|a|cs cd|aotc |os eua|cs sc cjc|e|tao |as iuoe|oocs, .
eooecto dc a|tc|oat|vas iuoe|ooa|cs, s. oostaeu|os a |as iuoe|oocs, u. eooecto dc
d|oa|ea y eao|o, 1o. eooecto dc va||dae|oo dc| aoa||s|s iuoe|ooa|, y 11. |oo|cas dc
|as |||eae|oocs |dco|oq|eas dc| aoa||s|s iuoe|ooa|.
uoa dc |as eoot||oue|oocs ||oe|a|cs dc Vc|too a| aoa||s|s soe|a| iuc |a |ot|oduee|oo dc
|os eooectos dc I:iiies naiiIiesas,cs dce||, |as eoosceucoe|as oojct|vas uc eoo-
t||ouyco a| ajustc o adatae|oo dc| s|stca |as eua|cs soo |ca||zadas y |ceoooe|das o|
sus |co|os, y |as I:iiies aeies, uc oo soo ouseadas |otcoe|ooa|cotc o| |ceo-
ooe|das o| |os |co|os dc| |cscet|vo s|stca soe|a|.
kar| opper. B| rac|ona||amo cr|t|co
L| cosa|coto c|stco|oq|eo dc ka|| loc| csta cxucsto, dc aoc|a ||oe|a|, co
su oo|a La pia ue a iivesipaii iei:Iia, uo||eada co a|cao co |us! y dc |a eua|
oay va||as cd|e|oocs co csao|. Ct|os ||o|os |o|taotcs dc| auto| soo Cije:ras y
reI:aiies, dc |uz, y L iiniei ijeiv, dc |uz.
Dcsdc c| uoto dc v|sta i||osoi|eo, loc| ucda uo|eado taoto co c| c|||so eoo
co c| |ca||so, co euaoto ai||a |a cx|stcoe|a dc uo uodo oojct|vo cxtc|oo a |a eoo-
e|coe|a (csceii|eacotc, co c| |ca||so e|cotii|eo, y co c| |ae|ooa||so, s| o|co a|qu-
oos t|atad|stas |o |c|ae|ooao eoo c| os|t|v|so |oq|eo. Lo su e|it|ea a |a os|e|oo
eoot|a||a, c| suojct|v|so, doet||oa uc ai||a uc oada cx|stc s| oo cosaos co a|qo,
loc| da va||os a|qucotos a iavo| dc| |ca||so, uoo dc |os eua|cs ucdc cx|csa|sc
asi: 1oda c|sooa ucdc eoostata| uc su v|da csta d|||q|da a aetua| soo|c |a |ca||dad
cxtc||o|, ya sca co c| eootcxto dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa o co |a aet|v|dad e|cotii|ea, s|c|c
sc d|||qc a a|qo uc sc eoos|dc|a cxtc|oo a| |od|v|duo. lo| ot|o |ado c| |oo|ca dc |a
vc|dad y dc |a ia|scdad dc oucst|as o|o|oocs y tco|ias oo tcod|ia o|oquo scot|do s| oo
ouo|csc uoa |ca||dad cxtc|oa.
#
B| concepto de teor|a
la|a loc|, |as e|coe|as ci||eas soo s|stcas dc tco|ias, |as tco|ias, a su vcz, soo
couoe|ados uo|vc|sa|cs (uc eo|codco todos |os easos a |os eua|cs oaeco |cic|coe|a.
G.u.,. lc|o cstos couoe|ados soo so|o ije:ras uc oaec c| e|cotii|eo soo|c |a |ca||-
dad. Nuoea odcos tcoc| |a ec|tcza uc oucst|a tco|ia sca vc|dadc|a. S|c|c eaoc |a
os|o|||dad dc uc ta| tco|ia sca ia|sa. A| |csceto, d|ec c| auto|:
A:esras er:as si iiveiiies y j:euei ser s:jsiiies ueIe:saneie I:iua-
uas, ije:ras a:uaes, iijesis. Ci eas reans :i n:iu: i e n:iu rea, sii
i:esras jrjias reues i as :aes iieians arajar e n:iu rea. Lsas reues
jreeiuei raiiaizar e n:iu, ejiar y uniiar. Y raans :e a naa sea
aua vez nas Iiia. ,La pia ue a iivesipaii iei:Iia. 1us, . s,
Coo a||as uc soo |as tco|ias, sus |otc|st|e|os dcjao cseaa| ueoos icoocoos y
ea|aetc|ist|eas dc| uodo uc cstud|aos. A| cst|ceoa| c| tcj|do dc |a a||a, a| oaec||a
as i|oa, soos eaaecs dc eata| as icoocoos y as dcta||cs, |oio|ae|oocs, dc
c||os. la|a cso, |as tco|ias cstao co eao|o eoot|ouo. tas tco|ias, a|a loc|, soo
s|stcas dcduet|vos, cs dce||, eoojuotos uc |c|ae|ooao d|vc|sas |oos|e|oocs dc ta|
odo uc |as |oos|e|oocs dc o|dco |oic||o| sc dc||vao |oq|eacotc dc |as dc o|dco
suc||o|. Cuaodo uoa |oos|e|oo csceii|ea uc sc |ci|c|c a uo icoocoo o| cx||ea|
sc dcduec |oq|eacotc dc ot|as qcoc|a|cs uc eoost|tuyco uoa tco|ia, sc d|ec uc csa
|oos|e|oo ( c| icoocoo , oa s|do cx||eada o| |a tco|ia.
Coo sc oa |os|st|do co aq|oas aotc||o|cs, a|a loc| todas |as tco|ias soo c|as
o|otcs|s, todas ucdco sc| |ceoazadas co uo e|c|to ocoto, a| sc| eoot|astadas eoo
|a |ca||dad. Lsta ai||ae|oo oo u|c|c dce||, s|o coa|qo, uc oaya uc aoaodooa| |a
ousucda dc |a vc|dad. Lo c| oceoo, d|ec loc|, |a vc|dad cs uoa |dca |cqu|ado|a uc
quia oucst|as |ovcst|qae|oocs. Lo ta| |oecso sc |oecdc a |a eoot|astae|oo dc |as tco-
|ias a|a coeoot|a| |a vc|dad y c|||oa| |a ia|scdad. Cuc oo odaos da| |azoocs sui|-
e|cotcs dc oucst|as eoojctu|as oo s|qo|i|ea uc eoo a|quoas dc c||as oo oos oayaos
aec|eado a |a |ca||dad. C sca, a|quoas dc oucst|as o|otcs|s ucdco sc| vc|dadc|as
auouc ouoea odaos saoc||o eoo ec|tcza. Coo d|ec c| auto|: Sns i:saures ue
a veruau, jer i s:s jseeures.
#
Laa c|enc|aa aoc|a|ea
Lo c| eao dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs, loc| sc |ouso, eoo i|oa||dad ||oe|a|, |ciu-
ta| c| iisriisn, eoo ctodo a|a |cdce|| c| dcsa||o||o dc |a soe|cdad (eoo |o
oaec, o| cjc|o, c| a|x|so,. Su |oucsta sc coeucot|a co |a oo|a Miseria ue
iisriisn co |a eua|, dcsucs dc |ciuta| uc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs ucdao io|u|a|
|oiceias o|sto||eas dc |a|qo a|eaoec, loc| |oooc vo|vc| a| ctodo e|cotii|eo dc-
duet|vo, eoo |as ea|aetc|ist|eas csce|a|cs uc ya iuc|oo sca|adas, as |a ta|ca dc
|oooc| so|ue|oocs a |oo|cas eooe|ctos (eoo |a oo|cza, c| aoa|iaoct|so, c| dc |a
o|cs|oo o|it|ea, cte.,. Suq|c|c, co csa |ioca, uoa ctodo|oqia uc c||ta c| dcsa||o||o
dc uoa ieiia sia eipia eoo |o d|ec co |a s|qu|cotc e|ta:
Li jsiii a a neup:a iisriisa, jur:ans ieiir :ia neup:a :y
Iii I:era :ia ieiia sia eipia. Lia neup:a ue esa ase iu:ir:a a :i
es:ui ue as eyes peieraes ue a viua sia :y Iii ser:a e ue ues:irir us
a:es ieis :e ueier:a nar ei :eia e :e :isiera reIrnar as iisi:iies
siaes Miseria ue iisriisn. Vad||d: A||aoza 1au|us, . o,.
ta a||eae|oo dc |a tco|ia tceoo|oq|ea eoost|tuyc, a|a loc|, uoa aet|v|dad dc iipeiie-
r:a sia, oucsta a |a |ctcod|da |oqco|c|ia oo|ist|ea dc |a os|e|oo o|sto||e|sta. Lsa
|oqco|c|ia soe|a| |a dcscca|ia c| iipeiier sia Irapneiari, euya ||oe|a| iuoe|oo
sc|ia |a dc |oyceta| |ost|tue|oocs soe|a|cs y |ceoost|tu|| y aocja| |as ya cx|stcotcs.
1oda |a aee|oo dc ta| |oqco|c|o dcoc|ia csta| oasada co c| ctodo dc| cosayo cd|aotc
|a |oos|e|oo dc uoa o|otcs|s y dc| c||o|, soct|da a |a |ucoa dc |a eoot|astae|oo
ci||ea, cs dce||, co c| ctodo e|cotii|eo uc cs c| uo|eo a|a cstud|a| icoocoos
oatu|a|cs o soe|a|cs, s|o c|ju|e|o dc |ceoooec| d|ic|coe|as co su a||eae|oo. lc|o, co c|
ioodo, ta| ctodo c||tc oi|cec| cx||eae|oocs dcduet|vas dc |a cst|uetu|a y eao|o dc
|a soe|cdad.
Lazarate|d. La exp||cac|on eatad|at|ca y e| tactor de prueoa
ta cx||eae|oo cstadist|ea cs uoa dc |as io|as dc cx||eae|oo uc eoo as i|ceucoe|a
sc ut|||za co |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs. Lo io|a s|||i|eada sc suc|c dce|| uc euaodo uoa
va||ao|c (icoocoo, csta asoe|ada a ot|a va||ao|c (ot|o icoocoo,, |a ||c|a cx||ea a |a
#!
||c|a s| aotcecdc a |a ||c|a y cx|stc uoa asoe|ae|oo as o coos iuc|tc cot|c c||as.
lo| cjc|o, s| sc da uoa eo||c|ae|oo (|, dc o, cot|c o|vc|cs dc cseo|a||dad y sa|a||o, sc
d||ia uc |a cdueae|oo cs |a eausa dc |os ayo|cs o coo|cs sa|a||os cot|c |as c|sooas
o, d|eoo co ot|os tc||oos, a ayo| cdueae|oo ayo| sa|a||o.
Lo io|a as c|aoo|ada, |a cx||eae|oo cstadist|ea usa c| euad|ado dc |a eo||c|ae|oo dc
lca|soo ( | ,, ||aado eoci|e|cotc dc dctc||oae|oo, eoo |oecd||coto dc cx||eae|oo.
Asi, s| sc oa ootco|do uoa eo||c|ae|oo dc o,o cot|c o|vc|cs dc cseo|a||dad dc |a ad|c y
|oq|o cseo|a| co atcat|eas dc uo q|uo dc cseo|a|cs, cotooecs sc d||ia uc |a cseo|a-
||dad dc |a ad|c cx||ea|ia c| o,s dc| |oq|o co atcat|eas.
lqua| |oecd||coto cx||eat|vo sc ut|||za eoo c| euad|ado dc uoa eo||c|ae|oo u|t||c (
a| euad|ado, o eoo eada uoo dc |os eoci|e|cotcs uc sc dao co uoa |cq|cs|oo u|t||c.
Ct|as io|as as avaozadas dc cx||eae|oo cstadist|ea sc dao eoo c| aiaisis ue seiue-
rs uc cs uo odc|o dc eausa||dad dcot|o dc| aoa||s|s soe|a| u|t|va||ado.
csceto dc |as cx||eae|oocs cstadist|eas oasadas co o|ecotajcs uc ai||ao uc
uoa |oo|e|oo x dc |os datos t|coco eoojuotacotc |as |o|cdadcs A y u, co su
ayo|ia soo so|o dcse||e|oocs dc |a s|tuae|oo uc sc da cot|c dos va||ao|cs. lo|
cjc|o, uc c| zs dc |as c|sooas dc oaja cseo|a||dad ao|i|cstc |otc|cs co |a o|i-
t|ea, |cot|as uc co |as c|sooas dc ayo| cseo|a||dad sca dc| ss, cs so|o uoa
dcse||e|oo uc od|ia tcoc| ayo| o coo| va|o| cx||eat|vo scquo |a ayo| eoos-
taoe|a uc tcoqa c| va|o| coeoot|ado co q|uos cstud|ados co d|vc|sas oo|tuo|dadcs.
lc|o co todos |os easos, oo sc t|ata dc cx||eae|oocs, co scot|do cst||eto (o| eausa| o|
dcduet|vo, , s|oo dc |a cx|stcoe|a dc uoa |c|ae|oo cot|c dos va||ao|cs, uc, s|o duda,
t|coc va|o| |oio|at|vo.
Ct|a io|a dc cx||eae|oo cstadist|ea co |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs cs |a dada o| lau|
taza|sic|d cd|aotc |a |ot|oduee|oo dc uo Iar ue jr:eia variaie aieeueie co
uoa asoe|ae|oo coeoot|ada cot|c dos va||ao|cs. lo| cjc|o, s| |os datos |ceoq|dos co
uoa |ovcst|qae|oo ucst|a uc |as c|sooas eoo ayo| |oio|ae|oo o|it|ea (va||ao|c
|odccod|cotc, votao (va||ao|c dccod|cotc, co ayo| |oo|e|oo uc |as uc t|coco c-
oos |oio|ae|oo sc od|ia dce||, dcsdc uo uoto dc v|sta cstadist|eo, uc |a |oio|ae|oo
cx||ea |a d|sos|e|oo a vota|. lc|o dc oucvo odcos |cquota|oos, o| uc c||o cs asi,
y cotooecs |a |csucsta od|ia sc| uc |as c|sooas eoo ayo| |oio|ae|oo t|coco ta-
#"
o|co ayo| cdueae|oo. Lsta tc|ec|a va||ao|c va||ao|c aotcecdcotc eu|c uoa iuoe|oo
cx||eat|va o eausa|, s| sc eu|co cstas eood|e|oocs: a, |as t|cs va||ao|cs eoos|dc|adas
dcoco csta| |c|ae|ooadas cot|c si, o, euaodo sc eoot|o|a |a va||ao|c aotcecdcotc, |a
|c|ae|oo cot|c |a va||ao|c |odccod|cotc y |a va||ao|c dccod|cotc oo dcoc dcsaa|cec|, y
e, euaodo sc eoot|o|a |a va||ao|c |odccod|cotc, |a |c|ae|oo cot|c |a va||ao|c aotcecdcotc
y |a va||ao|c dccod|cotc dcoc dcsaa|cec| (Soo|c csta io|a dc c|aoo|ae|oo dc uoa
|c|ae|oo |oucsta o| taza|sic|d sc ucdc eoosu|ta| a Vo|||s oscooc|q. 1ie Lpi I
S:rvey 4iaysis. NcW Yo|s: uas|e uoos, 1us. Ca. s, a lc|ao toctoc| Dooa|d
Ve1av|so. Desrijive Saisis Ir Sipiss. uostoo: A||yo aod uaeoo, 1u!. Ca.
s, o a L|ocst Naqc|. La esr::ra ue a ieiia. uucoos A||cs: la|dos, 1us. Ca. xlv,
cot|c ot|as iucotcs c|t|ocotcs.,
Bourd|eu. La exp||cac|on aoc|o|oq|ca
tos soe|o|oqos i|aoecscs l|c||c uou|d|cu, Jcao C|audc Coaoo|cdoo y Jcao C|audc
lassc|oo, eoo i|c|cs d|seiu|os dc| c|stco|oqo dc su |sa oae|ooa||dad Gastoo
uaeoc| a| d, uo | ae| ooa| | so a| | eado , aect ao dc c| | os | o| t aot cs | cect os
ctodo|oq|eos dc |a r:j:ra y dc |a vipiaiia ejisenpia (l. uou|d|cu, J. C.
Coaoo|cdoo y J. l. lassc|oo. L Iii ue sip. uucoos A||cs: S|q|o xxl, 1us,
ta |utu|a c|stco|oq|ea s|qo|i|ea |a ocecs|dad uc t|coc c| |ovcst|qado|, a| cstud|a| uo
e|c|to icoocoo soe|a|, dc |oc| eoo |as o|o|oocs dc| scot|do eouo: |as |cooe|oocs,
|as |dco|oqias, eoo tao|co eoo |as |o|as t|ad|e|oocs |otc|cetua|cs co |as eua|cs csc
|ovcst|qado| oa s|do soe|a||zado. Lsa ta|ca, scquo uaeoc|a|d, eoost|tuyc c| oucvo csi-
||tu e|cotii|eo (uaeoc|a|d G. L i:ev esj:ri: iei:Ii. La Irnaii ue esj:ri: iei:-
Ii. Cirii:ii a :i jsiaiaisis ue iiniei ijeiv) y sc eu|c eoo |a vipiaiia
ue a razi, eoo |a vipiaiia ejisenpia. Lstc t|o dc v|q||aoe|a c||tc asa| dc uo
eoooe||coto coos vc|dadc|o a uo eoooe||coto as vc|dadc|o o cjo| eoost|u|do
o| c| |ovcst|qado|. Adcas, eoo ta| aet|tud cs os|o|c |ceoaza| c| t|o dc c|||so
|oqcouo a|a c| eua| sc ucdc tcoc| uo eoooe||coto d||ceto, |ocd|ato, dc| oojcto dc
|ovcst|qae|oo.
S|qu|codo uoa dc |as |cq|as ctodo|oq|eas dc Du|soc| euya |oi|ucoe|a co c||os cs
cv|dcotc scquo |a eua| todo icoocoo soe|a| dcoc sc| cx||eado o| |o soe|a| y so|o o|
##
|o soe|a|, |os auto|cs dc| DIii ue aip sost|coco uc oo sc dcoc |couoe|a| aot|e|-
adacotc a csa |cq|a y, o| c| eoot|a||o, cs ocecsa||o ousea| uoa cx||eae|oo soe|o|o-
q|ea a todo oceoo soe|a| cstud|ado, aqotaodo todas |as os|o|||dadcs. Lsto s|qo|i|ea
cv|ta| |a tcotae|oo dc ousea| cx||eae|oocs o|o|oq|eas o s|eo|oq|eas eoo |ceu|sos
a|tc|oat|vos a |o uc dcoc sc| |o|o dc |a d|se|||oa: |a cx||eae|oo soe|o|oq|ea. Coo
a|a Du|soc| |a cx||eae|oo dcoc ousea| |a eausa dc |os oceoos soe|a|cs, dcoc|iaos
cotcodc| uc |a cx||eae|oo soe|o|oq|ea dc |a eua| t|atao |os soe|o|oqo i|aoecscs euyo
cosa|coto cstaos |cscotaodo cs tao|co dc t|o eausa|.
Bxp||cac|onea ost rnotum
Ls i|ceucotc coeoot|a| co |a |ovcst|qae|oo soe|o|oq|ea cx||eae|oocs dc a|quoos |csu|ta-
dos cd|aotc c| uso dc o|otcs|s io|u|adas dcsucs dc tc||oada |a |ovcst|qae|oo y
eoo |oos|to dc da| eucota tco||ea dc ta|cs |csu|tados: soo |as ||aadas o| Vc|too, co
su oo|a ya e|tada, Ljiaiies sipias js Ia:n.
la|a eo|codc| csta io|a dc cx||eae|oo odcos da| c| s|qu|cotc cjc|o: co uoa
|ovcst|qae|oo sc coeucot|a uc |as c|sooas dcsoeuadas |cco coos uc |as c|sooas
uc t|coco uoa oeuae|oo o|uc co |as ||c|as |a aos|cdad uc |cs |oduec su s|tua-
e|oo dc dcsoeuadas |cs ||dc eooecot|a|sc y oa||a| sat|siaee|oo eoo |a |cetu|a.
Lo qcoc|a|, cstas o|otcs|s, a|a tcoc| uo va|o| cx||eat|vo, dcoc|iao soctc| a eoo-
t|astae|oo ci||ea, c|o eoo sc io|u|ao a jseriri so|o od|ia eooecdc|sc|cs c|
ea|aetc| dc o|otcs|s |aus|o|c, cs dce||, uc ucdco o oo ucdco sc| vc|dadc|as.
Coo csta cx||eae|oo soe|o|oq|ea tc||oaos cstc |a|do |ceo|||do o| |a o|sto||a dc |a
eoost|uee|oo dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs eoo e|coe|as cx||eat|vas. Lo c| |ox|o eaitu-
|o oa|cos uo |ceo|||do sccjaotc, c|o |cic||do a |a eoost|uee|oo dc |as e|coe|as soe|a-
|cs eoo e|coe|as eo|cos|vas o |otc||ctat|vas.
#$
#%
Cap|tu|o 4
La comprena|on e |nterpretac|on en |aa c|enc|aa aoc|a|ea
Lo c| eaitu|o aotc||o| sc |aotca|oo d|vc|sas |oucstas dc eoost|uee|oo dc |as e|co-
e|as soe|a|cs a|a oaec| dc c||as e|coe|as cx||eat|vas. S| o|co cx|stc va||ae|oo cot|c
csas |oucstas, co c| ioodo eo|oe|dco co uc |a cx||eae|oo dcoc oaec|sc o| |a |dcot|-
i|eae|oo dc eausas, asoe|ada eoo uo e|c|to icoocoo o eoo su dcduee|oo a a|t|| dc |as
|oos|e|oocs dc uoa tco|ia. ta cxece|oo csta|ia dada o| |a cx||eae|oo iuoe|ooa||sta.
Coo od|cos vc| co cstc eaitu|o, co c| ot|o cxt|co dc |a eoost|uee|oo dc |as e|co-
e|as soe|a|cs sc |oooc oaec| dc c||as e|coe|as eo|cos|vas o |otc||ctat|vas. lc|o, a
d|ic|coe|a dc |a |oucsta cx||eat|va, co cstc |ado dc| d||ca oo sc ||cqa a uoa aecta-
e|oo uoao|c dc |os eooectos dc eo|cos|oo o dc |otc||ctae|oo. Coo sc ucdc
eoostata| a| eoa|a| ta|cs eooectos co |os ||oe|a|cs |c|cscotaotcs dc csta a|tc|oa-
t|va uc sc |cscotao a eoot|ouae|oo.
D||they. Laa c|enc|aa de| eap|r|tu
1a| vcz |a ||c|a |caee|oo eoot|a |a |oucsta dc eoost|u|| |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs eoo
e|coe|as cx||eat|vas, toaodo eoo odc|o a|a su cst|uetu|ae|oo y ctodo|oqia a |as
e|coe|as oatu|a|cs, iuc |a dc| i||osoio ocqc||aoo w||oc D||tocy ( 1sss - 1u11 ,. la|a c|,
|as uc dcoo|oa ieiias ue esj:ri:, eoo |a o|sto||a y ot|as d|se|||oas uc sc
oeuao dc |a eu|tu|a, dcoco tcoc| uo iuodacoto c|stco|oq|eo d|ic|cotc a| uc sc |c da
a |as e|coe|as oatu|a|cs, ucs |cot|as |as ||c|as t|atao eoo s|qo|i|eados eu|tu|a|cs,
|as scquodas sc |ci|c|co y cstud|ao oceoos cxtc|oos. l|cotc a |a cx||eae|oo os|t|v|sta,
eoo dcoo|oa a| oojct|vo i|oa| dc |as e|coe|as oatu|a|cs, |as e|coe|as dc| csi||tu
dcoco ousea| a njreisii ( vc|stcoco , dc |as cx|cs|oocs eu|tu|a|cs. Lsta eo-
|cos|oo cs os|o|c o|uc c| oojcto dc cstud|o oo cs a|qo cxtc|oo a| ooo|c s|oo uc
io|a a|tc dc su cxc||coe|a ya uc |as |ca||dadcs cs|||tua|cs o eu|tu|a|cs oao s|do
e|cadas o| c| ooo|c |so co c| eu|so dc |a o|sto||a. Lo c| eao io|ado o| ta|cs
#&
LA COMPRENSIN E INTERPRETACIN EN LAS CIENCIAS SOCIALES
|ca||dadcs, c| ooo|c sc coeucot|a co uo uodo uc cs |o|o dc su cscoe|a y ucdc,
cotooecs, |oq|a| su eo|cos|oo.
R|ckert. C|enc|a cu|tura| y c|enc|a natura|
Dcsdc uoo dc |os uotos dc v|sta dc |a c|stco|oqia, |a |coeuae|oo ||oe|a| dc|
i||osoio a|cao lc|o||eo |esc|t (1ss - 1us, csta d|||q|da a coeoot|a| |a d|ic|coe|a
oas|ea cot|c |as ieiias ia:raes y |as uc c| dcoo|oa ieiias ue a ::ra, tca a|
eua| csta dcd|eado su ||o|o Cieiia ::ra y ieiia ia:ra, dc 1u1o. Lsa d|ic|coe|a |a
coeucot|a co |os d|st|otos ctodos uc ut|||za eada uoo dc csos t|os dc e|coe|a. la|a
|esc|t, |as e|coe|as oatu|a|cs c|cao c| neu peieraizaur, eoost|tu|do o| eoojuo-
tos dc |oecd||cotos uc ouseao eoooe||cotos qcoc|a|cs dc |os oojctos oae|a |os
eua|cs sc d|||qc su |ovcst|qae|oo. Lo sus a|ao|as:
Cier a ia:raeza sipiiIiara... Irnar i eeneis :iiversaes iejs :iiver-
saes, y, :aiu sea jsiie, jri:iiar ais:aneie :iiversaes ,ju|e|os, sire a rea-
iuau, es es, ues:irir iejs ue ieyes unturnies :ya eseiia pia ii:ya e i
ieier iaua ue :e se ei:eire saneie ei a :a jres siip:ar e iiuiviu:a
,Dj. i. dc |a cd|e|oo dc Lsasa Ca|c A|qcot|oa dc |u!s,.
Lo |csuco: |as e|coe|as oatu|a|cs soo, a|a |esc|t, d|se|||oas uc ouseao |a io|u|a-
e|oo dc qcoc|a||zae|oocs soo|c |os oojctos uc sc cstud|ao, cs dce||, ouseao io|u|a|
|cycs. Coo |a dcoo|oae|oo dc w|odc|oaod, ta|cs d|se|||oas soo ieiias ineias.
Aoo|a odcos |cquota|oos eua| cs c| ctodo |o|o dc |as e|coe|as eu|tu|a|cs. ta
|csucsta dc |esc|t cs |a s|qu|cotc: cs c| neu iiuiviu:aizaur iuipraIi. tas
e|coe|as eu|tu|a|cs o o|sto||eas, co scot|do a||o, oo ouseao qcoc|a||zae|oocs, oo |c-
tcodco io|u|a| |cycs: su ta|ca eoos|stc co |a ousucda dc s|oqu|a||dadcs, dc |os asce-
tos a|t|eu|a|cs uc |od|v|dua||zao uo dctc||oado icoocoo. Lo a|ao|as dc| auto|:
La reaiuau se iae ia:raeza :aiu a isiuerans i reIereiia a s :iiversaes
,a sus ascetos qcoc|a|cs, eouocs a todos |os |od|v|duos dc uoa e|asc. G. u,.
Y, ei isiaiia i e, :ier jier e jreuer peieraizaur ue a ieiia ia:ra
a jreuer iuoiviouniiznoor ue a iisria . ,Dj. i. aq. us,.
#'
uax weoer. Loa t|poa |dea|ea
tas oo|as ctodo|oq|eas dc| soe|o|oqo a|cao Vax wcoc| (Lin:a y sieuau, 1uzz,
Lisays sire neup:a sipia, e.) sc |ose||oco, co a|tc, co c| eootcxto dc
|as |coeuae|oocs dc D||tocy, |esc|t y w|odc|oaod, |c|at|vas a cstao|cec| |as d|ic|co-
e|as iuodacota|cs cot|c |as e|coe|as dc |a oatu|a|cza y |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs. Coo
D||tocy, sc eoos|dc|aoa uc toda d|se|||oa uc sc oeua|a ya sca dc icoocoos siu|-
eos, soe|a|cs o iis|eos c|a e|coe|a. lc|o, co eoot|ad|st|oe|oo eoo csc auto|, wcoc| oo
e|cia uc |a |cic|coe|a a s|qo|i|eae|oocs y va|o|cs, o| a|tc dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs o
eu|tu|a|cs, |as eo|oea|a co uoa e|asc d|ic|cotc dc auc||as e|coe|as uc cstao|ceco |cycs
eausa|cs. Lo oose|oo a |esc|t, oo eo|oeaoa a |a e|coe|a oatu|a| y a |as e|coe|as soe|a-
|cs, co qcoc|a|, co eaos oucstos co euaoto a |a |ce|s|oo dc| eoooe||coto |oq|ado,
ucs cstas u|t|as ucdco |oq|a| csa eood|e|oo eoo c| uso dc uo |oecd||coto t|o|oq|eo
y, eoo |o vc|cos |ucqo, o|uc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs ucdco |oq|a| uo t|o csce|a| dc
cx||eae|oo cd|aotc |a eoost|uee|oo y uso dc ijs iueaes.
wcoc| ea|aetc||zaoa a |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs o eu|tu|a|cs eoo d|se|||oas uc aoa||zao
icoocoos dc |a |ca||dad co tc||oos dc su s|qo|i|eae|oo eu|tu|a|, s|qo|i|eae|oo uc oada
t|coc uc vc| eoo uoa |cy qcoc|a|. ta s|qo|i|eae|oo dc||va dc uoa o||cotae|oo va|o||ea dc|
sujcto oae|a e|c|tos cvcotos uc |os eoov|c|tc co oojctos eu|tu|a|cs. Lsos cvcotos soo
|os uc eoost|tuyco c| oojcto dc cstud|o dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs y eu|tu|a|cs. lo| uo
|ado, c| |ovcst|qado| dc cstas e|coe|as csta |otc|csado co eo|codc| |a |od|v|dua||dad
dc uo dctc||oado icoocoo soe|a| (|a |q|cs|a, c| e||st|ao|so, c| |otcstaot|so, |a ou|o-
e|ae|a, cte.,. lc|o, tao|co csc |ovcst|qado| dcoc cx||ea| csc icoocoo, oo eoo c| uso dc
uoa |cy, eoo co |as e|coe|as oatu|a|cs, s|oo eoo uoa cx||eae|oo uc sc oasa co uoa
inj:aii a:sa, scquo |a tc||oo|oqia dc wcoc|. 1a| |utae|oo v|oeu|a cicetos eoo
eausas cd|aotc c| uso dc |os t|os |dca|cs, co |a io|a uc sc cxooc a eoot|ouae|oo.
_Cuc soo a|a wcoc| |os t|os |dca|cs? csucsta: soo eoost|uee|oocs |otc|cetua|cs dc
uo e|c|to oojcto eu|tu|a| (eoo |os cjc|os dados aotc||o|cotc, uc sc io|ao o| |a
siotcs|s dc ueoos suecsos eooe|ctos |od|v|dua|cs a||cq|ados dc aeuc|do eoo uo e|c|to
aecotuado uoto dc v|sta dc| |ovcst|qado| y dc aeuc|do eoo |a iuoe|oo uc vao a eu|||.
Lsa eoost|uee|oo, dcas csta|ia dce|||o, oo sc coeucot|a co |a |ca||dad, cs uoa eoos-
t|uee|oo |dca|. ta dci|o|e|oo uc da Vax wcoc| cs |a s|qu|cotc:
Li ij iuea esa Irnau jr a aei:aii :iiuineisiia ue :i nas j:is ue
visa y jr a s:iesis ue :ia prai aiiuau ue Ieineis ires iiuiviu:aes, uiI:-
$
ss, uisiis, nas neis jreseies, a:i:e a vees a:seies, s :aes se ai
sep:i ess j:is ue visa eiIaizaus ue naiera :iiaera ei :ia isr:ii aia:-
ia :iiIiaua... Diia isr:ii neia, j:raneie iej:a, i j:eue eiirar-
se ei iiip:i :par ue a reaiuau. (wcoc|, V. Lisays sire neup:a sipia.
uucoos A||cs: Ao||o|tu, 1us,.
ta cx||eae|oo uc c||tco |os t|os |dca|cs t|coc |a io|a dc uoa |utae|oo eausa|
cd|aotc |a eua| sc ouseao |as eausas uc ud|c|oo da| o||qco a d|vc|qcoe|as cot|c c| t|o
|dca| dc uo e|c|to suecso eoost|u|do, eoo ya |o cxus|os y uo suecso eooe|cto, dado
co c| uodo |ca|. lo| cjc|o, i|cotc a| t|o |dca| dc |a ou|oe|ae|a c| |ovcst|qado| od|ia
coeoot|a| d|ic|coe|as eoo uo s|stca ou|oe|at|eo eooe|cto uc sc csta |ovcst|qaodo. L|
|ovcst|qado|, co ta| easo, od|ia io|u|a| e|c|tas o|otcs|s eausa|cs dc |as d|vc|qcoe|as y
dce||, o| cjc|o, uc c||as sc dcoco a uc |os iuoe|ooa||os aetuao s|o |a dco|da |oio|a-
e|oo, uc o| c||o eoctco c||o|cs co su aetuae|oo, uc |os jcics oo sc |coeuao dc |a
aetuae|oo dc sus suoa|tc|oos, uc |as |cq|as dc |oecd||coto oo soo e|a|as, cte. tas
ea|aetc|ist|eas usadas eoo eausas
adceuada |oio|ae|oo, dcs|coeuae|oo dc |os jc-

ics, cte.
soo c|ccotos eooectua|cs uc io|ao a|tc dc| t|o |dca|.

Coo sc oa d|eoo, |os t|os |dca|cs eoot|coco c|ccotos dc |a |ca||dad uc soo |c|ae|ooados
eooectua|cotc. Lsa eoost|uee|oo dc| t|o |dca| oo sc oaec dc aoc|a a|o|t|a||a, s|oo uc
sc oaec dc aeuc|do eoo dos e||tc||os ||oe|a|cs. uoo dc c||os cs c| e||tc||o dc |a jsiiiiuau
ijeiva c| eua| cx|qc uc |a eooectua||zae|oo uc sc oaqa a|a io|a| c| t|o |dca| dcoc dc
csta| dc aeuc|do eoo |as |cycs dc |a oatu|a|cza (o| cjc|o, s| cs dc| easo, |a io|a dc uo||
csos c|ccotos oo dcoc eoot|adce|| |as |cycs coeoot|adas o| |as e|coe|as oatu|a|cs,.
L| scquodo e||tc||o cx|qc uc |os c|ccotos dcoco c|cq||sc dc ta| odo uc uoos
c|ccotos ucdao sc|v|| dc eausa a ot|os c|ccotos eoost|tut|vos dc| t|o |dca|. lo|
cjc|o, |a |oe|us|oo dc |a |dca dc just|e|a co uo t|o |dca| so|o sc oa|a s| cs eau-
sa|cotc |c|cvaotc a|a ot|o c|ccoto dc csc t|o, eoo od|ia sc| dctc||oada |a
eoodueta dc |as c|sooas.
la|a uoa cjo| eo|cs|oo dc| eooecto, oay uc tcoc| co eucota uc Vax wcoc| ut|||za
c| tc||oo eoo euat|o s|qo|i|eados o |cic|cotcs d|st|otos,uc dao ot|os taotas va||cdadcs
dc t|os |dca|cs. L||os soo:
1. L| t|o |dca| o|sto||eo. Ls c| t|o uc sc ucdc io|u|a| co uoa coea dctc||oada.
lo| cjc|o, c| t|o |dca| dc ||o|c c|eado.
$
z. L| t|o |dca| dc |a soe|o|oqia qcoc|a|. Ls c| t|o uc sc |ci|c|c a icoocoos uc sc dao
a |o |a|qo dc todos |os c|iodos o|sto||eos y co todas |as soe|cdadcs. lo| cjc|o, |a
ou|oe|ae|a.
s. L| t|o |dca| dc |a aee|oo soe|a|. Ls c| t|o dc |a eoodueta dc uo aeto| dctc||oado o|
sus ot|vae|oocs. lo| cjc|o, |a aee|oo aicet|va.
!. L| t|o |dca| cst|uetu|a|. Ls |a eoost|uee|oo |otc|cetua| uc sc |ci|c|c a eausas y
eoosceucoee|as dc |a aee|oo soe|a|. lo| cjc|o, |a eoodueta dc do|oae|oo.
D|qaos, o| u|t|o, uc |os dos ocotos uc ocos d|st|oqu|do co c| t|aoajo dc|
|ovcst|qado| soe|a| ||c|o, uoa |od|v|dua||zae|oo dc| suecso cstud|ado, y |ucqo, uoa
|utae|oo eausa| eoo oasc co c| eo||csood|cotc t|o |dca| eo||csoodc a| csiuc|zo dc
wcoc| o| coeoot|a| uo eao |otc|cd|o cot|c c| eoooe||coto |d|oq|ai|eo y c| oootct|eo.
eier re:a :e s sips ei:ai :ia veiaja sire s iei:Iis
ia:raes: esa veiaja resiu:a ei a ajaiuau ue s sips jara oom-
reuoer Ieineis siaes, nieiras e iei:Ii ia:ra i jur:a prar
:ia njreisii siniar ue njraniei ue :i an ue :i nj-
ieie ::ni. La jaaira aenaia jara oomreusiu es versteheu. eier
e uaia a ese ernii :i :s esjeia ei s:s iivesipaiies, :e ia:a
ue e :ia ue s:s nas Iansas, y sii u:ua a nas irveriua, ue s:s
ajraiies a a neup:a ue a sip:a ienjraiea. ta eucst|oo
e|avc a| |otc||cta| |o uc wcoc| cotcodia o| veratehen cs s| cstc coso
uc c|a |a a||eae|oo as a|o|ada a|a |os cstados suojct|vos dc |os
aeto|cs |od|v|dua|cs o a|a |os ascetos suojct|vos dc |as uo|dadcs dc aoa-
||s|s co q|ao csea|a, o| cjc|o, |a eu|tu|a ,Cerpe Hizer. 1co|ia soe|o|o-
q|ea e|as|ea. Mauriu: MCraw - Ii, !ssa, jj. ?J! - ?J?). Iay iivesipaures
jara s :aes a verseiei ueie isiuerarse a iive ue s iiuiviu:s,
nieiras :e rs iierjreai e iej n :ia eiia jara njrei-
uer a ::ra, i araer nar. Civieie eier ei :eia, ei u as,
:e a jrinera aejii ue a njreisii sirve ue iase eria a
iieraiiisn sinii, y a sep:iua, a I:iiiaisn ue Iarsis.
$
Schutz. Laa oaaea tenomeno|oq|caa de |aa c|enc|aa
aoc| a| ea
L| t|aoajo dc| i||osoio a|cao A|i|cd Seoutz csta dcd|eado a |a eoost|uee|oo dc uoa soe|o-
|oqia soo|c oascs icoocoo|oq|eas, dc aeuc|do eoo |as tcs|s dc lussc|| (eoo sc ucdc
vc| co su oo|a ||oe|a| L jriena ue a reaiuau sia. uucoos A||cs: Ao||o|tu, |us,
t|aduee|oo dc| ||o|o o||q|oa| Ceeu Iajers: 1ie Irien I Sia Heaiy, dc |uz,.
ta soe|o|oqia icoocoo|oq|ea dc Seoutz sc ecot|a co c| icoocoo dc |a iiers:ijeivi-
uau. L| cstud|o dc cstc icoocoo |aotca |cquotas eoo |as s|qu|cotcs: _eoo eooo-
ecos c| eootco|do dc |a cotc dc ot|as c|sooas?, _eoo eoooecos a ot|os yo?,
_eoo sc |oduec |a |ce||oe|dad dc c|scet|vas cot|c c|sooas d|ic|cotcs?, _eoo sc
|oduec |a eo|cos|oo y |a eouo|eae|oo cot|c |as c|sooas?, cte. A d|ic|coe|a dc
lussc||, uc cstud|a |a |otc|suojct|v|dad co |a |o|a eooe|coe|a, Seoutz |o oaec co c|
uodo soe|a|.
L| uodo |otc|suojct|vo, d|ec Seoutz, oo cs uo uodo ||vado. A| eoot|a||o, cs eouo
a|a todos |os ooo|cs co euaoto todos ucdco tcoc| |a cxc||coe|a dc |a |otc|suojct|v|-
dad. L||a cx|stc co c| |cscotc v|v|do co c| eua| oao|aos y oos cseueoaos uoos a
ot|os. C, eoo d|ec c| auto|: Lsa sin:aieiuau (|a uc sc da co |a |otc|aee|oo cot|c |as
c|sooas. G. u., es a eseiia ue a iiers:ijeiviuau y sipiiIia :e ,ei ea) se aja a
s:ijeiviuau ue aer ep, a nisn ienj :e viv ei ni jrji I:j ue iieiia
(C|ta toada dc V. Nataosoo co |a lot|oduee|oo a Ceeu Iajers I: 1ie jrien I
sia reaiy. ta laya: Va|t|ous N|jooii, xxv, |us,.
lo| |o d|eoo y aootado aotc||o|cotc, dcoc|ia ucda| e|a|o uc a Seoutz oo |c |otc|csa |a
|otc|aee|oo iis|ea dc |as c|sooas, s|oo c| eoo sc eo|codco |cei|oeacotc sus
eooe|coe|as, |a aoc|a eoo sc |c|ae|ooao |otc|suojct|vacotc uoas eoo ot|as, eoo sc
cstao|cec c| s|qo|i|eado y |a eo|cos|oo co c| |otc||o| dc |as c|sooas, eoo sc dao |os
|oecso dc |otc||ctae|oo dc |as eooduetas dc ot|as c|sooas, y, i|oa|cotc, eoo sc da
|a |o|a auto|otc||ctae|oo. Lo |a oasc dc csta ta|ca csta c| ostu|ado scquo c| eua|
todos |os eooectos uc ucda eoost|u|| |a e|coe|a soe|a|
eoo tao|co ot|as e|co-

e|as
cstao oasados co c| eoooe||coto eouo, c|o oo dc |a cxc||coe|a uc oot|coc

uoa c|sooa uo|ea s|oo co c| oaqajc dc |os eoooe||cotos c |otc||ctae|oocs dc oucst|os
|cdcecso|cs uc oos |o cot|cqao eoo uo uodo o|qao|zado.
$!
Lo |a v|da eot|d|aoa todas |as c|sooas ut|||zao io|as cstaoda||zadas a|a aetua| y
a|a dcoo|oa| |os oojctos eoo |os eua|cs sc coeucot|ao. Lo a|ao|as dc Seoutz, todas
|as c|sooas aeudco a ijiIiar |as s|tuae|oocs uc sc dao co su cxc||coe|a d|a||a c-
d|aotc c| uso dc eatcqo|ias co |as uc eo|oeaos a |as c|sooas, a |as eosas y a
oosot|os |sos. Asi, o| cjc|o, euaodo oos |cscotao uoa c|sooa o| ||c|a vcz
dce|os ueoo qusto co eoooec||a o a||eaos c| ooo|c |cdci|o|do a| |cic|||oos a uo
dctc||oado oojcto: asi, ||aaos easa a auc||o uc asi cs dcoo|oado co oucst|a
soe|cdad. Lo qcoc|a|, |as t||i|eae|oocs uc usaos cstao co c| |coquajc y, o| |o taoto,
q|ao a|tc dc |a soe|a||zae|oo vc|oa| eoos|stc co c| a|cod|zajc dc |as ct|uctas uc sc
|cs ooc a |as eosas, a |as c|sooas o a |os aeootce||cotos uc sc dao co oucst|a
cxc||coe|a.
Mieiras nas aiiina sea a Irn:a ijiIiaura nas se aeja ue a jers-
ia irea i a :a iiera:ans y s js asjes ue s: iiuivi-
u:aiuau irea si a:es :e a ijiIiaii re:iere jara a si:aii
esje:Iia i a :a raans y jara a :a ia siu ueIiiiua. Si uisiip:i-
ns eire ijs jersiaes ,s:ijeivs) y ijs ue aii ,ijeivs) jue-
ns ueir :e a reer a ainizaii ue a ijiIiaii eva a reenjazar
s jriners ijs jr s sep:ius (a jersia es reenjazaua jr :ia
aii iveiiia, injersia. C.S.). Lo |a eo|cta aoo|zae|oo sc
suooc uc |os |od|v|duos soo |otc|eao|ao|cs y uc |a eoodueta uc sc
dcsa||o||a co ta| o eua| e||euostaoe|a sc |ci|c|c a eua|u|c|a, scquo csta
dci|o|da co |a t||i|eae|oo uc eo||csoodc.
(A. Seoutz. Cooects, Coost|uets, aod 1oco|y lo|at|oo co Vau||ec
Aaaisi Iiisjiy I ie Sia Sieies. NcW Yo|s: aodo lousc,
|us, . s1. L| eaitu|o e|tado eo||csoodc a |a oo|a dc| auto| Co||cetcd
lac|s,.
B| mundo de |a v|da
L| uodo dc |a v|da (tcocosWc|t, cs a|a Seoutz c| uodo dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa, dc |a |ca||dad
d|a||a y dc| scot|do eouo co c| eua| a||eaos |as t||i|eae|oocs. lc|o, |o as |o|taotc
$"
a|a |a eooece|oo tco||ea dc cstc auto|, cs a||i doodc sc da |a |otc|suojct|v|dad, oojcto
ecot|a| dc sus |coeuae|oocs. 1a| uodo sc ea|aetc||za o| sc|s |asqos ||oe|a|cs:
1. Lo c| uodo dc |a v|da sc da uoa tcos|oo csce|a| dc |a eooe|coe|a dc| sujcto, uc
sc dcoo|oa cstado dc a|c|ta. Lo ta| cstado, c| aeto| |csta atcoe|oo dc aoc|a
eoot|oua a |o uc suecdc co |a v|da y a |os |cu|s|tos uc sc cx|qco a|a c| eoo|-
ta|coto dc |as c|sooas.
z. L| scquodo |asqo sca|a uc c| aeto| oo duda dc |a cx|stcoe|a dc cstc uodo, a
d|ic|coe|a, o| cjc|o, dc| e|cotii|eo uc ooc co duda c| uodo eot|d|aoo, co c| eua|
sc v|vc dc aoc|a csootaoca y, o| c| eoot|a||o, |o soctc a cstud|o s|stcat|eo, a
|a |otc||oqae|oo eoostaotc. Lo siotcs|s, |o soctc a |a |ovcst|qae|oo e|cotii|ea.
s. L| uodo dc |a v|da cs c| uodo doodc |as c|sooas t|aoajao.
!. ta c|sooa uc csta co cstc uodo sc cxc||cota eoo uo yo |o|o.
s. L| uodo dc |a v|da sc ea|aetc||za o| uoa io|a csceii|ea dc soe|ao|||dad co |a eua|
sc da |a |otc|suojct|v|dad dc |a eouo|eae|oo y dc |a aee|oo soe|a|.
. l|oa|cotc, co cstc t|o dc uodo, |as c|sooas t|coco uoa c|scet|va csceii|ea
dc| t|co, eoucsta o| |a |otc|scee|oo dc| t|co c|sooa| y dc| t|co dc |a
soe|cdad.
L| uodo dc |a v|da sc cxc||cota co |a |otc|suojct|v|dad, c|o cx|stia aotcs dc oucst|o oae|-
|coto. luc e|cado o| oucst|os |cdcecso|cs y cot|cqado a oosot|os eoo sus |ost|tue|oocs, sus
|cectas y sus t||i|eae|oocs. Coo ta|, cstc uodo |||ta oucst|as aee|oocs, |as eoost||c, oi|cec
|cs|stcoe|as uc dcocos suc|a| o a |as eua|cs dcocos |cod||oos. Coo d|ec Seoutz:
Me ei:eir a n: nisn ei ni viua uiaria ei :i n:iu jrerpaiizau :e ne sire-
vivira, :i n:iu njariu uesue e eerir i senejaies rpaiizaus ei pr:js
,Ceeu Iajers, sa, jj. a?s).
Ct|a ea|aetc|ist|ea |o|taotc dc| uodo dc |a v|da eoos|stc co uc co ta| uodo cx|stc
uoa q|ao eaot|dad dc eoooe||cotos aeuu|ados eouocs a|a u|cocs v|vco uo |so
c|iodo o|sto||eo. Lo csos eoooe||cotos sc coeucot|ao |as t||i|eae|oocs, |as e|cco-
$#
e|as, |os eoooe||cotos e|cotii|eos y tceo|eos, cte., |os eua|cs sc coeucot|ao o|oq|ai|ea-
cotc a|t|eu|ados, cs dce||, eada c|sooa t|coco su a|t|eu|a| eaot|dad y d|vc|s|dad dc
eoooe||cotos uc eoost|tuyco su eoooe||coto ||vado. Coo cx|stco taotos eoooe|-
|cotos ||vados eoo |od|v|duos, c||os oo ucdco sc| oojcto dc cstud|o e|cotii|eo.
D|qaos, i|oa|cotc, uc Seoutz tuvo |o|taotcs d|seiu|os eoo lctc| uc|qc| y 1ooas
tuesao, eoooe|dos auto|cs dc La isr:ii sia ue a reaiuau, oo|a co |a eua|
t|adujc|oo a|a su uso soe|o|oq|eo a|quoos aot|euados tc||oos dc |a icoocoo|oqia.
1ao|co Seoutz tuvo |oi|ucoe|a co |a io|u|ae|oo dc |a ctooctodo|oqia, dc csce|a|
|o|taoe|a co |as vc|s|oocs |otc||ctat|vas dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs.
Go|dmann. |||oaot|a de |aa c|enc|aa humanaa
Lo |a oo|a dc| i||osoio i|aoecs tue|co Go|daoo (Las ieiias i:naias y a IisI:a.
uucoos A||cs: Ld|e|oocs Nucva v|s|oo, |u, coeoot|aos ot|a vcz c| |otcoto dc sca|a|
|as d|ic|coe|as oas|eas cot|c |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs o ouaoas y |as e|coe|as i|s|eo ui-
|eas, eoo |as dcoo|oa c| auto|. 1a|cs d|ic|coe|as sc dao, ||oe|a|cotc, co c| ea-
o dc |a ijeiviuau ue iiniei y co c| ea|aetc| dc aiuau uc ea|aetc||za a todos
|os |aoos dc |a v|da soe|a|.
Soore |a oojet|v|dad d|ce Go|dmann.
4s:, jr :ia jare, as ieiias iisrias y i:naias i si, n as ieiias Iisi
::nias, e es:ui ue :i ij:i ue ieis exteriores a s inires, ue :i n:iu ei
e :a reaizai s:s as. Si, jr e irari, e es:ui ue estn mismn nooiu, ue s:
esr::ra, ue as asjiraiies :e as aiinai y ue s aniis :e s:Ire...
Fi rooeso oei oouooimieuto oieutrioo ue es eu s uu heoho humnuo, histrioo y
sooini injia, :aiu se raa ue es:uiar a viua i:naia, a ioeutiono nroini eutre ei
su]eto y ei oh]eto oei oouooimieuto. Ir esa razi, e jriena ue a ijeiviuau se
jreseia ue naiera uiIereie eire as ieiias i:naias :e ei a I:sia y ei a ::ni-
a. ,Dj. i., . zz,.
Lsta |dcot|dad a|e|a| cot|c c| sujcto uc eoooec y c| oojcto dc eoooe||coto cs |a aoc-
|a dc dce|| uc todo eoooe||coto soo|c cstc u|t|o csta cd|ado o| |as iuep:as
$$
eoost|tu|das o| |os |otc|cscs y va|o|cs dc |as e|ascs soe|a|cs a |as eua|cs c|tcocec c|
|ovcst|qado|. Coo eoosceucoe|a dc csta dctc||oae|oo, su t|aoajo |otc|cetua| oo ucdc
s|oo cot|cqa| uoa v|s|oo dcio|ada c |dco|oq|ea dc |os oceoos. _S|qo|i|ea csta dctc||-
oae|oo uc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs oo ucdco coeoot|a| uoa vc|dad oojct|va? la|a da| uoa
|csucsta oay uc eoos|dc|a| uc a|a Go|daoo e|c|tos ju|e|os dc va|o| c||tco uoa
cjo| eo|cos|oo dc |a |ca||dad uc ot|os. Asi, cot|c dos tco|ias eoot|aucstas tcod|a
uo va|o| e|cotii|eo ayo| auc||a uc c||tc eo|codc| a |a ot|a eoo uo icoocoo
soe|a| y tao|co saea| dc c||a, cd|aotc uo aoa||s|s ||qu|oso, sus eoosceucoe|as y |i|-
tcs. Lo tc||oos ctodo|oq|eos as csceii|eos, |a os|o|||dad dc a|eaoza| uo cosa-
|coto e|cotii|eo uc suc|c |a eooe|coe|a |ca| dc todas |as e|ascs soe|a|cs sc aoya co
c| os|o|c |oq|o dc |os e||tc||os uc sca|aos a eoot|ouae|oo:
a, 1oa| eooe|coe|a dc uc c| eoooe||coto csta |otc|ic||do o| |os va|o|cs dc e|ascs
soe|a|cs co oos|e|oo.
o, No vae||a| co cot|a| co eooi||eto eoo |os |cju|e|os y vc|dadcs as cv|dcotcs co
aa||coe|a.
e, usa| |a duda oo so|o ctod|ea s|oo c|aocotc y eoot|oua |csceto dc |os t|aoajo dc
ot|os |ovcst|qado|cs y dc |os |o|os t|aoajos.
d, la|a juzqa| y eo|codc| sus ju|e|os y |os dc |os dcas, c| |ovcst|qado| dcoc |c|ae|o-
oa||os eoo |a cst|uetu|a soe|a| a|a eata| sus s|qo|i|eados y eoo |os oceoos uc
|ctcodc cx||ea| y dcse||o||, coeoot|a| co c||os |a vc|dad uc ucdao eootcoc|.
ta ot|a ea|aetc|ist|ea dc |as e|coe|as ouaoas, dc |as dos uc sca|aos a| eo|cozo
dc csta cxos|e|oo, cs |a dc aiuau a|a euyo coiouc Go|daoo sc aoya co c|
a|x|so y co c| s|eo|oqo su|zo l|aqct. A| |csceto, sost|coc uc |a v|da soe|a|
uc
cs o|sto||ea
cs uo eoojuoto cst|uetu|ado dc eoo|ta|cotos |od|v|dua|cs uc sc dao

qu|ados o| uoa eooe|coe|a ya sca vc|dadc|a, ia|sa, adceuada o |oadceuada co e|c|tas
eood|e|oocs dc| cd|o oatu|a| y soe|a|. Lsos eoo|ta|cotos
y |os q|uos co |os

eua|cs sc |ca||zao
t|atao dc da| |csucstas a |a tota||dad dc |oo|cas uc sc |aotcao

co ta|cs cd|os co |a io|a dc uo cu|||o||o cot|c |a |ax|s dc| q|uo y |a soe|cdad tota|.
Lo a|ao|as dc Go|daoo:
$%
Ls uas ue a ejerieiia iineuiaa se jreseiai a iivesipaur, i n:ia Ire:ei-
ia, arraiaus ue s: ie pia y, n aes, sejaraus ue s: sipiiIiaii,
:a :iere ueir sejaraus ue s: eseiia. S jr s: iiserii ei e uie jres ue
uesesr::raii ue :ia aiip:a esr::ra sipiiIiaiva, y sire u, ue a esr::raii
ue :i i:ev e:iiiri se es j:eue irear y, jr nisn se j:eue j:zpar aera ue
s: sipiiIiaii ijeiva y ue s: reaiva injraiia ei e ij:i, (tue|co Go|daoo.
L|stco|oqia dc |a soe|o|oqia co l|aqct Jcao. Ljisenp:a ue as ieiias i:na-
ias. uucoos A||cs: l|otco, 1uz, . - s,.
ta c|scet|va cst|uetu|a||sta qcoct|ea |oo|e|ooa a oucst|o auto| oascs a|a uo|| |as
iuoe|oocs ctodo|oq|eas dc |a njreisii y dc |a ejiaii. S|o dcsea|ta| dc| todo c|
c|ccoto dc |a enja:a dc |a ||c|a dc cstas iuoe|oocs, |a ta|ca ||oe|a| dc |a |ovcst|-
qae|oo eoos|stc co uoa dcse||e|oo dc |as |c|ae|oocs cscoe|a|cs uc v|oeu|ao |os c|c-
cotos dc |a cst|uetu|a uc sc aoa||za. Lsto s|qo|i|ea uc |a uesrijii njreisiva dc
|a qcocs|s dc uoa cst|uetu|a q|ooa| t|coc eaae|dad cx||eat|va a|a c| cstud|o dc| dcvc-
o|| y dc |as t|aosio|ae|oocs dc |as cst|uetu|as a|e|a|cs uc io|ao a|tc dc c||a. Lo
cstc coiouc sc uoco, a|a Go|daoo, |as eatcqo|ias dc tota||dad y |a d|cos|oo o|sto-
||ea dc todo oceoo soe|a|.
eter w|nch. B| |enquaje de |a acc|on
Lo 1uss, lctc| w|oeo co su oo|a 1ie Iuea I a Sia Sieie (t|adue|da a| csao| y
uo||eada o| Ao||o|tu dc uucoos A||cs co 1uz eoo c| ooo|c dc Cieiia sia Iis-
I:a) ataea du|acotc a| ocoos|t|v|so y dci|codc |a eo|cos|oo eoo ctodo |o|o
dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs. la|a su e|it|ea ut|||za |a i||osoiia ||oquist|ea dc w|ttqcostc|o,
csce|a|cotc su eooecto |cic|cotc a uc todo eoo|ta|coto csta qu|ado o| |cq|as
y todo eoo|ta|coto uc asi |oecdc cs uo eoo|ta|coto soe|a|. A su vcz, |a dcs-
e||e|oo, cx||eae|oo y eo|cos|oo dc uoa aee|oo ouaoa so|o cs os|o|c euaodo co-
tcodcos |a oatu|a|cza dc |as |ost|tue|oocs uc oos c||tco |dcot|i|ea| csa aee|oo (eoo
aee|oo o|it|ea, o| cjc|o, y csto s|qo|i|ea c| cotcod||coto dc |as Irnas ue viua y dc|
eoo|ta|coto |cq|do o| |cq|as uc cstao |ovo|ue|adas co csa aee|oo.
w|oeo sost|coc, adcas, uc |as |c|ae|oocs soe|a|cs cot|c |as c|sooas so|o cx|stco co
sus |dcas y a t|avcs dc c||as. L| |coquajc, |as |dcas y |os eooectos oo ucdco
$&
sca|a|sc eoo o|t|dcz dc |as |c|ae|oocs soe|a|cs. Lo eoosceucoe|a, |os eao|os iuoda-
cota|cs dc csos c|ccotos ut|||zados o| |os ooo|cs |||eao ocecsa||acotc ta-
o|co eao|os iuodacota|cs co sus |c|ae|ooc soe|a|cs. Coo cstas y ot|as eoos|dc|ae|oocs,
a|a w|oeo |a ta|ca dc| |ovcst|qado| soe|a| cs |a dc ae|a|a| |os eooectos dc |as io|as
dc v|da uc |ovo|ue|ao uo eoo|ta|coto oasado co |cq|as, cs dce||, dcoc t|ata| dc
eo|codc| |a |dca o c| s|qo|i|eado dc |o uc sc csta oae|codo o d|e|codo.
L| s|qo|i|eado dc |as a|ao|as, d|ec w|oeo, sc oot|coc a a|t|| dc |as |cq|as dc eoo|ta-
|coto o dc eouo|eae|oo. 1a|cs |cq|as oo soo dc o||qco c|sooa|, s|oo uc sc oao
io|ado co uo eootcxto soe|a| dctc||oado, co uoa io|a dc v|da. ta soe|o|oqia cs |a
e|coe|a dc |a eo|cos|oo dc |as |cq|as uc s|quco |as aee|oocs dc |as c|sooas co uo
eootcxto dc |otc|aee|oo uc csta cd|ado ||oquist|eacotc.
G|ddena. La doo|e hermenut|ca
Aotoooy G|ddcos uo||eo co 1u su ||o|o Aew H:es I Sipia Meiu: 4 Isiive
Crii:e I Iierjreaives Sipies, t|adue|do a| csao| eoo c| titu|o dc Las i:evas
repas ue neu sipi ( uucoos A||cs: Ao||o|tu, 1us ,. Lo d|eoo ||o|o, c| auto|
oaec uo a||o aoa||s|s e|it|eo dc |as tco|ias soe|o|oq|eas dc Cotc, Va|x, D||tocy,
wcoc|, Seoutz, w|ttqcostc|o, w|oeo y ot|os, a|a tc||oa| eoo |a |cscotae|oo dc a|qu-
oas oucvas |cq|as dc| ctodo soe|o|oq|eo dcst|oadas a cjc||i|ea| sus d|ic|coe|as
|csceto dc| iaoso ao|i|csto soe|o|oq|eo uc Du|soc| c|t|o oaec oeocota aos
(. 1s ,.
Lo tota|, G|ddcos io|u|a oucvc |cq|as, dc |as eua|cs sc|cee|ooaos auc||as uc cstao
as d||cetacotc |c|ae|ooadas eoo |a ta|ca dc eoost|uee|oo dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs ( |a
ouc|ae|oo oo s|quc |a c|cada co c| tcxto o||q|oa| ,.
1. La sip:a i se :ja ue :i :iivers jreuau ue ijes, sii ue :i :e esa
isi:iu es jru:iu jr s jreueres ,aiies) aivs ue s s:jes.
z. Ir isip:ieie, a jru:ii y rejru:ii ue a sieuau ia ue ser isiuera-
ua n :ia reaizaii iieipeie jr jare ue s:s nienirs, i n :ia nera
neaiia ue jress.
$'
s. L| do|o|o dc |a aet|v|dad ouaoa cs |||tado. tos ooo|cs |odueco |a soe|cdad,
c|o |o oaeco eoo aeto|cs o|sto||eacotc s|tuados, oo co eood|e|oocs dc su |o-
|a c|cee|oo.
!. L iservaur sipi i j:eue iaer ase:iie a viua sia n :i Ieinei
, uau ) jara a iservaii, iiuejeiuieie ue :iizar s: iiniei sire a nisna
a nu ue :i re:rs neuiaie e :a a isi:ye n :i ena ue iivesipaii.
s. La iinersii ei :ia Irna ue viua es e :ii neui ieesari a raves ue :a :i
iservaur j:eue peierar aes araerizaiies... Lepar a ier :ia Irna ue
viua ajeia es saier n rieiarse ei ea, ser ajaz ue jariijar ei ea n :i
ij:i ue jraias. Ier jara e iservaur sipi, ese es :i nu ue
peierar uesrijiies :e ieiei :e ser neuiauas, sea, raisIrnauas ei ae-
pr:as ue uis:rs iei:Ii sia.
. De a naiera, s iejs sipis ieueei a :ia uie ierneie:ia.
, Lsto u|c|c dce||. G.u., :e a sip:a se :ja ue :i :iivers :e ya esa
isi:iu ueir ue nars ue sipiiIiaus uaus jr s ares nisns, |a
soe|o|oqia s reiierjrea ueir ue s:s jrjis es:enas eris neuiaie e
eip:aje rrieie y eii... , od|i|eaodo dc cstc odo su c|co o||q|oa| o| |as
c|sooas. G.u.,
(tas e|tas aotc||o|cs cstao toadas dc |as aq|oas 1s a 1 dc |a coe|ooada oo|a dc
G|ddcos,.
B|umer. La |nterpretac|on de |a |nteracc|on aoc|a|
la|a lc|oc|t u|uc| y ot|os soe|o|oqos oo|tcac||eaoos, |a soe|o|oqia dcoc cstud|a| |as
|otc||ctae|oocs uc |os aeto|cs uc |otc|aetuao co uoa e|c|ta s|tuae|oo |c dao a csta, a
sus |o|as eooduetas y a |a eoodueta dc |os ot|os (l. u|uc|. Synii Iieraiiisn:
Iersjeive aiu Meiu. Loq|cWood C|iis, N.J: l|cot|ec - la||, 1uu,. Lstc oojcto dc
cstud|o cs |a oasc dc |a tco|ia dc| |otc|aee|oo|so s|oo||eo euyos aoa||s|s |ovcst|qat|vos
sc |ca||zao a o|vc| dc cucos q|uos soe|a|cs a|a ootcoc| dc |os |o|os aeto|cs sus
|otc||ctae|oocs dc |a |ca||dad soe|a| co |a eua| v|vco.
%
Lo tc||oos eooe|ctos, |a ousucda dc |as |otc||ctae|oocs sc |oq|a eoo |a eatae|oo,
o| a|tc dc| |ovcst|qado|, dc |os s|qo|i|eados uc |os aeto|cs |c dao a |as s|tuae|oocs co
|as eua|cs v|vco. tos oojctos atc||a|cs, |as c|sooas y |os cvcotos oo oscco s|qo|i|ea-
dos co si |sos, s|oo uc c| s|qo|i|eado |cs cs eooic||dos o| |as c|sooas. A t|avcs dc
|a |otc|aee|oo, |os |od|v|duos eoost|uyco s|qo|i|eados co uo |oecso dc eoostaotc dci|o|-
e|oo dc |a s|tuae|oo co |a eua| v|vco. Lsas dci|o|e|oocs ucdco eao|a| y sc| |cc|a-
zadas o| ot|as, |oecso uc cs dc csce|a| |o|taoe|a a|a |a |ovcst|qae|oo dc|
|otc|aee|oo|so s|oo||eo.
la|cec eoovco|cotc dcstaea| uc q|ao a|tc dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo eua||tat|va uc sc dcsa-
||o||a co oucst|os aiscs sc oaec eoo c| uso dc |os ||oe||os dc| |otc|aee|oo|so s|oo-
||eo o, o|co, co io|a as |cdue|da, eoo |a ousucda dc |os s|qo|i|eados eoost|u|dos o|
uo e|c|to q|uo dc c|sooas (o| cjc|o, |a s|qo|i|eae|oo uc |os |oicso|cs, |os a|u-
oos y |os ad|cs |c dao a |a cseuc|a,. ta |cquota oas|ea cs, co ta|cs easos _uc
s|qo|i|eao ta|cs y eua|cs eosas a|a cstas c|sooas? ta eo|cos|oo (verseiei, co
euyo scot|do sc ecot|o q|ao a|tc dc |a d|seus|oo dc |os ||c|os q|aodcs c|stco|oqos
dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs uc ocos v|sto aotc||o|cotc sc t|aosio|a aui co |otc||cta-
e|oo, ea|aetc||zada eoo |o oaec c| |otc|aee|oo|so s|oo||eo.
%
B|o||oqrat|a recomendada para |a aequnda un|dad
A|cxaodc|, Jciic|y. Las er:as sipias uesue a sep:iua p:erra n:iuia. ua|-
ec|ooa: Ld|to||a| Gcd|sa. 1uus (va||os eaitu|os dc| ||o|o sc |c|ae|ooao eoo tcas
t|atados co |a uo|dad,.
uaeoc|a|d, Gastoo. La Irnaii ue esj:ri: iei:Ii. uucoos A||cs: S|q|o xxl
Ld|to|cs. 1us. Ca. 1: ta ooe|oo dc oostaeu|o c|stco|oq|eo, ea. z: L| ||c|
oostaeu|o: |a cxc||coe|a oas|ea, ea. s: L| eoooe||coto qcoc|a| eoo oostaeu|o
a|a c| eoooe||coto e|cotii|eo.
uc|qc|, lctc| y tuesaoo 1ooas. La isr:ii sia ue a reaiuau. uucoos
A||cs: Ao||o|tu, 1us. Ca. lll: ta soe|cdad eoo |ca||dad suojct|va.
uou|d|cu, l|c||c, Coaoo|cdoo, J. y lassc|oo, J. C. L Iii ue sip. uucoos
A||cs: S|q|o xxl, 1us.
uuoqc, Va||o. Maeriaisn y ieiia. ua|ec|ooa: A||c|, |us1. Ca. 1o: Vuodos
oc||aoos y oojct|v|dad (C|it|ea a |a eooece|oo dc loc| dc |os t|cs uodos,.
Du|soc|, L|||o. Las repas ue neu sipi ,ei varias euiriaes). Ca. z:
cq|as |c|at|vas a |a oosc|vae|oo dc |os oceoos soe|a|cs.
G| ddcos, Aotoooy. Las i:evas rep as ue neu si pi . uucoos A| |cs:
Ao||o|tu. 1us. Ca. 1: A|quoas cseuc|as dc tco|ia soe|a| y i||osoiia.
Go|daoo, tue|co. Las ieiias i:naias y a IisI:a. uucoos A||cs: Ld|e|oocs
Nucva v|s|oo, 1u. Ca. 1: L| cosa|coto o|sto||eo y su oojcto, ea. z L| cto-
do co |as e|coe|as ouaoas.
taza|sic|d, lau|. Iierjreaii I saisia reaiis as a researi jeraii . Lo
l. taza|sic|d V. oscooc|q, Dc. 1ie aip:aje I sia researi. G|coeoc, lll
1uss l. 11s-1zs.
Va|x, Ca||os. Irp ue a irii:ii a a r:ia ue a ein:a j:ia. (va||as
cd|to||a|cs,.
loc|, ka||. La pia ue a iivesipaii iei:Iia. Vad||d: Ld|to||a| 1ceoos, 1us.
Ca. 1: laoo|aa dc a|quoos |oo|cas iuodacota|cs, ea. z: Soo|c c| |oo|c-
a dc uoa tco|ia dc| ctodo e|cotii|eo.
--- , --- IsIai a a sep:iua euiii ue L Cajia (cot|c ot|as cd|to||a|cs, loodo dc
Cu|tu|a Leooo|ea. 1u. . xvll - xxlv,.
Vc|too, ooc|t. Sia iery aiu sia sr::re. G|coeoc, lll.: 1oc l|cc l|css.
1us l: Vao|i|cst aod tatcot luoet|oos.
Seoutz, A|i|cd. L jriena ue a reaiuau sia. uucoos A||cs: Ao||o|tu, s.i.
wcoc|, Vax. Lisays sire neup:a sipia. uucoos A||cs: Ao||o|tu, s.i.
w|oeo, lctc|. Cieiia sia y IisI:a. uucoos A||cs: Ao||o|tu, s.i.
%
Autoeva|uac|on N z
1. Ca|aetc||ec c| os|t|v|so dc Cotc.
z. _Lo uc eoos|stc |a cx||eae|oo d|a|cet|ea, scquo Va|x y Loqc|s? _Coo sc
cx|csa c| ov||coto d|a|cet|eo co |a oatu|a|cza y co |a soe|cdad? _Cua| cs |a
|c|ae|oo cot|c |a |ca||dad eooe|cta y |a eooe|coe|a?
s. _Cuc ousea |a cx||eae|oo iuoe|ooa||sta? Sca|c uo c|ccoto soe|a| (eoodueta,
|aet|ea soe|a|, |dco|oqia, e|ccoe|a, cte., uc, scquo su o|o|oo, ucdc cjc|ec|
uoa: a. iuoe|oo os|t|va soo|c c| q|uo soe|a| co c| eua| sc da csc c|ccoto, o.
uoa iuoe|oo ocqat|va (d|siuoe|oo,.
!. _Cua| cs c| eooecto dc tco|ia y dc cx||eae|oo co loc|? _Cuc ta|cas dcoc-
|iao eu||| |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs, dc aeuc|do eoo cstc auto|?
s. Dc dos cjc|os dc cx||eae|oo cstadist|ea.
. _Cuc d|ic|coe|as cx|stco cot|c c| eooecto dc eo|cos|oo (verseiei , dc wcoc|
y dc Seoutz? _Lo uc eoos|stc |a |otc||ctae|oo co c| |otc|aee|oo|so s|oo||-
eo?
. Ca|aetc||ec |a cx||eae|oo eausa| co wcoc| a a|t|| dc uo t|o |dca|.
s. _Cuc s|qo|i|ea |a doo|c oc|cocut|ea co G|ddcos?
%!
Contro| de |ectura N z
tca dctco|dacotc |a |cetu|a eo|ccota||a N z Ls I:iuaneis ue ii-
niei ei a viua iuiaia, dc uc|qc| y tuesaoo y |csooda, co io|a o|cvc y
|ce|sa, |as s|qu|cotcs |cquotas.
1. _Cua| cs |a |ca||dad o| cxec|coe|a y eua|cs soo sus ||oe|a|cs ea|aetc|ist|eas?
z. _Coo cs c| t|co dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa?
s. _Cua|cs soo |os odos dc cxc||cota| a |os ot|os co |a v|da eot|d|aoa?
!. _lo| uc |as t||i|eae|oocs sc vuc|vco au|at|oacotc aooo|as?
s. _Coo oa|ia uo cstud|o dc |as t||i|eae|oocs co uoa eouo|dad?
arad|qmaa y proqramaa
de |nveat|qac|on
en |aa c|enc|aa aoc|a|ea
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%%
PARADIGMAS Y PROGRAMAS DE INVESTIGACIN EN LAS CIENCIAS SOCIALES
|ntroducc|on
Lo |a ||c|a uo|dad dc cstc odu|o o|e|os uoa |cscotae|oo dc |os iuodacotos as
|cjaoos dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs, uo|eados co d|vc|sas os|e|oocs i||osoi|eas d|ic|coe|a-
das, dc aoc|a ||oe|a|, o| sus eooece|oocs aec|ea dc |a |ca||dad y dc |as os|o|||da-
dcs y io|as dc eoooec||a. Lo |a uo|dad s|qu|cotc
|a scquoda
oos dctuv|os a cxa|oa|,

dc aoc|a sue|ota, ot|as oascs as d||cetas dc sustcotae|oo dc csas e|coe|as, eoost|-
tu|das, csta vcz, o| d|st|otas eooectua||zae|oocs c|stco|oq|eas |cic||das a |a oatu|a-
|cza d|st|ot|va dc c||as, uc, co |o iuodacota|, sc ucvco cot|c c| odc|o dc |as e|coe|as
oatu|a|cs y c| odc|o dc |as e|coe|as ouaoas o dc |as e|coe|as o|sto||eas.
Lo csta uo|dad avaozaos oae|a o||cotae|oocs c|stco|oq|eas as csceii|eas, uc
io|ao |os a|eos eooectua|cs dcot|o dc |os eua|cs sc dcsa||o||a |a |ovcst|qae|oo so-
e|a| eooe|cta dc |as d|se|||oas soe|a|cs. 1a|cs o||cotae|oocs |ce|oco c| ooo|c dc
jarauipnas: o| uo |ado, |os jarauipnas ejisenpis y, o| ot|o, |os jarauipnas
eris.
tos ||oe|a|cs a|ad|qas tco||eos eo||csoodco a |as q|aodcs tco|ias dc Du|soc|,
Va|x, wcoc| y, co uo o|vc| |oic||o|, a |a tco|ia cst|uetu|a| iuoe|ooa||sta dc la|soos.
Lstos a|ad|qas oo sc|ao t|atados aui, ucs csa ta|ca eo||csoodc a| eao dc |a
tco|ia soe|a| y oo a| dc |a c|stco|oqia, eoo |o oaecos co cstc tcxto. S|o coa|qo,
a| i|oa| dc| odu|o oa|cos uoa o|cvc siotcs|s dc a|quoas oucvas tco|ias dc||vadas
d||cetacotc dc a|quoos dc |os q|aodcs a|ad|qas ya coe|ooados.
L| eooecto dc a|ad|qa co |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs cczo a sc| a||acotc ut|||zado
oeo dcsucs dc uc kuoo c|ca|a csc eooecto dcot|o dc |as e|coe|as oatu|a|cs. to
|so, c|o co coo| q|ado, oa oeu|||do eoo c| eooecto dc |oq|aas dc |ovcst|qae|oo
dc tasatos. lo| ta| |azoo, cstc odu|o eo|coza eoo uo ||c| eaitu|o dcd|eado a
cxooc| |as |dcas dc aoos auto|cs, uc as |otc|csao a oucst|as d|se|||oas.
%&
%'
Cap|tu|o s
arad|qmaa y proqramaa de |nveat|qac|on
Coo ya |o aouoe|aos, co cstc eaitu|o sc |ca||za|a uoa cxos|e|oo o|cvc dc |as ||o-
e|a|cs |dcas dc kuoo y dc tasatos soo|c |os eooectos dc a|ad|qa y |oq|aa dc
|ovcst|qae|oo eoo aotcecdcotcs |ocd|atos dc| uso dc ta|cs eooectos o| |as e|co-
e|as soe|a|cs dc oucst|os dias.
kuhn. arad|qmaa y revo|uc|onea c|ent|t|caa
loeas oo|as, dcot|o dc| aoo|aa dc |a tco|ia eootco|aoca dc |a e|coe|a, oao eoo-
u|stado uoa tao a||a aud|coe|a y |ovoeado d|seus|oocs tao coeooadas eoo |a
Lsr::ra ue as rev:iies iei:Iias, dc 1ooas S. kuoo, uo||eada co |uz, d|ec
Jav|c| Vuquc|a co |a |ot|oduee|oo a |a oo|a eo|cet|va La r:ia a uesarr ue ii-
niei, uc e|taos co |a scee|oo aotc||o| a| cxooc| |as |dcas dc loc|.
Aotcs dc asa| a uoa o|cvc siotcs|s dc |os ||oe|a|cs eooectos c|stco|oq|eos dc
kuoo, d|qaos uc, co c| ioodo, sost|coc uoa os|e|oo uy d|ic|cotc a |a dc loc| co
|o uc sc |ci|c|c a| |oq|cso dc |a e|coe|a y a |as eausas dc| |so. la|a cstc u|t|o, |a
e|coe|a sc ucdc ea|aetc||za| eoo uoa a|ox|ae|oo as|otot|ea a |a |ca||dad. Lo c|
cstud|o dc cstc avaoec, |a |oq|ea t|coc uoa iuoe|oo ||oe|a|. ta e|coe|a avaoza, d|ec
loc|, o|uc c| aoa||s|s |oq|eo dc |a cst|uetu|a dc |as tco|ias y dc |as o|otcs|s c||tc
dcsceoa| auc||os couoe|ados uc oo |cs|stco |as |ucoas dc eooc|coe|a |otc|oa y dc
eoot|astae|oo eoo |a |ca||dad, va|c dce||, |a a||eae|oo dc |a |oq|ea a| eootco|do dc |a
e|coe|a co uo e|c|to ocoto c||tc sca|a| |os couoe|ados e|cotii|eos dc auc||os uc
oo |o soo. kuoo, o| su |ado, sca|a |a |o|taoe|a dc iaeto|cs o|sto||eos y soe|o|oq|eos
co c| |oq|cso dc| eoooe||coto e|cotii|eo y sost|coc uc oo sc ucdc oao|a| co |as
e|coe|as dc uo |oq|cso eoot|ouo dc c||as, ucs ta| |oecso sc dcsa||o||a o| c| aso dc
uo jarauipna a ot|o uc |cc|aza a| aotc||o|.
&
PARADIGMAS Y PROGRAMAS DE INVESTIGACIN
B| concepto de parad|qma
L| cxaco dc uo a|ad|qa a ot|o oo cs os|o|c, eoot|oua kuoo, s|o c| eooeu|so dc |a
s|eo|oqia y dc |a soe|o|oqia dc |a e|coe|a. Asi, |a aectae|oo dc uo a|ad|qa dccodc
dc| eooscoso dc uoa eouo|dad e|cotii|ea y ta| eooscoso oo cs uoa eoosceucoe|a dc
dcost|ae|oocs |oq|eas, eoo |o u|c|c loc|.
L| eooecto dc jarauipna oos eo|oea co c| ecot|o dc |a eooece|oo c|stco|oq|ea dc
kuoo. Lo vc|dad, eoo |o oa ost|ado Va|qa|ct Vastc|oao co c| eaitu|o ta oatu|a|c-
za dc |os a|ad|qas co |a oo|a eo|cet|va cd|tada o| tasatos y Vusq|avc ya e|tada,
kuoo ut|||za c| tc||oo a|ad|qa eoo as dc zo s|qo|i|eados. S|o coa|qo, toaodo co
eucota |os c|ccotos eouocs co eada uoo dc csos usos odcos ucda|oos eoo |a
s|qu|cotc dci|o|e|oo dc| eooecto uc, e|ccos, oaec just|e|a a| cosa|coto dc| i||osoio
dc| eua| t|ataos. Lsa dci|o|e|oo cs |a s|qu|cotc:
uo a|ad|qa cs |a eooece|oo dc| oojcto dc cstud|o dc uoa e|coe|a aeoaada dc uo
eoojuoto dc tco|ias oas|eas soo|c ascetos a|t|eu|a|cs dc csc oojcto. Lsc eootco|do
dci|oc |os |oo|cas uc dcoco |ovcst|qa|sc, |a ctodo|oqia o| c|ca| y |a io|a dc
cx||ea| |os |csu|tados dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo. L| a|ad|qa eoo csas ea|aetc|ist|eas cs
aectado o| uoa eouo|dad e|cotii|ea dctc||oada uc asi sc d|ic|coe|a dc ot|a.
Scquo kuoo, |a |ovcst|qae|oo e|cotii|ea sc dcsa||o||a co eada ocoto co to|oo a a|a-
d|qas aectados. Sus |oduetos, sus |csu|tados, eoost|tuyco |a ieiia irna, co uo
c|iodo o|sto||eo dctc||oado. uo a|ad|qa |oq|a su |cdo|o|o o| |a aectae|oo dc
uoa eouo|dad e|cotii|ea uc |o |cq|t|a o|uc da |csucsta a |oo|cas uc ot|os
a|ad|qas v|qcotcs oasta csc ocoto oo |o oaeiao, s|o ocecs|dad dc |a va||dae|oo
|oq|ea uc cx|qc loc|. L| |ovcst|qado| , a coudo, dc aoc|a eas| e|cqa, aecta uo
dctc||oado a|ad|qa, s|o uc sc |c oeu||a, co |a ayo|ia dc |os easos, uc ucda
cx|st|| ot|o d|st|oto. ta eouo|dad e|cotii|ea |ooc su a|ad|qa dc d|vc|sas io|as:
cd|aotc |a cdueae|oo e|cotii|ea, su cxos|e|oo co ||o|os y |cv|stas c, |oe|uso, eoo |a
cxu|s|oo dc |a |ost|tue|oo o q|c|o dc u|cocs |o |ceoazao, scquo |o ucst|a |a o|sto||a
dc |a e|coe|a.
&
Laa revo|uc|onea c|ent|t|caa
Lo e|c|to ocoto dc |a v|qcoe|a dc uo a|ad|qa c|czao a aa|cec| e|c|tas aina-
:as (icoocoos, uc oo ucdco sc| cx||eados o| c| a|ad|qa do|oaotc. Sc |oduec,
cotooecs, co a|ao|as dc kuoo, uoa rev:ii iei:Iia:
_D:e si as rev:iies iei:Iias"... Las rev:iies iei:Iias se isiuerai a::
n a:es ejisuis ue uesarr i a:n:aiv ei :e :i aiip: jarauipna es re-
enjazau njeaneie ei jare jr r i:ev e iinjaiie... as rev:iies iei-
:Iias se iiiiai i :i seiiniei reieie, aniiei a nei:u resriipiu a :ia esreia
s:iuivisii ue a n:iiuau iei:Iia, ue :e e jarauipna eiseie ia uejau ue I:iiiar
aue:auaneie ei a ejraii ue :i asje ue a ia:raeza ,kuoo.Dj. i.).
Coov|coc oaec| oota| co csta e|ta uc kuoo oao|a dc dcsa||o||o oo aeuu|at|vo, a|a
d|ic|coe|a|sc dc |a os|e|oo dc loc|, y, o| ot|o |ado, coiat|za co ascetos soe|o|oq|-
eos |a eouo|dad e|cotii|ea y s|eo|oq|eos
scot||cotos e|ce|cotcs. Aoos c|c-

cotos sc oooco asi, co cstc tca dc e|ce||coto dc| eoooe||coto, a| c|o aoa||s|s
|oq|eo uc c|||oa |os couoe|ados oo e|cotii|eos dc |os e|cotii|eos.
kuoo sost|coc uc s| o|co |a aeuu|ae|oo dcscca uo ac| |o|taotc co c| |oq|cso
dc |a e|coe|a, |os eao|os ||oe|a|cs sc dcoco a |as |cvo|ue|oocs e|cotii|eas, cotcod|das
eoo c| eao|o dc uo a|ad|qa o| ot|o uc |o |cc|aza. ta e|coe|a oo|a| dc uo e|c|to
c|iodo csta eoost|tu|da o| |os eoooe||cotos aeuu|ados dcot|o dc| a|aq|qa v|qcotc,
aectado o| |a eouo|dad e|cotii|ea. lc|o euaodo sc |odueco aooa|ias, cs dce||,
s|tuae|oocs uc csc a|ad|qa oo ucdc cx||ea|, sc |oduec uoa |cvo|ue|oo e|cotii|ea.
Lakatoa. Loa proqramaa de |nveat|qac|on c|ent|t|ca
ta eooece|oo c|stco|oq|ea dc l|c tasatos csta cxucsta, dc aoc|a ||oe|a| co su
a|tieu|o ta ia|sae|oo y |a ctodo|oqia dc |os |oq|aas dc |ovcst|qae|oo e|cotii|ea, uc
eoost|tuyc uo eaitu|o dc |a oo|a eo|cet|va dc tasatos y Vusq|avc, ya va||as vcecs
e|tada. 1a| eaitu|o eo||csoodc a uoa |cv|s|oo y a||ae|oo dc uo t|aoajo uo||eado co
|us. Lx|stc uoa t|aduee|oo a| csao| dc |a Ld|to||a| A||aoza uo|vc|s|dad t|tu|ada La
neup:a ue s jrpranas ue iivesipaii iei:Iia (1uss,.
&
tasatos eo|coza o| e||t|ea| c| e||tc||o dc ia|sae|oo|so dc loc|. 1a| e||tc||o dc dc-
a|eae|oo cot|c e|coe|a y oo e|coe|a sc|ia |oqcouo ucs |qoo|a |a a iaie eiaiuau
ue a er:as... irnaneie (|os e|cotii|eos,... si i j:euei ipirar :ia aina:a a
uesaieiuei y eirai s: aeiii ei rs jrienas ,Meup:a ue s jrpranas
ue..., j. !?). Coot|a kuoo d|ec uc c| eooecto dc |cvo|ue|oocs e|cotii|eas cs |||ae|ooa|.
Adcas, csta |dca oo||a |a dca|eae|oo cot|c e|coe|a y oo e|coe|a.
l|cotc c| tca ecot|a| t|atado o| |os auto|cs aotc||o|cs
c| |oq|cso dc |a e|coe|a o
aucoto dc| eoooe||coto e|cotii|eo
tasatos sost|coc uc c| eao|o oo sc |oduec

eoo eoosceucoe|a dc| aoa||s|s |oq|eo dc |os couoe|ados e|cotii|eos, eoo |o |ctcodc
loc|, o| a| eao|o dc uo a|ad|qa o| ot|o, eoo |o ai||a kuoo. Lsc eao|o sc
|oduec, d|ec c|, o|uc uoos |oq|aas dc |ovcst|qae|oo, uc dcoo|oa jrpresivs,
dcs|azao a ot|os, dcoo|oados represivs. tos |oq|cs|vos soo eaaecs dc |cdce||
oceoos oucvos, dcseoooe|dos oasta uo ocoto dado, |os |cq|cs|vos, co eao|o, ut|||-
zao tco|ias uc cx||eao oceoos eoooe|dos. Lo ta| easo, |os e|cotii|eos t|codco a a||oca|-
sc eoo |os ||c|os.
Lo a|ao|as dc tasatos: La iisria ue a ieiia reI:a ai a Ijjer n a K:ii.
C:aiu si eaniiaus ue era res:a :e ai s ejerineis r:iaes n as
rev:iies ue K:ii si nis, :e s:eue irnaneie es :e s jrpranas ue
iivesipaii jrpresivs s:si:yei a s represivs (Dj. i, . 1s,.
vcaos as dc ec|ea c| eooecto dc |oq|aas dc |ovcst|qae|oo. Lo qcoc|a|, cstos
|oq|aas eoos|stco co |cq|as ctodo|oq|eas uc |cs d|eco a |os e|cotii|eos uc scodc-
|os dc |ovcst|qae|oo sc oao dc cv|ta| c| uso dc cstas |cq|as eoost|tuyc |a ie:r:sia
iepaiva y, o| ot|o |ado, uc scodc|os sc dcoco scqu|| ie:r:sia jsiiva, cs dce||,
co cstc u|t|o easo, |a ocu|ist|ea os|t|va d|ec uc |oo|cas sc oao dc |ovcst|qa|.
1odos |os |oq|aas dc |ovcst|qae|oo sc ea|aetc||zao o| tcoc| uo oue|co eoovcoe|ooa|-
cotc aectado y uc eoos|dc|ado |||ciutao|c o| u|cocs sc quiao o| uo dctc||oado
|oq|aa (o| cjc|o, co |a iis|ea, io|a a|tc dc su oue|co oas|eo |a |cy dc |a at|aee|oo
uo|vc|sa|,. ta ocu|ist|ea ocqat|va oos ||dc ataea| csc oue|co. A |a |ovc|sa, |os e|co-
tii|eos dcoco |otcqc||o |ovcotaodo o|otcs|s aux|||a|cs uc io|ao uo ii:ri jrer
a su a||cdcdo|. D|ec tasatos a cstc |csceto:
&!
Ls ese ii:ri jrer ue iijesis a:iiares :iei ieie :e resisir e jes ue as
israsaiies e irse aj:saiu y reaj:saiu, ii:s ser s:si:iu jr nje,
jara ueIeiuer e i:e :e ue ese nu se iae nas siu. Li jrprana ue iivesipa-
ii ieie ei si u es eva a :i anii ue jrienas jrpresivs, i ieie ei
si eva a :i anii ue jrienas uepeieraivs (tasatos, co c| eaitu|o ta ia|sae|oo y
|a ctodo|oqia... co tasatos y Vusq|avc, Dj. i., . z!s,.
Lo |os oceoos, d|ec tasatos, oeos e|cotii|eos ooco ayo| atcoe|oo a |as |ciutae|oocs
uc |a dco|da. L||os t|coco uoa o|it|ea dc |ovcst|qae|oocs a |a|qo |azo uc csta dci|o|da
o| |a ocu|ist|ea os|t|va dc| |oq|aa y oo o| |as s|eo|oq|eacotc o|cstas aoo-
a|ias. Ls csa ocu|ist|ea |a uc |c oa c||t|do io|u|a| odc|os eada vcz as eo||-
eados uc s|u|ao |a |ca||dad. ta atcoe|oo dc| e|cotii|eo sc eooecot|a co eoost|u|| csos
odc|os s|qu|codo |as |ost|uee|oocs cxucstas co |a a|tc os|t|va dc su |oq|aa.
ta ||oe|a| d|ic|coe|a eoo |a vc|s|oo o||q|oa||a dc loc| cs, a | ju|e|o,
uc co |a eooece|oo uc yo oc cxucsto, |a e|it|ea oo dcst|uyc y oo dcoc
dcst|u|| tao |a|dacotc eoo loc| |aq|oaoa. La cr|t|ca deatruct|va,
como |a retutac|on y |a demoatrac|on de una |ncona|atenc|a, no e||-
m|na un proqrama. La cr|t|ca de un proqrama ea un proceao |arqo y a
menudo truatrante y hay que tratar |oa proqramaa |nc|p|entea a|n aeve-
r|dad. Sc ucdc, dcsdc |ucqo, cv|dcoe|a| |a dcqcoc|ae|oo dc uo |oq|aa
dc |ovcst|qae|oo, c|o cs so|o |a cr|t|ca conatruct|va |a uc, eoo |a ayuda
dc |oq|aas dc |ovcst|qae|oo ||va|cs, ucdc tcoc| vc|dadc|o cx|to..
(Laas, ei Laa y M:sprave, j. ?sc - s!).
|eyeraoend. Contra e| mtodo
lau| k. lcyc|aocod, i||osoio v|cocs, iuc dce|d|do scqu|do| dc loc| du|aotc |a|qos
aos, a|a eoovc|t||sc ostc||o|cotc co uoo dc sus as ae|dos e|it|eos. Lo su ||oe|a|
t|aoajo sc |ci|c|c a| |ae|ooa||so e|it|eo co |os s|qu|cotcs tc||oos:
&"
Iens ues:iier, auenas, :e s jriiijis pis s uesenjeai :i jaje n:y
je:e ei s jass :e iaei avaizar a ieiia, nas iiei e iiei ue uares I:erza
:iiversa isa:izar:a a ieiia ,Lo |a cd|e|oo csao|a dc 1raau ira e neu.
Vad||d: Ld|to||a| 1ceoos, 1us1, . zs!,.
Soo|c c| |so tca vuc|vc ot|a vcz, co |a io|a uc sc ucdc a|ce|a| co |a e|ta uc s|quc:
Cieraneie, e raiiaisn r:i i es ei reaiuau :ia IisI:a: es :ia uivapaii
iI:sa sire a ieiia... esa uivapaii ii es rrea ii es r:ia: i eise :i s
evei iieresaie ei a iisr:a ue a ieiia :e j:eua ser ejiau ue nu
jjjeriai... a r:ia i:ia va uiripiua a a ieiia n :i u: a nayr:a ue as
vees, uiia r:ia se uiripe iiei ira IisIs rivaes ira uesarrs injj:-
ares ueir ue a ieiia nisna, jr:ra eviarse :a:ier iIi i a rrieie
jriiija ue a ieiia (l. lcyc|aocod. D|a|oqo soo|c c| ctodo , co l. lcyc|aocod, G.
ado|dtzs|, w. Stcqu||c| y ot|os. Lsr::ra y uesarr ue a ieiia. Vad||d: A||aoza
Ld|to||a|, 1us!, . 1,.
Lo su e|it|ea a tasatos sost|coc uc |a c|||oae|oo dc uoos |oq|aas dc |ovcst|qae|oo
o| ot|os (|os |oq|aas |cq|cs|vos o| |os |oq|cs|vos, |||ea uc csos |oq|aas
ucdco eoa|a|sc cot|c si. 1a| eoa|ae|oo so|o sc|ia os|o|c s| |os |oq|aas tuv|c-
sco uoa cst|uetu|a cst||etacotc |oq|ea. S|o coa|qo, ta|cs eoost|uee|oocs, co |os oc-
eoos, |oeo|o|ao e|ccoe|as, |cju|e|os, eoooe||cotos |cv|os, |oi|ucoe|as eu|tu|a|cs y
soe|a|cs, cte., ea|aetc|ist|eas todas uc |os oaeco |oeoa|ao|cs, o co su tc||oo|oqia
(uc eoa|tc eoo kuoo, eoo |o v|os,, |os |oq|aas dc |ovcst|qae|oo soo iiinei-
s:raies y, co eoosceucoe|a, oo sc ucdc dce|| uc uoo cs cjo| uc ot|o, uc uoo cs
vc|dadc|o y c| ot|o ia|so: so|o ucdc dce||sc uc soo d|ic|cotcs. Asi suecdc, o| cjc-
|o, eoo |a tco|ia dc |a |c|at|v|dad i|cotc a |a ceao|ea e|as|ea, o eoo |a tco|ia euaot|ea y
|a ceao|ea e|as|ea, cte.
S| o|co |a e|it|ea a loc| y a tasatos cs |o|taotc co si |sa, lcyc|aocod cs csc-
e|a|cotc eoooe|do o| sus ataucs a| ctodo e|cotii|eo. Coov|coc |ceo|da| uc su ||o|o
dc 1uo ||cva c| titu|o Cira e neu: Lisay ue :ia er:a aiar:isa ue iiniei-
. lo| c||o sc d|ec uc |c|cscota uo aoa|u|so c|stco|oq|eo . l|cotc a |a ai||a-
e|oo eouocotc aectada dc uc c| cx|to dc |a e|coe|a sc dcoc a| ctodo, uc s|c|c
dcoc sc| c| |so, eua|u|c|a uc sca |a d|se|||oa a|t|eu|a| co |a eua| sc a||uc,
&#
lcyc|aocod sost|coc uc ta| ctodo cs uoa |ovcoe|oo dc |os i||osoios. Lo |a |aet|ea |ca|
dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo, d|ec:
4 raar ue resver :i jriena, s iei:Iis :iizai iiuisiianeie :i jreuiniei
: r, auajai s:s neus y nues a jriena ei :esii ei vez ue isiuerars
n iuiiies r:piuaneie esaieiuas jara aua s:ii. A iay :ia raiiaiuau
iei:Iia :e j:eua isiuerarse n p::a jara aua iivesipaii, jer iay irnas
ieiiuas ue ejerieiias aierires, s:pereiias ie:r:sias (|oecd||cotos uc uc-
dco sc| ut||cs,, iejiies ue n:iu, uisjaraes neaI:sis, y ue us es iara :s
e iei:Ii ei s: iivesipaii ,1raau ira e neu, . xv,.
Aq|cqa lcyc|aocod uc oo cx|stc |cq|a ctodo|oq|ea uc oo oaya s|do |oi||oq|da co
a|quoa oo|tuo|dad. Vas auo: a|quoos dcsa||o||os |o|taotcs dc |a e|coe|a, scquo |o
dcucst|a su o|sto||a, sc oao |odue|do o|uc |os e|cotii|eos dc| ocoto oo sc soc-
t|c|oo a e|c|tas oo|as |ccstao|ce|das o |as dcsoocdce|c|oo dc||oc|adacotc. L| |cs-
cto |c||q|oso a| ctodo ||dc c| dcsa||o||o dc| eoooe||coto, eooduec |ocxo|ao|ccotc
a| cstaoea|coto dc |a e|coe|a. Coo d|ec lcyc|aocod:
Si is vvens a a pia, njrians :e ii:s as eipeiias nas sinjes i
si saisIeias jr a jraia iei:Iia, y i j:euei ser saisIeias jr a njejiuau
ue as:i. Las iueas :e s iei:Iis enjeai jara a:aizar iiu y avaizar
jr uesiiu s rara vez se iIrnai a s jreejs esris ue a pia ue
a naenaia j:ra, e iiei ue iaeras iIrnes jrivar:a a a ieiia ue a easii-
uau sii a :a i se isep:ir:a jrpres. Vens :e s ieis jr s: ss i si
iasaie I:eres jara iaeris aejar, reiazar, as er:as iei:Iias, e narpei
:e uejai a jeisaniei es uenasiau anji. La pia y a neup:a, jr e i-
rari, einiiai uenasiauas sas, si uenasiau esreias. Li neui ue ess us
erens se ei:eira e uniii sienjre aniiaie ue as iueas y ueses i:nais
(lcyc|aocod. Dj. i., . zus,.
Coosceucotc eoo sus e|it|eas a |a ctodo|oqia, lcyc|aocod |ceoaza a |os i||osoios dc |a
e|coe|a uc |ctcodco dce|||cs a |os e|cotii|eos eoo dcoc|iao oaec| e|coe|a.
&$
&%
Cap|tu|o s
arad|qmaa en |aa c|enc|aa aoc|a|ea
Lo | a dceada dc 1uso, | a aot| qua ousucda dc | a eoost|uee| oo dc | as e| coe| as soe| a-
| cs , scquo c| odc| o dc | as e| coe| as oat u|a| cs o c| odc| o dc | as e| coe| as eu| t u|a| cs
o dc| csi | | t u, sc s| ot ct | zo co dos a| ad| qas c| st co| oq| eos eoot | aucst os, dci | -
o| dos eoo d| st | ot os eoot co| dos y dcoo| oae| oocs o| sus aut o| cs. lc| o, co dci | o| t | -
va, odcos aoya|oos co uoo dc c| | os, |oucst o o| t| oeo| o y Guoa, uc ucst |a
eoo e| a| | dad | as d| i c| coe| as uc, scquo c| | os, sc dao cot | c aoos a| ad| qas. Ls-
t os aut o| cs, dcsucs dc oaec| uo aoa| | s| s e| i t | eo dc va| | os dc | os | ot cot os o| eoos-
t | u| | | as e| coe| as soe| a| cs eoo | a cst | uet u| a y ct odo| oqi a dc | as e| coe| as oat u| a| cs,
sc| cee| ooao d| vc|sas ea|aet c|i st | eas dc| jaraui pna jsi i vi s a a|a eoot |aooc|| as
a | as dc| jaraui pna ia :ra : s i . Dcocos dce| | uc | as dcoo| oae| oocs va| i ao
cot | c | os d| s| t | ot os aut o| cs uc t | at ao c| t ca, dc odo t a| uc c| t c| | oo os| t | v| st a
cs | cc| azado o| c| euaot | t at | v| st a y c| dc oat u| a| i st | eo eoo | os t c| | oos dc
oc| cocut | eo o eua| | t at | v| st a. l| cot c a csa va| | cdad dc ooo| cs, oosot | os | ci c| | -
os dcoo | oa| | os , | cs ce t | v a cot c, e o o jar aui pna ej i a i v y jar aui pna
i i erjre a i v, ooo|cs uc t oao co eucot a c| | a|qo dcoat c dado co c| |oecso dc
eoost | uee| oo dc | as e| coe| as soe| a| cs soo| c c| ooj ct | vo i | oa| dado a t a| cs e| coe| as,
uc a|a uoos cs c| dc cx||ea| y a|a ot|os c| dc |otc||cta| o eo|codc| |os oojctos
soe| a| cs cst ud| ados o| c| | ovcst | qado| .
A eoot|ouae|oo daos |a vc|s|oo tcxtua| dc t|oeo|o y Guoa dc csos dos a|ad|qas .
1. Natu|a|cza dc |a |ca||dad
Ver si i jsi i vi s a. Lx| st c uoa so| a | ca| | dad cxt c| | o| , i | aqcot ada co va| | ao| cs y
|oecsos | odccod| cot cs, eua| u| c|a dc | os eua| cs ucdc cst ud| a|sc | odccod| cot c-
cot c dc | os ot | os. ta | ovcst | qae| oo dc c| | as ucdc | | cqa| a su | cd| ee| oo y a su
eoot | o| .
&&
PARADIGMAS EN LAS CIENCIAS SOCIALES
Versii ia:ra:sia. Lx|stco u|t||cs |ca||dadcs eoost|u|das, uc so|o ucdco cstu-
d|a|sc co io|a oo|ist|ea. tas |ovcst|qae|oocs dc c||as sc|ao |ocxo|ao|ccotc d|ic|cotcs
(eada |ovcst|qae|oo |cvaota as |cquotas uc |csucstas, dc odo ta| uc c| eoot|o| y |a
|cd|ee|oo oo soo os|o|cs, auo euaodo a|quo o|vc| dc eo|cos|oo (vc|stcoco, ucdc sc|
a|eaozado o| c| |ovcst|qado|.
z. c|ae|oo dc| |ovcst|qado| eoo c| oojcto o| eoooec|
Versii jsiivisa. L| |ovcst|qado| y c| oojcto dc |ovcst|qae|oo soo |odccod|cotcs, c|
eoooec| y c| oojcto eoooe|do eoost|tuyco uoa dua||so d|se|cto.
Versii ia:ra:sia. L| |ovcst|qado| y c| oojcto dc |ovcst|qae|oo |otc|aetuao y sc |oi|u-
yco utuacotc. L| sujcto uc eoooec y c| oojcto o| eoooec| soo |osca|ao|cs.
s. los|o|||dad dc |a qcoc|a||zae|oo
Versii jsiivisa. L| oojct|vo i|oa| dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo cs c| dc dcsa||o||a| uo euc|o
oootct|eo dc eoooe||cotos co |a io|a dc qcoc|a||zae|oocs uc soo vc|dadc|as taoto
tco|a|cotc eoo eootcxtua|cotc (c||as sc aotcod|ao co eua|u|c| t|co y |uqa|,.
Versii ia:ra:sia. L| oojct|vo i|oa| dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo cs c| dc dcsa||o||a| uo euc|o
|d|oq|ai|eo dc eoooe||cotos co |a io|a dc o|otcs|s dc t|aoajo uc dcse||oco easos
|od|v|dua|cs.
!. los|o|||dad dc |c|ae|oocs eausa|cs
Versii jsiivisa. Cada aee|oo ucdc cx||ea|sc eoo c| |csu|tado (ciceto, dc uoa eau-
sa |ca| uc |cecdc tco|a|cotc a| ciceto (o , a| coos, cs s|u|taoco eoo c|,.
Versii ia:ra:sia. 1odos |os oojctos |ca|cs cstao co uo cstado dc odc|a|coto
utuo y s|u|taoco uc oaec |os|o|c d|st|oqu|| |as eausas dc |os cicetos.
s. L| ac| dc |os va|o|cs co |a |ovcst|qae|oo
Versii jsiivisa. ta |ovcst|qae|oo csta ||o|c dc va|o|cs, |o uc sc ucdc qa|aot|za| uc
cs asi o| |a ctodo|oqia oojct|va ut|||zada.
&'
Versii ia:ra:sia. ta |ovcst|qae|oo csta eo|oct|da o| |os va|o|cs, o| |o coos
co |as euat|o io|as s|qu|cotcs.
tas |ovcst|qae|oocs cstao |oi|u|das o| va|o|cs iivesipaivs, |os eua|cs sc cx|c-
sao co |a c|cee|oo dc uo |oo|ca, co su eooectua||zae|oo y co c| coias|s dados a
su ioea||zae|oo, sca co tc||oos dc cva|uae|oo u oe|oo o|it|ea.
ta |ovcst|qae|oo csta |oi|u|da o| |a c|cee|oo dc uo a|ad|qa uc quia |a |ovcst|qa-
e|oo oae|a c| |oo|ca.
ta |ovcst|qae|oo csta |oi|u|da o| |a c|cee|oo dc |a er:a s:saiiva ut|||zada a|a |a
|ceo|cee|oo y aoa||s|s dc |os datos y co |a |otc||ctae|oo dc |os |csu|tados.
ta |ovcst|qae|oo csta |oi|u|da o| |os va|o|cs uc sc dao co c| eootcxto.
A csos ||oe||os uc scquo |os auto|cs d|ic|coe|ao |os dos a|ad|qas ut|||zados co |a
| ovcst | qae| oo soe| a| sc aq| cqao ot | as ea| aet c| i st | eas | o| t aot cs dc| a| ad| qa
oatu|a|ist|eo:
1. ut|||zae|oo dc ctodos eua||tat|vos, z. ucst|a |otcoe|ooa| i|cotc a |as ucst|as
|ooao||ist|eas ut|||zadas co c| a|ad|qa os|t|v|sta, s. aoa||s|s |oduet|vo dc |os datos,
!. |a tco|ia uc sc eoost|uya dcoc cc|qc| dc |os datos ,pr:iueu iery) y, o| |o taoto,
oo dcoc sc| c|cq|da a| eo|cozo dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo, s. c| d|sco uc sc ut|||za co |a
|ovcst|qae|oo t|coc c| ea|aetc| dc cc|qcotc, cs dce||, oo sc dci|oc co io|a eo|cta
aotcs dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo, s|oo uc sc va eoost|uycodo a cd|da uc sc va dcsa||o||aodo
c| |oecso dc |ovcst|qae|oo, . c| t|o dc |ovcst|qae|oo eo||csoodc a| cstud|o dc easos,
y . |a |otc||ctae|oo dc |os datos cs |d|oq|ai|ea, co tc||oos dc| a|t|eu|a| easo cstud|a-
do, co |uqa| dc oaec||o o| |cycs qcoc|a|cs.
(t|oeo|o, lvoooa S. y Guoa, Lqoo G. Aa:raisi Ii:iry. ucvc||y l||ss: Saqc, 1uss, .
s - !s,.
'
La |nteqrac|on de parad|qmaa
Lo csta oo|tuo|dad so|o odcos dce|| a|quoas oeas a|ao|as soo|c |os |otcotos
dados co |os u|t|os aos, a|a |otcq|a| o eoat|o|||za| d|vc|sos eooocotcs y co-
ioucs c|tcoce|cotcs a tco|ias dcsa||o||adas dcot|o dc| a|ad|qa cx||eat|vo y dco-
t|o dc| a|ad|qa |otc||ctat|vo uc |os |otc|csados od|ao vc| co |a tc|ec|a a|tc dc su
||o|o 1er:a sipia ienjraiea, e|tado co |a o|o||oq|aiia co |a eua| sc |csco-
tao |os |otcotos dc uo|| c| aoa||s|s ae|o y |e|o, c| aoa||s|s dc |a cst|uetu|a eoo c| dc|
aeto| o aqcotc, cte. Dcot|o dc |a io|a |cdue|da dc oaec||o, sc |aotca a eoot|ouae|oo
c| |oecso dc |otcq|ae|oo dc |os c|ccotos ctodo|oq|eos eoos|dc|ados aotc||o|cotc
eoo |oeoat|o|cs.
|ano metodo|oq|co y tcn|co
Ls uoa aot|qua |aet|ea uc co |a |ovcst|qae|oo euaot|tat|va sc usc |a cot|cv|sta co
|oiuod|dad, eoos|dc|ada aotcs eoo dc uso cxe|us|vo dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo eua||tat|va.
uoa io|a dc ta| uso soo |as |cquotas ao|c|tas co uo eucst|ooa||o. lc|o, a|a da| ot|o
cjc|o, oada ||dc uc co uo cstud|o t|o tao ea|aetc|ist|eo dc| a|ad|qa euaot|tat|vo
eoo soo |as |ovcst|qae|oocs cxc||cota|cs sc oaqao cot|cv|stas co |oiuod|dad aotcs
y dcsucs dc |a |ot|oduee|oo dc |a va||ao|c cxc||cota|, eoo |a i|oa||dad dc eo|codc|
cjo| |os cicetos dc ta| va||ao|c co |os sujctos dc| cxc||coto.
Lo |a |ovcst|qae|oo eua||tat|va, a su vcz, sc usa |a riaip:aii a|a ost|a| |a va||dcz o
e|cd|o|||dad dc sus |csu|tados. uoa dc |as tceo|eas euaot|tat|vas ut|||zada co ta| |oecd|-
|coto ucdc sc|, o| cjc|o, uoa csea|a dcst|oada a cd|| |as aet|tudcs dc |as c|so-
oas dc| cstud|o i|cotc a ta| o eua| oojcto dc |a |ca||dad soe|a| co |a eua| v|vco.
Coo |c|ae|oo a |a ai||ae|oo dc a|quoos |c|cscotaotcs dc| a|ad|qa eua||tat|vo eoo |cs-
ceto a uc co c| a|ad|qa euaot|tat|vo oo sc eooecdc |o|taoe|a a| eao|o dc |a |ca||-
dad, oasta tcoc| co eucota uc co cstc u|t|o a|ad|qa sc ut|||zao, dcsdc oaec ueoo
t|co, aoa||s|s dc sc||cs dc t|co, c| scqu||coto dc eooo|tcs, cte., a|a, justacotc,
aoa||za| |os eao|os uc sc |odueco co uoa e|c|ta oo|ae|oo o ucst|a cstud|ada.
lo| ot|o |ado, s| o|co c| d|sco dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo euaot|tat|va cs dci|o|do eoo dcta||cs co
|a |ca|ae|oo dc| |oyceto dc |ovcst|qae|oo, cso oo u|c|c dce|| uc co c| tc||coo ta| |ao
'
ucda scqu||sc cst||etacotc. 1odo d|sco cxc||cota od|i|eae|oocs co su dcsa||o-
||o, o| |o |so, todo d|sco t|coc |a ea|aetc|ist|ea dc sc| cc|qcotc.
|ano de |oa conceptoa
1aoto co |as |ovcst|qae|oocs qu|adas o| c| a|ad|qa euaot|tat|vo - cx||eat|vo eoo co
c| eua||tat|vo - |otc||ctat|vo sc usao eooectos |o|os dc| ot|o. Asi, co |a |ovcst|qae|oo
eua||tat|va sc usao |os eooectos dc ayo|, coo| o |qua| a|a oaec| eoa|ae|o-
ocs. Adcas, c| uso dc cstadist|eas cs eouo co |os cstud|os eua||tat|vos, o| cjc|o,
a| da| eucota dc |os |ocd|os dc| cseo|a||dad, dc |oq|cso, cte. dc |as c|sooas co uo
cstud|o dc easos.
Lo |a |ovcst|qae|oo euaot|tat|va, a|a da| tao|co uo cjc|o, sc ut|||zao t|o|oqias eua-
||tat|vas a| e|as|i|ea| a |as c|sooas dc uo cstud|o eoo auto||ta||as o dcoe|at|eas.
(Ct|as io|as dc aec|ea|coto cot|c |os dos a|ad|qas ucdco vc|sc co c| ||c|
eaitu|o dc |a oo|a cd|tada o| 1ooas Coos Coa||cs c|eoa|dt D:aiaive aiu
D:aiiaive Meius ii Lva:aii Heseari. Scvc||y l|||s: Saqc. 1uu. lay t|aduee|oo
a| csao|,
'
lcyc|aocod, lau|. D|a|oqo soo|c c| ctodo co l. lcyc|aocod y ot|os. Lsr::ra y
uesarr ue a ieiia. Vad||d: A||aoza Ld|to||a|, 1us!, . 1! - z1s.
kuoo, 1ooas. La esr::ra ue as rev:iies iei:Iias. Vcx|eo: loodo dc Cu|-
tu|a Leooo|ea, u|cv|a||os, 1us.
tasatos, l|c. ta ia|sae|oo y |a ctodo|oqia dc |os |oq|aas dc |ovcst|qae|oo
e|cotii|ea co l. tasatos y A. Vusq|avc (cd.,. La r:ia y e uesarr ue ii-
niei. ua|ec|ooa: Ld|e|oocs G||ja|oo, 1us, . zos - s!s.
t|oeo|o lvoooa Lqoo Guoa. Aa:aisi Ii:iry. ucvc||y l|||s: Saqc, 1uss.
c|eoa|dt, Coa||cs 1ooas Coos. ucyood ua||tat|vc vc|sus uaot|tat|vc ctoods
co 1. Coos Co. c|oeoa|dt. Lds. D:aiiaive aiu :aiaive neius ii eva:aii
researi. ucvc||y l|||s: Saqc, 1uu. Ca. 1.
'!
Autoeva|uac|on N s
1. Ca|aetc||ec, co io|a o|cvc, |os eooectos dc a|ad|qa y dc |cvo|ue|oocs e|co-
tii|eas co kuoo.
z. _Lo uc eoos|stco |os |oq|aas dc |ovcst|qae|oo dc tasatos? _lo| uc uo
e|c|to |oq|aa cs |cc|azado o| ot|o?
s. _lo| uc, scquo lcyc|aocod, oo cs os|o|c eoa|a| uo |oq|aa dc |ovcst|qa-
e|oo eoo ot|o? _Lo uc eoos|stc c| aoa|u|so ctodo|oq|eo dc| auto|?
!. Sc| cee| ooc t | cs ea| aet c| i st | eas dc| a| ad| qa os| t | v| st a y dc| a| ad| qa
oatu|a|ist|eo uc, scquo su e||tc||o, dci|oco co cjo| io|a a eada uoo dc csos
a|ad|qas.
s. Dc dos cjc|os dc| uso eoojuoto dc tceo|eas eua||tat|vas y dc tceo|eas euaot|ta-
t|vas dc |ovcst|qae|oo.
'"
Contro| de |ectura N s
1. _Cua| cs, scquo G|ddcos, |a e|avc dc |a soe|o|oqia dc Du|soc|?
z. _Cua|cs soo |as dos eoosceucoe|as dc| t|ata|coto dc la|soos a| |oo|ca dc|
o|dco? Lxooqa o|cvccotc csas eoosceucoe|as.
s. laqa uoa siotcs|s uy o|cvc dc |as |dcas dc Va|x, scquo G|ddcos, soo|c |os
|otc|cscs atc||a|cs, c| eooi||eto y c| odc|.
!. _Cua|cs soo |os a|qucotos dc| auto| a|a sostcoc| uc todas |as oo|as soo a
su vcz eoc|e|t|vas y c||s|vas?
s. S|otct|ec |a cxos|e|oo soo|c c| tca |a ot|vae|oo dc |a aee|oo cxucsta co |as
aq|oas i|oa|cs dc |a |cetu|a.
'#
1eor|aa der|vadaa
de |oa
parad|qmaa teor|coa
'$
'%
TEORAS DERIVADAS DE LOS PARADIGMAS TERICOS
Cap|tu|o z
1eor|aa der|vadaa de| parad|qma |nterpretat|vo
Lo cstc eaitu|o sc |cscotao |os ||oe|a|cs eooectos dc a|quoas oucvas tco|ias
dc||vadas dc |os q|aodcs a|ad|qas tco||eos uc v|os aotc||o|cotc: c| a|x|sta, c|
Wcoc||aoo, c| du|soc|aoo y c| cst|uetu|a| iuoe|ooa||so. Lo vc|dad, |a dc||vae|oo s|qo|-
i|ea co uoos easos c| |ceoazo dc a|quoos o todos |os ||oe||os dc uo e|c|to a|ad|qa.
Lo csta os|e|oo sc coeucot|ao c| |otc|aee|oo|so s|oo||eo y |a ctooctodo|oqia |cs-
ceto dc| iuoe|ooa||so dc| eua| |ceoazao su io|a||so, su |cjaoia dc |os sujctos eoo-
e|ctos y su eooecto dc iuoe|oo. Lo tc||oos c|stco|oq|eos, aoas tco|ias, dc o|vc|
|e|o, sc v|oeu|ao eoo c| a|ad|qa |otc||ctat|vo.
Ct|as oucvas tco|ias soo eoot|ouae|oocs, eoo d|vc|sos t|os dc od|i|eae|oocs, dc ot|os
a|ad|qas, eoo suecdc eoo |as tco|ias ocoa|x|stas o |as tco|ias ocoiuoe|ooa||stas,
dc o|vc| ae|o, uc, c|stco|oq|eacotc, sc oasao co c| a|ad|qa cx||eat|vo.
B| |nteracc|on|amo a|moo||co
A|quoos dc |os ||oe|a|cs eooectos dc| |otc|aee|oo|so s|oo||eo iuc|oo cxucstos
o| ||c|a vcz o| Gco|qc l. Vcad co su oo|a dc |us! Miiu, SeI, aiu Siey (t|adue|-
da a| eastc||aoo eoo c| ooo|c dc Lsj:ri:, jersia y sieuau. uucoos A||cs: la|dos,
1 u z , . C o o o a s c c o a | q u o o s d c c | | o s , l c | o c | t u | u c | , u c a e u o c | t c | | o o d c
|otc|aee|oo|so s|oo||eo, o|zo uoa s|stcat|zae|oo dc |a tco|ia, eoo |o|taotcs ao|-
tcs c|sooa|cs (Synii Iieraiiisn: Iersjeive aiu Meiu. Loq|cWood C||iis,
NcW Jc|scy: l|cot|ec - la||. |uu,. Nucst|a cxos|e|oo sc oasa|a, dc aoc|a ||oe|a|, co
cstc t|aoajo dc u|uc| y dc a|quoos dc sus scqu|do|cs (ucesc|, G|asc|, St|auss y ot|os,,
cd|aotc uoa sc|cee|oo dc |os ||oe||os oas|eos dc |a tco|ia.
1. Lo |a oasc dc| |otc|aee|oo|so s|oo||eo csta c| eooecto dc| yo (sc|i,. L| yo cs
uoa csce|c dc |cotc co |a eua| sc |ci|cja c| uodo soe|a|. A su vcz, c| yo sc io|a
'&
TEORAS DERIVADAS DEL PARADIGMA INTERPRETATIVO
co |a |otc|aee|oo uc sc da co csc uodo. uoa io|a csceii|ea dc |otc|aee|oo so-
e|a|, dc csce|a| |o|taoe|a, cs c| |oecso dc siaizaii.
z. Lx|stco t|cs t|os dc oojctos: ijes I:sis, eoo uoa csa, uo a|oo|, ijes siaes,
eoo uo a|qo, |a ad|c, y ijes aisras, eoo |as |dcas y |os ||oe||os o|a|cs.
s. tas c|sooas a|codco c| s|qo|i|eado dc |os oojctos co c| |oecso dc |otc|aee|oo.
lc|o eada uoa dc c||as ucdc da| d|ic|cotcs dci|o|e|oocs dc |os oojctos a |os eua|cs
sc |ci|c|c. Ls dce||, |os oojctos ucdco tcoc| d|vc|sos s|qo|i|eados a|a |as c|sooas.
lc|o a|a uc cx|sta uoa aet|v|dad eoojuota cs ocecsa||o uc |as c|sooas |ovo|ue|adas
co uoa |c|ae|oo soe|a| |c as|qoco |os |sos s|qo|i|eados a |os oojctos y s|tuae|oocs
a |os eua|cs sc d|||qco.
!. Lo |a |otc|aee|oo, |as c|sooas tao|co a|codco sioo|os uc sc ut|||zao a|a |c|csco-
ta| eosas dc aoc|a eooscosua|. L| |coquajc cs uo q|ao s|stca dc sioo|os. tas a|a-
o|as oaeco os|o|c todos |os dcas sioo|os. Adcas, |os aetos, |os oojctos y |as
|sas a|ao|as t|coco s|qo|i|eado so|o o|uc ucdco sc| dcse||tos o| |as a|ao|as.
s. Lo c| |oecso dc |otc|aee|oo, |as c|sooas eouo|eao sioo|os y s|qo|i|eados a
auc||as eoo |as eua|cs |otc|aetuao. Lstas |os |otc||ctao y o||cotao su eoodueta co
iuoe|oo dc |a |otc||ctae|oo uc |c dao a |a s|tuae|oo.
. tas c|sooas cstao co eoostaotc dci|o|e|oo y |cdci|o|e|oo dc |a s|tuae|oo co |a eua| ae-
tuao. ta |otc|oa||zae|oo dc sioo|os y s|qo|i|eados eoo tao|co |as cx|cs|oocs dc|
cosa|coto a t|avcs dc| |coquajc aucota c| odc| dc |ci|cx|o|||dad uc |c c||tc a |a
c|sooa ||a|sc eoo uo oojcto, da|sc o||cotae|oocs a si |so y aetua| oae|a |os ot|os.
. Du|aotc |a ctaa dc |os jucqos, c| o|o sc vc a si |so dcsdc |a c|scet|va dc |os
ot|os (ucs co ta| s|tuae|oo eada uoo csc|a a|quoa aee|oo dc| ot|o,. la|a aetua| co
e|c|tas s|tuae|oocs dcoc toa| c| ac|, c| |o|, dc |os ot|os y a cd|da uc s|quc su
dcsa||o||o c|sooa| oo so|o sc vc dcsdc csa c|scet|va, s|oo co tc||oos dc |as oo|-
as, va|o|cs y |cycs aectadas o| |a soe|cdad. Vcad ||ao a cstc yo uc toa co
eucota |a c|scet|va dc |os ot|os c| yo qcoc|a||zado , uc |c|cscota |a |c|ae|oo cot|c
c| |od|v|duo y |a soe|cdad.
''
ta |ovcst|qae|oo dc t|o |e|o, uc sc dcsa||o||a dcot|o dc| a|ad|qa dc| |otc|aee|oo|s-
o s|oo||eo, |cscota a|quoas ea|aetc|ist|eas csce|a|cs uc ocos toado dc d|vc|-
sas iucotcs o|o||oq|ai|eas.
1. ta |ovcst|qae|oo dcoc csta| aoe|ada co |a |ca||dad ci||ea. lo| ta| sc cot|codc |a
v|da soe|a| dc |as c|sooas eoo c||as |a v|vco y |a dcsa||o||ao dia a dia. cscta|
csa |ca||dad s|qo|i|ea oaec| soo|c c||a c| io|o dc suucstos a| |o|e|a| c| t|aoajo.
z. Coo eoosceucoe|a dc |a aotc||o| o||cotae|oo, oo sc |cu|c|c a|t|| eoo uo d|sco dc
|ovcst|qae|oo eo|ctacotc dci|o|do. 1aoto |a csce|i|eae|oo dc |os |oo|cas dc
cstud|o, eoo |as o|otcs|s y |as eatcqo|ias dc aoa||s|s dc |os datos sc |ca||zao
du|aotc |a a|eoa dc| |oecso dc |ovcst|qae|oo.
s. ta |ovcst|qae|oo dcoc tcoc| uy co eucota uc |a v|da soe|a| sc da co d|st|otos
o|vc|cs dc cx|cs|oo. lo| csto, c| |ovcst|qado| dcoc csta| atcoto a|a dcseuo||| uc
oay dct|as dc |as ||c|as y scquodas aa||coe|as o odos dc |cscota|sc dc |as
c|sooas. Sc dcoc t|ata| dc ootcoc| |oio|ae|oo soo|c s|qo|i|eados uc oo aa|ceco
co |as ||c|as eoovc|sae|oocs o cot|cv|stas. Lo toda o|o|oo, co toda eoodueta,
cx|stc uo dct|as.
!. S| |ctcodcos |otc||cta| |a v|da y |as e|ccoe|as dc |as c|sooas c| i|o u|t|o dc|
|otc|aee|oo|so s|oo||eo dcocos toa| c| |o| dc c||as, eo|oeaodooos co su |uqa|.
Asi od|cos ootcoc| uo eoooe||coto dcsdc dcot|o dc |a v|da soe|a| uc cstud|a-
os. Lo ot|as a|ao|as, dcocos t|ata| dc vc| c| uodo dcsdc su uoto dc v|sta. la|a
|oq|a||o, co |a cd|da dc |o os|o|c, eoov|coc eoov|v|| eoo |as c|sooas uc cstud|a-
os, oaec|oos uoa dc c||as, aeoaa||as co |as s|tuae|oocs dc su v|da d|a||a, cte.
s. uo tca ecot|a| dcot|o dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo uc sc |ca||za dcot|o dc cstc a|ad|qa cs
|a eatae|oo dc |a eu|tu|a dc| q|uo, dc |os s|qo|i|eados y sioo|os uc sc dao dcot |o
dc c||a. ta eo|cos|oo dc cstos c|ccotos oo||qa a aotcoc| uoa e|c|ta |cjaoia
dc |os aeto|cs a|a ootcoc| c| uoto dc v|sta dc |os ot|os y oo c| dc| |ovcst|qado|.
La etnometodo|oq|a
ta eineup:a aa|cec s|stcat|zada o| ||c|a vcz co |a oo|a dc la|o|d Ga|i|osc|
t|tu|ada S:uies ii Liineiupy co |u. Sc dci|oc eoo c| cstud|o dc |os eoooe|-

|cotos dc| scot|do eouo y dc |os ctodos y |oecd||cotos uc |as c|sooas eo|||co-
tcs ut|||zao a|a da||c scot|do a |as s|tuae|oocs co |a eua|cs sc coeucot|ao y oa||ao c|
ea|oo uc dcoco scqu|| co c||as y, co eoosceucoe|a, aetuao.
ta |ovcst|qae|oo ctooctodo|oq|ea |c da csce|a| |o|taoe|a a |as cx||eae|oocs uc
dao |as c|sooas a |as |aet|eas cx||eat|vas, eoo sc d|ec co csa tco|ia, uc |oe|u-
yco |oecsos eoo |a dcse||e|oo, |a e|it|ea y |a |dca||zae|oo dc s|tuae|oocs csceii|eas.
lo| csta |o|taoe|a, t|coc uo |otc|cs ayo| c| aoa||s|s dc |as eoovc|sae|oocs cot|c |as
c|sooas. Lo ta| aoa||s|s, |os ctooctodo|oqos adotao uoa aet|tud dc |od|ic|coe|a co
c| scot|do dc uc oo juzqao |a oatu|a|cza dc |as cx||eae|oocs, s|oo uc |as aoa||zao co
iuoe|oo dc su uso co |a v|da eot|d|aoa. Ls |otc|csaotc sca|a| uc a|a |os adoc|cotcs a
csta tco|ia, c| t|aoajo dc |os soe|o|oqos csta eoost|tu|do o| cx||eae|oocs, co euaoto
uoa oucoa a|tc dc| |so eo||csoodc a |otc||ctae|oocs dc| scot|do eouo. lo| |o
|so, cstc t|aoajo eac oajo c| aoa||s|s dc |os ctooctodo|oqos.
la|a |a ctooctodo|oqia, scquo c| ||oe||o dc iiueiaiuau, |as |oos|e|oocs uc sc
usao co |a v|da d|a||a t|coco d|st|otos s|qo|i|eados, scquo c| eootcxto co |as eua|cs sc |as
ut|||ec. lo| cjc|o, |a |oos|e|oo csta ||ov|codo t|coc uo e|c|to s|qo|i|eado s| sc va a
oaec| uo asco y ot|o d|st|oto euaodo sc ut|||za a|a eoos|dc|a| su eoovco|coe|a a|a |a
aq||eu|tu|a.
Ct|o ||oe||o a| eua| |os ctooctodo|oqos |c |cstao atcoe|oo cs c| uc c||os dcoo|oao
eeera. Scquo c| |so, |as c|sooas dcjao ueoas s|tuae|oocs co |as eua|cs a|t|e|-
ao s|o |a dco|da e|a||i|eae|oo. D|eoo co ot|as a|ao|as: co |a v|da eot|d|aoa ad|t|os
uoa sc||c dc vaeios y ao|qucdadcs s|o eucst|ooa||os o uc a vcecs csc|aos ae|a|a|
dcsucs. (Lstc ||oe||o sc eo|codc cjo| s| |ceo|daos uc ueoas vcecs euaodo
cstaos oae|codo uoa cxos|e|oo soo|c uo dctc||oado tca uc ea|aetc||zaos eoo
so|o a|quoos at||outos cx|ie|tos y |ucqo dce|os, |cduodaotccotc, ctectc|a, ctectc|a,.
la|a |a ctooctodo|oqia, |a v|da sc|ia |os|o|c s| |ctcod|c|aos uoa e|a||dad eo|c-
ta co todo |o uc dce|os. Lo |os easos uc oo |o oaecos, tcocos |a csc|aoza
cx|ie|ta o ||ie|ta dc uc |as eosas sc e|as|i|ea|ao as ta|dc.
Coo ya d|j|os, |a ctooctodo|oqia t|aoaja a o|vc|cs |e|o, co ao|cotcs oo |ost|tue|o-
oa|cs, eoo c| ooqa|, o |ost|tue|ooa|cs, eoo |a cseuc|a, |as sa|as dc csc|a dc uo
oos|ta|, cte.
TEORAS DERIVADAS DE LOS PARADIGMAS TERICOS

Cap|tu|o s
1eor|aa der|vadaa de| parad|qma exp||cat|vo
Lstc eaitu|o i|oa| csta dcst|oado a |cscota| a|quoas oucvas tco|ias v|oeu|adas, co uoa
io|a u ot|a, eoo c| a|ad|qa cx||eat|vo, co tc||oos c|stco|oq|eos, y eoo |os
a|ad|qas iuoe|ooa||sta y a|x|sta, co sus ascetos tco||eos.
1eor|a neotunc|ona||ata
Dc| aot|quo a|ad|qa iuoe|ooa||sta, io|u|ado dc aoc|a ||oe|a| o| 1a|eott la|soos
,1ie Sr::re I Sia 4ii) y o| su d|seiu|o ooc|t Vc|too ( Sia 1iery aiu
Sia Sr::re), uy oeo o oada ucda co |a aetua||dad, dcsucs dc oaoc| s|do soc-
t|do a scvc|as e|it|eas, taoto dcsdc c| uoto dc v|sta tco||eo eoo soe|o|oq|eo. to uy
oeo uc oa c|aoce|do tao|co soct|do a |cv|s|oo cs uoa tco|ia cc|qcotc,
eoooe|da eoo ieI:iiiaisn co euya eoost|uee|oo soo|csa|co Jcii|cy A|cxaodc|
(cd|to| dc AeI:iiiaisn , y lau| Co|oy (cd|to| dc AeI:iiiaisn Sipy ). Dc
csta oucva tco|ia oaecos uoa o|cvc dcse||e|oo oasada d||cetacotc co |a siotcs|s dc
va||as os|e|oocs cxucstas o| |tzc| (1er:a sipia Cienjraiea , 1uus, .
sz! - ss!,
L| ocoiuoe|ooa||so, co |a vc|s|oo dc A|cxaodc|, oi|cec a|quoas o||cotae|oocs oas|eas
a|a |a |ovcst|qae|oo co su eao. la|a eocoza|, sc eooe|oc a |a soe|cdad eoo uoa
eooi|qu|ae|oo eoucsta dc c|ccotos co |otc|aee|oo uoos eoo ot|os . Lo |c|ae|oo eoo
csa eooi|qu|ae|oo, ya oo sc sost|coc uc c| q|ao |oo|ca sca c| cstud|o dc| o|dco
soe|a|, eoo |o ai||aoa c| aot|quo iuoe|ooa||so, s|oo uc a| cstud|o dc csc |oo|ca
sc aq|cqa aoo|a c| dc |a aee|oo, oo so|o |ae|ooa| s|oo tao|co dc |a aee|oo cx|cs|va.
S| o|co co c| ocoiuoe|ooa||so eoot|oua c| |otc|cs o| |a |otcq|ae|oo, c||a sc eoos|dc|a
eoo uoa c|a os|o|||dad. Adcas, auouc |os s|stcas soe|a|cs t|codco a| cu|||o||o,
TEORAS DERIVADAS DEL PARADIGMA EXPLICATIVO

|a dcsv|ae|oo dc |as eooduetas |csceto dc |as oo|as eu|tu|a|cs |ost|tue|ooa||zadas soo
|ca||dadcs oo|a|cs dcot|o dc ta|cs s|stcas.
L| eooecto ecot|a| dc cstc a|ad|qa cc|qcotc csta eoost|tu|do o| |a aectae|oo
toada co |os tc||oos dc la|soos dc |a |otc|coct|ae|oo dc |os suos|stcas soe|a|,
eu|tu|a| y dc |a c|sooa||dad. 1a| |otc|coct|ae|oo |oduec uoa tcos|oo dcot|o dc| s|stca
q|ooa|, uc cs iucotc eoostaotc dc eao|os, y, |cei|oeacotc, dc eoot|o| soe|a|.
L| ocoiuoe|ooa||so sc ecot|a co c| cstud|o dc| eao|o soe|a| y co |os |oecsos dc
d|ic|coe|ae|oo dcot|o dc |os suos|stcas soe|a|, eu|tu|a| y dc |a c|sooa||dad. lo| u|t|o,
A|cxaodc| sca|a uc a|a c| ocoiuoe|ooa||so, |a eooectua||zae|oo y |a tco||zae|oo
soo |odccod|cotcs dc ot|os o|vc|cs dc| aoa||s|s soe|o|oq|eo.
la|a Co|oy, |as csic|as |ost|tue|ooa|cs sc dcsa||o||ao co io|a dcs|qua|, c|o tao|co
sc |oduec uoa d|ic|coe|ae|oo dcs|qua| dcot|o dc eada |ost|tue|oo. L| dcsa||o||o dcs-
|qua| dc |as |ost|tue|oocs |||ea uc |a tcodcoe|a ||oe|a| a| eao|o sc |oduec co uo
q|ado y |oo|e|oo dcs|qua| co |as d|st|otas |cq|oocs dc uoa soe|cdad. 1a| coiouc dc |a
d|ic|coe|ae|oo dcs|qua| sc aeoaa dc uoa ayo| |coeuae|oo o| c| odo co uc
|os q|uos eooe|ctos |oi|uyco co c| eao|o, asi eoo tao|co c| odo co uc c| odc|,
c| eooi||eto y |a eoot|oqcoe|a |oi|uyco co c| eao|o, co |a d||cee|oo dc uoa ayo| d|ic|co-
e|ae|oo. Lsto eooduec a uo aoa||s|s dc| eooi||eto, uc sc |oduec cot|c d|vc|sos q|uos
uc |ueoao o| |oi|u|| co csc. A d|ic|coe|a dc| aot|quo iuoe|ooa||so, |os |oecsos dc
|otcq|ae|oo asao a uo scquodo |uqa|, a|a |csta| aoo|a ayo| atcoe|oo a |as eoot|ad|e-
e|oocs y tcos|oocs cot|c |os suo s|stcas soe|a|, eu|tu|a| y dc |a c|sooa||dad.
Sc oao |ca||zado ouc|osos csiuc|zos o| |otcq|a| co c| ocoiuoe|ooa||so
|dcas dc |os v|cjos acst|os, eoo |as |ci|cx|oocs dc Va|x soo|c |as cs-
t|uetu|as atc||a|cs y |as dc Du|soc| soo|c c| s|oo||so. L| |otcoto dc
suc|a| c| scsqo |dca||sta dc| iuoe|ooa||so cst|uetu|a| a|soo|aoo, csc-
e|a|cotc su coias|s co |os icoocoos ae|osuojct|vos ta|cs eoo |a eu|-
tu|a, |cu|c|c da| aso a coioucs as atc||a||stas: |a tcodcoe|a dc|
iuoe|ooa||so cst|uetu|a| a suo|aya| c| o|dco sc eoot|a||csta eoo uoa a|ox|-
ae|oo a |as tco|ias dc| eao|o soe|a|. Y, |o uc cs as |o|taotc, a|a
!
eocosa| c| scsqo ae|o dc| iuoe|ooa||so cst|uetu|a| t|ad|e|ooa|, sc cs-
tao |ca||zaodo csiuc|zos o| |otcq|a| |dcas dc||vadas dc |a tco|ia dc| |otc|-
eao|o (ei jari:ar, a ue Inais.C.S.), dc| |otc|aee|oo|so s|oo||eo,
c| |aqat|so, |a icoocoo|oqia, cte. Lo ot|as a|ao|as, A|cxaodc| y
Co|oy sc csiuc|zao co |a aetua||dad o| s|otct|za| c| iuoe|ooa||so cst|ue-
tu|a| eoo ot|as t|ad|e|oocs tco||eas (Hizei. C. e|t. jj. Jaa).
1eor|aa neomarx|ataa
ta eaida dc |os soe|a||sos |ca|cs dc| cstc dc Lu|oa (o c| i|o dc |a Guc||a l|ia, a|a
ot|os, s|qo|i|eo d|vc|sas oucvas io|as dc os|e|ooa|coto i|cotc a| aot|quo a|ad|qa
a|x|sta dc Va|x o dc Va|x y tco|o. A|quoas dc csas os|e|oocs toa|oo |a io|a dc
aoaodooo dc |a tco|ia y dc |a |aet|ea dc| soe|a||so |cot|as ot|as sc cx|csa|oo co
d|vc|sos |otcotos dc |cio|u|ae|oo dc| a|ad|qa oo todos eooi|uycotcs co uoa oucva
q|ao siotcs|s. lo| |o |so, aui sc oa|a uo csiuc|zo o| |cscota| a|quoos dc csos
|otcotos, eoo sus ea|aetc|ist|eas ||oe|a|cs, eada uoo dc |os eua|cs dcoc|ia toa|sc
eoo tco|ias cc|qcotcs dc uo ienarisn. Cocoza|cos |a ta|ca eoo a|quoas
|oucstas dc a|x|stas oo|tcac||eaoos a|a tc||oa| eoo |a os|e|oo dc uo aot|quo
a|x|sta uc oa |cv|sado a|quoas dc |as eooece|oocs o||q|oa|cs dc Va|x. Lo todas
csas os|e|oocs, c| ocoa|x|so t|coc uoa oasc |ca||sta, o|uc, ctodo|oq|eacotc,
ousea cx||eae|oocs dc |os suecsos uc cstud|a.
B| neomarx|amo ana||t|co
L| dcoo|oado ienarisn aia:i cs uoa |oucsta a|a |ca||za| uoa eoojuqae|oo
cot|c a|quoos c|ccotos dc |a tco|ia a|x|sta y |os ctodos oo a|x|stas. 1a| os|e|oo
s|qo|i|ea, co c| ioodo, aoaodooa| c| ctodo d|a|cet|eo a|a |cc|aza||o o| c| ctodo y
tceo|eas uc ut|||za |a aetua| |ovcst|qae|oo soe|a|: |os ctodos |oduet|vo y dcduet|vo, co
cscoe|a, c|cados co |a |ovcst|qae|oo ci||ea o eoo |a io|a csce|a| uc c||os toao
co |a cx||eae|oo co tc||oos iuoe|ooa|cs.
la|a occ| uoo dc |os ||oe|a|cs |c|cscotaotcs dc| a|x|so aoa|it|eo (Jooo occ|.
4iayia Marisn. Cao||dqc: Cao||dqc uo|vc|s|ty l|css, 1usz, csta |oucsta dcoc
"
eoos|dc|a|sc eoo a|x|sta co euaoto t|ata tcas ecot|a|cs dc |a tco|ia o||q|oa|, eoo
|a cx|otae|oo y |as e|ascs soe|a|cs y ai||a uc c| s|stca soe|a||sta cs suc||o| a|
ea|ta||sta. Lo c| aoa||s|s dc cstos y ot|os tcas (ueoos dc oceoo t|atados o| c|
a|x|so t|ad|e|ooa|,, c| ocoa|x|so aoa|it|eo dcoc c|ca| |os ctodos eouocs dc
|ovcst|qae|oo y dc cx||eae|oo ut|||zados co |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs, adcas dc |as atc-
at|eas y |a eoost|uee|oo dc odc|os.
L narisn aia:i auja :i eiI:e i upnai sire a er:a ue
Mar. A ajya iepa e irreIeivaneie a er:a ue Mar, i iiepa s
ieis iisris a i|o dc aoya| |a tco|ia dc Va|x, o| |ceoaza tota|cotc |a
tco|ia dc Va|x eoo iuodacota|cotc c||ooca. Aotcs o|co, eoos|dc|a |a
tco|ia dc Va|x eoo uoa io|a dc e|coe|a dce|oooo|ea odc|osa y va||da
uc, s|o coa|qo, t|coc uotos i|aeos eoos|dc|ao|cs. ta tco|ia dc Va|x cs
va||da y dcoc sc| dcicod|da, c|o |cu|c|c |a ut|||zae|oo dc ctodos y tceo|-
eas uc oao su|q|do a i|oa|cs dc| s|q|o xx ,Hizei. 1er:a sipia i-
enjraiea. ssa, j. J?).
ta a||eae|oo dc |os ctodos uc aetua|cotc ut|||zao |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs a |os |oo|c-
as |aotcados o| c| a|x|so cs dcicod|da ao|c|tacotc o| w||qot (L||e o||o w||qot.
Casses. tood|cs: vc|so, 1uss, uc c|tcocec a uoa csce|c dc va||aotc dc| a|x|so
aoa|it|eo, soo|c todo c| |c|cscotado o| occ|. Su tca ||oe|a| cs |coodc| a |a
|cquota _uc cs uoa e|asc soe|a| ooy co dia? l|cquota uc, eoo saocos, Va|x dcjo
s|o |csucsta d||ceta.
1eor|a neomarx|ata poamoderna
Lo |a |cscotae|oo dc csta tco|ia sc ut|||za|a, eoo ya |o ocos oceoo co oeas|oocs
aotc||o|cs, c| t|aoajo ya e|tado dc |tzc|.
ta oo|a as |o|taotc dc| a|x|so osodc|oo cs c| ||o|o dc L|ocsto tae|au y Coaota|
Vouiic. Iepeniy aiu Siais Sraepy: 1warus a Hauia Denrai Iiis. too-
#
d|cs: vc|so, 1uss, co c| eua| sc sost|coc, a d|ic|coe|a dc Va|x y as co |a |ioca dc
G|ase|, y eoo |oe||oae|oo a| |dca||so, uc soo |as |dcas eoost|u|das soo|c |os |otc|c-
scs atc||a|cs |as uc cx||eao c| eoo|ta|coto soe|a|. lo| ot|o |ado, |os auto|cs dc|
||o|o e|tado dcs|azao a| |o|cta||ado dc su ac| ecot|a| co c| dcsa||o||o dc |a soe|cdad
y |o |cc|azao o| uoa q|ao va||cdad dc q|uos dc c|sooas dcsosc|das, eoo |as
ujc|cs, |os ceo|oq|stas, |os eoosu|do|cs, |as |oo|ias cto|eas, cte., eada uoo dc c||os
eoo su d|seu|so d|st|ot|vo. Scquo cstas |cic|coe|as dc |a tco|ia, |os |oo|cas dc| |o|c-
ta||ado dcjao dc sc| c| |oo|ca ecot|a| y, co c| |aoo dc| aoa||s|s, |a tco|ia a|x|sta dc|
osodc|o|so oa s|do ueseiraizaua y uesaizaua.
L| eouo|so y |a ||oc|ae|oo dc| |o|cta||ado tao|co dcjao dc sc| c| ecot|o dc |a tco|ia
y dc |a o|it|ea dc| a|x|so. Lo su |uqa|, tae|au y Vouiic |oooco |a dcoe|ae|a
|ad|ea| uc |csu|ta|a dc uo|| co uo |so i|cotc a todos |os q|uos uc a|t|e|ao co
|ueoas dcoe|at|eas: |ueoas aot|scx|stas, aot|||ae|stas, aot|ea|ta||sta, aot|cx|otae|oo
dc |a oatu|a|cza, cte. lo| |o taoto, cs ocecsa||o uo|i|ea| todas cstas |ueoas a|a eooio|-
a| uoa ocqcooia dc |os va|o|cs dcoe|at|eos (csooaoe|a dc G|ase|. G.u.,. Coo
d|eco |os auto|cs:
La aeriaiva ue a iz:ierua ueie isisir ei si:arse araneie ei e anii ue a
rev:ii uenraia y ejaiuir aueias ue e:ivaeiias eire as uiversas :ias
ira a jresii. Ln tnren oe in izuieron uo oousiste, or io tnuto, eu reuuuoinr n
in ioeoiogn oemoortion iiherni, siuo, tooo io ooutrnrio, eu roruuoiznr y exnuoir-
se eu in oireooiu oe uun oemoornoin iurni y rnoioni... La jsiiiiuau ue :ia esrae-
pia iepeniia ue a iz:ierua i isise ei e aiaiui ue errei uenrai,
sii, a irari, ei a eeisii ue as :ias uenraias a ua a sieuau ivi y e
esau ,tae|au y Vouiic. Dj. i. . 1,.
la|a Jacsoo ot|o tco||eo dc| a|x|so ostodc|o|sta c| a|x|so e|as|eo cs, co
oucst|os t|cos, uo a|eo tco||eo va||do y iuodacota| a|a c| aoa||s|s dc| uodo
odc|oo (o ostodc|oo, s| sc u|c|c,. lo| cso ai||a:
La j eia ivi i i ue :e ei s e a:i e aji a i sn ei s: sei i u asi . L
jsnueriisn ieie s:s us aus irauiris...: jr :i au esa e nerau, u e
n:iu es nas ri y iaia a si ue s: n:sia jreIeriua, jer jr r esans ip:aneie
iveiius ue :e eise :ia eirne niseria ei esas sieuaues, :e se enjireei
$
ei :par ue nejrar... La i:eva ri:eza y e i:ev enjireiniei n:iuiaes si iers
ue nu sin:aie... Lsy iveiiu ue :e esa i:eva y jsnueria Irna n:iuia
ue ajiaisn ieie s: i:eva pia ue ases... 4:i ne siei njrneiu i a
pia narisa ,Soo a|ao|as dc Jacsoo co Stua|t la|| y l|cdc||e Jacsoo C||oq|oq to
toc w|cesaqc: A Coovc|sat|oo. Marisn 1uay, sct|co|c: . zs -s1,.
B| marx|amo de t|na| de a|q|o, aeqn Schatt
L| i||osoio a|x|sta o|aeo Ada Seoaii, a d|ic|coe|a dc |os ocoa|x|stas |cscados
aotc||o|cotc, uc |oooco uo a|x|so eua||tat|vacotc d|ic|cotc a| dc Va|x, co a-
yo| o coo| q|ado, aot|coc va||os dc |os eooectos e|as|eos dc |a tco|ia (c|o eoo
cxe|us|oo cx|ie|ta dc| |co|o|so,, s| o|co dcsceoa ot|os o| ooso|ctos y dcscot|dos
o| |a o|sto||a. Lo |a cxos|e|oo uc sc oa|a dc su cosa|coto, uc eo||csoodc a uoa
oucva |cetu|a dc Va|x (c|o oo dc t|o a|tussc||aoo, eoo t|coc eu|dado co sca|a||o,, sc
ut|||za|ao d|vc|sos a||aios toados tcxtua|cotc dc| scquodo eaitu|o dcoo|oado _Cuc
oa uc|to y uc s|quc v|vo co c| a|x|so? dc su as |ce|cotc ||o|o L narisn a
Iiia ue sip (ua|ec|ooa: Ld|to||a| A||c|, |uu!,, |os eua|cs sc|ao cxucstos dc aoc|a
scqu|da a|a su cjo| |cetu|a, s|o eo|||as o| eu|s|vas.
Lo que permanece de| marx|amo c|aa|co
Cuaodo oos |cquotaos uc cs |o uc s|quc tco|codo v|da co c| a|x|so cotcodc-
os csta |cquota eoo uoa ocecs|dad dc saoc| uc tcs|s dc| a|x|so s|quco tc-
o|codo uo ea|aetc| e|cat|vo c |ooovado|, taoto co |as |ovcst|qae|oocs e|cotii|eas eoo
co |a |aoo| |aet|ea dc |os ov||cotos soe|a|cs dc |zu|c|das. Ya c oc |cic||do aotcs
a |os cicetos ocqat|vos uc oa |ovoeado |a e||s|s aetua| dc| soe|a||so |ca| soo|c |a
va|o|ae|oo |ae|ooa| dc| a|x|so, dc su ac| co |a e|coe|a y dc su iuoe|oo co c| scoo
dc |a e|coe|a: dcoo |cvco|| a| |ceto|, aot|e|aodo co e|c|to odo |os a|qucotos uc
cxood|c co | |azooa|coto ostc||o|, dc uc tcoqo |a |otcoe|oo dc dcost|a|, co c|
|cscotc tcxto, uc c| a|x|so, a csa| dc| cv|dcotc covcjce||coto dc toda uoa
sc||c dc tcs|s, s|quc s|codo uoa doet||oa v|va c, |oe|uso, uo |ost|ucoto |oeoa|ao|c
a|a |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs y sus cstud|os, asi eoo uoa d||cet||z |aqat|ea a|a |a
aet|v|dad soe|a| dc |a |zu|c|da.
%
ta ayo| ocecs|dad uc s|cotco ooy |os a|t|da||os dc| soe|a||so, co taoto uc ov|-
|coto o|it|eo, co taoto uc v|s|oo dc uoa soe|cdad cjo|, cs uoa |csucsta a |a |cquo-
ta _uc s|qo|i|ea ooy |a a|ao|a siaisn? l|coso uc |a dci|o|e|oo as o|cvc, a| |so
t|co, as qcoc|a| dc soe|a||so, cs |a |dca (_utoia?, dc uoa soe|cdad co |a uc sc
suc|c todo t|o dc cx|otae|oo dc| ooo|c o| c| ooo|c y dc dcs|qua|dad cot|c |os
ooo|cs. _Coo aoa||za| csos |oo|cas dc |a cjo| aoc|a y eoo coeoot|a| |as
cjo|cs y as eooe|ctas |csucstas? A | odo dc vc|, oay uc a|ovceoa| co cstc
aoa||s|s |a tco|ia a|x|sta dc |a aieiaii.
_Lo uc eoos|stc c| va|o| ocu|ist|eo dc |a tco|ia a|x|sta dc |a a||coae|oo? Soo|c todo, co
|a d|ic|coe|ae|oo dc |a a||coae|oo oojct|va y suojct|va? ta a||coae|oo oojct|va eoos|stc co c|
oceoo uc todos |os |oduetos dc| ooo|c, cs dce||, oo so|acotc |os o|cocs atc||a|cs
uc e|ca s|oo tao|co |as |c|ae|oocs soe|a|cs o |os o|cocs cs|||tua|cs, iuoe|ooao co uo
ceao|so soe|a| dctc||oado uc |cs |ooc uoa cx|stcoe|a dctc||oada. lo| csta |a-
zoo, auouc c| ooo|c e|ca cstos |oduetos eoo i|ocs eooe|ctos y eoo |a |otcoe|oo dc
a|eaoza| dc cstc odo dctc||oados |csu|tados, sus |oduetos ucdco aetua|, co c| sco-
t|do soe|a|, dc aoc|a |odccod|cotc dc su vo|uotad c |oe|uso co su eoot|a. Cuaodo csto
suecdc oos coeoot|aos aotc uoa a||coae|oo uc cs |a oasc dc uoa dctc||oada io|a dc
cx|otae|oo. ta aet|v|dad ouaoa uc qcoc|a |a cx|otae|oo sc cjc|ec s|c|c eoo oojct|-
vos os|t|vos dcsdc c| uoto dc v|sta dc |a c|sooa o dc| q|uo a uc c|tcocec. Lo c|
ceao|so soe|a| cx|stcotc, y co |as eood|e|oocs uc |o dctc||oao, csta aet|v|dad (uc
sc a||coa a| adu|||| |as io|as dc uo dctc||oado |odueto y a| |odccod|za|sc dc |a
vo|uotad y dc |os |oos|tos dc su e|cado|, ao|i|csta iuoe|oocs soe|a|cs ocqat|vas.
Lo c| easo dc |a a||coae|oo suojct|va, oo sc t|ata dc |os |oduetos e|cados o| c|
ooo|c, y uc co dctc||oadas eood|e|oocs soe|a|cs sc |odccod|zao dc |a vo|uotad y
dc |as |otcoe|oocs dc su e|cado| o ||cqao a oooc|sc a c||a, s|oo dc| ooo|c co si
|so, uc co eood|e|oocs eooe|ctas oo ucdc |ca||za| sus oojct|vos |c|ae|ooados
eoo c| dcsa||o||o dc su |o|a c|sooa||dad y c|cza a c|e|o|| su v|da eoo a|qo
cxt|ao (a|qo oo dcscado,, ya uc sus io|as cstao dctc||oadas o| |as eood|e|oocs
soe|a|cs. Lsta v|s|oo dc |a |o|a v|da eoo a|qo ajcoo ||cva a| ooo|c a dcs|otc|c-
sa|sc o| c| iuoe|ooa|coto dc |o uc dctc||oa csa v|da y, soo|c todo, dc| ao|to
o|it|eo. S|o aet|v|dad co cstc ao|to sc|a |os|o|c ||cqa| a uoa soe|cdad ||o|c dc |a
cx|otae|oo dc| ooo|c o| c| ooo|c. Lo csto eoos|stc |a |o|taoe|a o|it|ea dc |a
&
tco|ia dc |a a||coae|oo dc Va|x: sc t|ata dc| ooo|c y dc uo asceto dc su v|da uc eoo
i|ceucoe|a sc dcscst|a co |a o|it|ea.
Ct|o tca v|qcotc dc| a|x|so cs su tco|ia dc| |od|v|duo. _Cua|cs soo |os c|ccotos
iuodacota|cs dc csta eooece|oo o||q|oa| dc| |od|v|duo ouaoo? Lo ||c| |uqa|, c|
coiouc dc| |od|v|duo ouaoo co taoto uc o|qao|so v|vo uo|eo, y sus |c|ae|oocs y
eood|e|ooa|cotos soe|a|cs uc |o eoov|c|tco co |od|v|duo soe|a|. Lo scquodo |uqa|, eoo
|csceto a| |oo|ca dc su qcocs|s, dcsdc |a os|e|oo atc||a||sta y |ca||sta dc| a|x|s-
o, |a |csucsta cs: in a:reaur. L| ooo|c, coioeado eoo |od|v|duo soe|a|, cs
|odueto dc si |so, oatu|a|cotc euaodo cotcodcos o| e|cae|oo uo |oecso o|sto-
||eo y soe|a| a| |so t|co. ta o|sto||a cs e|cda o| c| ooo|c y justacotc eoo c||a,
cs dce||, eoojuotacotc eoo |as eood|e|oocs soe|a|cs dc su cx|stcoe|a, c| ooo|c sc
e|ca a si |so.
Lo tc|ec| |uqa|, dcot|o dc |a eooece|oo a|x|sta dc| |od|v|duo, oay uc eoos|dc|a| c|
|oo|ca dc |a ic||e|dad. L||a sc |ci|c|c a |as eood|e|oocs uc dcoco sc| e|cadas a|a uc
c| ooo|c, so|acotc co taoto uc |od|v|duo, ya uc |a ic||e|dad cs c| |csu|tado dc |a aee|oo
eoo|oada dc ueoas va||ao|cs uc co eada easo ucdco sc| uy d|ic|cotcs, ucda
eooio|a| su v|da dc aoc|a uc |csooda |coacotc a sus ocecs|dadcs y qustos.
L| ot|o eooocotc cscoe|a| dc| a|x|so uc sc aot|coc co oucst|os dias cs |a tco|ia
a|x|sta dc |a soe|cdad y dc su dcsa||o||o. Lsto s|qo|i|ea, co ||c| |uqa|, uc aot|c-
oco |coacotc su v|qo| |a tco|ia y c| ctodo dc| atc||a||so o|sto||eo a||eado a csos
tcas. Lo scquodo |uqa|, cot|a co jucqo |a tco|ia dc |a io|ae|oo ceooo|ea dc |a
soe|cdad. C|co uc cs uoa eucst|oo uy |o|taotc |a ut|||dad dc csta tco|ia co |c|ae|oo
eoo |a io|ae|oo soe|a||sta dc |a soe|cdad, y auo as aoo|a euaodo sc oa |cav|vado |a
d|seus|oo co to|oo a |a |o|cdad dc |os cd|os dc |oduee|oo. Lo eua|to |uqa|, qoza dc
|coo v|qo| |a tco|ia dc Va|x soo|c c| cstado y su doo|c iuoe|oo soe|a|. Lot|c |as ueoas
eucst|oocs uc sc |c|ae|ooao eoo cstc tca, uoa dc |as as |o|taotcs cs c| |oo|ca
dc |a iuoe|oo dc| Lstado co c| eootcxto dc |a o|c|ea soo|c |a ceoooia dc c|eado y
|a |ao|i|eae|oo.
A csos tcas u|c|o |od|ea| uo c|ccoto uc, a | odo dc vc|, cs uy |o|taotc: |a
tco|ia dc |a |cvo|ue|oo soe|a||sta, o cjo| d|eoo, |os |cu|s|tos uc dcoco eu|||sc a|a
uc csta |cvo|ue|oo ucda ||cva|sc a eaoo eoo cx|to. ta tcs|s cs uy scoe|||a: |a |cvo|u-
'
e|oo soe|a||sta oo sc ucdc |ca||za| au iii:n a vo|uotad, so|o eoo |a vo|uotad. Cuaodo
ya sc eoooeiao |as cxc||coe|as ocqat|vas dc |a cvo|ue|oo dc Cetuo|c, iuc aad|do
eoo |cu|s|to |od|scosao|c |o io|u|o G|ase| |a cx|stcoe|a dc| eooscoso soe|a|
a|a c| cx|to dc |a |cvo|ue|oo.
to uc dcjo dc tcoc| v|qcoe|a co c| a|x|so.
csuco dc |os |aotca|cotos dc Seoaii.
1. ta dcsaa||e|oo dc |as e|ascs cd|as. Lo |uqa| dc c||o, oao aucotado.
z. Aucoto dc| |o|cta||ado. la d|s|ou|do su ouc|o.
s. D|etadu|a dc| |o|cta||ado.
!. 1co|ia dc |a |usva|ia.
s. va|o||zae|oo ocqat|va dc| c|eado (sujcto aetua|cotc a e|it|ea, oo so|o dcsdc c|
a|x|so s|oo dc ot|as os|e|oocs soe|a|cs y o|it|eas,. Va|x io|u|o uoa va|o||za-
e|oo ocqat|va dc| c|eado ea|ta||sta y ostu|o |a e|cae|oo dc uoa ceoooia |ao|i|-
eada o|uc a|tia dc |a soe|cdad dc cd|ados dc| s|q|o xlx y dc |as |c|ae|oocs
ceooo|eas uc cotooecs |cqiao.
. l|coso, d|ec Seoaii, uc c| dcsa||o||o soe|a| oa dcscot|do |a tcs|s soe|a| soo|c |a
|c||q|oo.
1cas dc |a tco|ia dc Va|x uc dcoco sc| adatados a oucst|os t|cos.
1|cs soo |os tcas y tco|ias dc| a|x|so uc dcoc|iao aetua||za|sc:
1. l|oo|cas uc sc |c|ae|ooao eoo |a autoat|zae|oo dc |os |oecsos dc |oduee|oo y
dc |os sc|v|e|os.
z. Lx|stcoe|a y ac| dc |a e|asc oo|c|a.
s. ta |oo|cat|ea dc| Lstado y dc |a dcoe|ae|a. Coo |o ucst|a |a o|sto||a ostVa|x,
odcos eoos|dc|a| uc |a o|otcs|s dc |a dcsaa||e|oo dc| Lstado cs uoa utoia.

La teor|a de |a acc|on comun|cat|va de Haoermaa
Ju|qcos laoc|as, oae|do co |uzz, sc |ose||o|o, co sus eo|cozos co |a tco|ia e|it|ea
(o Lseuc|a dc l|aoeio|t, dc lo|soc|c|, Ado|oo, Va|eusc y l|o, c|o ostc||o|cotc
sus |dcas toa|oo ea|aetc|ist|eas |o|as, s| o|co oasadas co a|quoas tcas dc Va|x
(|ovc|t|dos, co e|c|ta aoc|a, y dc wcoc|, y eoo tca ecot|a|, eoa|t|do eoo sus
eoac|os dc |a tco|ia e|it|ea, c| dc |a raiiaiuau. Lo cstc eao, dos soo |as
eucst|oocs ||oe|a|cs uc t|ata dc |csoodc|: _uc t|o dc |ae|ooa||dad |c eo||csoodc
a |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs? y _co uc scot|do |a odc|o|zae|oo dc |a soe|cdad ucdc sc|
eoos|dc|ada eoo uo |oecso dc |ae|ooa||zae|oo? L| t|ata|coto dc cstos tcas sc
coeucot|a co su tco|ia dc |a aee|oo eouo|eat|va cxucsta co sus oo|as 1er:a ue a
aii n:iiaiva I. Haiiaiuau ue a aii y raiiaizaii sia ,Vad||d: 1au|us.
|us!, y1er:a ue a aii n:iiaiva II. Cr:ia ue a razi I:iiiaisa , Vad||d:
1au|us, 1us,.
laoc|as eo|coza o| |ot|odue|| uo oucvo t|o dc |ae|ooa||dad a raiiaiuau -
n:iiaiva, a| |ado dc |a |ae|ooa||dad |ost|ucota| uc, dc aeuc|do eoo wcoc|, eoos|stc
co c|cq|| |os cd|os as adceuados a|a a|eaoza| uo i|o. ta |ae|ooa||dad eouo|eat|va
o dc |a aee|oo eouo|eat|va eoos|stc co |oq|a| |a eo|cos|oo eouo|eat|va, c| utuo
cotcod||coto, cd|aotc c| uso dc| |coquajc. Lo a|ao|as dc laoc|as:
Las aiies ue s apeies injiaus ei ea , co |a aee|oo eouo|eat|va, se rui-
iai i neuiaie a:s epeiris ue ei sii neuiaie as jara iogrnr in
oomreusiu. Li a aii n:iiaiva s jariijaies i se rieiai jriiijanei-
e iaia s: ei, jersip:ei s:s neas iiuiviu:aes i a iuiii ue :e seai aja-
es ue nrmouiznr s:s jaies ue aii sire a iase ue ueIiiiiies oomuues oe ins
situnoioues (laoc|as. Dj.i. 1us, . zs,
ta aee|oo eouo|eat|ea oeua co laoc|as c| ac| uc t|coc c| t|aoajo co Va|x, co
euaoto csa aee|oo cs |a uc eoost|tuyc c| iuodacoto dc toda |a v|da soe|oeu|tu|a| dc
uoa soe|cdad. 1ao|co, a d|ic|coe|a dc cstc u|t|o, a|a u|co c| t|aoajo cstaoa
d|sto|s|ooado co c| ea|ta||so, a| i||osoio a|cao |c |coeuao |os iaeto|cs soe|a|cs uc
d|sto|s|ooao |a eouo|eae|oo. Soo|c c| |so asuoto sost|coc uc c| tca ecot|a| co c|
aoa||s|s dc |a |ae|ooa||zae|oo cs c| uc sc |ci|c|c a |a aee|oo eouo|eat|va. ta |ae|ooa||-

zae|oo co cstc eao eooduec a| eoot|o| dc |os iaeto|cs uc ||dco |a ||o|c eouo|ea-
e|oo, cot|c c||os, |a |dco|oqia uc |a d|sto|s|ooa.
Scquo laoc|as, c| dcsa||o||o dc |a soe|cdad oo eoos|stc |ce|sacotc co uo oucvo
s|stca dc |oduee|oo, s|oo co c| aso a uo s|stca dc ayo| |ae|ooa||dad co c| eua| sc
oao su|||do |as oa||c|as uc ||dco o d|sto|s|ooao |a eouo|eae|oo y co c| eua| |as
|dcas sc d|seutco ||o|ccotc. Lo cstc eootcxto, |os cjo|cs a|qucotos uc su|qco dc|
uis:rs, y uc oo cstao dctc||oados o| |a iuc|za o| c| odc|, dci|oco |o uc cs vc|da-
dc|o y va||do. tos iaeto|cs uc ||dco c| eooscoso dcoc sc| |cov|dos a|a a|eaoza| |a
soe|cdad |dca|.
S| o|co laoc|as iuc eoos|dc|ado uo ocoa|x|sta, sus oucvos t|aoajos |o a|cjao dc ta|
os|e|oo c |oe|uso dc |a tco|ia e|it|ea. Sus |aotca|cotos tco||eos as aetua|cs |o oao
||cvado a |otc|csa|sc o| |as |dcas dc lc|oc|t Vcad, 1a|eott la|soos, A|i|cd Seoutz y
L|||o Du|soc|, a csa| dc uc sus |coeuae|oocs ||oe|a|cs s|quco s|codo |a aee|oo
eouo|eat|va y c| |oecso dc |ae|ooa||zae|oo scquo |a vc|s|oo Wcoc||aoa.
A |as |dcas aotc||o|cs oa aq|cqado ot|as |cic||das a| n:iu ue a viua, eoo eooectos
toados dc Seoutz (|a soe|cdad sc eooe|oc dcsdc |a c|scet|va dc| sujcto,, a| sisena
(|as |ost|tue|oocs soe|a|cs, c| Lstado y |a ceoooia y |a c|scet|va dc| oosc|vado|
cxtc|oo,, a a iiepraii sia e iiepraii ue sisena (eoocx|oo cot|c c| uodo dc |a
v|da y c| s|stca, y a |a iizaii (|os|e|oo dc |a |ae|ooa||dad dc| s|stca a| uodo
dc |a v|da,. Ls |o|taotc sca|a| uc dcot|o dc cstc u|t|o tca, laoc|as eoos|dc|a
|os ov||cotos soe|a|cs uc ouseao uoa ayo| |qua|dad, uo ayo| eu|dado dc| cd|o
ao|cotc y |a |csc|vae|oo dc |a az eoo |caee|oocs a |os ataucs dc| s|stca a|
uodo dc |a v|da. ta q|ao ta|ca dc |a soe|cdad eoos|stc co ousea| |a a|ooia cot|c csos
dos eooocotcs.

A|cxaodc|, Jciic|y C. AeI:iiiaisn. ucvc||y l|||s, Ca.: Saqc, 1uss.
Co|oy, lau|. Ld|to|. AeI:iiiaisi sipy. u|oosi|c|d, vt.: Ldqa| luo||so|oq,
1uuo.
tae|au, L|ocsto Coaota| Vouiic. Iepeniy aiu siaisi sraepy Ir uenrai
jiis. tood|cs: vc|so, 1uss.
|tzc|, Gco|qc. 1er:a sipia ienjraiea. Vad||d: VeG|aW l|||, 1uus. Ca.
s: lotc|aee|oo|so s|oo||eo, Ca. : Soe|o|oqia icoocoo|oq|ea y ctooc-
todo|oq|ea.
Seoaii, Ada. L narisn a Iiia ue sip. ua|ec|ooa : Ld|to||a| A||c|, 1uu!. Ca. 1:
_lo| uc soy a|x|sta?, Ca. z: _Cuc oa uc|to y uc s|quc v|vo co c| a|x|so?.
!
Autoeva|uac|on N 4
1. Lxooqa, dc aoc|a o|cvc, |as ||oe|a|cs |dcas dc| |otc|aee|oo|so s|oo||eo.
_Cuc oaeco |os aeto|cs co uoa dctc||oada s|tuae|oo, scquo csta tco|ia?
z. _Cuc d|ic|coe|as |o|taotcs cx|stco cot|c c| ocoiuoe|ooa||so dc A|cxaodc| y
c| iuoe|ooa||so dc la|soos?
s. _Coo sc da |a d|ic|coe|ae|oo dcot|o dc| s|stca soe|a|, scquo Co|oy?
!. Sca|c |as ea|aetc|ist|eas as |o|taotcs dc| ocoa|x|so osodc|oo.
s. _Cuc tcas dc| a|x|so e|as|eo: a. c|aoceco, o. dcjao dc tcoc| v|qcoe|a,
scquo Seoaii?
. _Cuc ouseao |os aeto|cs co |a aee|oo eouo|eat|va, scquo laoc|as? _Lo uc
eoos|stc, co csta tco|ia, c| dcsa||o||o dc |a soe|cdad? _Lo uc eoos|stc |a eo|o-
o|zae|oo dc| uodo dc |a v|dao| c| s|stca? Lxooqa cstc eooecto scquo su
|o|o uoto dc v|sta.
"
TEORAS SERIVADAS DEL PARADIGMA EXPLICATIVO
Contro| de |ectura N 4
1. _Cuc d|ic|coe|as cx|stco cot|c c| oojcto |ca| y c| oojcto e|cotii|eo? _Lo uc
eoos|stco, a| |csceto, |as aod|eae|oocs dc| os|t|v|so?
z. _Cua| cs |a e|it|ea dc |os auto|cs a |a cot|cv|sta oo d|||q|da?
s. _Cua| cs |a e|it|ea a uoa |cquota ec||ada?
!. _Cuaodo |a ut|||zae|oo dc d|ic|cotcs tceo|eas ucdco eoot||ou|| a| eoooe||coto
dc| oojcto dc |ovcst|qae|oo?
s. S|otct|ec |a cxos|e|oo uc sc oaec co csta |cetu|a soo|c c| ac| uc dcscc-
a c| t|o |dca| co |a eoost|uee|oo dc |as o|otcs|s.
. _Cua|cs soo |as ||oe|a|cs ea|aetc|ist|eas dc| odc|o tco||eo?
#
ALGUNAS CONCLUS|ONBS
A. Conc|ua|onea re|at|vaa a |aa c|enc|aa aoc|a|ea exp||cat|vaa
1. tas e|coe|as soe|a|cs uc oao ouseado eoost|tu||sc dc aeuc|do eoo c| odc|o dc
|as e|coe|as oatu|a|cs oo oao od|do io|u|a| tco|ias dcduet|vas eoo sc dao co
auc||as e|coe|as. los|o|ccotc, oo od|ao oaec||o o|uc oo cx|stco |oos|e|o-
ocs qcoc|a|cs sustaot|vas, oo t||v|a|cs, va||das a|a toda uoa oo|ae|oo co cstud|o,
uc s||vao dc |c|sas co uoa cst|uetu|a uc |c|ae|ooc |oq|eacotc uo q|uo dc
|oos|e|oocs dc ta| odo uc uoas ucdao sc| dcdue|das dc |as ot|as. lo| cjc-
|o, oo sc ucdc dce|| uc todas |as c|sooas soo auto||ta||as, o uc todos |os
q|uos dc eato||eos t|coco ayo| eoocs|oo uc todos |os q|uos |otcstaotcs.
z. Lo c| eao dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo euaot|tat|va cx|stc uo q|ao ouc|o dc a|eos
eooectua| cs, a|eos tco|| eos y a|eos dc aotcecdcotcs, uc soo eoo-
ectua||zae|oocs eoost|u|das, oo s|c|c, soo|c uoa o dos o|otcs|s ecot|a|cs,
c|o euyos c|ccotos oo cstao |c|ae|ooados co io|a |oq|ea, co scot|do cst||eto.
Coo cjc|os, odcos e|ta| |a tco|ia dc |a cst|at|i|eae|oo, |a tco|ia dc| ea|ta|
ouaoo, dc| eooi||eto soe|a|, dc |os eod|qos ||oquist|eos, cte.
s. 1ao|co, co cstc eao, sc oao |cuo|do eoojuotos dc |ovcst|qae|oocs |ca||zadas
soo|c uo |so tca o soo|c tcas |c|ae|ooados eoo uo tca ||oe|a|, |os eua|cs
|ce|oco c| ooo|c dc jrpranas ue iivesipaii uc, co tc||oos a||os, sc
v|oeu|ao eoo c| eooecto dc| |so ooo|c ut|||zado o| tasatos. Ljc|os dc
ta|cs |oq|aas soo: |oq|aa soo|c c| cosa|coto dc| |oicso|, |oq|aas soo|c
c| cosa|coto dc| a|uoo, soo|c ceo|oqia dc| au|a, cte.
!. Lo taoto, |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs oo eoot|coco tco|ias dcduet|vas, oo ucdco cx||ea|
dcduet|vacotc, uc sc eoos|dc|a eoo |a as a|ta io|a dc cx||eae|oo co |as
e|coe|as oatu|a|cs. So|o ucdco da| cx||eae|oocs cstadist|eas dc aeuc|do eoo |as
eua|cs so|o cs |ooao|c uc uo e|c|to suecso tcoqa dctc||oada ea|aetc|ist|ea. lo|
cjc|o, s| sc oaec uo cstud|o y sc coeucot|a uc c| s dc |as c|sooas dc
$
ALGUNAS CONCLUSIONES
cst|ato a|to cstao a iavo| dc |a d|se|||oae|oo |ae|a|, cotooecs eoo |csceto dc uo
|od|v|duo dc csc cst|ato od|cos dce|| uc cs |ooao|c uc tao|co sca |ae|sta.
s. Lo c| easo dc |a cx||eae|oo cstadist|ea oasada, co uo |csu|tado ootco|do co uoa
oo|ae|oo A co uo t|co 1, taoeo odcos ai||a| eoo scqu||dad uc sc coeoot|a-
|a c| |so |csu|tado co uoa oo|ae|oo u eoo |as |sas ea|aetc|ist|eas uc |as dc A,
( |o eua| cs, co scot|do cst||eto, |os|o|c dc eooscqu|| , co uo t|co ostc||o| a 1.
. ta cx||eae|oo js Ia:n, |cscotada co c| odu|o, so|o od|a tcoc| uo va|o|
|ooao|c s| |a o|otcs|s eausa| uc eoot|coc cs eo|ooada co uo cstud|o ci||eo
ostc||o|. Lo todo easo, va|c |a oosc|vae|oo oceoa co c| aotc||o| ouc|a| s.
Lo |csuco, |as e|coe|as cx||eat|vas oo oao |oq|ado a|eaoza|, eoo |o |ctcodiao dcs-
dc sus eo|cozos, o| |a cst|uetu|a |oq|ea dc |as e|coe|as oatu|a|cs o| |a cx||eae|oo
dcduet|va dc |os icoocoos soe|a|cs uc cstud|a.
B. Conc|ua|onea re|at|vaa a |aa c|enc|aa aoc|a|ea |nterpretat|vaa.
1. tas e|coe|as soe|a|cs |otc||ctat|vas oo oao od|do sca|a| eoo e|a||dad eua| cs |a
cst|uetu|a dc |as tco|ias eooio|c a |a eua| dcoc|iao eoost|tu||sc. S| toa|ao |a io|a
dc uoa tco|ia dcduet|va, cotooecs, ||cqa|iao a| |so |csu|tado uc |as e|coe|as
cx||eat|vas, cs dce||, |a dcduee|oo c||t||ia cx||ea|, c|o oo |otc||cta| |os icooc-
oos. lc|o, |a ea|aetc|ist|ea |d|oq|ai|ea dc sus cstud|os (cstud|o co |oiuod|dad dc
easos |od|v|dua|cs, |||ea|ia uc oao|ia taotas tco|ias eoo cstud|os |ca||zados.
z. csceto dc | a s| tuae| oo dc | a eoost|uee| oo tco|| ea dc | as e| coe| as soe| a| cs
|otc||ctat|vas, cs |o|taotc |a e|ta s|qu|cotc, uc eo||csoodc a uoo dc |os as
dcstaeados |ovcst|qado|cs co csc eao: La iivesipaii :aiaiva, n :i
ij:i ue jraias iivesipaivas, i jriviepia iiip:ia neup:a sire ra.
Cn sii ue uis:sii uis:rs, a iivesipaii :aiaiva es uiI:i ue ser
ueIiiiua i ariuau. A ieie er:a jarauipna :e sea uisiiivaneie s:y
...1anj a iivesipaii :aiaiva ieie :i :erj uisiiiv ue neus :e
es seai jrjis. Ls iivesipaures :aiaivisas :sai a seniia, a iarraii,
e aiaisis ue uis:rs, e aiaisis Iiei e ii:s a esau:sia. 1aniiei :ii-
zai s eiI:es, neus y eiias ue a eineup:a, a Ieineip:a,
%
ALGUNAS CONCLUSIONES
ierneie:ia, Ieniiisn, riznaia, uesir:ivisn, eipraI:as, jsiaiai-
sis, ei:esas, iservaii jariijaie, eire rs ... (No|ao Dcoz|o Yvoooa
t|oeo|o lot|oduet|oo: Lotc||oq toc l|c|d oi Cua||tat|vc csca|eo. Lo N. Dcoz|o Y.
t|oeo|o, cds. Iaiui I D:aiaive Heseari. 1oousaod Cass, Ca|: 1uu!, . s,.
s. No oay uoao||dad co c| eooecto dc eo|cos|oo (verseiei, cot|c |os d|vc|sos
auto|cs uc |o ut|||zao. L| eooecto va|ia dc wcoc| a D||tocy, dc Seoutz a wcoc|,
dc laoc|as |csceto a wcoc|, cte.
!. L| eooecto dc |otc||ctae|oo taoeo t|coc uo |so uso. lo| cjc|o, a|a uoos
auto|cs cs |a ousucda y cot|cqa d||ceta dc |as dci|o|e|oocs dadas o| |os aeto|cs
co uoa e|c|ta s|tuae|oo soe|a| (o| cjc|o, co c| |otc|aee|oo|so s|oo||eo ,, a|a
ot|os, csas s|qo|i|eae|oocs dcoco sc| |c|otc||ctadas o| c| |ovcst|qado| ( Gcc|tz,
G|ddcos,. la|a Dcoz|o soo eucotos (ta|cs, sto||cs, uc sc eucotao cot|c si |os
|ovcst|qado|cs, cte.
s. S| o|co |as s|tuae|oocs dadas co |a eoost|uee|oo dc |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs |od|eao
uc ucdao ueoos |oo|cas o| |cso|vc|, c| ao|tc dc eoooe||cotos soo|c |a
|ca||dad soe|a|, soo|c sus |ost|tue|oocs, soo|c sus |oecsos dc eao|os, soo|c
s|tuae|oocs dc eooi||eto, soo|c |oo|cas soe|a|cs (oo|cza, aoa|iaoct|so, sa|ud,
cte., oao tco|do, t|coco y tcod|ao uoa |o|taoe|a s|qo|i|eat|va, taoto co |a c|aoo|a-
e|oo tco||ea eoo co |a |aet|ea soe|a|.
1. roo|emaa c|ent|t|coa y proo|emaa t||oaot|coa.
uuoqc, Va||o ........................................................... 1z1
z. Loa tundamentoa de| conoc|m|ento en |a v|da
cot|d|ana. lctc| uc|qc| y 1ooas tuesaoo ....... 1so
s. La producc|on y reproducc|on de |a v|da aoc|a|.
Aotoooy G|ddcos ..................................................... 1s
4. La conatrucc|on de| oojeto.
l|c||c uou|d|cu y ot|os ........................................... 1s
s. var|edadea de |a teor|a tem|n|ata
contemporanea. Gco|qc |tzc| ............................. z1!
LECTURAS COMPLEMENTARIAS
Lectura comp|ementar|a N 1
Tomada de: Mario Bunge. La investigacin cientfica.
Barcelona: Ediciones Ariel, 1969, pgs. 208-230, 240-244.
roo|emaa c|ent|t|coa
No todo |oo|ca, eoo cs oov|o, cs uo |oo|ca e|cotii|eo: |os |oo|cas e|cotii|eos
soo cxe|us|vacotc auc||os uc sc |aotcao soo|c uo t|asioodo e|cotii|eo y sc cstud|ao
eoo cd|os e|cotii|eos y eoo c| oojcto ||a||o dc |oe|ccota| oucst|o eoooe||coto. S|
c| oojcto dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo cs |aet|eo as uc tco||eo, c|o c| t|asioodo y |os |ost|u-
cotos soo e|cotii|eos, cotooecs, c| |oo|ca |o cs dc e|coe|a a||eada o tceoo|oqia, y
oo dc e|coe|a u|a (Ci|. 1.s,. S|o coa|qo, oo cs uoa |ioca |iq|da |a uc sca|a |os
|oo|cas e|cotii|eos dc |os tceoo|oq|eos, ucs uo |so |oo|ca, |aotcado y |csuc|-
to eoo eua|csu|c|a i|ocs, ucdc da| uoa so|ue|oo uc tcoqa aoos va|o|cs, c| eoqoose|t|vo
y c| |aet|eo. Asi, o| cjc|o, |os cstud|os dc ceo|oqia y cto|oqia dc |os |ocdo|cs uc-
dco tcoc| a |a vcz va|o| e|cotii|eo y va|o| |aet|eo a|a |a aq||eu|tu|a y |a cd|e|oa.
ta e|asc dc |os |oo|cas e|cotii|eos uc cs c||a |sa uoa suoe|asc dc |os |oo|cas dc
eoooe||coto ucdc aoa||za|sc dc va||os odos. Aui sc adota|a |a s|qu|cotc d|eotoia:
l|oo|cas sustaot|vos o dc oojcto (Lj.: _Cuaotos A cx|stco?,
C|cotii|eos dc cst|atcq|as o |oecd||coto (Lj.: _Coo eoota|cos |os A?,
V|cot|as uc |os |oo|cas dc oojcto sc |ci|c|co a |as eosas, |os dc |oecd||coto sc
|ci|c|co a oucst|os odos dc eooscqu|| oot|e|as dc |as eosas, y a oucst|o eoooe||coto
co qcoc|a|. tos |oo|cas sustaot|vos ucdco suod|v|d||sc a su vcz co |oo|cas
ci||eos y eooectua|cs, y |os dc cst|atcq|a co |oo|cas ctodo|oq|eos y va|o|at|vos
o dc cst|u|ae|oo. ta |cso|ue|oo dc |os |oo|cas ci||eos cx|qc oc|ae|oocs ci||-
eas, adcas dc| cjc|e|e|o dc| cosa|coto, |cot|as uc |os |oo|cas eooectua|cs
soo oojcto so|o dc t|aoajo ec|co|a|, auouc ucdco |cuc||| eooectua||zae|oocs dc oc-
|ae|oocs ci||eas y dc datos. tos |oo|cas ctodo|oq|eos y va|o|at|vos soo uoos y
ot|os eooectua|cs o| |o uc oaec a| odo dc |aotca||os y |cso|vc||os, d|i|c|co co uc,
|cot|as uc |as so|ue|oocs a |oo|cas va|o|at|vos soo ju|e|os dc va|o|, |as so|ue|oocs
a |oo|cas ctodo|oq|eos cstao ||o|cs dc va|o|ae|oo. tas tao|as !.z y !.s cxooco
a|quoas dc |as csce|cs as |o|taotcs dc |os euat|o qcoc|os dc |oo|cas:
1ao|a !.z. l|oo|cas sustaot|vos
1. roo|emaa emp|r|coa
1.1 Iaazp ue uas: ea|aetc||zae|oo dc oojctos dc cxc||coe|as
1.1.1 Cosc|vae|oo
1.1.z Louc|ae|oo
1.1.s Vcd|e|oo
1.z Iairiaii dc |ost|ucotos, su ea||o|ae|oo, |ca|ae|oo dc d|oqas, cte.
z. roo|emaa conceptua|ea
z.1 Desrijii: ea|aetc||zae|oo dc |od|v|duos y e|ascs
z.z Drueiaii: e|as|i|eae|oo y o|dcoae|oo dc eoojuotos
z.s Di:iuaii: |otc||ctae|oo dc s|qoos y ai|oa|coto dc eooectos
z.! Deu:ii
z.!.1 Couto (. c., oa||a| c| va|o| dc uoa va||ao|c,
z.!.z Dcost|ae|oo dc tco|cas
z.!.s Co|ooae|oo dc so|ue|oocs
!
z.!.! Lx||eae|oo: da| |azoo dc oceoos y qcoc|a||zae|oocs ci||eas eoo oasc
co tco|ias
z.!.s l|oycee|oo: |cd|ee|oo o |ct|od|ee|oo dc oceoos
z.s Cisr:ii: |ovcoe|oo dc |dcas
z.s.1 lot|oduee|oo dc oucvos eooectos
z.s.z lot|oduee|oo dc qcoc|a||zae|oocs ci||eas
z.s.s lot|oduee|oo dc o|otcs|s dc o|vc| suc||o| uc suosuao qcoc|a||zae|oocs
ci||eas
z.s.! Coost|uee|oo dc s|stcas dc o|otcs|s dc o|vc| a|to (tco|ias,
z.s.s ceoost|uee|oo dc tco|ias (|ovcst|qae|oo dc iuodacotos o oas|ea,
z. Meapia: dcseuo|||coto y c|||oae|oo dc |oeoos|stcoe|as, dcost|ae|oocs
dc eoos|stcoe|a c |odccodcoe|a, cte.
1ao|a !.s. l|oo|cas dc cst|atcq|a
1. uetodo|oq|coa
1.1 Civeiiies: cstao|ce||coto dc |cq|as dc dcs|qoae|oo, csea|as dc cd|e|oo,
uo|dadcs dc cd|e|oo, o|vc|cs dc |c|cvaoe|a, cte.
1.z 1eiias: a|o|t||o dc taet|eas a|a cxa|oa| |oo|cas, oosc|va|, cd||, cte.
1.s Disjsiii ue ejerineis: |ca|ae|oo dc cxc||cotos
1.! Disjsiii ue er:as: |ca|ae|oo dc |a eoost|uee|oo dc tco|ias
1.s Lanei ue neus: cxaco y e|it|ea dc todo o aotc||o|
z. va|orat|voa
z.1 Lsinaii dc datos, o|otcs|s, tco|ias, tceo|eas y cu|o dc atc||a| eoo oasc
co |os oojct|vos dados
z.z Lsinaii I:iuaneia: cxaco dc |os oojct|vos |sos
"
lo| dci|o|e|oo, oo sc |cscotao co |a e|coe|a io|a| |oo|cas ci||eos, y euaodo uo
|oo|ca dc |a e|coe|a io|a| sc t|aduec o| uo |oo|ca iaetua| aoa|oqo, |a so|ue|oo a
cstc u|t|o t|coc uc t|adue||sc |ovc|sacotc a| eootcxto |o|e|a|. tos |oo|cas ci||-
eos sc cze|ao eoo |oo|cas eooectua|cs, oo sc ea|aetc||za o| uoa ia|ta tota| dc
eoos|dc|ae|oocs tco|ct|eas co su |aotca|coto y aocjo, s|oo o| |a |cscoe|a dc oc-
|ae|oocs ci||eas co c| eu|so dc sus |cso|ue|oocs. Lo eao|o, |os |oo|cas eooec-
tua|cs oo |cu|c|co oc|ae|oocs ci||eas s|oo, a |o suo, |dcas suqc||das o| cstas.
lo| |o uc oaec a |os |oo|cas ctodo|oq|eos, cstos soo dc a|t|eu|a| |o|taoe|a co
|as e|coe|as as jovcocs, o| cjc|o, c| |otc|cs o| ta|cs |oo|cas uc cx|stc co |a
soe|o|oqia eootco|aoca cs eoa|ao|c a| |otc|cs o| ta|cs |oo|cas uc aeoao
a |a oae|cotc iis|ea odc|oa oae|a i|oa|cs dc| s|q|o xvll. Lo aoos easos sc dcseuo||o
uc c| |aotca|coto t|ad|e|ooa| c|a c||ooco y sc ousea|oo ctodos eo|ctacotc
oucvos. lo| u|t|o, |a |oe|us|oo dc |oo|cas dc va|o|ae|oo co |a e|coe|a ucdc oaec|
uc sc i|uozao ueoos ecos i||osoi|eos, a eausa dc |a a||a|qada d|eotoia oceoo
va|o|. Sc d||a: _No cs aeaso uo oceoo uc |a e|coe|a odc|oa oo oa od|do ccza|
oasta uc |a oatu|a|cza ucdo ||oc|ada dc va|o|cs y dc ot|os at||outos aot|ooo|i|eos?
Y si, cs uo oceoo, c|o cs uo oceoo |||c|cvaotc: |a oatu|a|cza csta |||a dc va|o|cs,
c|o |a e|coe|a oatu|a| oo sc oeua so|o dc |oo|cas sustaot|vos, s|oo tao|co dc |a
|ovcoe|oo y |os odos aoa|it|eos dc aocja| ta|cs |oo|cas, t|aoajo co c| eua| sc io|-
u|ao ju|e|os dc va|o|. Cada vcz uc uo cxc||cotado| sc coeucot|a eoo c| |oo|ca
dc c|cq|| cot|c d|ic|cotcs cu|os atc||a|cs a|a uo dctc||oado i|o, cst|a|a, dc uo
odo u ot|o, iaeto|cs eoo c| a|eaoec, |a |ce|s|oo, |a i|cx|o|||dad dc uso, |a scqu||dad y
c| eosto dc |os d|vc|sos cu|os, eoo c| i|o dc io|u|a|sc uo ju|e|o dc va|o|cs q|ooa|,
aoa|oqacotc, c| tco||eo eoa|a|a |as va||as o|otcs|s eooeu||cotcs y |as tco|ias ta-
o|co dcsdc c| uoto dc v|sta dc su a|eaoec co cxtcos|oo, su |oiuod|dad, c| aoyo uc
|ce|oco dc ot|os eaos dc |ovcst|qae|oo, y oasta dcsdc c| dc |a c|cqaoe|a io|a|. 1oda
dce|s|oo sc oasa co uo eoojuoto dc ju|e|os dc va|o|, y co |a |ovcst|qae|oo e|cotii|ea sc
cstao toaodo eoostaotccotc dce|s|oocs, auouc cstas oo sc |cscotco cx|ie|ta-
cotc co c| |csu|tado, c| euc|o dc eoooe||coto sustaot|vo.
ta aq|uae|oo dc |oo|cas csoozada co |as tao|as !.z y !.s oo cs cotc|acotc adceua-
da eoo d|v|s|oo a eausa dc uc |a ayo|ia dc |os |oo|cas e|cotii|eos cotc|os soo |o
sui|e|cotccotc ||eos eoo a|a eac| s|u|taocacotc oajo |as euat|o eatcqo|ias a |a
vcz. lo| cso ci||eo, eooectua|, ctodo|oq|eo y va|o|at|vo oo dcoco cotcodc|sc
eoo ea|aetc|ist|eas uc sc cxe|uyao |cei|oeacotc, s|oo as o|co eoo |o|cda-
#
dcs uc asao a|tc|oat|vacotc a ||c| |aoo co c| eu|so dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo. Asi, o|
cjc|o, c| |oo|ca eoos|stcotc co avc||qua| c| ciceto dc uoa dctc||oada d|oqa soo|c
c| s|stca oc|v|oso ucdc dcseoooc|sc co |as s|qu|cotcs ta|cas: (|, c| |oo|ca
ctodo|oq|eo dc a|o|t|a| |os cxc||cotos adceuados y c|cq|| c| o|vc| dc |c|cvaoe|a dc
|as eo||c|ae|oocs oa||adas eoo |a ayuda dc cxc||cotos, (||, c| |oo|ca ci||eo dc
eooicee|ooa| |a d|oqa o c| cd|eacoto o dc u||i|ea||a, ad|o|st|a||a y |cq|st|a| sus
cicetos, (|||, c| |oo|ca eooectua| dc |otc||ctae|oo dc |os datos y io|u|ae|oo dc o|o-
tcs|s aec|ea dc| odo dc aee|oo dc |a d|oqa (. c., ceao|sos dc |caee|oo aet|vos co
c| o|qao|so,, y (|v, c| |oo|ca va|o|at|vo eoos|stcotc co avc||qua| s| |a d|oqa co eucs-
t|oo cs cjo| o co|, |csceto dc e|c|tos i|ocs, uc |as ot|as |oucstas.
Nucst|a ||sta oo aqota taoeo |os |oo|cas uc sc |cscotao co |a |ovcst|qae|oo
e|cotii|ea, va||os dc |os eua|cs oo soo |o|acotc e|cotii|eos.
l|oo|cas dc |csuucsto, dc su|o|st|o, dc d|v|s|oo dc| t|aoajo, dc cot|coa|coto c
|otcq|ae|oo dc| cu|o o eo|cet|vo dc e|cotii|eos, cte. soo susect|o|cs dc |aotca|coto
e|cotii|eo, eoo |o uc c||os |sos sc eoov|c|tco co |oo|cas e|cotii|eos: a cd|da uc
|a |ovcst|qae|oo va eoov||t|codosc co uoa |aa |o|taotc dc |a |oduee|oo, |os |oo|c-
as dc su ad|o|st|ae|oo y d||cee|oo t|codco a |aotca|sc eoo |a ayuda dc |a |ovcst|qa-
e|oo oc|at|va, |a s|eo|oqia soe|a|, cte. lc|o o| |o eouo csos |oo|cas s|quco auo
t|ataodosc a uo o|vc| |ce|cotii|eo, a eausa dc |a |oi|ucoe|a dc |a t|ad|e|oo y a eausa
tao|co dc uc |as tco|ias dc |a aee|oo oo cstao |o sui|e|cotccotc dcsa||o||adas a|a
uc sc |ooqa su a||eae|oo.
1|as oaoc| oao|ado dc |a taxoooia dc |os |oo|cas e|cotii|eos odcos |otc|csa|oos
aoo|a o| sus i||oqcocs|s. tos |oo|cas e|cotii|eos oo oaeco co c| vaeio, s|oo co c|
ouus dc uo euc|o dc eoooe||coto |ccx|stcotc eoost|tu|do o| datos, qcoc|a||zae|o-
ocs ci||eas, tco|ias y tceo|eas.
S| sc s|cotc c| dcsco dc avc||qua|, d|qaos |a io|u|a ui|ea cxaeta dc| ox|do dc
|at|oo, c||o sc dcoc a uc eoooecos o sosceoaos |a cx|stcoe|a dc csc ox|do y,
adcas, (|, a|quoas dc |as |o|cdadcs dc| ox|do dc |at|oo (datos,, (||, a|qo aec|ea dc |as
|cycs dc |os co|aecs ui|eos (tco|ia,, y (|||, e|c|tos |oecd||cotos ci||eos eoo c|
aoa||s|s o| |ayos x (tceo|eas,. Lo eao|o, c| uc |cquota _Cua| cs c| scot|do dc |a
v|da? o _Cua| cs c| scot|do dc |a o|sto||a? od|a |oecdc| s|o datos, tco|ias o| tceo|eas,
$
o|uc csta |aotcaodosc eucst|oocs |odctc||oadas, auouc oo sca as uc o| |a
ao|qucdad dc |os tc||oos scot|do', v|da' c o|sto||a'.
ta c|a sc|cee|oo dc |oo|cas csta ya dctc||oada o| c| cstado dc| eoooe||coto
a|t|eu|a|cotc o| sus |aquoas, o| oucst|os i|ocs y o| oucst|as os|o|||dadcs
ctodo|oq|eas. Cuaodo c| eoooe||coto uc oaec dc t|asioodo cs cseaso, |os |oo|cas
|o|taotcs oo ucdco io|u|a|sc s|oo vaqacotc y, o| taoto, cs d|iie|| uc sc |csuc|-
vao. (lo| cso oo ucdc so||codc|oos uc |as e|coe|as dc| ooo|c cstco auo aocjaodo
|oo|cas |c|at|vacotc odcstos y dcjaodo o| c| ocoto |as eucst|oocs as |oiuo-
das co aoos dc |os scudoe|cotii|eos: |os e|cotii|eos oo d|sooco auo dc| a|eo adceua-
do |as tco|ias co c| eua| ucdco |aotca|sc eo||cetacotc csos |oo|cas |oiuodos,.
Coos|dc|cos, o| cjc|o, |a eucst|oo dc s| uo eaoa||o ucdc eoovc|t||sc co uo ao|a|
t|cado|: csa |cquota oo ucdc o| s|u|c|a |aotca|sc iuc|a dc| eootcxto dc uoa tco|ia dc
|a cvo|ue|oo. C tcocos |a |cquota uc sc io|u|o L|ostc|o dc jovco y uc d|o o||qco a su
tco|ia qcoc|a| dc |a |c|at|v|dad: _lo| uc |a aec|c|ae|oo dc uo euc|o |oc|so co uo eao
q|av|tato||o oo dccodc dc |a asa dc csc euc|o? ta |cquota dc L|ostc|o oao|ia s|do
cst||etacotc uo s|oscot|do a|a NcWtoo, o| cjc|o: c|a |os|o|c io|u|a||a aotcs dc
uc sc eoost|tuyc|ao |as tco|ias e|as|eas dc |a q|av|tae|oo y dc |a c|cet|od|oa|ea. 1oda
tco|ia dc|||ta c| eoojuoto dc |os |oo|cas uc ucdco io|u|a|sc.
Adcas, |os |oo|cas oo su|qco, oo soo |c|sooa|cotc dados a| |ovcst|qado|: s|oo
uc c| e|cotii|eo |od|v|dua|, eoo su aec|vo dc eoooe||coto, su eu||os|dad, su v|s|oo, sus
cstiu|os y sus tcodcoe|as, |cq|st|a c| |oo|ca o |oe|uso |o ousea. lo| taoto, |a |dca dc
uc toda |aa dc |a e|coe|a t|coc su |o|o y c|aocotc cu|o eooectua| cs c||ooca: co
|a e|coe|a, eoo co c| eateo-as-eateo-eao, eada eua| sc s||vc dc |o uc ucdc. S| todos |os
o|o|oqos a|cod|c|ao tco|ia dc eoojuotos, tco|ia dc |c|ae|oocs, tco|ia dc |ctieu|os, ceuae|oocs
d|ic|coe|a|cs c |otcq|a|cs, ut|||za|iao todo cso s||ccotc o|uc sc |cs oeu||||iao ouc-
vos |oo|cas o|o|oq|eos uc |cu|||c|ao csos |ost|ucotos dc io|u|ae|oo o o|co |os
ut|||za|iao a|a io|u|a| eoo as |ce|s|oo y |cso|vc| |os |oo|cas oao|tua|cs. Aoa|oqacotc,
s| c| s|eo|oqo uc cstud|a |a io|ae|oo y |a cvo|ue|oo dc |os eooectos oas|eos co c| o|o
cstuv|c|a as ia|||a||zado dc |o uc suc|c csta||o eoo eooectos uc oo iuc|ao cst||eta-
cotc |os dc e|asc, scqu|acotc |csta|ia as atcoe|oo a |a ootoqcocs|s dc |os eooec-
tos |c|ae|ooa|cs y euaot|tat|vos. lasta |os iis|eos sc ococi|e|a|iao dc uo e|c|to cot|coa|coto
co |oq|ea u|a: oo oao|a|iao, cotooecs, dc dci|o|e|oocs oc|at|vas u oc|ae|ooa|cs, oo
%
|otcota|iao coeoot|a| |os eooectos oas|eos (|||t|vos, |ce|sacotc cot|c |os uc sc
|ci|c|co a |asqos oosc|vao|cs, y oo e|cc|iao uc |a uo|ea y dci|o|t|va io|a dc eoot|asta|
os|t|vacotc |as tco|ias cs |a |cd|ee|oo eoo cx|to.
ta s||c eu||os|dad oo coqcod|a |oo|cas: |a|a vcz oos |aotcaos |oo|cas a|a
euyo t|ata|coto ea|czeaos dc todo |oecd||coto adceuado. Y euaodo ea|cecos
dc c||os c|o ootaos a| |so t|co uc c| |oo|ca cs |o|taotc, oos |aotcaos
co scqu|da c| |oo|ca u|tc||o| dc a|o|t|a| oucvos ctodos, |oo|ca uc cs ctodo|oq|eo,
oo sustaot|vo.
Lsto cs |o uc o|zo lav|ov a| coi|cota|sc eoo c| |oo|ca dc oa||a| uoa e|coe|a oojct|va
dc| eoo|ta|coto, cs tao|co |o uc o|zo Astoo euaodo t|oczo eoo |a |os|o|||dad
dc sca|a| |sotoos eoo |as tceo|eas (ui|eas, dc aoa||s|s dc uc d|sooia. Coo cs
oatu|a|, o| lav|ov o| Astoo oao|iao io|u|ado sus |cscet|vos |oo|cas s| oo ouo|c|ao
sao|do uc |os |oecd||cotos cotooecs d|soo|o|cs c|ao |oadceuados, o| taoeo s| oo
ouo|c|ao tco|do |a csc|aoza dc oa||a| ot|os oucvos.
lc|o taoeo oasta eoo tcoc| uoa tceo|ea a|a |a |cso|ue|oo dc| |oo|ca: tcocos uc
oscc| tao|co uo eoojuoto dc datos. Lo c| easo |dca| sc t|ata|a dc| eoojuoto ocecsa||o
y sui|e|cotc dc c|ccotos dc |oio|ae|oo. Lo |a |ovcst|qae|oo |ca| |o as i|ceucotc cs
uc oos coeoot|cos co a|quoo dc cstos ot|os easos: (|, uenasiau js uas, |o eua|
cx|qc eo|ccota| |a |oio|ae|oo o ousea| uoa so|ue|oo a|ox|ada, (||, dcas|ados
datos: uo q|ao ouc|o dc c|ccotos dc |oio|ae|oo, co a|tc |||c|cvaotcs, co a|tc co
o|uto o s|o d|qc||| o| |a tco|ia, y so|o co a|tc adceuados, csto cx|qc cotooecs uoa
|cv|a sc|cee|oo y eoodcosae|oo dc datos a |a |uz dc oucvas o|otcs|s o tco|ias.
ta oscs|oo dc uo aec|vo dc datos, tceo|eas y tco||eas cs, ucs, ocecsa||a a|a |aotca|
y ataea| uo |oo|ca e|cotii|eo. lc|o oo cs sui|e|cotc. 1cocos uc csta| |azooao|ccotc
scqu|os dc uc sc|cos eaaecs dc |ceoooec| |a so|ue|oo uoa vcz uc |a oayaos co-
eoot|ado. Adcas, tcocos uc cst|u|a| o| aot|e|ado: (|, uc e|asc dc so|ue|oo va a
eoos|dc|a|sc adceuada y (||, uc e|asc dc eo|ooae|oo dc |a so|ue|oo |oucsta sc eoo-
s|dc|a sat|siaeto||a. Dc oo sc| asi od|cos c|dc|oos co uoa |ovcst|qae|oo cstc||| o uoa
d|seus|oo s|o i|o. lo| cjc|o, s| uoo sc |aotca c| |oo|ca eoos|stcotc co ae|a|a| c|
ceao|so o| c| eua| sc |oduec |a atc||a v|va, y c||o eoo |a |otcoe|oo dc |ciuta| c|
v|ta||so, |os dos eootcod|cotcs tcod|ao uc ooc|sc aotcs dc aeuc|do (|, aec|ea dc s| |o
&
uc sc eoos|dc|a|a ocecsa||o y sui|e|cotc sc|a |a siotcs|s dc uo v||us o |a dc uo o|qao|so
dc| o|dco dc aqo|tud dc |a oa||coa, y (||, aec|ea dc |a e|asc dc |o|cdadcs uc t|coc uc
oscc| c| o|qao|so a|t|i|e|a| a|a sc| eoos|dc|ado eoo uo sc| v|vo.
Adcas dc cst|u|a| o| aot|e|ado eua| t|coc uc sc| c| asceto dc |a so|ue|oo, eoo
oojcto dc odc| |ceoooec||a eoo ta| euaodo sc eoos|qa tcocos uc |aotca|oos c|
|oo|ca dc |a cx|stcoe|a y |a uo|e|dad dc |a so|ue|oo aotcs dc |otcota| |cso|vc| c|
|oo|ca |o|e|a|. Lo |a atcat|ea u|a y co |as e|coe|as uc ut|||zao |a atcat|ea,
csas eucst|oocs |cv|as cstao a|adas: |a cx|stcoe|a dc |a so|ue|oo y su ea|aetc| uo|eo
sc dcucst|ao, o o|co sc dcucst|a uc oo cx|stc so|ue|oo, o uc, s| cx|stc, oo cs
uo|ea. (Lo |a |aet|ea, sc |oecdc eoo |a csc|aoza dc uc cx|sta uoa so|ue|oo uo|ea, y
oo sc |otcota dcost|a||o oasta uc sc |cscotao d|i|eu|tadcs, c|o co todo easo sc
|ceoooec uc |as dcost|ae|oocs dc cx|stcoe|a y dc uo|e|dad soo |oq|eacotc aotc||o-
|cs a |os |otcotos dc |cso|vc| c| |oo|ca,. Coo cs oatu|a|, |a dcost|ae|oo dc uc
cx|stc uoa so|ue|oo oo qa|aot|za uc sc |c vaya a coeoot|a|: ueoas vcecs, o| ia|ta dc
ctodos adceuados, oo odcos asa| dc uoa so|ue|oo a|ox|ada. ta |o|taoe|a dc
ascqu|a| |a cx|stcoe|a dc uoa so|ue|oo uo|ea (auouc aeaso dc va||os |co|os, cs tao
e|a|a eoo |a dc| ascqu|a| |a cx|stcoe|a dc so|ue|oo co qcoc|a|. So|o |as so|ue|oocs
uo|eas ucdco usa|sc a|a da| cx||eae|oocs oo ao|quas dc| eoo|ta|coto dc |as
eosas: |coscsc co uo eao dc iuc|zas dcse||to o| uoa iuoe|oo uc tcoqa as dc uo
va|o| a|a eada uoto dc| csae|o (iuoe|oo u|t|va|o|ada,. tos tco|cas dc cx|stcoe|a y
dc uo|e|dad csce|i|eao co uc eood|e|oocs cx|stc uoa so|ue|oo y/o s| csa so|ue|oo cs
uo|ea. Lstas eood|e|oocs ucdco oo c|tcocec| a| eoojuoto dc |os datos |o|e|a|cs: uc-
dco tcoc| uc ootcoc|sc dc |a tco|ia co |a eua| sc |osc|ta c| |oo|ca.
lodcos aoo|a |csu|| |as eood|e|oocs, ocecsa||as y sui|e|cotcs a|a uc uo |oo|ca
ucda eoos|dc|a|sc eoo :i jriena iei:Ii iiei Irn:au: (|, t|coc uc sc| aeecs|-
o|c uo euc|o dc eoooe||coto e|cotii|eo (datos, tco|ias, tceo|eas, co c| eua| ucda
|osc|ta|sc c| |oo|ca, dc ta| odo uc sca os|o|c t|ata||o: |os |oo|cas cotc|acotc
suc|tos oo soo e|cotii|eos, (||, c| |oo|ca t|coc uc csta| o|co io|u|ado co c| scot|do dc
|as cx|qcoe|as io|a|cs cxucstas co |a Scee.!.z, (|||, c| |oo|ca t|coc uc csta| o|co
eooeco|do co c| scot|do dc uc su t|asioodo y, co a|t|eu|a|, sus |csuucstos oo scao
o| ia|sos o| o| dce||, (|v, c| |oo|ca t|coc uc csta| dc|||tado: uo |aotca|coto uc oo
sca |oq|cs|vo, aso a aso, oo cs e|cotii|eo, (v, oay uc oa||a| |as eood|e|oocs dc
cx|stcoe|a y uo|e|dad dc |a so|ue|oo, (v|, oay uc io|u|a| aot|e|adacotc cst|u|ae|o-
'
ocs aec|ea dc| t|o dc so|ue|oo y c| t|o dc eo|ooae|oo dc |a |sa uc |csu|ta|iao
aectao|cs. L| |cscto dc cstas eood|e|oocs oo qa|aot|za c| cx|to, c|o si aoo||a c|d|-
das dc t|co.
Lsas eood|e|oocs soo ocecsa||as y sui|e|cotcs a|a uc uo |oo|ca sca uo |oo|ca
e|cotii|eo o|co io|u|ado: c|o oay |oo|cas dc cstc t|o uc |csu|tao vaeios o |||c|c-
vaotcs, |cot|as uc |oo|cas a| io|u|ados ucdco sc| dc ueoo |otc|cs. la|a uc
|a |ovcst|qae|oo e|cotii|ea sca iceuoda, oay uc aad|| uoa eood|e|oo uy |o|taotc dc
o|dco s|eo|oq|eo, a saoc|, uc c| |oo|ca sca |otc|csaotc a|a a|qu|co, uc cstc o|co
cu|ado a|a cstud|a||o. ta |ovcst|qae|oo e|cotii|ea, a| |qua| uc c| a|tc o uc |a o|it|ea,
cx|qc as|oo a|a uc sca iceuoda. Ls e|a|o uc oo oay |cectas a|a coao|a|sc dc
|oo|cas, aa|tc dc |as dc oeua|sc dc c||o. Y cso |cu|c|c uoa ia|||a||dad |cv|a eoo
|as ot|vae|oocs e|cotii|eas (eoqoose|t|vas, oo c|sooa|cs, dc| |oo|ca, |as eua|cs sc
oa||ao cxa|oaodo c| |aotca|coto. Aoo|a o|co: |a ia|||a||dad eoo c| |aotca|coto dc
|oo|cas y c| dcsa||o||o dc uoa scos|o|||dad a| |csceto dccodco taoto dc |as tcodco-
e|as dc| |od|v|duo euaoto dc| cstado dc |a e|coe|a o| |a eua| sc |otc|csa. Y cstc cstado
sc ea|aetc||za oo so|o o| |os |oq|os ya eooscqu|dos, s|oo tao|co o| |as tcodcoe|as,
ea|aetc|ist|eas y odas dc| ocoto. lo|uc, cicet|vacotc, oay odas co |a e|coe|a,
|qua| uc co eua|u|c| ot|a |aa dc |a eu|tu|a.
L| eoo|ta|coto |ost|ot|vo, eoo |a o|dae|oo y |a |q|ae|oo dc |as avcs, c| tcj|do dc tc|as
o| |as a|aas y |as io|as dc eouo|eae|oo dc |as aocjas, oao s|do tcas iavo||tos dc |a
o|o|oqia (as |ce|sacotc: dc |a cto|oqia, du|aotc |a scquoda |tad dc| s|q|o asado, y,
co eao|o, ||cqa|oo a sc| eas| dcs|cst|q|ado|cs oae|a i|ocs dc |a dceada dc 1uso. vo|v|c-
|oo a ooc|sc dc oda, o a sc| |csctao|cs, csos tcas dcsucs dc |a scquoda Guc||a
Vuod|a|, y c||o o| sus oucoas |azoocs. ta aotc||o| |ovcst|qae|oo oaoia s|do cxe|us|vaco-
tc dcse||t|va, ajcoa a |a tco|ia: csa c|a uoa |azoo a|a dcs|ce|a||a. lc|o eoo c| dcsa||o-
||o dc |a e|coe|a dc| eoot|o| y |a eouo|eae|oo |csu|ta|oo os|o|cs |aotca|cotos as
|oiuodos, tao|co odiao scqu||sc cjo| aoo|a |as |c|ae|oocs cot|c qcoot|o y eoo|ta-
|coto, o| u|t|o, c|a cv|dcotc uc |a cto|oqia tcoia uo q|ao |otc|cs a|a |as oucvas
e|coe|as s|eo|oq|ea y soe|o|oq|ea. laoia ucs ot|vos |azooao|cs a|a uc |csue|ta|ao c|
|otc|cs o| c| eoo|ta|coto |ost|ot|vo. lcsc a |o eua| ucdc, dc todos odos, |cq|st|a|-
sc uo cuco c|ccoto dc suc|i|e|a||dad d|etada o| |a oda co csa |csu||cee|oo dc|
tca: |a ayo|ia dc |a qcotc qusta dc csta| a| dia, oo so|o co euaoto a eoooe||coto y
|aotca|coto, s|oo tao|co |csceto dc |os tcas |sos, csto oo cs ya oada |azooao|c,
!
ucs |os tcas soo cscoe|a|cotc s|stcas |oo|cat|eos, y |os |oo|cas dcoco aa-
qa|sc co |a cd|da co uc sc |csuc|vco, oo o|uc sc dcjco a uo |ado.
L| da|sc eucota dc uc |a sc|cee|oo dc |oo|cas csta a|e|a|cotc dctc||oada o| c|
e||a |otc|cetua| dc| ocoto, y uc csc e||a |oe|uyc uo c|ccoto dc c|a oda cs
|o|taotc a|a cv|ta| |a suocst|ae|oo y, eoos|qu|cotccotc, |a ia|ta dc aoyo dc uc
ucdc sui||| uoa |ovcst|qae|oo sc||a c|o uc oo cstc dc oda, so|o |ovcst|qado|cs ya
uy |cutados ucdco c||t||sc c| t|aoajo co uoa |ovcst|qae|oo asi. L| va|o| dc |os
|oo|cas oo dccodc dc |os ueoos o oeos uc |os eu|dco co uo ocoto dado, s|oo
dc |os eao|os uc su cstud|o od|ia |ooc| a oucst|o euc|o dc eoooe||cotos.
Suooqaos, o| u|t|o, uc ocos t|oczado eoo uo |oo|ca e|cotii|eo o|co io|u|a-
do uc |csu|ta adcas |otc|csa|oos: _odcos avc||qua| s| sc|a uo |oo|ca iceuodo
co vcz dc uo c|o asat|co aq|adao|c?
No sc eoooeco eood|e|oocs ocecsa||as uc qa|aot|eco |a iceuod|dad dc uo |oo|ca, o|
o| |o taoto dc su |ovcst|qae|oo. lc|o todo |oo|ca e|cotii|eo, s| sc cstud|a sc||acotc,
da|a a|quo i|uto aotcs o dcsucs, o|uc |os |oo|cas e|cotii|eos soo o| dci|o|e|oo
sisenis: sc |cscotao o ucdco |ot|odue||sc co uo s|stca, y ya csto qa|aot|za uc
su |ovcst|qae|oo tcod|a a|quo ciceto. tas eucst|oocs suc|tas |ce|oco so|ue|oocs ta-
o|co suc|tas uc oo ||cvao a o|oquoa a|tc, c|o s| sc da uo aso co a|quo uoto dc uoa
|ioca dc |ovcst|qae|oo, ucdc sc| uc sc ucva oae|a dc|aotc toda csta |ioca, o sca, uc
ucdao |aotca|sc oucvos |oo|cas. lo| cso, uoa o|qao|zae|oo |otc||qcotc dc |a e|co-
e|a, |cjos dc cx|q|| |csu|tados |ocd|atos, |u|sa|a |a |ovcst|qae|oo dc u |oo|ca
e|cotii|eo o|co io|u|ado uc oaya su|q|do co |a |aq|oae|oo dc uo |ovcst|qado| eoc-
tcotc. C sca, |a o|qao|zae|oo dc |a e|coe|a, s| cs |otc||qcotc, ascqu|a|a |a ||oc|tad dc
|ovcst|qae|oo, |a eua| cs, co q|ao cd|da eoo vc|cos |ooto, ||oc|tad dc |aoca|.
Un parad|qma, un marco y una comparac|on
A d|ic|coe|a dc |os oo e|cotii|eos, |os |oo|cas e|cotii|eos soo |co|os dc sisenas
jrienais, o sca, eoost|tuyco eoojuotos dc |oo|cas |oq|eacotc |otc||c|ae|ooados.
uo s|stca |oo|cat|eo cs uo eoojuoto jarianeie rueiau dc |oo|cas, csto cs,
uoa sceucoe|a |a|i|eada dc |oo|cas d|sucstos co o|dco dc ||o||dad |oq|ea. L| dcs-
euo|||coto y |a od|i|eae|oo dc csa o|dcoae|oo a|e|a| dc |os |oo|cas cs uoa a|tc dc
!
|a esraepa ue a iivesipaii, y oay uc csooza||a, auouc sca csucat|eacotc,
a|a uc |a |ovcst|qae|oo oo sca easua|, |o uc |a oa|ia cstc||| o eas| cstc|||.
tos |oo|cas ue r:iia soo |os uc ucdco t|ata|sc eoo cst|atcq|as ya i|jadas, o| uc oo
sc |cscotao q|aodcs oovcdadcs co c| eu|so dc su |ovcst|qae|oo. tos |oo|cas ue iives-
ipaii, o| su a|tc, cx|qco cst|atcq|as va||as: |a o|dcoae|oo (a|e|a|, dc |os |oo|cas
ucdc tcoc| uc a|tc|a|sc co c| eu|so dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo as dc uoa vcz, a cd|a uc |os
|csu|tados a||ojao oucva |uz soo|c |os |oo|cas |o|e|a|cs, y a cd|da uc sc |cscotao
oucvos |oo|cas uc oo oaoiao s|do |cv|stos euaodo sc |aoco |a cst|atcq|a |o|e|a|.
ta ocecs|dad dc eao|a| dc |ao eo||ooo|a, co vcz dc |ciuta|, |a tcs|s dc uc |a |ovcst|-
qae|oo e|cotii|ea cs |ovcst|qae|oo |aocada, auouc sca so|o a|e|a|cotc y a cuca
csea|a: oo od|ia sc| dc ot|o odo, ucsto uc |a |ovcst|qae|oo eoos|stc co aocja|
eoojuotos (s|stcas, a|e|a|cotc o|dcoados dc |oo|cas. ta ||oc|tad dc |a |ovcst|qa-
e|oo e|cotii|ea oo eoos|stc co uoa auscoe|a dc o||cotae|oo o |oq|aa, s|oo co |a
||oc|tad dc c|cq|| s|stcas |oo|cat|eos, |aotca|cotos, ctodos y so|ue|oocs s|o
as oojct|vos uc |a eoosceue|oo dc |a vc|dad. ta |ovcst|qae|oo oo cs ||o|c euaodo
ea|cec dc |ao, s|oo euaodo soo |os |sos |ovcst|qado|cs u|cocs |oq|aao su t|aoa-
jo y eao|ao c| |oq|aa co |csucsta a ocecs|dadcs |otc|oas.
l|ust|cos |a s|stcat|e|dad dc |os |oo|cas e|cotii|eos eoo uo easo dc |otc|cs co |a
e|coe|a soe|a|: |a eucst|oo dc| odc|, |a eua|, dcsdc |ucqo, oo cs uo |oo|ca suc|to, s|oo
uo eo|cjo s|stca |oo|cat|eo. Lsc s|stca ucdc aoa||za|sc, auouc oo dc odo
uo|eo, a|a ootcoc| |os s|qu|cotcs asos o|dcoados.
1. _Cn se uesriie e juer"
1.1. _C:aes si s ejenjs :jis ue si:aiies ue juer" D sea: _:e a-
ss, ii:iivaneie ,jresisenaianeie) reiius n iiiueies ue
:ia reaii ue juer, ueiens isiuerar n :jis"
1.z. _D:e Iares si reevaies jara e juer" _Cua|cs soo |as va||ao|cs dc
uc dccodc c| odc|? _ceu|sos oatu|a|cs? _luc|za dc t|aoajo? _N|vc| tce-
o|eo? _luc|za |c|cs|va? _ldcas? Y _uc iaeto|cs soo eooeo|taotcs eoo c|
odc|? _ta o|qao|zae|oo jc|a|u|ea? _L| ||v||cq|o? _L| dc|ceoo? _ta v|o|co-
e|a? _L| adoet||oa|coto? _ta eo||ue|oo?
!
1.s. _Diue ripe a reaii ue juer" _Lo |a oatu|a|cza o so|o co |a soe|cdad? S| |o
u|t|o cs c| easo, _a| o|vc| |od|v|dua|, a| o|ceu|a| o co aoos? C sca: _eua|cs
soo |os |c|ata dc |a |c|ae|oo dc odc|: |od|v|duos, q|uos o uoos y ot|os?
1.!. _C:a es a ain:a ue juer" _Cua|cs soo |as e|ascs dc odc| y dc
s|tuae|oocs dc odc|, y eoo sc |c|ae|ooao csas e|ascs?
?. _Cn se aiaiza e juer"
z.1. _Cn ueie jaiearse e jriena ue juer" _Cuc uoto dc v|sta dcoc
adota|sc? _Dcoc sc|cee|ooa|sc uoa e|asc csce|a| dc odc| (ceooo|eo,
o|it|eo, |dco|oq|eo, o dcoc cstud|a|sc c| odc| co qcoc|a|? _Dcoc cstud|a|-
sc c| asceto s|eo|oq|eo o c| asceto soe|a| dc| odc|, o aoos? _Dcoc-
os adota| uo uoto dc v|sta cxtc|oo (icoocoo|oq|eo, o cstud|a| |os
ceao|sos dc| odc|? Lo c| ||c| easo odcos c|cq|| eoo va||ao|cs
oas|eas |as |ooao|||dadcs dc |os va||os cd|os uc ucdc c|ca| |a uo|-
dad y a|a eooscqu|| uo i|o dado, y cstud|a| o| uc sc a|tc|ao csas |ooa-
o|||dadcs euaodo y eac oajo c| odc| dc . Lo uo aso aotc||o| odcos
dcsca| uo |aotca|coto as |oiuodo, |otcotaodo aoa||za| csos eao|os
dc |ooao|||dad soo|c |a oasc dc |os |ceu|sos uc c y ucdco ov|||za|
a|a a|za| sus oojct|vos, y soo|c |a oasc dc |a oao|||dad soo|c |a eua| aoc-
jao csos |ceu|sos.
z.z. _Cn se ueIiie e juer" _Cuc |o|cdadcs soo ocecsa||as y sui|e|cotcs
a|a ea|aetc||za| |a |c|ae|oo dc odc|? Ls, s|o duda, uo |c|ae|oo dc o|dco,
c|o _uc as cs? S| |a dci|o|e|oo t|coc uc sc|v|| eoo e||tc||o oc|at|vo
a|a |ceoooec| c| cjc|e|e|o dc| odc|, s| dcoc eootcsta| a |a |cquota _Coo
sc |ceoooec c| odc|?, cotooecs, |os eooectos dci|o|cotcs t|coco uc sc|
aeecs|o|cs a |a oosc|vae|oo, d||ceta o |od||cetacotc, co ot|o easo oo cs
ocecsa||a ta| |cst||ee|oo. lodcos, o| cjc|o, |otcota| |a dci|o|e|oo s|qu|co-
tc: cjc|ec odc| soo|c y co c| |csceto z s| y so|o s| c| eoo|ta|coto
dc y co c| |csceto z co |cscoe|a dc d|i|c|c scos|o|ccotc dc| eoo|ta-
|coto dc y co c| |csceto z euaodo oo csta |cscotc. 1oda dci|o|e|oo
|aotca|a a su vcz u|tc||o|cs |oo|cas: _cs io|a|cotc eo||ceta y euo|c
|os easos ti|eos dc odc| co uc cstaos cosaodo?
!!
?.a. _Cn se niue e juer" _Dcocos eootcota|oos eoo uo eooecto eoa-
|at|vo dc odc|, o odcos aoa||za||o a|a ootcoc| |asqos oojct|vos euaot|ta-
t|vos? Lo c| easo dc uc c|codaos csc scquodo ea|oo, _uc uo|dad dc
odc| adota|cos?
a. _Cn se iierjrea e juer"
s.1. _C:a es a esaia ue juer" _Cua|cs soo |as |c|ae|oocs dc odc| cot|c |os
|co|os dc uo eoojuoto euaodo cstc sc coeucot|a co cu|||o||o? (uusucda
dc |as |cycs dc| cu|||o||o dc odc|,.
s.z. _C:a es a iienaia ue juer" _Coo su|qco |as |c|ae|oocs dc odc| y
eoo eao|ao co c| eu|so dc| t|co? _Cuc eooi|qu|ae|oocs soo |ocstao|cs
y eua|cs eoo |as d||cee|oocs as |ooao|cs dc| eao|o: oae|a c| cu|||o||o o
aa|taodosc dc c|? (uusucda dc |as |cycs dc |a cvo|ue|oo dc| odc|,.
s.s. _C:a es a uiiania ue juer" _Cuc iuc|zas ucdco a|tc|a| |a oa|aoza dc|
odc| y uc iuc|zas ucdco |cstao|cec| c| cu|||o||o? (uusucda dc |as |cycs
dc| ceao|so dc| odc|,.
Lstc a|ad|qa dc |a cst|atcq|a dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo cs uoa sceucoe|a dc t|cs asos
||oe|a|cs: dcse||e|oo, aoa||s|s c |otc||ctae|oo. ta |cso|ue|oo dc| |oo|ca dc dcse||-
e|oo |cu|c|c uo |caso dc |os datos soe|o|oq|eos c o|sto||eos |c|cvaotcs, y usa |ost|u-
cotos aoa|it|eos as o|co c|ccota|cs. lc|o c| cx|to dc |as ta|cas dcse||t|vas dccodc|a
dc |a oao|||dad aoa|it|ea dc| |ovcst|qado|, asi eoo dc su aec|vo dc eoooe||cotos. lo|
dc |ooto, t|coc uc |ceoooec| uc c| odc| oo cs uoa eosa o| uoa sustaoe|a scq|cqada
o| cot|dadcs odc|osas, s|oo uoa |c|ae|oo, |ucqo, |a taxoooia dc| odc| ucdc sc| |uda
o sut||, scquo uc sc |qoo|c o usco |dcas dc |a tco|ia dc eoojuotos. L| scquodo q|uo dc
|oo|cas, c| aoa||s|s, cs eooectua| y ctodo|oq|eo. uoa vcz c|aoo|ado co cstc cstad|o
uo eooecto ai|oado dc odc|, c| |ovcst|qado| ucdc |ct|ot|ac|sc a| cstad|o ouc|o uoo
a|a c|icee|ooa| su aotc||o| dcse||e|oo. L| u|t|o cstad|o, c| dc |a |otc||ctae|oo, eoo-
s|stc co io|u|a| o|otcs|s, |cycs |c|at|vas a| odc|, y co cstao|cec| |as |c|ae|oocs cot|c
csos couoe|ados |cqa||io|cs: sc t|ata dc |oo|cas dc eoost|uee|oo. uoa vcz eoos-
t|u|da uoa tco|ia |azooao|ccotc sat|siaeto||a dc| odc|, aucota|a c| ouc|o dc |os
| oo| cas ci | | eos y ct odo| oq| eos: co ci cet o oao| a uc soct c| | a t co| i a a
!"
eoot|astae|oo, ta| vcz oo eoo |a c|a cv|dcoe|a ci||ea ya d|soo|o|c, s|oo eoo ot|a
ad|e|ooa| euya ousucda ucdc sc| suqc||da o| |a tco|ia |sa, co c| easo dc uc csta
oos sca uo c|o |csuco icoocoo|oq|eo. Lo c| eootcxto dc csa tco|ia od|ao |aotca|-
sc |oo|cas as ao|e|osos eoo: _lo| uc sc dcsca c| odc|? y _euaodo y eoo
c|cza a eao|a| ta| o eua| eooi|qu|ae|oo dc odc| y co uc scot|do? lo| u|t|o, |a
|csucsta a| |oo|ca dc va|o|ae|oo: _Lo uc cd|da cs vc|dadc|a |a tco|ia?, Suoo-
d|a |a eo|ooae|oo dc |a adceuae|oo dc |as |csucstas su|o|st|adas o| |a tco|ia a |as
aotc||o|cs |cquotas.
L| aotc||o| a|ad|qa ||ust|a |as tcs|s s|qu|cotcs. (|,tos |oo|cas e|cotii|eos sc |csco-
tao co q|uos o s|stcas. (||, Lsos s|stcas t|coco uc aoa||za|sc oasta ||cqa| a |oo|c-
as uo|dad. (|||, Lsos |oo|cas uo|dad t|coco uc o|dcoa|sc, |ov|s|ooa|cotc, a|
coos. (|v, Lsa o|dcoae|oo, o sca, |a cst|atcq|a dc |a |cso|ue|oo dc |oo|cas, t|coc uc
cstao|cec|sc dc aeuc|do eoo |a oatu|a|cza dc |os |oo|cas |sos y oo co |csucsta
a |cs|oocs cxt|ae|cotii|eas. (v, 1oda cst|atcq|a dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo, o| odcsta uc
sca, t|coc uc cv|ta| su |cst||ee|oo a |a c|a |ceoq|da dc datos, y t|coc uc oeua|sc
tao|co dc |oo|cas eooectua|cs y ctodo|oq|eos, y a vcecs dc cst|ae|oo.
vaos a |otcota| cxooc| c| csuca qcoc|a| dc |a |cso|ue|oo dc |oo|cas co |a e|co-
e|a iaetua|. L| t|ata|coto dc uo |oo|ca o, o| cjo| dce||, dc uo s|stca |oo|cat|eo
oo c|cza eoo c| cicet|vo t|aoajo dc |cso|ue|oo, o| tc||oa euaodo sc oa oa||ado uoa
so|ue|oo. lucdco d|st|oqu||sc e|oeo cstad|os ||oe|a|cs: io|u|ae|oo, cx|o|ae|oo |c||-
|oa|, dcse||e|oo, |otc||ctae|oo y eoot|o| dc |a so|ue|oo. Cada cstad|o ucdc d|v|d||sc
a su vcz co e|c|to ouc|o dc |oo|cas a|t|eu|a|cs, a eoot|ouae|oo sc da uoa ||sta as
a titu|o dc ||ust|ae|oo uc dc couc|ae|oo eo|cta.
1. Irn:aii
1.1. _Cuc cs c| |oo|ca? (|dcot|i|eae|oo dc| |oq|aa,
1.z. _Cua|cs soo |os datos? (aec|vo dc |oio|ae|oo,
1.s. _Cua|cs soo |os suucstos? (aec|vo dc |dcas,
1.!. _Cua|cs soo |os cd|os, . c., |as tceo|eas? (aec|vo dc |oecd||cotos,
1.s. _Cua|cs soo |as |c|ae|oocs |oq|eas |||eadas, . c., cot|c |os datos y |a |oeoq-
o|ta? (Cood|e|oocs uc |c|ae|ooao |os eoost|tuycotcs dc| |oo|ca,
!#
1.. _Cuc e|asc dc so|ue|oo sc dcsca? (csuca,
1.. _Cuc t|o dc eo|ooae|oo sc ocecs|ta? (|dcot|i|eae|oo dc |a so|ue|oo,
1.s. _lo| uc sc ousea uoa so|ue|oo? (i|oa||dad,
z. Ljraii jreiniiar
z.1. _Cuc asceto t|coc? (ousucda dc aoa|oqias eoo |o eoooe|do,
z.z. _Lsta dci|o|do? S| |o csta, _eoo? (co c| easo dc eooectos,
z.s. _Lsta |csuucsto? S| |o csta, _soo|c uc oasc? (co c| easo dc suucstos,
z.!. _Lsta toado eoo o|otcs|s? S| |o csta, _eoo uc cv|dcoe|a iavo|ao|c? (co c|
easo dc suucstos,
z.s. _Ls oosc|vao|c? (co c| easo dc oojctos iis|eos,
z.. _Ls eootao|c o cd|o|c? (ldc,
z.. _Coo ucdc eoota|sc o cd||sc? (idc,
s. Desrijii
s.1. _Cuc cs? (eo||c|ato,
s.z. _Coo cs? (|o|cdadcs,
s.s. _Doodc csta? (|uqa|,
s.!. _Cuaodo oeu||c? (t|co,
s.s. _Dc uc csta oceoo? (eoos|e|oo,
s.. _Coo cstao sus a|tcs s| |as t|coc |otc||c|ae|ooadas? (eooi|qu|ae|oo,
s.. _Cuaoto? (eaot|dad,
!$
!. Iierjreaii
!.1. _Cua|cs soo |as va||ao|cs |c|cvaotcs? (iaeto|cs,
!.z. _Cua|cs eoo |os iaeto|cs dctc||oaotcs? (eausas,
!.s. _Coo cstao |c|ae|ooadas |as va||ao|cs |c|cvaotcs? (|cycs,
!.!. _Coo iuoe|ooa? (ceao|so,
!.s. _Dc doodc o dc uc |oecdc? (o||qco iis|eo o |oq|eo,
!.. _Lo uc sc t|aosio|a? (|cd|ee|oo,
s. Cir ue a s:ii
s.1. _Cua| cs c| do|o|o dc va||dcz dc |a so|ue|oo? (|i|tcs,
s.z. _lucdc ootcoc|sc |a |sa so|ue|oo o| ot|os cd|os? (os|o|c eo|ooae|oo
|odccod|cotc,
s.s. _L|a eoooe|da |a so|ue|oo? (o||q|oa||dad,
s.!. _Ls |a so|ue|oo eooc|cotc eoo c| euc|o dc eoooe||coto aectado? (|osc|e|oo,
s.s. _Cuc d|ic|coe|a s| |a suooc s|qo|i|ea |a so|ue|oo a|a c| euc|o dc eoooe|-
|coto aeecs|o|c? (ciceto,
tas eucst|oocs dc io|u|ae|oo, dc cx|o|ae|oo |c|||oa| y dc eoot|o| sc |cscotao co |a
e|coe|a io|a| |qua| uc co |a iaetua| (eoo oa ost|ado G. lo|ya,. tas t|cs ||c|as
eucst|oocs dc |a cx|o|ae|oo |c|||oa| soo eouocs tao|co a todas |as e|coe|as, scao
io|a|cs o iaetua|cs, y |o |so ucdc dce||sc dc |os dos ||c|os |oo|cas dcse||-
t|vos. tos |oo|cas dc |otc||ctae|oo dc oceoo soo ceu||a|cs a |as e|coe|as iaetua|cs.
Lxa|ocos o| u|t|o |as aoa|oqias y |as d|ic|coe|as cot|c |os |oo|cas e|cotii|eos y
aec|t|jos eoo |as a|ao|as e|uzadas. Lsto ||u|oa|a uo oeo as oucst|o |oo|ca.
lucdco |cq|st|a|sc |os s|qu|cotcs |asqos eouocs a uoos y ot|os.
!%
l . Li anis ass se jres:jie :i :erj ue iiniei. Dc| |so odo uc
uoa c|sooa aoa|iaocta oo ucdc coi|cota|sc eoo uo aec|t|jo dc a|ao|as e|uzadas, asi
tao|co cs uy oeo i|ceucotc uc uo ai|e|ooado s|o |ca|ae|oo ucda coi|cota|sc eoo
uo |oo|ca e|cotii|eo. tos |oi|ceucotcs easos dc |ce|cotcs ao|tae|oocs |c|cvaotcs
oceoas o| ai|e|ooados (eoo|ta|coto ao|a| y |ad|oast|oooia, sc oa |odue|do co
eaos oucvos y suooiao co sus auto|cs a|quo eoooe||coto csce|a||zado |cv|o.
l l . Li anis ass se raa ue jrienas s:Iiieieneie iiei Irn:aus. Lo c|
easo dc| jucqo dc |oeoqo|tas cs uo eoojuoto dc a|ao|as |otc||c|ae|ooadas, co c| easo dc
|a e|coe|a, |a |oeoqo|ta ucdc sc| uo oojcto (. c., uoa iucotc dc oodas dc |ad|o,, uoa
|o|cdad (. c., uoa |ooq|tud dc ooda,, uoa |oos|e|oo (. c., uoa |cy,, o eua|u|c| ot|a
cot|dad va||osa eoqoose|t|vacotc. Lo |os dos easos sc eoooeco |os eoost|tuycotcs dc|
|oo|ca, y tao|co |os cd|os co |a ayo|ia dc |os |oo|cas e|cotii|eos.
l l l . L s:je jeraur avaiza neuiaie ije:ras ei anis ass. Lo c| dc |as
a|ao|as e|uzadas, |as eoojctu|as eoos|stco co suooc| uc dctc||oadas a|ao|as uc
eu|co |a dcse||e|oo dada co |as |ost|uee|oocs sc eoo|oao adceuadacotc eoo |as
a|ao|as |cstaotcs. Lo c| easo dc| |oo|ca e|cotii|eo tao|co |as o|otcs|s t|coc uc
sat|siaec| eood|e|oocs dc eoat|o|||dad: t|coc uc |ceoqc| |os datos y t|coco uc sc|
eoos|stcotcs cot|c c||as y eoo c| aec|vo dc| eoooe||coto. Lo aoos easos sc |cu|c|c,
ucs, uoa eooc|coe|a doo|c.
l v. Li anis ass se sneei as ije:ras a irasaii: c| sujcto oc|ado|
eo|ucoa s| eo||csoodco a |os datos y a |as eood|e|oocs dc| |oo|ca, asi eoo s|
eooeuc|dao eoo |as dcas o|otcs|s.
v. Li anis ass se ira a s:ii. Lo c| dc |as a|ao|as e|uzadas, |a
so|ue|oo sc eoa|a eoo |a uo||eada o| c| c||od|eo. Lo c| easo e|cotii|eo, sc |c|tco
|as cd|e|oocs, o sc toao eoo ot|os |ost|ucotos, y |as |dcas sc cst|ao eoo |a ayuda
dc ot|as |dcas. lo| |o dcas, co aoos easos, c| eoot|o| cs aeecs|o|c a| uo||eo.
Lsas sccjaozas oo dcoco cseoodc|oos |as d|ic|coe|as cot|c jucqos eoo |as a|ao|as
e|uzadas y |oo|cas e|cotii|eos. Lo ||c| |uqa|, co |a e|coe|a iaetua| ouoea cs dci|-
o|t|va |a eoot|astae|oo dc |os suucstos eooocotcs y dc |a so|ue|oo i|oa|: s|c|c cs
os|o|c uc aa|czea cv|dcoe|a ia|scado|a, o a|qucotae|oocs dcsiavo|ao|cs, |oe|uso
!&
co c| easo dc |as |dcas cjo| cstao|ce|das. Coos|qu|cotccotc, i iay s:iies Iiia-
es jara jrienas iei:Iis reaivs a ieis: a d|ic|coe|a dc |a |cso|ue|oo dc jucqos
y aec|t|jos, |a |cso|ue|oo dc |oo|cas e|cotii|eos oo t|coc i|o. Lo scquodo |uqa|, |a
i|oa||dad ||a||a dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo oo cs c| cot|ctco||coto, s|oo c| |oe|ccoto dc|
eoooe||coto. A d|ic|coe|a dc |os jucqos, uc soo oostaeu|os a|t|i|e|a|cs |cvaotados a
|azo eo|to y eoo i|oa||dad c|sooa|, |os |oo|cas e|cotii|eos eoo oostaeu|os oatu|a-
|cs co c| scot|do dc uc sc a||a|qao co |a cvo|ue|oo dc |a eu|tu|a odc|oa y dc uc su
so|ue|oo ucdc sc| soe|a|cotc va||osa. L| va|o| uc t|coc |a |ovcst|qae|oo eoo cot|ctc-
o||coto sc da o| aad|du|a.
No sc eoooeco |cectas |oia||o|cs a|a |ca|a| so|ue|oocs eo||cetas a |oo|cas dc
|ovcst|qae|oo cd|aotc c| c|o aocjo dc |os |oq|cd|cotcs dc| |oo|ca: so|o |a |cso|u-
e|oo dc |oo|cas dc |ut|oa cs, o| dci|o|e|oo, uoa aet|v|dad co q|ao cd|da |cq|da o|
|cq|as (Scee. !.!,. lc|o ucdco da|sc a|quoos eooscjos soo|c |a ao|u|ae|oo dc |os
|oo|cas dc |ovcst|qae|oo a|a aucota| |a os|o|||dad dc cx|to. lo| cjc|o, |a s|-
qu|cotc doecoa dc |cq|as.
1. Irn:ar e jriena i ariuau
V|o||za| |a vaqucdad dc |os eooectos y |a ao|qucdad dc |os s|qoos. Sc|cee|ooa|
sioo|os adceuados, tao scoe|||os y suqcst|vos eoo sca os|o|c.
Lv|ta| io|u|as |oq|eacotc dcicetuosas.
z. IueiiIiar as isi:yeies
Sca|as |as |c|sas y |as |oeoqo|tas, y cse||o|| co io|a dcsa||o||ada c| qcoc|ado|.
s. Desriiir s jres:j:ess
Lx||ea| |os |csuucstos |c|cvaotcs dc as |o|taoe|a.
!. Laizar e jriena
Dctc||oa| s| c| |oo|ca cs sustaot|vo o cst|atcq|eo, co c| ||c| easo, s| cs ci-
||eo eooectua|, co c| scquodo easo, s| cs ctodo|oq|eo o dc va|o|ae|oo.
!'
losc|ta| c| |oo|ca co uoa d|se|||oa (|oo|ca uo|d|se|||oa||o, o co uo q|uo dc
d|se|||oas (|oo|ca |otc|d|se|||oa||o,.
Avc||qua| |a o|sto||a |ce|cotc dc| |oo|ca, s| |a t|coc.
s. Seeiiar e neu
L|cq|| c| ctodo adceuado a |a oatu|a|cza dc| |oo|ca y a |a e|asc dc so|ue|oo dcscada.
Lst|a| o| aot|e|ado |as os|o|cs vcotajas y |os os|o|cs |oeoovco|cotcs dc |os
va||os ctodos, s| |os oay.
Lo c| easo dc oo tcoc| a aoo o|oquo ctodo, io|u|a| c| |oo|ca cst|atcq|eo dc
a|o|t|a| uoo, y ccza| o| cstc |oo|ca.
. SinjiIiar
L|||oa| |a |oio|ae|oo |cduodaotc.
Co|||| y s|||i|ea| |os datos.
lot|odue|| suucstos s|||i|eado|cs.
. 4iaizar e jriena
Diviue e injera: dcscouza| c| |oo|ca co sus uo|dadcs as s||cs, o sca, co
asos as eo|tos (suo|oo|cas,.
s. Iaiear
l|oq|aa| |a cst|atcq|a: o|dcoa| |os |oo|cas-uo|dad co o|dco dc ||o||dad |oq|ea, s|
csto oo cs os|o|c, o|dcoa||os scquo su q|ado dc d|i|eu|tad.
u. S:sar jrienas aiaps y res:es
lotcota| |oe|u|| c| |oo|ca dado co uoa e|asc eoooe|da dc |oo|cas, oae|codo asi
|ut|oa||a |a ta|ca.
"
1o. 1|aosio|a| c| |oo|ca
va||a| eoost|tuycotcs y/o io|u|ae|oo, |otcotaodo eoovc|t|| c| |oo|ca dado co ot|o
as t|atao|c y dc| |so eao. S|c|c uc sca os|o|c, dcs|aza|sc oae|a uo
|oo|ca cu|va|cotc.
11. Lxo|ta| c| |oo|ca
S| i|aeasao |os |otcotos aotc||o|cs, |otcota| eao|a| c| |oo|ca dado o| uo |oo|c-
a ooo|oqo dc ot|o eao, eoo sc oaec euaodo uo |oo|ca dc i|s|o|oqia oua-
oa sc t|aosi|c|c a| tc||coo dc |a i|s|o|oqia dc |a |aoa.
1z. Coot|o|a| |a so|ue|oo
Co|ooa| s| |a so|ue|oo cs eo||ceta o, o| |o coos, |azooao|c.
casa| |os suucstos s|||i|eado|cs y, s| cs ocecsa||o, aoaodooa| a|quoas dc csas
|cst||ee|oocs a|a ataea| c| oucvo |oo|ca as eo|cjo uc |csu|tc.
cct|| todo c| |oecso y, s| cs os|o|c, |ooa| eoo ot|a tceo|ea.
Lst|a| |a |ce|s|oo a|eaozada.
lod|ea| os|o|cs vias a|a cjo|a| |a so|ue|oo.
ta ||c|a oc|ae|oo, a Irn:aii ue jriena, su |aotca|coto, cs a coudo |a as
d|iie|| dc todas, eoo saoc uy o|co c| atcat|eo a| uc sc |c |dc uc io|u|c uo
odc|o atcat|eo (uoa tco|ia, soo|c |a oasc dc uo dcso|dcoado oaz dc eoojctu|as as
o coos ocou|osas y dc datos |c|at|vos a oceoos soe|a|cs. Lo |a ayo|ia dc |os easos
ucdc ootcoc|sc uoa so|ue|oo, auouc sca so|o a|ox|ada, oae|codo suucstos
s|||i|eado|cs o eoos|qu|codo as datos: |o uc |a|a vcz sc t|coc a| ||oe||o, a|t|eu|a|-
cotc co |a |ioca dc i|ootc|a dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo, cs uoa io|u|ae|oo e|a|a dc| |oo|ca.
lo| |cq|a qcoc|a|, c| couoe|ado dc| |oo|ca ||cqa a sc| uoa |cquota o|co io|u|ada y
e|a|a a cd|da uc |oq|csa c| t|aoajo soo|c c| |oo|ca |so, ueoos |oo|cas c-
|czao dc uo odo oseu|o, co||ooa|, y tc||oao co uoa |cquota uc acoas oaec as
uc a|cec|sc a |a e|uda |otc||oqae|oo |o|e|a|. A|quoas dc |as dcas oc|ae|oocs aotcs
"
|cic||das csce|a|cotc |as dc |dcot|i|eae|oo dc |os eoost|tuycotcs, dcseuo||codo dc |os
|csuucstos, s|||i|eae|oo y aoa||s|s oo auotao so|o a |a |cso|ue|oo dc| |oo|ca, s|oo
tao|co a su |cio|u|ae|oo co uoa io|a v|ao|c. uo ouco |aotca|coto cs |a |tad dc |a
so|ue|oo, d|ec uoo dc |os oeos |ci|aocs ou|a|cs uc soo vc|dadc|os.
ta scquoda oc|ae|oo a iueiiIiaii ue s isi:yeies a|cec t||v|a|, c|o ucdc
sc| d|iie|| dc |ca||za|, a|t|eu|a|cotc s| c| |oo|ca oo oa s|do o|co |aotcado. lucdc sc|
iae|| avc||qua| uc |as eood|e|oocs dadas y uc |c|ae|ooao |os datos eoo |as |oeoqo|tas (.
c., |as ceuae|oocs uc eoot|coco uoos y ot|as, soo todas ocecsa||as, c|o oo sc|a tao iae||
ascqu|a|sc dc uc soo tao|co sui|e|cotcs, y dc uc c| |oo|ca cs dctc||oado.
ta tc|ec|a oc|ae|oo a ue ues:irir s jres:j:ess suood|a uo aoa||s|s dc |oiuod|-
dad va||ao|c. lucdc da| |uqa| a |a |cio|u|ae|oo dc| |oo|ca o |oe|uso a su c|||oae|oo.
ta eua|ta oc|ae|oo a aizaii ue jriena sc cjceuta autoat|eacotc co |as
e|coe|as ya dcsa||o||adas, c|o csta uy |cjos dc sc| oov|a co |as d|se|||oas as jovc-
ocs. lo| cjc|o, |os |oo|cas dc c|ece|oo, dc scaot|ea ci||ea y oasta |os
|cic|cotcs a doet||oas o|it|eas s|quco a coudo e|as|i|eaodosc eoo i||osoi|eos. Coo-
sceucoe|a dc csa a|a |oea||zae|oo cs uc sc c||qc cotooecs uo t|asioodo dc eoooe|-
|coto y uoos ctodos |oadceuados, y c| |oo|ca cotc|o sc |c|dc. ta eo||ceta
|oea||zae|oo dc |oo|cas, a|t|eu|a|cotc co |as e|coe|as as |ce|cotcs, |cu|c|c uoa
v|s|oo e|cotii|ea a||a y a| dia.
ta u|ota oc|ae|oo a seeii ue neu cs, oatu|a|cotc, t||v|a|, euaodo oo sc
eoooec as uc uoo, c|o cstc oo cs s|c|c c| easo: a coudo cx|stco va||os ctodos
o ucdco dcsa||o||a|sc va||os a|a ootcoc| so|ue|oocs cu|va|cotcs o dc e|ascs d|vc|sas
(o| cjc|o dc va||os q|ados dc a|ox|ae|oo,. ta io|u|ae|oo dc| |oo|ca dcoc |ce|-
sa| eua| cs c| t|o dc so|ue|oo dcscado. Asi, o| cjc|o, ucdco |cso|vc|sc dctc||oa-
das ceuae|oocs a|a ootcoc| so|ue|oocs aoa|it|eas eoaetas, s| sc a||ea a c||as sui|e|cotc
t|aoajo y aqudcza, c|o a|a e|c|tos i|ocs (eoo |a |otc||ctae|oo dc |as tco|ias, ucdc
oasta| o oasta sc| |cic||o|c uoa so|ue|oo a|ox|ada, |cot|as uc a|a ot|os (eoo |a
eoot|astae|oo dc tco|ias, ucdc oasta| uoa so|ue|oo ouc||ea co uo do|o|o dctc||oa-
do. lo| u|t|o, s|oo s||vc o|oquoa tceo|ea eoooe|da o s| o|oquo ctodo eoooe|do ucdc
da| c| t|o dc so|ue|oo uc sc dcsca, c| |ovcst|qado| sc oa v|sto ooo|ado eoo uo |oo|ca
dc e|asc oucva, y su atcoe|oo sc dcs|aza|a oae|a |as eucst|oocs cst|atcq|eas.
"
ta scxta oc|ae|oo sinjiIiaii cs e|ue|a|, o|uc ucdc da| |uqa| a |a |cio|u|ae|oo
dc uo eo|cjo y |coc|dc |oo|ca co |a io|a dc uoa eucst|oo o eoojuoto dc eucst|oocs
as scoe|||as y t|atao|cs. ta s|||i|eae|oo dc |oo|cas ucdc ||cqa| a o|uta|cs
autae|oocs uc dcjco s||ccotc uo oue|co ya so|o ||qc|acotc a|ce|do a| |oo|c-
a |o|e|a|, csto suc|c oeu|||| co |a eoost|uee|oo dc tco|ias, uc suc|c ccza| tco|codo
uy |cscotc |o uc a|cec cscoe|a|, auouc uo cxaco as atcoto ucdc |cvc|a| uc
cs sceuoda||o. tos suucstos s|||i|eado|cs ucdco sc| q|otcseos co c| ||c| cstad|o,
asi, o| cjc|o, uoa v|qa |ca|, i|o|ta y c|ast|ea, ucdc s|||i|ea|sc, a|a |c|cscotae|oo
tco||ea, eooe|o|codo|a eoo uoa v|qa |aq|oa||a dc |ooq|tud |oi|o|ta. ta c|||oae|oo dc
|oio|ae|oo |||c|cvaotc (|u|dos, cs a|tc dc cstc cstad|o. A vcecs, |a |oio|ae|oo ucdc
sc| |c|cvaotc, c|o, dco|do a |a q|ao va||cdad y eaot|dad dc |os datos, oay uc c|cq|| uo
ouc|o coo| dc eoojuotos dc cstos, o sca, oay uc toa| so|o uoas oeas va||ao|cs
a|a ccza| a t|aoaja|, y csto |||ea suucstos dctc||oados aec|ea dc |as va||ao|cs
uc soo dc |o|taoe|a ||a||a y |as uc soo dc |o|taoe|a sceuoda||a.
ta sct|a oc|ae|oo aiaisis eoos|stc co |a ato|zae|oo dc| |oo|ca dado, o sca,
co su |cso|ue|oo co |oo|cas as s||cs uc oo scao u|tc||o|cotc |cduet|o|cs. L|
aoa||s|s cs ocecsa||o, c|o oo sui|e|cotc, a|a ootcoc| uoa so|ue|oo: oay |oo|cas dc
couoe|ado c|ccota| uc oao |cs|st|do oasta c| |cscotc a todos |os csiuc|zos: o|
cjc|o, c| |oo|ca eoos|stcotc co dcost|a| uc oastao euat|o eo|o|cs a|a eo|o|ca|
uo aa dc ta| odo uc oo oaya dos aiscs eoot|quos eoo c| |so eo|o|. to uc sc
ocecs|ta co cstos easos oo cs uoa io|u|ae|oo as e|a|a, o| uo eoojuoto dc |oo|cas
as s||cs cu|va|cotcs a| |oo|ca dado, s|oo uoa tco|ia |o sui|e|cotccotc iuc|tc, o
uoa tceo|ea dc odc| oastaotc.
ta oetava oc|ae|oo Iaiear sc aoa||zo y cjc||i|eo co |a Scee. !.!.
ta oovcoa oc|ae|oo i:sar jrienas aiaps res:es sc |c|ae|ooa eoo |a |oea||za-
e|oo dc| |oo|ca. Gcoc|a|cotc, |||ea c| dcsojc dc |a o|o||oq|aiia |c|cvaotc, ta|ca uc sc
csta oae|codo eada vcz as d|iie|| a eausa dc| |oe|ccoto cxoocoe|a| dc| vo|uco dc |a
||tc|atu|a e|cotii|ea. Lo c| easo dc |oo|cas d|iie||cs o uc eoosuao ueoo t|co, va|d|a
|a coa eooi|a| csta ta|ca a au|oas eaaecs dc |ceoooec| |a sccjaoza cot|c |oo|cas
y dc sc|cee|ooa||os y cxt|aeta| |a ||tc|atu|a |c|cvaotc. V|cot|as oo sc d|sooqa dc ta|cs
au|oas, |a ||tc|atu|a cx|stcotc cs dc uso |||tado, y, eosa auo as q|avc, euaodo c|
|ovcst|qado| sc da eucota dc su a|eaoec ucdc vc|sc cotc||ado o| uoa ootaa dc ac|.
"!
ta dce|a oc|ae|oo raisIrnaii ue jriena ucdc |csu|ta| ocecsa||a taoto s| sc
oa tco|do cx|to co |a iasc aotc||o| eoo s| oo. tos eao|os dc va||ao|cs ucdco da| |uqa|
a uoa ta| |cio|u|ae|oo dc| |oo|ca uoa vcz uc cstc sc oaya couoe|ado co io|a
atcat|ea. lo| cjc|o, c| |oo|ca (?x, (ax
z
+ ox + e= o, sc t|aosio|ao co c|
|oo|ca ato|eo (?y, jy
z
= (o
z
- !ae,/!a
z
[ cd|aotc c| eao|o dc va||ao|c x = y (o/za,,
dc oceoo, c| scquodo |oo|ca cs cu|va|cotc a| ||c|o y sc |csuc|vc cd|aotc |a c|a
cxt|aee|oo dc uoa |aiz euad|ada. ta |cio|u|ae|oo dc uo |oo|ca oo aiceta, o| dci|o|-
e|oo, a| |oo|ca |so. A vcecs, s|o coa|qo, ucdc |aotca|sc uo |oo|ca oo cu|-
va|cotc, o| cjc|o, uo tc||oo oo ||oca| co uoa ceuae|oo ucdc tcoc| uc dcs|ce|a|sc
o| ia|ta dc uoa tco|ia eaaz dc t|ata| |a ceuae|oo cotc|a.
ta uodce|a oc|ae|oo ejraii ue jriena sc csta oae|codo eada vcz as i|c-
eucotc a cd|da uc avaoza |a |otcq|ae|oo dc |as e|coe|as. lo| cjc|o, cot|c q|uos
ao|a|cs, a coudo d|iie|| soo|c |a oasc dc ea|aetc|cs oosc|vao|cs o|io|oq|eos, cto|oq|eos
y suc|i|e|a|cs co qcoc|a|, ucdc eooscqu||sc a uo o|vc| o|ceu|a|, cstud|aodo aeaso |as
|otcioas y sus |oo|e|oocs: dc cstc odo, uo |oo|ca dc s|stcat|ea zoo|oq|ea, c||o-
ocacotc suucsto s||c, sc cxo|ta a |a o|oui|ea y |os |csu|tados ootco|dos co cstc
eao sc |ceoodueco i|oa|cotc a| eao dc o||qco. Lstc |oecd||coto sc |coota a
|os o|iqcocs dc |a a||tct|ea y |a qcoct|ia, uc sc |ot|odujc|oo eoo |ost|ucotos a|a
eoovc|t|| oc|ae|oocs ci||eas dc eoota| y cd|| co oc|ae|oocs eooectua|cs.
ta duodce|a y u|t|a oc|ae|oo ir ue s:ii sc eocoto co !.!, c|o c|cec
auo uoa oosc|vae|oo as. ta so|ue|oo ucdc eoot|o|a|sc dc a|quoo dc |os odos s|-
qu|cotcs: |c|t|codo |as |sas oc|ae|oocs, |otcotaodo uo |aotca|coto d|ic|cotc (o|
cjc|o, dc aeuc|do eoo ot|a tceo|ea,, y v|codo s| cs |azooao|c. ta |azooao|||dad sc
cst|a|a o| |o eouo |otu|t|vacotc, c|o co ||qo| so|o uoa tco|ia o uo eoojuoto dc
datos ucdco dctc||oa| s| uoa so|ue|oo cs |azooao|c, ucs |azooao|c oo s|qo|i|ea co
|a e|coe|a s|oo eoat|o|c eoo |o eoooe|do, y c| euc|o dc| eoooe||coto eoot|coc datos
y tco|ias oada |otu|t|vas.
Lsto cs a|ox|adacotc todo |o uc |a ocu|ist|ea c| a|tc dc iae|||ta| |a |cso|ue|oo dc
|oo|cas ucdc dce|| o| c| ocoto, s|o cot|a| co |as d|ic|coe|as csceii|eas uc
cx|stco cot|c |os va||os eaos dc |a e|coe|a. l|cquotcooos aoo|a o| c| dcst|oo dc |os
|oo|cas e|cotii|eos.
""
roo|emaa t||oaot|coa
l||osoios dc ||c|a aoo soo |os uc cstud|ao |oo|cas i||osoi|eos, i||osoios dc sc-
quoda aoo soo |os uc cstud|ao |o uc oao d|eoo o dcjado dc dce|| |os i||osoios dc
||c|a aoo. tos ||c|os at|codco a |os |oo|cas, |os scquodos a sus so|ue|oocs.
tos ||c|os sc |otc|csao ||a||acotc o| |as |dcas y |as e||euostaoe|as eooeo|tao-
tcs dc su oae||coto y su d|ius|oo. A| |qua| uc uoos cse||to|cs t|atao |a v|da y ot|os
t|atao dc ||o|os uc t|atao dc |a v|da, asi tao|co |os i||osoios dc ||c|a aoo |ca||zao
|a aet|v|dad i||osoi|ea ||a||a, |cot|as uc |os i||osoios dc scquoda i||a |cq|st|ao, eo-
cotao, cx||eao, dcsa||o||ao o e||t|eao |o uc oaeco |os ||c|os.
Lsas ai||ae|oocs oo soo va|o|at|vas, s|oo dcse||t|vas: |as dos e|ascs dc i||osoios
cx|stco |ca|cotc y, adcas, sc| dc aoo i oo cs |o |so uc sc| dc eatcqo|ia i:
i||osoios dc ||c|a aoo (o||q|oa|cs, ucdco sc| cosado|cs dc scquoda eatcqo|ia, y
oasta eoa||ataocs, |cot|as uc i||osoios dc scquoda aoo ucdco sc| cosado|cs dc
||c|a eatcqo|ia. tas dos e|ascs dc i||osoios soo ocecsa||as a|a uc v|va |a i||osoiia,
c|o c| |oq|cso i||osoi|eo, |qua| uc c| dc |a e|coe|a, cx|qc eo|codc| e|a|acotc uc
(i, |a |ovcst|qae|oo o||q|oa| eoos|stc co dcseuo|||, |ovcota|, d|so|vc| y |cso|vc| |oo|cas
a odc| sc| |oiuodos y iceuodos, y ,ii) uc |a |ovcst|qae|oo o||q|oa| cs ||cse|od|o|c
a|a aotcoc| uoa d|se|||oa co v|da.
Auouc todo cso sca oov|o, va|ia |a coa |cct|||o a eausa dc |o ou|a| uc s|quc s|codo
|a |dca dc uc |a i||osoiia cs s||ccotc uo eoojuoto coscao|c dc tcas y o|o|oocs o
sca, uo eoojuoto dc doet||oas y oo uo eoojuoto dc |oo|cas eoo |os uc |ueoa|. Cuaodo
|os sostcocdo|cs dc |a eooece|oo doet||oa| a|udco a |oo|cas i||osoi|eos, oo |cosao co
|oo|cas |o|acotc d|eoos, s|oo as o|co co q|aodcs a|cas tcat|eas, c| |oo|ca
dc| eoooe||coto. S| sc |cs |dc uc |od|uco uo |co|o eooe|cto dc uo ta| s|stca
|oo|cat|eo, cs os|o|c uc oo cot|codao |a ct|e|oo y eootcstco oi|ce|codo a|quo |oo|c-
a o|sto||eo o| cjc|o, _Cua| oao|a s|do |a |oi|ucoe|a dc A?, o a|quo |oo|ca ||o-
quist|eo o| cjc|o, _Cuc u|c|c dce|| |a qcotc eoo csto euaodo d|ec uc |cosa |o uc
d|ec?, o ta| vcz uo |oo|ca s|eo|oq|eo o| cjc|o, S| o| uoa d|st|aee|oo o|v|do |
do|o| dc eaocza, _oaec cso uc dcjc dc do|c|c |a eaocza o so|o uc dcjc dc scot|| c|
do|o|? (cstc cs cicet|vacotc uo |oo|ca ucsto a eooeu|so o| 4iaysis a|a coc|o dc
1uss,. l|oo|cas o|sto||eos, s|eo|oq|eos, ||oquist|eos y dc ot|as e|ascs oeuao a |os
i||osoios dc ||c|a y dc scquoda aoo, a| |qua| uc |os e|to|oqos t|coco uc oeua|sc dc
"#
sus |e|oseo|os c|cet|oo|eos, |os a|uco|oqos dc sus eoeocs a|a todo tc||coo y |os
|co|sto||ado|cs dc |os datos qco|oq|eos. ta |ovcst|qae|oo dc |oo|cas o|sto||eos,
||oquist|eos, s|eo|oq|eos y dc ot|as e|ascs ucdc ||u|oa| |oo|cas i||osoi|eos y cs a
coudo uoa |ocdcut|ea dc cstos, c|o d|eoos |oo|cas oo soo i||osoi|eos.
_Cuc cs uo |oo|ca i||osoi|eo? lc aui uo |oo|ca dc tco|ia dc |a i||osoiia, y oay
taotas ctai||osoiias euaotas i||osoiias. S| sc adota uo uoto dc v|sta uo taoto t|ad|e|o-
oa|, |a |csucsta ucdc da|sc co io|a dc uoa s||c DeIiiiii dcootat|va: uo |oo|c-
a i||osoi|eo cs uo |oo|ca dc |oq|ea, c|stco|oqia u ooto|oqia. S| sc |dc uoa ae|a|ae|oo
dc csa dci|o|e|oo, ucdc aad||sc uc uo |oo|ca i||osoi|eo cs uo |oo|ca dc io|a,
o dc eoooe||coto o |cic|cotc a| sc|. lc|o todo cso cs oseu|o c |osui|e|cotc: |a eucst|oo
dc s| dos s|stcas eooectua|cs, eoo dos tco|ias, soo |soo|ios o oo, cs uo |oo|ca
dc io|a, c|o ucdc sc| cst||etacotc atcat|eo, c| avc||qua| eoo tcocos eoooe|-
|coto dc eosas uc oo oao s|do oojcto dc cxc||coe|a cs uo |oo|ca dc eoooe||coto,
c|o oo c|stco|oq|eo (oo |o cs, o| |o coos, dcsdc uc |o oa |ceoq|do |a s|eo|oqia,,
y |cquota|sc o| |a oatu|a|cza dc |os coz|as cs uo |oo|ca |cic|cotc a| sc|, c|o oo
cs uo |oo|ca ooto|oq|eo. tos |oo|cas |oq|eos sc |oe|uyco co c| a||o eoojuoto dc
|os |oo|cas io|a|cs. Soo |oo|cas qcoc||eos uc sc |ci|c|co a |a io|a y ucdco
|cscota|sc co eua|u|c| |ovcst|qae|oo. Lo eua|u|c| eao odcos tcoc| uc t|ata|
|oo|cas eoo _Ls j cu|va|cotc a ?, _Ls dcdue|o|c dc j?, _Ls j, uc eoot|c-
oc c| eooecto , t|adue|o|c o| a|quoa |oos|e|oo cu|va|cotc uc oo eootcoqa ? tos
|oo|cas c|stco|oq|eos oo soo |oo|cas uc sc |ci|c|ao |o|acotc a| eoooe|-
|coto, s|oo e|c|tos |oo|cas oo ci||eos soo|c c|, ta|cs eoo _eua|cs soo |os e||tc-
||os dc |a vc|dad iaetua|?, _eua| cs c| va|o| vc||tat|vo dc |a eoojuoe|oo dc dos couoe|ados
a|e|a|cotc vc|dadc|os?, _eoo sc soctco |as tco|ias a eoot|astae|oo? o _eua|
cs c| ac| dc |a aoa|oqia co |a |oic|coe|a e|cotii|ea? Y |os |oo|cas ooto|oq|eos oo soo
|oo|cas csceii|eos |cic|cotcs a| sc|, s|oo |oo|cas qcoc||eos, oo ci||eos, uc sc
|ci|c|co a |asqos qcoc|a|cs dc |a |ca||dad, ta|cs eoo _uc |c|ae|oo oay cot|c c| t|co
y c| eao|o?, _oay e|ascs oatu|a|cs?, _cs c| aza| |||cduet|o|c?, _cs |a ||oc|tad eo-
at|o|c eoo |a |cqa||dad? o _eoo sc |c|ae|ooao |os d|st|otos o|vc|cs? Coo cstas |ce|-
s|oocs odcos eoosc|va| |a aotc||o| dci|o|e|oo dc| |oo|ca i||osoi|eo, auouc daodooos
eucota dc uc toda dci|o|e|oo dcootat|va cs cvas|va.
uoa ceu||a||dad dc |os |oo|cas i||osoi|eos eoos|stc co uc co su |aotca|coto oo
sc |cscotao datos ci||eos (eoo ocotos oue|ca|cs o datos o|sto||eos,. tos datos
"$
ci||eos ucdco sc|, s|o coa|qo, |c|cvaotcs a|a c| i||osoia|: ucdco da| o||qco a
|oo|cas i||osoi|eos y ucdco |ciuta| so|ue|oocs a |oo|cas i||osoi|eos, c|o oo uc-
dco |cscota|sc co su io|u|ae|oo, o| uc s| |o o|e|c|ao, |os |oo|cas i||osoi|eos sc
|ovcst|qa|iao eoo cd|os ci||eos, o sca, c|tcocec|iao a a|quoa e|coe|a ci||ea. Lo
scquodo |uqa|, |os |oo|cas i||osoi|eos oo c|tcoceco a o|oquoa e|coe|a a|t|eu|a|, o|
o| su tca o| o| su ctodo, auouc |a |ovcst|qae|oo e|cotii|ea eoo vc|cos co |a
Scee. s.u |csuooc y suq|c|c tcs|s i||osoi|eas (o| cjc|o, |a |ca||dad dc| uodo
cxtc|oo, y tco|ias i||osoi|eas (o| cjc|o, |a |oq|ea o|d|oa||a,. Lo tc|ec| |uqa|, todos |os
|oo|cas i||osoi|eos soo eooectua|cs, c|o a|quoos dc c||os o| cjc|o, c| s|stca
|oo| cat | eo dc | as | cycs e| cot i i | eas |csuooco uo euc|o dc e| coe| a i aet ua| .
Coos|qu|cotccotc, sc |csuc|vco (o d|suc|vco, a coudo eoo |a ayuda dc |a e|coe|a o
co |a |sa e|coe|a. Ls os|o|c uc |os i||osoios oayao oceoo ueoo as a| |aotca|
eucst|oocs |otc||qcotcs |ucqo aeaso |ceoq|das o| |a e|coe|a uc |ooo|codo cxt|ava-
qaotcs so|ue|oocs a |a|os |oo|cas. Lo eua|to |uqa|, |os |oo|cas i||osoi|eos dc |as
e|ascs uc oo soo |a |oq|ea soo |||cso|uo|cs dc uo odo |coacotc cxaeto, a|t|eu|a|-
cotc s| sc |c|ae|ooao eoo |a e|coe|a, |a eua| oo cs ouoea dci|o|t|va. lo| cso, |os |oo|c-
as c|stco|oq|eos y ooto|oq|eos, eoo |os |oo|cas iuodacota|cs dc |a e|coe|a
iaetua|, soo ctc|oos co c| scot|do dc uc oo t|coc so|ue|oo dci|o|t|va. lucdco || |ce|o|co-
do so|ue|oocs eada vcz cjo|cs, y co a|quoos easos ucdco dcja| dc |otc|csa| a |os
csi||tus |ovcst|qado|cs, c|o s|c|c ucda|ao, co c| cjo| dc |os easos a cd|o |cso|-
vc|. Lsto, oatu|a|cotc, oo oos cx|c dc sc| |ce|sos co |a io|u|ae|oo y |a eooece|oo
dc |os |oo|cas i||osoi|eos: |a so|ue|oo sc|a taoto as vc|dadc|a euaodo cjo| io|u-
|ado y eooeco|do oaya s|do c| |oo|ca.
uoa u|ota ceu||a||dad, |a as dcsq|ae|ada dc |os |oo|cas i||osoi|eos uc oo soo
cst||etacotc |oq|eos, cs uc oo suc|c oaoc| e||tc||os a|a |ceoooec| |as so|ue|oocs, y
coos auo, oatu|a|cotc, a|a dce|d|| s| uoa so|ue|oo dada cs eo||ceta. Ls sao|do uc
a|quoas eucst|oocs i||osoi|eas soo |ot|iosceacotc |odce|d|o|cs, oo soo |o|acotc
|oo|cas, s|oo scudo|oo|cas, eoo c| s|qu|cotc: _Cuaoto as sc| t|coc c| ooo|c
uc |os ao|a|cs |oic||o|cs? (|cquota |ca|cotc |aotcada co c| xll Cooq|cso lotc|oa-
e|ooa| dc l||osoiia co 1uss,. lc|o |o uc oa eooiuod|do a oastaotcs cosado|cs cs uc
ouc|osos |oo|cas i||osoi|eos qcou|oos oayao s|do oojcto dc |a|qas c |oeooe|uycotcs
eoot|ovc|s|as. _Soo |os |oo|cas i||osoi|eos jer se |os uc soo ||o|os, o sc co-
eucot|a c| dciceto co oucst|a to|cza a|a io|u|a||os y cst|u|a| |as tceo|eas uc c||-
t||iao eoot|asta| |as so|ue|oocs i||osoi|eas (cs dce||, |as o|otcs|s y tco|ias i||osoi|eas,?
"%
Aotcs dc |ciuq|a|sc co uoa |csucsta cs||sta oay uc |ceo|da| uc |a |oq|ea io|a|
cotc|a y |a ayo| a|tc dc |a scaot|ea sc oao eoovc|t|do co d|se|||oas ||qu|osas,
oasta c| uoto dc uc ooy sc |as eoos|dc|a i|ceucotccotc eoo e|coe|as |odccod|co-
tcs. Lsos cx|tos suq|c|co |a adoe|oo dc uoa dctc||oada ctodo|oqia i||osoi|ea y as
|ce|sacotc |a dc uoa |os||ada co c| ctodo dc |a e|coe|a.
l|ooocos |as s|qu|cotcs |cq|as eoo uoa oasc ctodo|oq|ea i||osoi|ea. l||c|a, c|
t|ata|coto dc |oo|cas i||osoi|eos oo |oq|eos dcoc a|oo|za| eoo |a |oq|ea o|d|oa||a:
o| taoto, |os c||o|cs |oq|eos oasta|ao a|a |ova||da| c| d|seu|so i||osoi|eo, cotc|acotc o
co a|tc, oo dcsea||i|ea|ao todo |oo|ca i||osoi|eo, o| s|u|c|a todo |oq|aa i||osoi|eo,
c|o scqu|acotc c|||oa|ao ueoa a|qucotae|oo i||osoi|ea. Scquoda, uc c| t|ata-
|coto dc |os |oo|cas i||osoi|eos oo |oq|eos oo dcoc eooea| eoo c| euc|o ||oe|a| dc|
eoooe||coto e|cotii|eo, y, adcas, dcoc csta| a| dia e|cotii|eacotc, csto oo eoodcoa-
|a |as octc|odox|as e|cotii|eas |cot|as sc |oduzeao dcot|o dc| csi||tu dc |a e|coe|a,
c|o c|||oa|a ueoo s|oscot|do. 1c|ec|a, uc |a io|u|ae|oo y |a c|aoo|ae|oo dc |os
|oo|cas i||osoi|eos, asi eoo |a eo|ooae|oo dc |as so|ue|oocs |oucstas, t|coco
uc d|seu|||| a|a|c|acotc eoo |as eo||csood|cotcs oc|ae|oocs dc |a e|coe|a: c| cto-
do dc| i||osoia| dcoc sc| e|cotii|eo. Cua|ta, uc |as so|ue|oocs |oucstas a |oo|cas
i||osoi|eos dcoco juzqa|sc so|o dcsdc c| uoto dc v|sta dc su va|o| vc||tat|vo, |odcco-
d|cotccotc dc eoos|dc|ae|oocs oo eoqoose|t|vas o|it|eas, o| cjc|o. Lsas euat|o
|cq|as dc| i||osoia| dc |a cst|ae|oo dc| t|aoajo i||osoi|eo qu|a|ao ya |a c|cee|oo dc |os
|oo|cas i||osoi|eos. S| oo sc |cscta |a |oq|ea, ucdc cstud|a|sc eua|u|c| aosu|do,
dcsdc c| ocqc||ao|so oasta c| cx|stcoe|a||so, s| oo sc |cscta c| aec|vo dc |a e|coe|a,
od|a |aotca|sc eua|u|c| qcst|oo suc|i|e|a| o oasta cstu|da eoo |a dc s| cx|stco
ouc||as dc| iutu|o, s| oo sc ||ta c| ctodo dc |a e|coe|a, sc |couoe|a|a a| ococi|e|o dc |a
as |oq|ada cxc||coe|a ouaoa, y s| |a as||ae|oo dc| i||osoia| oo cs ousea| |a vc|dad
(|a ousucda dc vc|dad c|icet|o|c,, sc ootcod|a |a s|c|va dc eua|u|c| doet||oa ios||.
L| |oo|ca dc |a c|cee|oo dc| |oo|ca adceuado y dc| eo||ceto |aotca|coto cs tao
|o|taotc co |a i||osoiia dc |a e|coe|a eoo co eua|u|c| ot|a |aa dc| eoooe||coto.
Aui, eoo co c| |csto dc |a i||osoiia, sc |cscota |a tcotae|oo dc oo |oecdc| s|oo o|
ea|oos ao|c|tos o| |a auto||dad, eua|u|c|a uc sca |a |c|cvaoe|a dc| |oo|ca t|ad|e|o-
oa| a|a |a |ca| |ovcst|qae|oo e|cotii|ea. Ljc|os |ce|cotcs, ea|aetc|ist|eos dc cstc t|o
dc |oo|cas, soo |os s|qu|cotcs: (i, |a eucst|oo dc |os eood|e|ooa|cs eoot|aiaetua|cs,
euya so|ue|oo sc |cscota eoo uo |cu|s|to |cv|o a |a tco|ia dc |a |cy e|cotii|ea, (ii, |a
"&
eucst|oo dc| dcseuo|||coto dc dci|o|e|oocs |oq|eacotc sat|siaeto||as dc eooectos
eua||tat|vos dc d|sos|e|oo, eoo so|uo|c, uc sc e|cc |od|scosao|c a|a |aotca| c|
|oo|ca dc |os eooectos tco|ct|eos, y (iii, c| |oo|ca dc |a |oduee|oo, dc| uc sc
e|cc uc aqota |os |oo|cas dc |a |oic|coe|a e|cotii|ea. L| oceoo cs uc c| |oo|ca
dc |os eood|e|ooa|cs eoot|aetua|cs csta o| aoo|a io|u|ado oseu|acotc, y, o| taoto,
s|o |cso|vc|, |cot|as uc, co eao|o, |a tco|ia dc |a |cy e|cotii|ea a|eoa o|co, eoo
o| iuc|za tcoia uc oeu||||, o|uc |o |otc|csaotc dc |os eood|e|ooa|cs eoot|aiaetua|cs
cs uc sc |cscotao co |a |oic|coe|a, oo co |a io|u|ae|oo dc |c|sas dc tco|ias iaetua|cs.
lo| |o uc oaec a |os eooectos dc d|sos|e|oo, |os e|cotii|eos suc|co |cic||| dc||va|
eooectos d|sos|e|ooa|cs eua||tat|vos o eoa|at|vos a a|t|| dc eooectos euaot|tat|-
vos, y |o oaeco co c| scoo dc tco|ias, oo iuc|a dc c||as (v. Scee. s.s,. lo| u|t|o, c|
ac| dc |a |oduee|oo co |a |oic|coe|a e|cotii|ea cs as odcsto dc |o uc suc|c e|cc|sc
(v. Scee. 1s.!,. Sc oa |odue|do |a |oi|ae|oo dc e|c|tos |oo|cas o| ia|ta dc |ca|
eoooe||coto dc |a e|coe|a ta| eoo cx|stc, y asi sc oa dcsa||o||ado uoa a|t|i|e|a| tco|ia
dc |a e|coe|a uc oo vc|sa |ca|cotc soo|c |a e|coe|a, s|oo soo|c dctc||oadas |dcas uc
sc |cs oao oeu|||do a d|st|oqu|dos i||osoios a |oos|to dc |oo|cas dc cseaso o o|oquo
|otc|cs a|a c| |oq|cso dc| eoooe||coto: a coudo sc cstud|ao csos |oo|cas eoo uo
coo|c aa|ato dc ||qo| c |oqco|o, s||ccotc o|uc sc suooc c||adacotc uc soo
v|ta|cs a|a |a e|coe|a o a|a |a cx||eae|oo i||osoi|ea dc |a e|coe|a.
ta tco|ia dc |a e|coe|a oo t|coc o| uc t|ata| cxe|us|vacotc |oo|cas uc ucdao at|ac|
|a atcoe|oo dc |os e|cotii|eos |os eua|cs suc|co asa| o| a|to |as tcs|s i||osoi|eas uc
suooco, c|o s|o duda t|coc uc oeua|sc dc |a e|coe|a |ca|, y oo dc uoa |aqco
s|||sta dc c||a. Y s| cs dcscao|c uo iceuodo |otc|eao|o cot|c i||osoios y e|cotii|eos,
taoto a|a c| co||uce||coto dc |a i||osoiia euaoto a|a |a dcu|ae|oo dc |a e|coe|a, cotoo-
ecs, cs ocecsa||o t|ata| |os |oo|cas i||osoi|eos uc sc |cscotao, c| eu|so dc |a |ovcst|-
qae|oo. Aetua|cotc |os iis|eos sc coi|cotao eoo |a ocecs|dad dc eoost|u|| tco|ias dc |as
a|tieu|as c|ccota|cs, y sc |cs ayuda|ia eoo uoa d|seus|oo eoctcotc aec|ea dc| |o-
o|ca qcoc|a| dc |os |aotca|cotos os|o|cs dc |a eoost|uee|oo dc tco|ias iis|eas. tos
eoso|oqos sc coeucot|ao eoo uoa cv|dcoe|a oeo scqu|a a iavo| dc tco|ias suacotc
csceu|at|vas, scqu|acotc aeoqc|iao uy o|co uoa d|seus|oo eoctcotc aec|ea dc |a
eoot|astao|||dad y |a |ce|s|oo uc oay uc cx|q|| a |as tco|ias. tos ui|eos cstao |oeoo-
dos eoo sus ueoas o|otcs|s au i aec|ea dc iuoe|oocs dc ooda, y eoo su cxecs|vo
ea|eu|o e|cqo: sc ococi|e|a|iao dc uoa d|seus|oo aec|ea dc |a oatu|a|cza dc |as eoost|ue-
"'
e|oocs au i y dc uo cxaco dc| sa:s dc |os odc|os. tos o|o|oqos sc coi|cotao eoo
c| e|ce|cotc ao|so cot|c |a |ovcst|qae|oo o| oosc|vae|oo y |a cxc||cota|, asi eoo c|
cx|stcotc cot|c |a o|o|oqia ec|u|a| y |a o|ceu|a|: sc |cs ayuda|ia cd|aotc uoa d|seus|oo
aec|ea dc| va|o| y |a |otc||c|ae|oo dc csos va||os |aotca|cotos. tos s|eo|oqos cstao
a|cod|codo ui|ea, y ocecs|ta|iao uoa d|seus|oo aec|ea dc s| |os oceoos siu|eos oo
soo as uc |caee|oocs ui|eas. Y asi suecs|vacotc. ta c|cee|oo dc |oo|cas v|vos
ao|a|a |a i||osoiia dc |a e|coe|a y |a oa|a ut|| a|a c| |oq|cso dc |a e|coe|a.
Lo eooe|us|oo: c| eo||ceto |aotca|coto dc |os |oo|cas i||osoi|eos su c|cee|oo y su
t|ata|coto oo d|i|c|c, o oo dcoc|ia d|ic||| dcas|ado dc| |aotca|coto eo||ceto dc |os
|oo|cas e|cotii|eos, o| ueoo uc d|i|c|ao |os tcas y |as tceo|eas. lc|o csto oo cs
as uc uo odo ao|quo dc dce|| uc oo oay as uc uo odo dc |aotca| |os |oo|c-
as dc eoooe||coto, ya sca co |a e|coe|a u|a, ya co |a a||eada, ya co |a i||osoiia: oo
sc ucdco |aotca| |oo|cas dc eoooe||coto s|oo e|cotii|eacotc. Lsto ucdc sc|
doqat|eo, c|o va|c |a coa |otcota||o a|a vc| s| eao|a |a s|tuae|oo dc |a i||osoiia.
#
Lectura comp|ementar|a N z
Tomada de: Peter Berger y Thomas Luckmann. La construccin social de la realidad.
Buenos Aires: Amorrortu, 1986, pgs. 36-52.
Loa tundamentoa de| conoc|m|ento en |a v|da cot|d|ana
1. La rea||dad de |a v|da cot|d|ana
Dado uc oucst|o |oos|to co csta oo|a cs uo aoa||s|s soe|o|oq|eo dc |a |ca||dad dc |a
v|da eot|d|aoa, as cxaetacotc, dc| eoooe||coto uc o||cota |a eoodueta co |a v|da
eot|d|aoa, y ucsto uc so|o taoqcoe|a|cotc oos |otc|csa eoo ucdc |cscota|sc csta
|ca||dad co d|vc|sas c|scet|vas tco||eas a |os |otc|cetua|cs, dcocos ccza| o|
e|a||i|ea| csa |ca||dad ta| eoo sc oi|cec a| scot|do eouo dc u|cocs eoooco o|d|oa-
||acotc |a soe|cdad. ta aoc|a eoo |as c|aoo|ae|oocs tco||eas dc |os |otc|cetua|cs y
dcas c|eadc|cs dc |dcas ucdco |oi|u|| soo|c csa |ca||dad dc| scot|do eouo cs
eucst|oo aa|tc. lo| |o taoto, oucst|o eoct|do, auouc dc ea|aetc| tco||eo, coq|aoa eoo
|a a|ce|ae|oo dc uoa |ca||dad uc eoooc c| oojcto dc |a e|coe|a ci||ea dc |a soe|o-
|oqia, va|c dce||, c| uodo dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa.
Cucdc e|a|o, o| |o taoto, uc oo cs |oos|to oucst|o dcd|ea|oos a |a i||osoiia. Coo todo,
s| uc|cos cotcodc| |a |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa, dcocos tcoc| co eucota su ea|ae-
tc| |ot|iosceo aotcs dc |oecdc| a| aoa||s|s soe|o|oq|eo |o|acotc d|eoo. ta v|da eot|-
d|aoa sc |cscota eoo uoa |ca||dad |otc||ctada o| |os ooo|cs y uc a|a c||os t|coc
c| s|qo|i|eado suojct|vo dc uo uodo eooc|cotc. Coo soe|o|oqos oaecos dc csta
|ca||dad c| oojcto dc oucst|o aoa||s|s. Dcot|o dc| a|eo dc |cic|coe|a uc |oo|e|ooa |a
soe|o|oqia, co euaoto e|coe|a ci||ea, eaoc toa| csta |ca||dad eoo dada, aecta|
eoo datos icoocoos a|t|eu|a|cs uc sc |odueco co su scoo, s|o |ovcst|qa| ayo|-
cotc sus iuodacotos, ta|ca csta uc eooe|c|oc a |a i||osoiia. S|o coa|qo, dado c|
|oos|to a|t|eu|a| dc |a |cscotc oo|a, oo odcos sos|aya| dc| todo c| |oo|ca i||oso-
i|eo. L| uodo dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa oo so|o sc da o| cstao|ce|do eoo |ca||dad o| |os
#
|co|os o|d|oa||os dc |a soe|cdad co c| eoo|ta|coto suojct|vacotc s|qo|i|eat|vo
dc sus v|das. Ls uo uodo uc sc o||q|oa co sus cosa|cotos y aee|oocs, y uc csta
sustcotado eoo |ca| o| cstos. Aotcs dc c|codc| oucst|a ta|ca ||oe|a| dcocos,
o| |o taoto, t|ata| dc e|a||i|ea| |os iuodacotos dc| eoooe||coto co |a v|da eot|d|aoa, a
saoc|, |as oojct|vae|oocs dc |os |oecsos (y s|qo|i|eados, suojct|vos o| cd|o dc |os
eua|cs sc eoost|uyc c| uodo |otc|suojct|vo dc| scot|do eouo.
la|a c| |oos|to uc oos oeua cs csta uoa |aoo| |c|||oa| y so|acotc odcos csooza|
|os |asqos ||oe|a|cs dc |a uc e|ccos cs uoa so|ue|oo adceuada a| |oo|ca i||osoi|eo,
c|o cotcodaooos, adceuada so|o co c| scot|do dc uc ucdc sc|v|| dc uoto dc a|t|da
a|a c| aoa||s|s soe|o|oq|eo. tas eoos|dc|ae|oocs uc s|quco t|coco, o| taoto, c| ea|aetc| dc
|o|cqocoos i||osoi|eos y, dc suyo, |csoe|o|oq|eos. L| ctodo uc eoos|dc|aos as
eoovco|cotc a|a e|a||i|ea| |os iuodacotos dc| eoooe||coto co |a v|da eot|d|aoa cs c| dc|
aoa||s|s icoocoo|oq|eo, ctodo u|acotc dcse||t|vo y, eoo ta|, ci||eo, c|o oo
e|cotii|eo, uc asi eoos|dc|aos |a oatu|a|cza dc |as e|coe|as ci||eas
.
L| aoa||s|s icoocoo|oq|eo dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa, o as o|co dc |a cxc||coe|a suojct|va
dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa, cs uo i|coo eoot|a todas |as o|otcs|s eausa|cs o qcoct|eas, asi
eoo eoot|a |as asc|e|oocs aec|ea dc |a s|tuae|oo ooto|oq|ea dc |os icoocoos aoa||za-
dos. Ls |o|taotc |ceo|da||o. L| scot|do eouo coe|c||a |oouc|ao|cs |otc||ctae|oocs
|ce|cotii|eas y euas|e|cotii|eas soo|c |a |ca||dad eot|d|aoa, a |a uc da o| cstao|ce|da.
S| vaos a dcse||o|| |a |ca||dad c| scot|do eouo, tcod|cos uc |cic|||oos a cstas |otc|-
|ctae|oocs, asi eoo tao|co tcod|cos uc toa| co eucota su ea|aetc| dc |csuucs-
to, c|o |o oaecos eo|oeaodo|o cot|c a|cotcs|s icoocoo|oq|eos.
ta eooe|coe|a cs s|c|c |otcoe|ooa|, s|c|c auota o sc d|||qc a oojctos. Nuoea odc-
os a|cocodc| ta| o eua| suost|ato suucsto dc eooe|coe|a co euaoto ta|, s|oo so|o |a
ta t ot a| | dad dc cst a scee| oo sc oasa co A| i | cd Seout z y 1ooas tuesaoo, Di e S r : :r ei uer
Leieiswe , oo| a co | ca| ae| oo, co v| st a dc | o eua| oos ocos aost co| do dc | oe| u| | | ci c| coe| as
|od|v|dua|cs a auc||os |uqa|cs dc |a oo|a ya uo||eada dc Seoutz co |os uc sc cstud|ao |os |sos
|oo|cas. Nucst|a a|qucotae|oo co cstc |uqa| sc oasa co Seoutz, ta| eoo |o dcsa||o||a tuesaoo
co |a oo|a aotcs e|tada, ii . L| |ceto| uc dcscc eoooec| |a oo|a dc Seoutz uo||eada oasta |a iceoa
ucdc eoosu|ta|: A|i|cd Seoutz Der siiiiaIe 4:Iia: uer sziaei e (v|coa, S||oqc|, 1uo,, Ceeu
Iajers vo|s. l y ll. L| |ceto| a u|co |otc|csc |a adatae|oo uc o|zo Seoutz dc| ctodo icoocoo|oq|eo
a| aoa||s|s dc| uodo soe|a| ucdc eoosu|ta| csce|a|cotc sus Ceseu Iajers, vo|. l, . uu y s|qs.,
y Vau||ec Nataosoo (eo.,, Iiisjiy I ie Sia Sieies (Nucva Yo|s, aodo lousc, 1us,, .
1ss y s|qs.
#
eooe|coe|a dc csto o auc||o. Lsto cs |o uc oeu||c, ya sca uc c| oojcto dc |a eooe|coe|a
sc cxc||cotc eoo a|tc dc uo uodo iis|eo cxtc||o|, o sc a|cocoda eoo c|ccoto
dc uoa |ca||dad suojct|va |otc||o|. 1aoto s| yo (||c|a c|sooa dc| s|oqu|a|, uc aui y co
|os cjc|os s|qu|cotcs oeua c| |uqa| dc |a autoeooe|coe|a o|d|oa||a co |a v|da eot|d|aoa,
cstoy eootc|aodo c| aoo|aa dc |a e|udad dc NcW Yo|s, eoo s| too eooe|coe|a dc
uoa aoqust|a |otc||o|, |os |oecsos dc eooe|coe|a |||eados soo |otcoe|ooa|cs co aoos
easos. No ocecs|taos |os|st|| co uc c| toa| eooe|coe|a dc| cd|i|e|o dc| L||c Statc
sc d|ic|coe|a dc| toa| eooe|coe|a dc uoa aoqust|a. uo aoa||s|s icoocoo|oq|eo dcta||ado
|cvc|a|ia |as d|vc|sas eaas dc cxc||coe|a y |as d|st|otas cst|uetu|as dc s|qo|i|eado uc
|otc|v|coco, o| cjc|o, co sc| o|d|do o| uo c||o, co |ceo|da| oaoc| s|do o|d|do o|
uo c||o, co tcoc| ioo|a a todos |os c||os, cte. to uc oos |otc|csa aui cs c| ea|aetc|
|otcoe|ooa| eouo dc toda eooe|coe|a.
Cojctos d|ic|cotcs aa|ceco aotc |a eooe|coe|a eoo eoost|tut|vos dc |as d|ic|cotcs
csic|as dc |a |ca||dad. ceooozeo a |s sccjaotcs, eoo |os uc tcoqo uc t|ata| co c|
eu|so dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa, eoo c|tcoce|cotcs a uoa |ca||dad uy d|ic|cotc dc |as
i|qu|as dcscoea|oadas uc aa|ceco co |s sucos. tos dos q|uos dc oojctos |ot|odu-
eco tcos|oocs uy d|ic|cotcs co | eooe|coe|a y |cs |csto atcoe|oo dc aoc|as uy
d|ic|cotcs. V| eooe|coe|a, ucs, cs eaaz dc ovc|sc co d|ic|cotcs csic|as dc |ca||dad.
D|eoo dc ot|a io|a, tcoqo eooe|coe|a dc uc c| uodo eoos|stc co |ca||dadcs u|t||cs.
Cuaodo aso dc uoa |ca||dad a ot|a, cxc||coto o| csa t|aos|e|oo uoa csce|c dc
|aeto. Lstc |aeto oa dc toa|sc eoo eausado o| c| dcs|aza|coto dc |a atco-
e|oo uc |||ea d|eoa t|aos|e|oo. Lstc dcs|aza|coto ucdc oosc|va|sc eoo sua
e|a||dad a| dcsc|ta| dc uo suco.
Lot|c |as u|t||cs |ca||dadcs cx|stc uoa uc sc |cscota eoo |a |ca||dad o| cxec|co-
e|a. Ls |a |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa. Su uo|eae|oo ||v||cq|ada |c da dc|ceoo a uc sc
|a ||ac su|ca |ca||dad. ta tcos|oo dc |a eooe|coe|a ||cqa a su aoqco co |a v|da
eot|d|aoa, cs dce||, csta sc |ooc soo|c |a eooe|coe|a dc aoc|a as|va, u|qcotc c
|otcosa co c| as a|to q|ado. Ls |os|o|c |qoo|a| y auo as d|iie|| atcoua| su |cscoe|a
|c||osa. Coosceucotccotc, c vco oo||qado a |csta||c atcoe|oo tota|. Lxc||coto
|a v|da eot|d|aoa co cstado dc |coa v|q|||a. Lstc cstado dc |coa v|q|||a eoo |csceto a
cx|st|| y a|cocodc| |a |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa cs a|a i a|qo oo|a| y cv|dcotc o|
si |so, va|c dce||, eoost|tuyc | aet|tud oatu|a|.
#!
A|cocodo |a |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa eoo uoa |ca||dad o|dcoada. Sus icoocoos
sc |cscotao d|sucstos dc aotcaoo co autas uc a|ceco |odccod|cotcs dc |
a|cocos|oo dc c||os |sos y uc sc |cs |ooco. ta |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa sc
|cscota ya oojct|vada, o sca, eoost|tu|da o| uo o|dco dc oojctos uc oao s|do dcs|qoa-
dos eoo oojctos aotcs dc uc yo aa|ce|csc co csecoa. L| |coquajc usado co |a v|da
eot|d|aoa c |oo|e|ooa eoot|ouacotc |as oojct|vae|oocs |od|scosao|cs y d|sooc c|
o|dco dcot|o dc| eua| cstas adu|c|co scot|do y dcot|o dc| eua| |a v|da eot|d|aoa t|coc
s|qo|i|eado a|a i. v|vo co uo |uqa| uc t|coc uo ooo|c qcoq|ai|eo, ut|||zo oc||a|cotas,
dcsdc ao|c|atas oasta autos dco|t|vos, uc t|coco uo ooo|c co c| voeaou|a||o tceo|eo dc
|a soe|cdad co uc v|vo, c ucvo dcot|o dc uoa |cd dc |c|ae|oocs ouaoas dcsdc c|
e|uo a| uc c|tcoczeo oasta |os Lstados uo|dos dc Ac||ea, uc tao|co cstao o|dcoa-
das cd|aotc uo voeaou|a||o. Dc csta aoc|a, c| |coquajc a|ea |as eoo|dcoadas dc |
v|da co |a soe|cdad y ||coa csa v|da dc oojctos s|qo|i|eat|vos.
ta |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa sc o|qao|za a||cdcdo| dc| aui dc | euc|o y c| aoo|a
dc | |cscotc. Lstc aui y aoo|a cs c| ioeo dc |a atcoe|oo uc |csto a |a |ca||dad dc
|a v|da eot|d|aoa. to uc aui y aoo|a sc c |cscota co |a v|da eot|d|aoa cs |a |ca||dad
dc | eooe|coe|a. S|o coa|qo, |a |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa oo sc aqota o| cstas
|cscoe|as |ocd|atas, s|oo uc aoa|ea icoocoos uc oo cstao |cscotcs aui y aoo-
|a. Lsto s|qo|i|ea uc yo cxc||coto |a v|da eot|d|aoa co q|ados d|ic|cotcs dc |ox||-
dad y a|cja|coto, taoto csae|a| eoo tco|a|. to as |ox|o a i cs |a zooa dc
v|da eot|d|aoa d||cetacotc aeecs|o|c a | ao|icstae|oo eo|o|a|. Lsa zooa eoot|coc c|
uodo uc csta a | a|eaoec, c| uodo co c| uc aetuo a i|o dc od|i|ea| su |ca||dad, o
c| uodo co c| uc t|aoajo. Lo cstc uodo dc aet|v|dad | eooe|coe|a csta do|oada o|
c| ot|vo |aqat|eo, o sca uc | atcoe|oo a cstc uodo csta dctc||oada ||oe|a|-
cotc o| |o uc oaqo, |o uc ya oc oceoo o |o uc |coso oaec| co c|. Dc csta aoc|a,
cs | uodo o| cxec|coe|a. Sc, o| suucsto, uc |a |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa
|oe|uyc zooas uc oo c |csu|tao aeecs|o|cs dc csta aoc|a. lc|o, o o|co oo tcoqo uo
|otc|cs |aqat|eo co csas zooas, o o|co | |otc|cs o| c||as cs |od||ceto co taoto uc-
dao sc| a|a i zooas ao|u|at|vas co otcoe|a. 1i|eacotc, | |otc|cs o| |as zooas
a|cjadas cs coos |otcoso y, o| e|c|to, coos u|qcotc. Vc s|coto |oiuodacotc |otc-
|csado o| c| q|uo dc oojctos uc |otc|v|coco co | ta|ca d|a||a, o| cjc|o, c| uodo
dc |a cstae|oo dc sc|v|e|o, s| soy ceao|eo. Vc s|coto |otc|csado, auouc coos d||ce-
tacotc, o| |o uc oeu||c co |os |aoo|ato||os dc |ucoa dc |a |odust||a autoov||ist|ea co
#"
Dct|o|t, cs |ooao|c uc jaas cstc co uoo dc csos |aoo|ato||os, c|o |a ta|ca uc a||i sc
|ca||za aiceta|a cvcotua|cotc | v|da eot|d|aoa. 1a| vcz c |otc|csc |o uc suecda co
Caoo kcoocdy, o co c| csae|o cxtc||o|, c|o csc |otc|cs cs eucst|oo dc uo qusto a|t|-
eu|a| io, dc | t|co ||o|c, as uc uoa ocecs|dad u|qcotc dc | v|da eot|d|aoa.
ta |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa sc c |cscota adcas eoo uo uodo |otc|suojct|vo, uo
uodo uc eoa|to eoo ot|os. Lsta |otc|suojct|v|dad cstao|cec uoa sca|ada d|ic|coe|a
cot|c |a v|da eot|d|aoa y ot|as |ca||dadcs dc |as uc tcoqo eooe|coe|a. Lstoy so|o co c|
uodo dc |s sucos, c|o sc uc c| uodo dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa cs tao |ca| a|a |os ot|os
eoo |o cs a|a i. Lo |ca||dad, oo ucdo cx|st|| co |a v|da eot|d|aoa s|o |otc|aetua| y
eouo|ea|c eoot|ouacotc eoo ot|os. Sc uc | aet|tud oatu|a| a|a eoo cstc uodo
eo||csoodc a |a aet|tud oatu|a| dc ot|os, uc tao|co c||os aectao |as oojct|vae|oocs o|
|as eua|cs cstc uodo sc o|dcoa, uc tao|co c||os o|qao|zao cstc uodo co to|oo dc
aui y aoo|a dc su csta| co c| y sc |oooco aetua| co c|. 1ao|co sc, o| suucsto, uc
|os ot|os t|coco dc cstc uodo eouo uoa c|scet|va uc oo cs |dcot|ea a |a ia. V|
aui cs su a||i. V| aoo|a oo sc suc|ooc dc| todo eoo c| dc c||os. V|s |oycetos
d|i|c|co y oasta ucdco cot|a| co eooi||eto eoo |os dc c||os. A csa| dc cso, sc uc v|vo
eoo c||os co uo uodo uc oos cs eouo. Y, |o uc cs dc sua |o|taoe|a, sc uc oay
uoa eo||csoodcoe|a eoot|oua cot|c |s s|qo|i|eados y sus s|qo|i|eados co cstc uodo,
uc eoa|t|os co uo scot|do eouo dc |a |ca||dad dc cstc. ta aet|tud oatu|a| cs |a
aet|tud dc |a eooe|coe|a dc| scot|do eouo, |ce|sacotc o|uc sc |ci|c|c a uo uodo
uc cs eouo a ueoos ooo|cs. L| eoooe||coto dc| scot|do eouo cs c| uc eoa|to
eoo ot|os co |as |ut|oas oo|a|cs y autocv|dcotcs dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa.
ta |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa sc da o| cstao|ce|da n |ca||dad. No |cu|c|c vc||i|ea-
e|oocs ad|e|ooa|cs soo|c su so|a |cscoe|a y as a||a dc c||a. Lsta ai:, scoe|||acotc,
eoo iaet|e|dad cv|dcotc dc o| si c |c||osa. Sc uc cs |ca|. Auo euaodo ucda
ao||qa| dudas aec|ea dc su |ca||dad, cstoy oo||qado a suscodc| csas dudas ucsto uc
cx|sto |ut|oa||acotc co |a v|da eot|d|aoa. Lsta suscos|oo dc dudas cs tao i||c uc,
a|a aoaodooa||a eoo od|ia oeu||||, o| cjc|o, co |a eootc|ae|oo tco||ea o |c||q|o-
sa, tcoqo uc oaec| uoa t|aos|e|oo cxt|ca. L| uodo dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa sc |ooc
o| si so|o y euaodo u|c|o dcsai|a| csa |os|e|oo dcoo oaec| uo csiuc|zo dc||oc|ado y
oada iae||. ta t|aos|e|oo dc |a aet|tud oatu|a| a |a aet|tud tco||ea dc| i||osoio o dc| ooo|c
dc e|coe|a cjc||i|ea cstc uoto. lc|o oo todos |os ascetos dc csta |ca||dad soo |qua|-
cotc oo |oo|cat|eos. ta v|da eot|d|aoa sc d|v|dc co sceto|cs, uoos uc sc a|coco-
##
dco o| |ut|oa y ot|os uc c |cscotao |oo|cas dc d|vc|sas e|ascs. Suooqaos uc
soy uo ceao|eo dc autoov||cs y q|ao eoooecdo| dc todo |o |cic|cotc a eoeocs dc
iao||eae|oo oo|tcac||eaoa. 1odo |o uc eo||csoodc a cstc u|t|o asceto cs |ut|oa,
iaecta oo |oo|cat|ea dc | v|da eot|d|aoa. lc|o uo dia aa|cec a|qu|co co c| qa|ajc y
c |dc uc |ca|c su vo|ssWaqco. Vc vco aoo|a oo||qado a cot|a| co c| uodo |oo|c-
at|eo dc |os autos dc a|eas cxt|aojc|as. lucdo oaec||o a |cqaad|cotcs o eoo eu||o-
s|dad |oics|ooa|, c|o co eua|u|c|a dc |os dos easos coi|coto |oo|cas uc todavia
oo oc |ot|odue|do co | |ut|oa. A| |so t|co oo dcjo |a |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa,
o| suucsto. ta vc|dad cs uc csta sc co||ucec, ya uc c|czo a |oeo|o|a||c c|
eoooe||coto y |a oao|||dad |cuc||dos a|a |ca|a| autos cxt|aojc|os. ta |ca||dad dc |a
v|da eot|d|aoa aoa|ea |os dos t|os dc sceto|cs, co taoto |o uc a|cec uo |oo|ca oo
eo||csooda a uoa |ca||dad eo|ctacotc d|st|ota (o| cjc|o, |a |ca||dad dc |a iis|ea
tco||ea, o dc |as csad|||as,. Lo taoto |as |ut|oas dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa |os|qao s|o |otc-
||ue|oo, sc|ao a|cocod|das eoo oo |oo|cat|eas.
lc|o c| sceto| oo |oo|cat|eo dc |a |ca||dad eot|d|aoa s|quc s|codo|o so|acotc oasta
oucvo av|so, cs dce||, oasta uc su eoot|ou|dad cs |otc||u|da o| |a aa||e|oo dc uo
|oo|ca. Cuaodo csto oeu||c, |a |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa ousea |otcq|a| c| sceto|
|oo|cat|eo dcot|o dc |o uc ya oo cs |oo|cat|eo. L| eoooe||coto dc| scot|do eouo
eoot|coc uoa d|vc|s|dad dc |ost|uee|oocs aec|ea dc eoo |oecdc| a|a csto. lo| cjc|o,
|as c|sooas uc t|aoajao eoo|qo soo a|a i oo |oo|cat|eas, co taoto eu|ao sus
|ut|oas ia|||a|cs y cstao|ce|das, ta|cs eoo cse||o|| a au|oa co csas |ox|as a |a
ia co |a oi|e|oa. Sc vuc|vco |oo|cat|eas s| |otc||uco csas |ut|oas, o| cjc|o, s| sc
aootooao co uo ||oeoo y eueo|eocao. Cuaodo |ou|c|o c| s|qo|i|eado dc csa aet|v|dad
|oso||ta, oay uoa va||cdad dc os|o|||dadcs uc | eoooe||coto dc scot|do eouo cs
eaaz dc |c|otcq|a| dcot|o dc |as |ut|oas oo |oo|cat|eas dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa: ucdco
csta| eoosu|taodosc soo|c eoo a||cq|a| uoa au|oa dcseoucsta, o uoo dc c||os ta|
vcz tcoqa |ost|uee|oocs u|qcotcs dc| jcic, cte. lo| ot|a a|tc, ucdc sc| uc c cotc|c dc
uc cstao d|seut|codo uoa d||cet|va s|od|ea| a|a oaec| ouc|qa, |o eua| todavia csta iuc|a
dc | cxc||coe|a, c|o o|co eaoc dcot|o dc| t|o dc |oo|ca uc ucdc coea|a| | eooo-
e||coto dc scot|do eouo. No oostaotc, oao|a dc coea|a||o eoo |oo|ca, aotcs uc
|c|otcq|a||o scoe|||acotc dcot|o dc| sceto| oo |oo|cat|eo dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa. S|o c-
oa|qo, s| ||cqo a |a eooe|us|oo dc uc |s eo|cqas sc oao vuc|to |oeos eo|cet|vacotc, c|
|oo|ca uc su|qc cs todavia dc ot|a e|asc. Aoo|a coea|o uo |oo|ca uc t|ase|codc |os
|i|tcs dc |a |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa y uc auota a uoa |ca||dad eo|ctacotc
#$
d|st|ota. to e|c|to cs uc | eooe|us|oo dc uc |s eo|cqas oao co|ouce|do |||ea, |so
iaeto, uc sc oao a|cjado oae|a uo uodo uc ya oo cs c| eouo dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa.
Coa|adas eoo |a |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa, ot|as |ca||dadcs aa|ceco eoo zooas
|||tadas dc s|qo|i|eado, coe|avadas dcot|o dc |a su|ca |ca||dad ea|aetc||zada o|
s|qo|i|eados y odos dc cxc||coe|a e||euose||tos. lod|ia dce||sc uc |a su|ca |ca||-
dad |as covuc|vc o| todos |ados, y |a eooe|coe|a |cq|csa a c||a s|c|c eoo s| vo|v|c|a
dc uo asco. Lsto cs cv|dcotc co |os cjc|os ya e|tados, c| dc |a |ca||dad dc |os sucos
o c| dc| cosa|coto tco||eo. Cooutae|oocs s|||a|cs sc |odueco cot|c c| uodo dc
| a v| da eot| d| aoa y c| uodo dc | os j ucqos, taoto dc | os o| os eoo - auo as
sca|adacotc- dc |os adu|tos. L| tcat|o |oo|e|ooa uoa cxec|cotc cjc||i|eae|oo dc
cstc jucqo dc a|tc dc |os adu|tos. ta t|aos|e|oo cot|c |as |ca||dadcs sc sca|a eoo |a
suo|da y oajada dc| tc|oo. Cuaodo sc |cvaota c| tc|oo, c| cscetado| sc vc t|aoso|tado
a ot|o uodo, uc t|coc s|qo|i|eados |o|os, y a uo o|dco uc tcod|a o oo ueoo uc
vc| eoo c| o|dco dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa. Cuaodo eac c| tc|oo, c| cscetado| vuc|vc a |a
|ca||dad, cs dce||, a |a su|ca |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa co eoa|ae|oo eoo |a eua|
|a |ca||dad |cscotada soo|c c| csecoa||o a|cec aoo|a tcouc y ciic|a, o| viv|da uc
oaya s|do |a |cscotae|oo dc ocotos aotcs. tas cxc||coe|as cstct|ea y |c||q|osa
aouodao co t|aos|e|oocs dc csta csce|c, ucsto uc c| a|tc y |a |c||q|oo soo |odueto|cs
codc|eos dc zooas |||tadas dc s|qo|i|eado.
1odas |as zooas |||tadas dc s|qo|i|eado sc ea|aetc||zao o| dcsv|a| |a atcoe|oo dc |a
|ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa. S| o|co cx|stco, e|a|o csta, dcs|aza|cotos dc |a atcoe|oo
ueir dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa, c| dcs|aza|coto oae|a uoa zooa |||tada dc s|qo|i|eado cs
dc iodo|c ueoo as cxt|ca. Sc |oduec uo eao|o |ad|ea| co |a tcos|oo dc |a eooe|co-
e|a. Lo c| eootcxto dc |a cxc||coe|a |c||q|osa, csto sc oa dcoo|oado, eoo justcza,
sa|to. Ls |o|taotc dcstaea|, s|o coa|qo, uc |a |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa |ct|coc
su |cc|ocoe|a auo euaodo sc |oduzeao sa|tos dc csta e|asc. L| |coquajc, a| coos,
cstao|cec |a vc|dad dc csto. L| |coquajc eouo dc uc d|sooqo a|a oojct|va| |s
cxc||coe|as sc oasa co |a v|da eot|d|aoa y s|quc toaodo|a eoo |cic|coe|a, auo euao-
do |o usc a|a |otc||cta| cxc||coe|as uc eo||csoodco a zooas |||tadas dc s|qo|i|ea-
do. 1i|eacotc yo dcio|o, o| |o taoto, |a |ca||dad dc cstas co euaoto c|czo a
c|ca| c| |coquajc eouo a|a |otc||cta||as, va|c dce||, t|aduzeo |as cxc||coe|as
uc oo soo eot|d|aoas vo|v|codo|as a |a su|ca |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa. Lsto
ucdc advc|t||sc iae||cotc asoe|aodo|o eoo |a cxc||coe|a dc |os sucos, c|o tao|co
#%
cs ti|eo dc |os uc t|atao dc oaec| eoooec| uodos dc s|qo|i|eado tco||eo, cstct|eo o
|c||q|oso. L| iis|eo tco||eo oos d|ec uc su eooecto dc| csae|o oo ucdc t|aos|t||sc
||oquist|eacotc, |ce|sacotc |o |so uc d|eco c| a|t|sta eoo |csceto a| s|qo|i|eado
dc sus e|cae|oocs y c| ist|eo eoo |csceto a sus eouo|eae|oocs eoo |a d|v|o|dad. S|o
coa|qo, todos c||os c| uc suca, c| iis|eo, c| a|t|sta y c| ist|eo tao|co v|vco co |a
|ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa. C|c|tacotc, uoo dc |os |oo|cas a|a c||os as |o|-
taotc eoos|stc co |otc||cta| |a eocx|stcoe|a dc csta |ca||dad eoo |os |cduetos dc |ca||dad
dcot|o dc |os eua|cs sc oa avcotu|ado.
L| uodo dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa sc cst|uetu|a taoto co c| csae|o eoo co c| t|co. ta
cst|uetu|a csae|a| cs tota|cotc c||ic||ea eoo |csceto a oucst|as eoos|dc|ae|oocs |c-
scotcs. Ls sui|e|cotc sca|a| uc tao|co c||a oscc uoa d|cos|oo soe|a| co v||tud dc|
oceoo dc uc | zooa dc ao|u|ae|oo sc |otc|sceta eoo |a dc ot|os. Vas |o|taotc co |o
uc |csceta a oucst|o |oos|to |cscotc cs |a cst|uetu|a tco|a| dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa.
ta tco|a||dad cs uoa |o|cdad |ot|ioscea dc |a eooe|coe|a. L| to||cotc dc |a eooe|co-
e|a csta s|c|c o|dcoado tco|a|cotc. Ls os|o|c d|st|oqu|| o|vc|cs d|ic|cotcs dc
csta tco|a||dad uc sc da |ot|asuojct|vacotc. 1odo |od|v|duo t|coc |a eooe|coe|a dc
uo i|u|| |otc||o| dc| t|co, uc a su vcz sc oasa co |os ||tos s|eo|oq|eos dc| o|qao|so
auouc oo sc |dcot|i|ea eoo c||os. Sc|ia t|aosq|cd|| co cxecso |os |i|tcs dc cstos |o|c-
qocoos, cot|a| co uo aoa||s|s dcta||ado dc d|eoos o|vc|cs dc tco|a||dad |ot|asuojct|va.
Lc|o, eoo ya ocos |od|eado, |a |otc|suojct|v|dad t|coc tao|co uoa d|cos|oo tc-
o|a| co |a v|da eot|d|aoa. L| uodo dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa t|coc su |o|a oo|a oi|e|a|, uc
sc da |otc|suojct|vacotc. Lsta oo|a oi|e|a| ucdc cotcodc|sc eoo |a |otc|scee|oo dc|
t|co eos|eo eoo su ea|coda||o cstao|ce|do soe|a|cotc scquo |as sceucoe|as tc-
o|a|cs dc |a oatu|a|cza, y c| t|co |otc||o|, co sus d|ic|coe|ae|oocs aotcs coe|ooa-
das. Nuoea ucdc oaoc| s|u|taoc|dad tota| cot|c cstos d|vc|sos o|vc|cs dc tco|a||dad,
eoo |o cjc||i|ea uy e|a|acotc |a cxc||coe|a dc |a csc|a. 1aoto | o|qao|so
eoo |a soe|cdad a uc c|tcoczeo c |ooco, c |ooco a | t|co |otc||o|, e|c|tas
sceucoe|as dc oceoos uc cot|aao uoa csc|a. lucdo uc|c| |otc|vco|| co uo aeootce|-
|coto dco|t|vo, c|o dcoo csc|a| a uc sc saoc | |od|||a |ast|ada. C tao|co dcoo
csc|a| |a t|a|tae|oo dc uoos ac|cs a i|o dc uc ucda cstao|cec|sc oi|e|a|cotc |
eaae|dad a|a |otc|vco|| co d|eoo aeootce||coto. lae|| cs advc|t|| uc |a cst|uetu|a
tco|a| dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa cs cxecs|vacotc eo|cja, o|uc |os d|ic|cotcs o|vc|cs
dc tco|a||dad ci||eacotc |cscotc dcoco eo||c|ae|ooa|sc co todo ocoto.
#&
ta cst|uetu|a tco|a| dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa c coi|cota a uoa iat|e|dad eoo |a uc dcoo
eoota|, cs dce||, eoo |a uc dcoo t|ata| dc s|oe|oo|za| |s |o|os |oycetos. Dcseuo|o
uc c| t|co co |a |ca||dad eot|d|aoa cs eoot|ouo y |||tado. 1oda | cx|stcoe|a co cstc
uodo csta o|dcoada eoot|ouacotc o| su t|co, csta vc|dadc|acotc covuc|ta co c|.
V| |o|a v|da cs uo c|sod|o co c| eu|so cxtc|oacotc a|t|i|e|a| dc| t|co. Lx|stia
aotcs dc uc yo oae|c|a y scqu||a cx|st|codo dcsucs, uc yo uc|a. L| eoooe||coto
dc | uc|tc |ocv|tao|c oaec uc cstc t|co sca |||tado a|a i. Cucoto so|o eoo
uoa dctc||oada eaot|dad dc t|co d|soo|o|c a|a |ca||za| |s |oycetos, y cstc
eoooe||coto aiceta | aet|tud oae|a csos |oycetos. As||so, ucsto uc oo u|c|o
o|||, cstc eoooe||coto |oyceta uoa aoqust|a suoyaecotc co |s |oycetos. Dc csa
aoc|a, oo ucdo |cct|| |odci|o|dacotc | a|t|e|ae|oo co aeootce||cotos dco|t|-
vos. Sc uc c cstoy oo|codo v|cjo. 1a| vcz sca csta |a u|t|a oo|tuo|dad co |a uc
ucda |otc|vco||. V| csc|a sc vo|vc|a aos|osa scquo c| q|ado co uc |a i|o|tud dc|
t|co q|av|tc soo|c c| |oyceto.
ta |sa cst|uetu|a tco|a|, eoo ya ocos |od|eado, cs eoc|e|t|va. No ucdo |ovc|t||
a vo|uotad |as sceucoe|as uc c||a |ooc: |o ||c|o cs |o ||c|o eoost|tuyc uo
c|ccoto cscoe|a| dc | eoooe||coto dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa. lo| cso, oo ucdo |cod|| uo
cxaco dctc||oado s|o aotcs oaoc| a|ooado e|c|tos eu|sos. No ucdo |aet|ea| |
|oics|oo aotcs dc oaoc| a|ooado d|eoo cxaco, y asi suecs|vacotc. Dc |qua| aoc-
|a, |a |sa cst|uetu|a tco|a| |oo|e|ooa |a o|sto||e|dad uc dctc||oa | s|tuae|oo
co c| uodo dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa. Naei co uoa dctc||oada iceoa, |oq|csc co |a cseuc|a
co ot|a, ccec a t|aoaja| co | |oics|oo co ot|a, cte. Lstas iceoas, s|o coa|qo, cstao
todas uo|eadas dcot|o dc uoa o|sto||a ueoo as vasta, y csa uo|eae|oo eooio|a
dce|d|dacotc | s|tuae|oo. Asi ucs, oaei co c| ao dc |a q|ao u|co|a dc| oaoeo co |a
uc | ad|c c|d|o su io|tuoa, |oq|csc co |a cseuc|a aotcs dc |a |cvo|ue|oo, eocoec a
t|aoaja| |ocd|atacotc dcsucs dc uc csta||asc |a q|ao quc||a, cte. ta cst|uetu|a
tco|a| dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa oo so|o |ooc sceucoe|as |ccstao|ce|das co |a aqcoda
dc uo dia eua|u|c|a, s|oo uc tao|co sc |ooc soo|c | o|oq|aiia co eoojuoto. Dcot|o
dc |as eoo|dcoadas cstao|ce|das o| csta cst|uetu|a tco|a|, yo a|cocodo taoto |a
aqcoda d|a||a eoo |a o|oq|aiia tota|. L| |c|oj y c| ea|coda||o, co vc|dad, c ascqu|ao uc
soy uo ooo|c dc | coea. So|o dcot|o dc csta cst|uetu|a tco|a| eoosc|va a|a i
|a v|da eot|d|aoa su aecoto dc |ca||dad. lo| cso, co easos co uc ucda scot||c dcs-
o||cotado o| eua|u|c| ot|vo (o| cjc|o, d|qaos uc oaya sui||do uo aee|dcotc
autoov||ist|eo a eoosceucoe|a dc| eua| ouo|c|a ucdado |oeoose|cotc dc uo qo|c,,
#'
s|coto uoa ocecs|dad eas| |ost|ot|va dc |co||cota|c dcot|o dc |a cst|uetu|a tco|a| dc
|a v|da eot|d|aoa. V||o | |c|oj y t|ato dc |ceo|da| co uc dia cstoy. Coo so|o csos aetos
vuc|vo a |oq|csa| co |a |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa.
z. |nteracc|on aoc|a| en |a v|da cot|d|ana
ta |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa cs a|qo uc eoa|to eoo ot|os. lc|o, _eoo sc cxc||-
cota a csos ot|os co |a v|da eot|d|aoa? uoa vcz as sc ucdc d|st|oqu|| aui cot|c
d|vc|sos odos dc ta| cxc||coe|a.
ta cxc||coe|a as |o|taotc uc tcoqo dc |os ot|os sc |oduec co |a s|tuae|oo ea|a
a ea|a, uc cs c| |otot|o dc |a |otc|aee|oo soe|a| y dc| uc sc dc||vao todos |os
dcas easos.
Lo |a s|tuae|oo ea|a a ea|a c| ot|o sc c aa|cec co uo |cscotc viv|do uc aoos
eoa|t|os. Sc uc co c| |so |cscotc viv|do yo c |c |cscoto a c|. V| aui y
aoo|a y c| suyo q|av|tao eoot|ouacotc uoo soo|c ot|o, co taoto du|c |a s|tuae|oo ea|a
a ea|a. L| |csu|tado cs uo |otc|eao|o eoot|ouo cot|c | cx|cs|v|dad y |a suya. to vco
soo|ci|, |ucqo |caee|ooa| aotc | eco i|uoe|do dcjaodo dc soo|ci|, dcsucs soo|ci|
oucvacotc euaodo yo soo|io, y asi suecs|vacotc. Cada uoa dc |s cx|cs|oocs csta
d|||q|da a c|, y v|ecvc|sa, y csta eoot|oua |ce||oe|dad dc aetos cx|cs|vos odcos
ut|||za||a taoto c| eoo yo s|u|taocacotc. Lsto s|qo|i|ea uc co |a s|tuae|oo ea|a a
ea|a |a suojct|v|dad dc| ot|o c cs aeecs|o|c cd|aotc uo ax|o dc siotoas. lo|
e|c|to uc yo ucdo |otc||cta| c||oocacotc a|quoos dc csos siotoas. lucdo cosa|
uc c| ot|o sc soo|ic euaodo co |ca||dad csta oae|codo uoa ucea. S|o coa|qo, o|oquoa
ot|a io|a dc |c|ae|oo ucdc |c|odue|| |a aouodaoe|a dc siotoas dc suojct|v|dad uc
sc dao co |a s|tuae|oo ea|a a ea|a. So|acotc co cstc easo |a suojct|v|dad dc| ot|o sc
coeucot|a dce|d|dacotc |ox|a. 1odas |as dcas io|as dc |c|ae|oo eoo c| ot|o, co
d|vc|sos q|ados, soo |cotas.
Lo |a s|tuae|oo ea|a a ea|a c| ot|o cs eo|ctacotc |ca|. Lsta |ca||dad cs a|tc dc |a
|ca||dad tota| dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa y, co euaoto ta|, as|va c |c||osa. Ls vc|dad uc c|
ot|o ucdc sc| |ca| a|a i s|o uc |o oaya coeoot|ado ea|a a ea|a, o| eoooec||o dc
ooo|c, o| cjc|o, o o| oaoc|oos t|atado o| eo||csoodcoe|a. No oostaotc, sc vuc|-
vc |ca| a|a i co todo c| scot|do dc |a a|ao|a so|acotc euaodo |o vco ea|a a ea|a. Lo
$
vc|dad, ucdc a|cqa|sc uc c| ot|o, co |a s|tuae|oo ea|a a ea|a, cs as |ca| a|a i uc
yo |so. lo| suucsto uc yo c eooozeo cjo| dc |o uc jaas ucda eoooec||o a
c|. V| suojct|v|dad c cs aeecs|o|c dc uoa aoc|a eoo jaas od|a sc||o |a suya, o|
uy ec|eaoa uc sca oucst|a |c|ae|oo. V| asado csta a | a|eaoec co | co||a eoo
uoa |co|tud uc ouoea od|c a|eaoza| co | |ceoost|uee|oo dc su asado, o| ueoo uc
c oao|c dc c|. lc|o cstc cjo| eoooe||coto dc i |so |cu|c|c |ci|cx|oo. No sc c
|cscota d||cetacotc. L| ot|o, co eao|o, si sc c |cscota d||cetacotc co |a s|tuae|oo
ea|a a ea|a. lo| |o taoto, |o uc c| cs sc oa||a eoot|ouacotc a | a|eaoec. Lsta d|so-
o|o|||dad cs eoot|oua y |c||ci|cx|va. Lo eao|o, |o uc yo soy oo csta tao a | a|eaoec.
la|a uc asi oeu||a sc |cu|c|c uc c dctcoqa, uc |otc||ua |a csootaoc|dad eoot|oua
dc | cxc||coe|a y |ct|ot|a|qa dc||oc|adacotc | atcoe|oo soo|c i |so. Vas auo,
csa |ci|cx|oo soo|c i |so cs oeas|ooada ti|eacotc o| |a aet|tud oae|a i uc
dcucst|c c| ot|o. Ls ti|eacotc uoa |csucsta dc cscjo a |as aet|tudcs dc| ot|o.
Sc d|ec uc |as |c|ae|oocs eoo ot|os co |a s|tuae|oo ea|a a ea|a soo suacotc i|cx|-
o|cs. D|eoo co io|a ocqat|va, cs eoa|at|vacotc d|iie|| |ooc| autas |iq|das a |a
|otc|aee|oo ea|a a ea|a. Scao eua|cs iuc|co |as autas |ucstas, sc|ao eoostaotc-
cotc od|i|eadas o| |a coo|c va||cdad y sut||cza dc| |otc|eao|o dc s|qo|i|eados
suojct|vos uc sc |oduec. lo| cjc|o, ta| vcz yo vca a| ot|o eoo a|qu|co uc c cs
cscoe|a|cotc oost|| y aetuc a|a eoo c| dcot|o dc uoa auta dc |c|ae|oocs oost||cs,
eoo yo |o cot|codo. Lo eao|o, co |a s|tuae|oo ea|a a ea|a c| ot|o ucdc coea|a|c
eoo aet|tudcs y aee|oocs uc eoot|ad|qao csta auta, u|za oasta c| uoto dc uc yo c
vca oo||qado a dcsceoa||a o| |oa||eao|c y a eoos|dc|a| a| ot|o eoo a|qo. Lo ot|as
a|ao|as, |a auta oo ucdc sustcota| |a cv|dcoe|a as|va dc |a suojct|v|dad dc| ot|o uc
sc c oi|cec co |a s|tuae|oo ea|a a ea|a. lo| eoot|astc, c |csu|ta ueoo as iae||
asa| o| a|to csa cv|dcoe|a co taoto oo c coeucot|c eoo c| ot|o ea|a a ea|a. Auo co
uoa |c|ae|oo |c|at|vacotc ec|eaoa, eoo ucdc sc| |a c|sto|a|, c cs os|o|c dcsea|-
ta| as ci|eazcotc |as |otcstas dc a|stad dc| ot|o o|uc oo |c|cscotao co |ca||dad
su aet|tud suojct|va oae|a i, scoe|||acotc o|uc co |a eo||csoodcoe|a c ia|ta |a
|cscoe|a |ocd|ata, eoot|oua y eooe|ctacotc |ca| dc su cx|cs|v|dad. Scqu|acotc
ucdo |otc||cta| c||oocacotc |os s|qo|i|eados dc| ot|o auo co |a s|tuae|oo ea|a a ea|a,
ya uc cs os|o|c uc c| ot|o oeu|tc o|oe||tacotc sus s|qo|i|eados. Auo asi, taoto |a
|otc||ctae|oo c||ooca eoo |a o|oe|csia soo ueoo as d|iie||cs dc aotcoc| co |a
|otc|aee|oo ea|a a ea|a uc co |as io|as coos ec|eaoas dc |as |c|ae|oocs soe|a|cs.
$
lo| ot|a a|tc, yo a|cocodo a| ot|o o| cd|o dc csucas t||i|eado|cs auo co |a
s|tuae|oo ea|a a ea|a, s| o|co cstos csucas soo as vu|oc|ao|cs a su |otc|ic|coe|a
uc ot|as io|as as |cotas dc |otc|aee|oo. D|eoo dc ot|a aoc|a auouc |csu|tc
eoa|at|vacotc d|iie|| |ooc| autas |iq|das a |a |otc|aee|oo ea|a a ea|a, csta ya
aa|cec autada dcsdc c| ||oe||o s| sc |cscota dcot|o dc |as |ut|oas dc |a v|da eot|d|a-
oa. (lodcos dcja| a uo |ado, a|a eoos|dc|a||os as adc|aotc, |os easos dc |otc|aee|oo
cot|c c|sooas tota|cotc dcseoooe|das uc oo t|coco uo t|asioodo eouo dc v|da eot|-
d|aoa,. ta |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa eoot|coc csucas t||i|eado|cs co euyos tc||-
oos |os ot|os soo a|cocod|dos y t|atados co coeucot|os ea|a a ea|a. Dc csc odo,
ucdo a|cocodc| a| ot|o eoo ooo|c, cu|oco, eoo e||cotc, eoo t|o jov|a|,
cte. 1odas cstas t||i|eae|oocs aicetao eoot|ouacotc | |otc|aee|oo eoo c| euaodo, o|
cjc|o, dce|do |ov|ta||o uoa ooeoc a|a uc sc d|v|c|ta aotcs dc t|ata| dc vcodc||c |
|odueto. Nucst|a |otc|aee|oo ea|a a ea|a ||cva|a |a ||oota dc csas t||i|eae|oocs co
taoto oo sc vuc|vao |oo|cat|eas dco|do a uoa |otc|ic|coe|a dc su a|tc. lo|uc ucdc
suecdc| uc c| ot|o c dcucst|c uc, auouc ooo|c, cu|oco y e||cotc, cs ta-
o|co uo ooo|ado o|a||sta y uc |o uc a| ||oe||o a|ceia sc| jov|a||dad, oo cs s|oo uoa
cx|cs|oo dc dcsdco oae|a |os oo|tcac||eaoos co qcoc|a| y oae|a |os vcodcdo|cs oo|tc-
ac||eaoos co a|t|eu|a|. A csta a|tu|a dc |as eosas, cs oatu|a| uc | csuca t||i|eado|
tcoqa uc sc| od|i|eado y uc |a |ov|tae|oo dcoa sc| |aocada dc ot|a aoc|a scquo
csa od|i|eae|oo. lc|o, a oo sc| o| csta e|asc dc |ovoeae|oo, |as t||i|eae|oocs sc|ao
va|cdc|as oasta oucvo av|so y dctc||oa|ao |s aetos co |a s|tuae|oo.
tos csucas t||i|eado|cs uc |otc|v|coco co s|tuae|oocs ea|a a ea|a soo, o| su-
ucsto, |cei|oeos. L| ot|o tao|co c a|cocodc dc aoc|a t||i|eada: ooo|c, oo|tc-
ac| | eaoo , vcodcdo| , t | o s| at | eo , ct e. tas t | | i | eae| oocs dc| ot | o soo t ao
susect|o|cs a | |otc|ic|coe|a, eoo |o c|ao |as ias a |a suya. Lo ot|as a|ao|as, |os
dos csucas t||i|eado|cs cot|ao co ocqoe|ae|oo eoot|oua euaodo sc t|ata dc uoa
s|tuae|oo ea|a a ea|a . Lo |a v|da eot|d|aoa cs |ooao|c uc csta e|asc dc ocqoe|ae|oo
ucda dc o| si d|sooc|sc dc aotcaoo, dc aoc|a ti|ea, eoo co c| ti|eo |oecso dc
|cqatco cot|c e||cotcs y vcodcdo|cs. Dc ta| odo, |a ayo|ia dc |as vcecs |s coeuco-
t|os eoo |os ot|os co |a v|da eot|d|aoa soo ti|eos co uo scot|do doo|c: yo a|cocodo a|
ot|o eoo t|o y aoos |otc|aetuaos co uoa s|tuae|oo uc dc o| si cs ti|ea.
tas t||i|eae|oocs dc |a |otc|aee|oo soe|a| sc vuc|vco |oq|cs|vacotc aooo|as a cd|-
da uc sc a|cjao dc |a s|tuae|oo ea|a a ea|a. 1oda t||i|eae|oo cot|aa, o| suucsto, uo
$
aooo|ato |oe||cotc. S| yo t||i|eo a | a|qo lco|y eoo |otcq|aotc dc uoa eatcqo|ia x
(o| cjc|o, eoo uo |oq|cs,, ijs Ia |otc||cto o| |o coos a|quoos ascetos dc su
eoo|ta|coto eoo |csu|taotcs dc d|eoa t||i|eae|oo: o| cjc|o, sus qustos co |a
eo|da sc|ao ti|eos dc |os |oq|cscs, eoo |o sc|ao sus oda|cs, a|quoas dc sus |cae-
e|oocs coe|ooa|cs, y dcas. Lsto, s|o coa|qo, |||ea uc cstas ea|aetc|ist|eas y
aee|oocs dc | a|qo lco|y eo||csoodco a eua|u|c|a co |a eatcqo|ia dc| ooo|c |o-
q|cs, va|c dce||, uc cstos ascetos dc su sc| |os a|cocodo co tc||oos aooo|os. Auo
asi, co taoto | a|qo lco|y ucda |cscota|scc co |a |coa cx|cs|v|dad dc |a s|tua-
e|oo ea|a a ea|a, |||u||a eoot|ouacotc co | t||i|eae|oo dc| |oq|cs aooo|o a|a
ao|icsta|sc eoo |od|v|duo uo|eo, o| |o taoto, ati|eo, a saoc|, eoo | a|qo lco|y.
L| aooo|ato dc| t|o cs cv|dcotccotc coos susect|o|c a csta e|asc dc |od|v|dua||za-
e|oo euaodo |a |otc|aee|oo ea|a a ea|a cs eosa dc| asado (| a|qo lco|y, e iipes
uc eoooei euaodo c|a cstud|aotc,, o euaodo cs dc iodo|c suc|i|e|a| y t|aos|to||a (c|
|oq|cs eoo u|co sostuvc uoa o|cvc eoovc|sae|oo co uo t|co,, o euaodo ouoea sc oa
|odue|do (|s eoct|do|cs eoc|e|a|cs dc loq|atc||a,.
uo asceto |o|taotc dc | cxc||coe|a dc |os ot|os co |a v|da eot|d|aoa cs, o| eoos|-
qu|cotc, uc ta| cxc||coe|a sca d||ceta o |od||ceta. Lo eua|u|c| ocoto dado od|c
d|st|oqu|| cot|c |as c|sooas eoo |as uc |otc|aetuo co s|tuae|oocs ea|a a ea|a y ot|os
uc soo c|os eootco|aocos, dc u|cocs tcoqo |ceuc|dos as o coos dcta||ados o
uc eooozeo so|acotc dc oidas. Lo |as s|tuae|oocs ea|a a ea|a tcoqo cv|dcoe|a d||ce-
ta dc |s sccjaotcs, dc sus aetos, dc sus at||outos, cte. No oeu||c |o |so eoo |s
eootco|aocos: dc c||os tcoqo uo eoooe||coto as o coos i|dcd|qoo. Adcas, co
|as s|tuae|oocs ea|a a ea|a dcoo toa| co eucota a |s sccjaotcs, |cot|as uc co
|s c|os eootco|aocos ucdo cosa| s| u|c|o, c|o oo ocecsa||acotc. L| aooo|-
ato aucota a cd|da uc aso dc |os ||c|os a |os scquodos, o|uc |o aooo|o dc
|as t||i|eae|oocs o| |as uc a|cocodo a |s sccjaotcs co |as s|tuae|oocs ea|a a
ea|a sc ||coa eoostaotccotc dc |os u|t||cs siotoas viv|dos uc ataco a uo sc|
ouaoo eooe|cto.
Lsto, o| suucsto, oo cs todo. Lx|stco d|ic|coe|as oov|as co |s cxc||coe|as dc |os
c|os eootco|aocos. lay a|quoos a |os uc oc cxc||cotado uoa y ot|a vcz co
s|tuae|oocs ea|a a ea|a y csc|o vo|vc| a coeoot|a||os eoo |cqu|a||dad (| a|qo lco|y,,
a ot|os |os |ceuc|do eoo sc|cs ouaoos eooe|ctos dc uo asado coeucot|o (|a |uo|a
eoo |a uc c e|uec co |a ea||c,, c|o c| coeucot|o iuc o|cvc y eoo toda scqu||dad oo oa
$!
dc |cct||sc. Coo ot|os c suecdc ot|a eosa: sc dc su cx|stcoe|a eoo sc|cs ouaoos
eooe|ctos, c|o ucdo a|cocodc||os so|o o| cd|o dc t||i|eae|oocs as o coos
aooo|as uc sc cot|ce|uzao (|s eoct|do|cs eoc|e|a|cs |oq|cscs, |a |c|oa dc loq|a-
tc||a,. Lot|c cstos u|t|os tao|co od|ia oaec|sc |a d|st|oe|oo cot|c |ooao|cs asoe|a-
dos co s|tuae|oocs ea|a a ea|a (|s eoct|do|cs eoc|e|a|cs |oq|cscs, y asoe|ados
co otcoe|a c|o ||ooao|cs (|a |c|oa dc loq|atc||a,.
L| q|ado dc aooo|ato uc ea|aetc||za | cxc||coe|a dc |os ot|os co |a v|da eot|d|aoa
dccodc, s|o coa|qo, tao|co dc ot|o iaeto|. vco a| vcodcdo| dc d|a||os co |a csu|oa
tao |cqu|a|cotc eoo a | csosa. lc|o c| vcodcdo| oo t|coc taota |o|taoe|a a|a i
y oo tcoqo t|ato iot|o eoo c|. lucdc scqu|| s|codo a|a i |c|at|vacotc aooo|o. L|
q|ado dc |otc|cs y c| q|ado dc |ot||dad ucdco eoo|oa|sc a|a aucota| o d|s|ou|| c|
aooo|ato dc |a cxc||coe|a. 1ao|co ucdco |oi|u|||a |odccod|cotccotc. lucdo csta|
co tc||oos dc q|ao |ot||dad eoo a|quoos soe|os dc | e|uo y co tc||oos uy io|a|cs
eoo | at|oo. S|o coa|qo, |os ||c|os, auo euaodo a|a i oo soo eo|ctacotc
aooo|os, ucdco |csu||sc co csa oa||a dc| e|uo, |cot|as uc c| scquodo sc dcsta-
ea eoo uo |od|v|duo uo|eo. Y o| u|t|o, c| aooo|ato ucdc ||cqa| a sc| eas| tota| co c|
easo dc e|c|tas t||i|eae|oocs uc ouoea sc |ctcodc |od|v|dua||za|, eoo co c| easo dc|
ti|eo |ceto| dc| 1|cs dc tood|cs. l|oa|cotc, c| a|eaoec dc |a t||i|eae|oo y o|
codc su aooo|ato ucdc scqu|| aucotaodo a| oao|a| dc |a o|o|oo uo||ea |oq|csa.
ta |ca||dad soe|a| dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa cs, ucs, a|cocod|da co uo iii::n dc t||i|ea-
e|oocs uc sc vuc|vco |oq|cs|vacotc aooo|as a cd|da uc sc a|cjao dc| aui y
aoo|a dc |a s|tuae|oo ea|a a ea|a. Lo uo o|o dc| iii::n cstao csos ot|os eoo
u|cocs c t|ato a coudo c |otc|aetuo |otcosacotc co s|tuae|oocs ea|a a ea|a, |
ei|eu|o iot|o, d||iaos. Lo c| ot|o o|o oay aost|aee|oocs suacotc aooo|as, uc
o| su |sa oatu|a|cza ouoea ucdco sc| aeecs|o|cs co |a |otc|aee|oo ea|a a ea|a. ta
cst|uetu|a soe|a| cs |a sua tota| dc cstas t||i|eae|oocs y dc |as autas |ceu||cotcs dc
|otc|aee|oo cstao|ce|das o| |otc|cd|o dc c||as. Lo csc ea|aetc|, |a cst|uetu|a soe|a| cs
uo c|ccoto cscoe|a| dc |a |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|aoa.
lod|iaos aq|cqa| aui ot|o uoto as, auouc s|o ayo| c|aoo|ae|oo. V|s |c|ae|oocs
eoo ot|os oo sc |||tao a asoe|ados y eootco|aocos. 1ao|co sc |ci|c|co a |s aotc-
ecso|cs y suecso|cs, a |os uc c oao |cecd|do y c suecdc|ao co |a o|sto||a tota| dc
| soe|cdad. Coo cxece|oo dc |os uc iuc|oo |s asoe|ados co c| asado (| d|iuoto
$"
a|qo lco|y,, c |c|ae|ooo eoo |s aotcecso|cs cd|aotc t||i|eae|oocs suacotc
aooo|as: |s o|saouc|os |o|q|aotcs y auo as, |os lad|cs dc |a lat||a. V|s suec-
so|cs, o| |azoocs eo|cos|o|cs, sc t||i|eao dc aoc|a todavia as aooo|a: |os
o|jos dc |s o|jos, o |as qcoc|ae|oocs iutu|as. Lstas u|t|as t||i|eae|oocs soo |oyce-
e | oocs s uos t aoe | a| cot c v ae i as , e as | dcs | ov | s t as o| e o | ct o dc e oot co| do
|od|v|dua||zado, |cot|as uc |as t||i|eae|oocs dc aotcecso|cs t|coco a| coos uo e|c|to
eootco|do dc csa iodo|c, s| o|co suacotc it|eo. L| aooo|ato dc csos dos q|uos dc
t||i|eae|oocs, s|o coa|qo, oo ||dc uc io|co a|tc dc |a |ca||dad dc |a v|da eot|d|a-
oa, a vcecs dc aoc|a uy dce|s|va. Dcsucs dc todo, ucdo sae||i|ea| | v|da o|
|ca|tad a |os lad|cs dc |a lat||a, o, ||cqado c| easo, co |o dc |as qcoc|ae|oocs iutu|as.
$#
Lectura comp|ementar|a N s
Tomada de: Anthony Giddens. Las nuevas reglas del mtodo sociolgico.
Buenos Aires: Amorrortu, 1987, pgs. 95-119.
La producc|on y reproducc|on de |a v|da aoc|a|
Orden, poder, cont||cto. Durkhe|m y araona
L| t|ata|coto dc Du|soc| dc |a cxtc||o||dad dc |os oceoos soe|a|cs y |a eoc|e|oo uc
cjc|eco soo|c |a eoodueta dc |os aeto|cs coea|oa|oo uo |otcoto dc |ovcc| uoa tco|ia
soo|c |a |c|ae|oo cot|c |a aee|oo y |as |o|cdadcs dc |as eo|cet|v|dadcs soe|a|cs. Cuao-
do |ot|odujo o| ||c|a vcz |as ooe|oocs dc cxtc||o||dad y eoc|e|oo, co Les repes ue a
neiue sipi:e, Du|soc| o|t|o sca|a| c| scot|do ooto|oq|eo co c| uc c| uodo
iis| eo t| coc uoa cx| stcoe| a | odccod| cotc dc| suj cto eoqoosecotc, y ucdc | oi| u| |
eausa|cotc soo|c su eoodueta, dc |as |o|cdadcs eoc|e|t|vas dc |a o|qao|zae|oo so-
e|a|. Vas ta|dc, s|o coa|qo, ||cqo a e|a||i|ea| c| suucsto, uc dc todos odos ya
cstaoa iuc|tccotc dcsa||o||ado auo co sus ||c|is|os cse||tos, uc |os icoocoos
soe|a|cs soo, co su |sa cscoe|a, icoocoos nraes: |as saoe|oocs ut|||ta||as, uc
|oi|uyco soo|c |a eoodueta ouaoa dc uoa aoc|a ceao|ea, soo d|st|oqu|das dc |as
saoe|oocs o|a|cs, euyo eootco|do cs csce|i|eo dc| uo|vc|so o|a| a| uc v|oeu|ao |a
isieie eive, y ||cqo a sostcoc| uc |a adocs|oo a |os |dca|cs o|a|cs oo cs
c|acotc eoc|e|t|va co uo scot|do s||c, s|oo uc cs |a I:eie |sa dc |a eoodueta
|otcoe|ooa|. Lo cstc u|t|o scot|do, sc cstao|cec uoa t|||c eoocx|oo: sia-nra-iiei-
iia. Lsta cs |a e|avc a|a |a soe|o|oqia dc Du|soc|, auouc c|aocec eooiuod|da
eoo uoa tcodcoe|a a vc| a|quoos |oos|tos eoo s| iuc|ao cqoecot||eos, oasados co
|u|sos o|qao|eos y |cs|stcotcs a |a |oeo|o|ae|oo a| uo|vc|so soe|a| dc |os |c|at|vos
o|a|cs. lc|o |a |dca dc uc |os |oos|tos ucdco sc| eoos|dc|ados eoo va|o|cs
|ot|oycetados oo cs co odo a|quoo cxe|us|va dc |os cse||tos dc Du|soc|, o| c| eoo-
t|a||o, aa|cec co ueois|os s|t|os d|ic|cotcs, y a coudo co |as oo|as dc auc||os
$$
euyas |dcas soo co aa||coe|a uy d|st|otas dc |as dc Du|soc|, y, co vc|dad, d||cetacotc
oucstas. tos ax|oas ecot|a|cs |ovo|ue|ados ucdco cx|csa|sc eoo s|quc. L| uo-
do soe|a| csta d|ic|coe|ado dc| uodo dc |a oatu|a|cza cscoe|a|cotc o| su ea|aetc|
o|a| (oo|at|vo,. Lsta cs |a vc|dadc|a d|syuoe|oo |ad|ea|, o|uc |os |c|at|vos
o|a|cs oo cstao co |c|ae|oo dc s|ct|ia eoo |os dc |a oatu|a|cza y, o| eoos|qu|cotc, co
odo a|quoo ucdco sc| dc||vados dc cstos, |a aee|oo, sc dce|a|a, cotooecs, ucdc
sc| eoos|dc|ada eoo uoa eoodueta uc csta o||cotada oae|a oo|as o eoovcoe|oocs.
Lstc tco|ca ucdc eoodue|| cotooecs o| d||cee|oocs d|vc|qcotcs, dccod|codo dc uc
c| aoa||s|s sc eooecot|c co |os |oos|tos o ot|vos dc| aeto|, o uc sc ooqa c| aecoto,
eoo |o oaec Du|soc|, co |as oo|as |sas eoo |o|cdadcs dc |as eo|cet|v|dadcs.
tos i||osoios osW|ttqcostc|o|aoos oao scqu|do |ocv|tao|ccotc |a ||c|a dc cstas |u-
tas, aoo|daodo c| cstud|o dc |a eoodueta |otcoe|ooa| o| |a via dc as|||a| |a eoodueta
s|qo|i|eat|va eoo |a qooc|oada o| |cq|as, y dcjao s|o cx||ea| |os o|iqcocs dc |as
|cq|as a |as uc sc |ci|c|co (a |a a| uc |qoo|ao su ea|aetc| dc saiiiauas). L| |so
eu|so s|qu|c|oo ot|os ouc|osos cse||to|cs |ce|cotcs, u|cocs, auouc oo soo i||osoios,
iuc|oo |oi|u|dos o| |as |dcas dc |os scqu|do|cs dce|a|ados dc w|ttqcostc|o. Asi, co uoo
dc ta|cs tcxtos, sc oos d|ec: tos ot|vos jeoo |o uc c| auto| sc |ci|c|c a |o uc co |
tc||oo|oqia soo |os |oos|tos[ soo uoa aoc|a o| |a uc uo oosc|vado| ucdc as|q-
oa| |c|cvaoe|a a uoa eoodueta eoo c| i|o dc uc ucda sc| |ceoooe|da eoo uo easo dc
aii rueiaua irnaivaiieie, o dc oucvo, c| ot|vo cs uoa |cq|a uc dcse||oc c|
ea|aetc| soe|a| dc| aeto |so.
Ya oc |od|eado a|quoos dc |os dcicetos |ooc|cotcs a cstc t|o dc |azooa|coto y cs
adceuado, co cstc uoto, t|ata| dc |c|ae|ooa||os eoo |as dco|||dadcs |ovo|ue|adas co
auc| uc cs oo|oa|cotc su eoot|a||o: o sca c| |oucsto o| Du|soc|, y scqu|do
ostc||o|cotc co ascetos |o|taotcs o| la|soos. ta dcuda dc la|soos eoo Du|soc|
co |a io|u|ae|oo dc su a|eo dc |cic|coe|a dc |a aee|oo cs cx|ie|ta y |ceoooe|da. L|
tca ||oe|a| dc 1ie Sr::re I Sia 4ii cs c| dc uoa |oaocotc eoovc|qcoe|a dc|
cosa|coto cot|c A|i|cd Va|soa||, la|cto, Du|soc| y wcoc|. la|soos d|se|c|oc uo
a|a|c|o cot|c |a eoos|dc|ae|oo dc wcoc| dc |a aee|oo y |a |coeuae|oo dc Du|soc| o|
|a oo||qae|oo o|a| (|otc||o||zada, uc a||ea a|a |ovcc| uoa |cso|ue|oo qcoc|a| a| |o-
o|ca dc| o|dco dc looocs. ta aoc|a co uc la|soos |aotca y |oeu|a |cso|vc| cstc
|oo|ca oooocs|aoo t|coc dos q|uos dc eoosceucoe|as ||oe|a|cs euyas |||-
eae|oocs u|c|o aoa||za|, uc |ovo|ue|ao: 1, |a tcs|s dc uc c| vo|uota||so ucdc sc|
$%
|oeo|o|ado a |a tco|ia soe|a| cd|aotc c| ax|oa dc uc |os va|o|cs io|ao a |a vcz |os
eooocotcs ot|vae|ooa|cs dc |a aee|oo y |os c|ccotos ecot|a|cs dc| iseis :ii-
versa, uc cs |a eood|e|oo dc |a cstao|||dad soe|a|, z, c| suucsto dc uc c| eooi||eto dc
|otc|cscs co |a v|da soe|a| csta ecot|ado co |a |c|ae|oo cot|c c| |od|v|duo (aeto| aost|ae-
to, y |a soe|cdad (eouo|dad soe|a| q|ooa|,, uo uoto dc a|t|da uc eooduec, eoo
oeu|||o eoo Du|soc|, d||cetacotc a |a |dca dc uc c| d|scoso (e||co, |coc||oo, |cvo|u-
e|oo, oa dc sc| eooectua||zado eoo dcsv|ae|oo, y v|sto eoo uoa ia|ta dc eo|o|-
so ot|vae|ooa| eoo |as oo|as eooscosua|cs.
B| vo|untar|amo
ta oo|a |o|e|a| dc la|soos cstuvo d|||q|da a |ceooe|||a| c| vo|uota||so suucstacotc
|ooc|cotc a| coiouc ctodo|oq|eo dc wcoc| (y, dcsdc uo aoqu|o d|ic|cotc, aot|e|ado
o| la|cto, eoo |a |dca dc |a cx|qcoe|a iuoe|ooa| dc| eooscoso o|a|. ta ooe|oo dc va-
|o|, ta| eoo csta |c|cscotada co |os cse||tos dc la|soos, dcscca uo ac| tao
ea|ta| co c| a|eo dc |cic|coe|a dc |a aee|oo o|uc cs c| eooecto oas|eo uc v|oeu|a
|as d|sos|e|oocs dc ocecs|dad dc |a c|sooa||dad (va|o|cs |ot|oycetados, y (o| |a via dc
|as cxcetat|vas dc |o| oo|at|vas co c| o|vc| dc| s|stca soe|a|, c| eooscoso eu|tu|a|.
uo s|stca eooe|cto dc aee|oo, d|ec la|soos, cs uoa cst|uetu|a |otcq|ada dc c|c-
cotos dc aee|oo co |c|ae|oo eoo uoa s|tuae|oo. Ls sipiiIia eseiianeie :ia iie-
praii ue eeneis nivaiiaes y ::raes siniis, |cuo|dos co uo e|c|to
t|o dc s|stca o|dcoado. uoa vcz uc sc a|ce|a |a s|qo|i|eae|oo dc csta ai||ae|oo, oo
cs d|iie|| vc| o| uc, eoo oao sca|ado a|quoos, c| vo|uota||so uc sc ooc dc
|c||cvc co c| t|aoajo |o|e|a| dc la|soos, 1ie Sr::re I Sia 4ii, a|cec csta|
c|||oado dc su os|e|oo adu|a, ta| eoo sc |a dcse||oc co 1ie Sia Sysen y co
cse||tos ostc||o|cs. Coo |o |c|cscota la|soos co su ||c| t|aoajo, c| vo|uota||so
cs eoot|aucsto a| os|t|v|so, |ovo|ue|aodo cstc u|t|o io|as dc tco|ia soe|a| dc|
s|q|o xlx uc |oeu|aoao cv|ta| toda |cic|coe|a a| sujcto aetuaotc eoo aeto| o|a|,
|cot|as uc c| ||c|o aoa|ea auc||as co |as uc c| sujcto aetuaotc cs eo|oeado co
||c| |aoo. L| uso dc| tc||oo vo|uota||so suq|c|c uc la|soos u|so t|ata| dc eoos-
t|u|| dcot|o dc su |o|o coiouc uoa eooece|oo dc| aeto| eoo aqcotc e|cat|vo c |ooo-
vado|, ouseaodo asi |oc| eoo |os csucas co |os uc |a eoodueta ouaoa oo cs
d|ic|coe|ada eooectua|cotc dc |a cx||eae|oo dc| ov||coto dc |os oojctos co |a oa-
tu|a|cza. la|a la|soos, |os |sis|os va|o|cs uc eoooco c| iseis:s :iiverse,
$&
co euaoto |ot|oycetados o| |os aeto|cs, soo |os c|ccotos ot|vae|ooa|cs dc |a c|so-
oa||dad. S| cstos soo |os |sos va|o|cs, s|o coa|qo, _uc iuodacoto ucdc ucda|
a|a c| ea|aetc| e|cat|vo dc |a aee|oo ouaoa ta| eoo |a |csuooc oo|oa|cotc c|
tc||oo vo|uota||so? la|soos |otc||cta cstc u|t|o eooecto eoo |cic|coe|a s||c-
cotc a |os c|ccotos dc ea|aetc| oo|at|vo, a iierau ue s:je a:aie se reu:e
eiies y n:y araneie ei a er:a nau:ra ue Iarsis a as uisjsiiies ue
ieesiuau ue a jersiaiuau. Lo c| a|eo dc |cic|coe|a dc |a aee|oo, |a aee|oo co si
cot|a co c| a|eo so|o dcot|o dc| eootcxto dc uo coias|s co uc |as cx||eae|oocs soe|o-
|oq|eas dc |a eoodueta ocecs|tao sc| eo|ccotadas eoo cx||eae|oocs s|eo|oq|eas
dc |os ceao|sos dc |a c|sooa||dad, c| s|stca cs cotc|acotc dctc||o|sta. Asi
eo|oo oo oay csae|o aui a|a |a eaae|dad e|cat|va dc| sujcto co c| o|vc| dc| aeto|, oay
uoa iucotc |o|taotc dc d|i|eu|tadcs euaodo sc t|ata dc cx||ea| |os o|iqcocs dc |a
t|aosio|ae|oo dc |os e||tc||os dc va|o| |ost|tue|ooa||zados co si, uo |oo|ca uc c|
s|stca dc |a tco|ia dc la|soos (y |a dc Du|soc|, eoa|tc eoo |as |dcas dc w|oeo,
uc co ot|o scot|do soo uy d|ic|cotcs, soo|c |a i||osoiia dc |a aee|oo, ucsto uc aoas
t|coco uc t|ata| |os e||tc||os dc va|o| (|cq|as, eoo dados.
B| |nd|v|duo en aoc|edad
ta |cso|ue|oo dc la|soos dc| |oo|ca dc| o|dco t|coc co eucota, o| suucsto, |a cx|stco-
e|a dc tcos|oocs y eooi||etos co |a v|da soe|a|. Lstas dc||vao dc t|cs eoojuotos os|o|cs dc
e||euostaoe|as, eada uoo dc |os eua|cs csta ecot|ado co e|c|to scot|do co |a ooe|oo dc
ainia, uc cs iuodacota| co c| cosa|coto dc la|soos eoo |o iuc co c| dc Du|soc|.
uoo dc c||os csta dado o| |a auscoe|a dc e||tc||os dc va|o| oo||qato||os co a|quoa csic|a
dc |a v|da soe|a|, c| scquodo suooc uoa ia|ta dc a|t|eu|ae|oo, eoo |o sca|a la|soos,
cot|c |as d|sos|e|oocs dc ocecs|dad dc |os aeto|cs y uoa auta dc o||cotae|oo dc va|o|cs
dada, c| tc|ec|o sc vc||i|ea euaodo |os c|ccotos eood|e|ooa|cs dc |a aee|oo, ta| eoo |os
c|e|oc c| aeto|, soo csce|i|eados c||oocacotc. Sc oa d|eoo eoo oastaotc i|ceucoe|a
uc c| csuca tco||eo dc la|soos oo oi|cec |uqa| a|a |os eooi||etos dc |otc|cscs. Dc
oceoo, su |so uoto dc a|t|da cs |a cx|stcoe|a dc| eooi||eto dc |otc|cscs, ucsto uc c|
tco|ca dc |a |otcq|ae|oo dc |oos|tos y va|o|cs cs |a oasc ||oe|a| dc su |oucsta
|cso|ue|oo dc| |oo|ca dc| o|dco dc looocs, dci|o|do |ce|sacotc co iuoe|oo dc |a
eooe|||ae|oo dc |otc|cscs d|vc|sos y d|vc|qcotcs. lc sustcotado co a|quoa a|tc uc c|
|oo|ca oooocs|aoo oo t|coc |a |o|taoe|a co |a o|sto||a dc| cosa|coto soe|a| uc
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la|soos |ctcod|o as|qoa||c, c|o cs |o|taotc cxa|oa| aui sus dco|||dadcs aoa|it|eas.
ta eucst|oo oo cs uc c| s|stca dc la|soos (y c| dc Du|soc|, oo oto|qao ac| a|quoo a|
eooi||eto dc |otc|cscs, s|oo uc oi|ceco uoa tco|ia csceii|ea, y dcicetuosa, soo|c c|, dc
aeuc|do eoo |a eua| c| eoouc dc |otc|cscs cx|stc co taoto uo o|dco soe|a| oo cs eaaz dc
oc|aoa| |os |oos|tos dc |os d|vc|sos |co|os dc uoa eo|cet|v|dad eoo |a |otcq|ae|oo
dc at|oocs dc va|o| co uo eooscoso |otc|oacotc s|ct||eo, y so|o co csta cd|da. L|
eooi||eto dc |otc|cscs, scquo csta eooece|oo, ouoea ||cqa a sc| a|qo as uc uo eoouc
cot|c |os |oos|tos dc |os aeto|cs |od|v|dua|cs y |os |otc|cscs dc |a eo|cet|v|dad. Lo ta|
c|scet|va, c| odc| oo ucdc ||cqa| a sc| t|atado eoo uo eooocotc |oo|cat|eo dc
|os |otc|cscs dc q|uos d|vc|qcotcs eo|o||zados co |a aee|oo soe|a|, ucsto uc c|
cot|c|aza|coto dc |otc|cscs cs eoos|dc|ado ||c|o y aotc todo eoo uo |oo|ca dc |a
|c|ae|oo cot|c c| |od|v|duo y |a soe|cdad.
Dcsdc cstc uoto dc v|sta, |as |dcas dc Du|soc| soo, dc oceoo, a|a o|co o a|a a|,
ueoo as eo|cjas uc |as coea|oadas co 1ie Sia Sysen, o| |o coos co uo
|o|taotc scot|do. Ls dce||, Du|soc| sostcoia uc oay dos odos ||a||os co |os
eua|cs |os |otc|cscs dc |os aeto|cs ucdco ||cva||os a d|vc|qcoe|as |csceto dc |os |c-
|at|vos o|a|cs dc |a isieie eive, auouc oo a|eaozo a cse|a|cec| eaoa|cotc
|a |c|ae|oo dc cstos co su cosa|coto: uoo csta oasado co |o |oc||ad|eao|c dc |os
|u|sos cqoecot||eos, o|qao|eacotc dados, uc soo eooeco|dos co tcos|oo eoostaotc
eoo |as dcaodas o|a|cs dc |a soe|cdad, o c| scqcoto soe|a||zado dc |a c|sooa||dad
dua||sta dc| aeto|, c| ot|o cs c| csuca ia|||a| dc |a ia|ta aoo|ea dc eoojuoe|oo dc |os
|oos|tos dc |os aeto|cs eoo |as oo|as o|a|cs cstao|ce|das. L| t|ata|coto dc Du|soc|
dc |a aoo|a c||tc v|s|uo|a| uoa os|o|||dad dc |ceoooe||coto eooectua| dc| eoo-
i||eto dc |otc|cscs uc dc||va dc |os eooucs cot|c q|uos ueir ue a sieuau, co
euaoto |a dc||cqu|ae|oo aoo|ea cs dcse||ta eoo s| dc||va|a dc uoa s|tuae|oo co |a
uc |os aeto|cs t|coco as||ae|oocs dci|o|das uc, dada |a o|qao|zae|oo cx|stcotc dc |a
soe|cdad, oo soo |ca||zao|cs (uo ea|oo dcsa||o||ado ostc||o|cotc o| Vc|too, y oo
dc uoa s|tuae|oo co |a eua| oay uo vaeio o|a|, uoa auscoe|a dc oo|as o|a|cs oo||qa-
to||as |csceto dc |as aee|oocs. lc|o csta os|o|||dad, uc od|ia oaoc| s|do v|oeu|ada
eoo c| aoa||s|s dc |o uc Du|soc| coe|ooo eoo |a d|v|s|oo io|zada dc| t|aoajo, y dc
cstc odo eoo c| aoa||s|s dc| eooi||eto dc e|ascs, ucdo |ocx|o|ada co q|ao a|tc co |os
cse||tos dc Du|soc|, y sc |c|dc dc v|sta dc| todo co c| csuca tco||eo dc la|soos,
ucsto uc cstc dci|oc |a aoo|a eoo |a aotitcs|s o|a| dc |a |ost|tue|ooa||zae|oo |c-
%
oa, o |a eo|cta |utu|a dc| o|dco oo|at|vo. Auouc |a |otc||ctae|oo dc la|soos dc
|a |ioca dc cosa|coto dc Du|soc| oi|ce|da co 1ie Sr::re I Sia 4ii cs a |
ju|e|o cotc|acotc coqaosa, c| coias|s a|||oa sca|ado v|oeu|a |odudao|ccotc |a oo|a
dc Du|soc| eoo |a dc| ||c|o, uo|i|eaodo dc cstc odo |a t|ad|e|oo do|oaotc co |a
soe|o|oqia aeadc|ea. L| |oo|ca dc| o|dco dcsdc cstc aoqu|o dccodc dc |a ecot|a||dad
dc uoa tcos|oo uc sc eooe|oc cx|stcotc cot|c c| cqoiso y c| a|t|u|so, co |a tc||-
oo|oqia dc Du|soc|: uo |oo|ca uc sc |ci|c|c a |a |ceooe|||ae|oo dc |os |otc|cscs dc
|os aeto|cs |od|v|dua|cs eoo |a o|a||dad soe|a|, |a isieie eive o c| s|stca
eouo dc va|o|cs. Dada ta| o||cotae|oo a |a tco|ia soe|a|, cs |os|o|c oaec| uo |ceooo-
e||coto eooectua| sat|siaeto||o dc |a d|vc|s|i|eae|oo dc |otc|cscs co |a soe|cdad uc sc
|oduec cot|c |as aee|oocs dc sus |co|os y |a cst|uetu|a su|ca dc |a eouo|dad
q|ooa|, dc |os eooi||etos uc sc ai||ao cot|c auc||os, o |as a||ocae|oocs dc odc| eoo
|as uc cstao cot|c|azadas.
ta |otc||ctae|oo ea|aetc|ist|ea dc| o|dco eoo eooscoso o|a| aa|cec uy tc|a-
oacotc co |a oo|a dc la|soos, y cs at||ou|da a wcoc| eoo as||so a Du|soc|. Asi,
a| eocota| su t|aduee|oo dc| aoa||s|s dc wcoc| dc| o|dco |cqit|o ,Drui:ip), la|soos
sca|a: Ls cv|dcotc uc o| o|dco wcoc| cot|codc aui uo s|stca irnaiv. L|
at|oo a|a c| eooecto dc o|dco oo cs, eoo co |a |cy dc |a q|avcdad, c| o|dco dc |a
oatu|a|cza... S| wcoc| |o cotcodia asi o oo, c| |oo|ca dc| o|dco a|a la|soos cs
e|c|tacotc c| dc uoa |cqu|ae|oo oo|at|va, uo |oo|ca dc ir. L| aec|t|jo a|a c|
uc |as io|u|ae|oocs dc la|soos sc oi|ceco eoo uoa so|ue|oo oo cs cu|va|cotc co su
qcoc|a||dad a |a iaosa |cquota dc S|c|: _Coo cs os|o|c |a soe|cdad?, uc
|ct|coc su s|qo|i|eado s| |a |cscotae|oo dc la|soos dc| |oo|ca dc| o|dco sc aoaodo-
oa, eoo sostcoqo uc dcoc sc|. S| c| tc||oo o|dco oa dc usa|sc, a | ju|e|o, dcoc|ia
toa|sc c| scot|do uc csta ||ie|to co |os eocota||os dc la|soos soo|c wcoc| co-
e|ooados as a|||oa, co euaoto uc co si |so csc tc||oo cs |oa|o|ado a|a |a
e|coe|a soe|a|, cs dce||, eoo uo vaqo s|ooo|o dc at|oo o |a aotitcs|s dc eaos.
Orden, poder, cont||cto. uarx
A| ousea| uoa a|tc|oat|va a|a cstc t|o dc tco|ia, uoo t|codc a d|||q||sc a| a|x|so, eoo
su aa|cotccotc uo|eua |os|stcoe|a co c| |oecso, c| eooi||eto y c| eao|o. Lsto cs
justacotc |o uc a|quoos oao oceoo, |oe|uso Dao|codo|i, toesWood, cx y ot|os, t|a-
taodo dc eo|ccota| |dcas toadas dc| s|stca tco||eo dc la|soos eoo ||oe||os
%
cxt|aidos, suucstacotc o| |o coos, dc Va|x. tas |dcas uc ta|cs auto|cs dcicod|c-
|oo d|i|c|co co sustaoe|a. Asi, Dao|codo|i suq|||o uoa vcz uc |a tco|ia dc| eooscoso y
|a tco|ia dc |a eoc|e|oo |c|cscotao odos a|tc|oat|vos dc coiouc uc od|iao a||ea|-
sc a d|st|otas eatcqo|ias dc |oo|cas eooe|ctos, s|codo c| uoo as a|o|ado a|a
||u|oa| a|quoas csce|cs dc eucst|oocs ci||eas, y as a|o|ado c| scquodo a|a
ot|as. Lsta |dca scqu|acotc oo |cu|c|c ayo|cs |ciutae|oocs. lucsto uc |a tco|ia
dc| eooscoso y |a tco|ia dc |a eoc|e|oo oi|ceco |otc||ctae|oocs d|vc|qcotcs dc eua|-
u|c| atc||a| dado, cstas t|coco uc sc| eoos|dc|adas eoo cx||eae|oocs tco||eas
||va|cs y oo eoo eo|ccota||as. S|o coa|qo, eas| todos |os auto|cs oao suucsto
uc aotcs uc a|tc|oat|vas uc dcoco aotcoc|sc d|st|otas, sc t|ata as o|co dc c|s-
cet|vas eo|ccota||as uc, s| sc |as |cuoc dc a|quoa aoc|a, |csc|va|ao a |a vcz
|as v||tudcs, uc c||os coeucot|ao co |os cse||tos dc la|soos, y a| |so t|co oi|cec-
|ao uo eo||cet|vo a|a sus dcicetos. Lo su ayo|ia, s|o coa|qo, eoo o|zo Dao|codo|i,
oao aectado |a io|u|ae|oo a|soo|aoa dc| |oo|ca dc| o|dco, a|qucotado c|a-
cotc uc |a so|ue|oo |oucsta o| la|soos, |a |otc||ctae|oo dc |os va|o|cs eoosco-
sua|cs soe|a|cotc o|qao|zados y |os ot|vos dc |os aeto|cs, dcoc|iao sc| iuod|dos eoo
c| voeaou|a||o eooectua| dc| odc|. lc|o c| odo co uc csto dcoc oaec|sc c|aoc-
ec oseu|o, y a | ju|e|o dcoc sc| asi, o|uc csc t|o dc e|it|ea dc |as |dcas dc la|soos
oo aoooda |o sui|e|cotc. lod|ia sca|a|sc uc |os c|ccotos uc |os auto|cs a|||oa co-
e|ooados toao dc| a|x|so soo so|acotc io|a|cs (auouc a|quoos, co a|t|eu|a|
toesWood y cx, |ci|c|co |coota| su qcoca|oqia a wcoc| aotcs uc a Va|x,, |ovo|ue|aodo
uoa aecotuae|oo aost|aeta dc |as ooe|oocs dc odc|, eooi||eto, cte., oo uo eo|o|-
so eoo |a cst|uetu|a q|ooa| dc |a tco|ia a|x|sta, o auo eoo c| eooecto dc |a |ueoa dc
e|ascs co su io|a e|as|ea. Vas a|t|eu|a|cotc, a| t|ata| dc cstao|cec| a|quoa eoocx|oo
cot|c c| a|x|so y |as |dcas dc la|soos, oo oaeco c| coo| |otcoto dc ||a| oae|a c|
coias|s ooto|oq|eo dc| ||c|o co c| ooo|c n jru:r, eoo e|cado|, coias|s uc
csta co |iq|do y d|aat|eo eoot|astc eoo |a iase|oae|oo dc la|soos eoo c| |oo|ca dc|
o|dco. Lsto u|za oo sca so||codcotc, o|uc c| oceoo cs uc oay oeos ocxos e|a|a-
cotc cstao|ce|dos co |os |o|os cse||tos dc Va|x cot|c |a eooece|oo dc| ooo|c
soe|a| eoo in Iaier, uc io|a c| ioodo qcoc|a| dc su tco|ia dc |a o|sto||a, y |os
aoa||s|s as csceii|eos uc oi|ce|o dc |as io|ae|oocs y eooi||etos dc e|asc.
Lo e|c|to q|ado, csto ucdc eoos|dc|a|sc eoo uoa cx|cs|oo dc| ea|aetc| |oeooe|uso dc
|a oo|a dc Va|x, ya uc c| |oq|aa uc iuc dc||ocado co sus cse||tos ||c|os, y soo|c
todo co |os Mai:sris ue !a, ouoea ||cqo a eu|||sc. L ajia, a csa| dc su
%
eoos|dc|ao|c cxtcos|oo, so|o a|ea |a ||c|a iasc dc uoa c|csa uc Va|x |aoco co
su juvcotud. tas d|i|eu|tadcs a |as uc csto d|o o||qco a| cstao|cec| |a eoot|ou|dad cot|c
|as oo|as juvco||cs y adu|as dc Va|x soo o|co eoooe|das y oo oaec ia|ta eocota||as
aui. lc|o c| dcoatc soo|c |a |c|ae|oo dc |a ooe|oo dc a||coae|oo y ot|as |dcas |ot|odue|-
das co |os cse||tos juvco||cs dc Va|x eoo su cosa|coto ostc||o| oa s|do ||oe|a|-
cotc cseo|ast|eo, o sca uc sc oa eooecot|ado co |a cxcqcs|s aotcs uc co c| aoa||s|s,
y oa dcjado co q|ao a|tc |otaetos |os |oo|cas sustaoe|a|cs dc |a cst|uetu|a tco||ea dc|
atc||a||so o|sto||eo. Lo cstc uoto oo dcsco |cic|||c a c||os s|oo co euaoto sc |c|a-
e|ooao eoo |o uc d|jc as a|||oa. lucdco d|st|oqu||sc dos io|as dc |c|ae|oo d|a|cet|ea
co c| ov||coto dc |a o|sto||a co |os cse||tos dc Va|x. uoa cs |a d|a|cet|ea cot|c |a
ouao|dad y |a oatu|a|cza, |a ot|a cs |a d|a|cet|ea dc |as e|ascs. Aoas cstao v|oeu|a-
das eoo |a t|aosio|ae|oo dc |a o|sto||a y |a eu|tu|a. tos sc|cs ouaoos, a d|ic|coe|a dc
|os ao|a|cs |oic||o|cs, oo soo eaaecs dc cx|st|| co uo cstado dc c|a adatae|oo a|
uodo atc||a|. L| oceoo dc uc oo oscao uo aa|ato |oqco|to dc |csucstas |ost|ot|-
vas |os iuc|za a uo jucqo |cei|oeo e|cat|vo eoo su ao|cotc, dc odo uc t|coco uc
|oeu|a| c| do|o|o dc su coto|oo aotcs uc adata|sc s||ccotc a c| eoo a|qo dado:
dc cstc odo, |os sc|cs ouaoos sc od|i|eao a si |sos cd|aotc c| eao|o dc|
uodo uc |os |odca co uo |oecso eoot|ouo y |cei|oeo. lc|o csta aot|oo|oqia i||oso-
i|ea qcoc|a| (uc oo iuc o||q|oa| dc Va|x y uc co |a io|a co uc iuc cxucsta co |os
||c|os cse||tos co a|t|eu|a| oaec oeo as uc |ojc|ta| |a |ovc|s|oo icuc|oaeo|aoa
co c| csuca dc lcqc|, sc aot|coc |atcotc co |as oo|as suos|qu|cotcs dc Va|x (eoo |a
cxece|oo a|e|a| dc |as Cr:iurisse, doodc |a |cc|aoo|ae|oo dc cstas |dcas cs auo i|aq-
cota||a,. Lo eoosceucoe|a, cs oeo |o uc sc ucdc coeoot|a| co Va|x co |a io|a dc
uo aoa||s|s s|stcat|eo o c|aoo|ae|oo dc |a ooe|oo oas|ea dc |a jrais. la||aos ai||-
ae|oocs ta|cs eoo csta: ta eooe|coe|a cs... dcsdc su |so eo|cozo uo |odueto
soe|a|, y s|quc s|codo|o co taoto |os ooo|cs cx|stco, y, as csceii|eacotc: L|
|coquajc cs tao aot|quo eoo |a eooe|coe|a, c| |coquajc es |a eooe|coe|a |aet|ea uc
cx|stc tao|co a|a |os ot|os ooo|cs... c| |coquajc, eoo |a eooe|coe|a, so|o su|qc dc
|a ocecs|dad, dc| |otc|eao|o eoo ot|os ooo|cs. lc|o aotcs uc cx|o|a| |as eoosc-
eucoe|as dc ta|cs |oos|e|oocs, Va|x cstaoa |otc|csado o| ||oe||o co avaoza| d||ce-
tacotc oae|a |a ta|ca dc |otc||cta| o|sto||eacotc c| dcsa||o||o dc t|os a|t|eu|a|cs dc
soe|cdad o| |a via dc |os eooectos dc odos dc |oduee|oo, d|v|s|oo dc| t|aoajo, |o-
|cdad ||vada y e|ascs, eooecot|aodosc, o| suucsto, co |a e|it|ea dc |a ceoooia
o|it|ea y |a t|asio|ae|oo otat|va dc| ea|ta||so o| c| soe|a||so.
%!
L| uso dc Va|x dc |os eooectos suucstacotc |ovo|ue|ados co |a tco|ia dc |a eoc|e|oo
|otc|cs atc||a|, eooi||eto y odc| csta c|aoo|ado co cstc eootcxto, y |ci|cja a|quoas dc
|as ao|qucdadcs dc |os |ceu|sos |otc|cetua|cs dc |os uc iuc|oo toados. Ls oastaotc
cv|dcotc uc, dcot|o dc |a cst|uetu|a dc| ea|ta||so, |as dos e|ascs ||oe|a|cs, c| ea|ta|
y c| t|aoajo asa|a||ado, t|coco |otc|cscs d|vc|qcotcs (taoto co c| scot|do cst|ceoo dc |a
a|o|ae|oo dc |as ut|||dadcs ceooo|eas eoo co c| scot|do as |oiuodo co c| uc |os
|otc|cscs dc |a e|asc t|aoajado|a |oucvco |a |oe||cotc |ca||zae|oo dc| t|aoajo soe|a||za-
do, eooeaodo eoo |a dcicosa at||oeoc|ada dc |a |o|cdad ||vada o| a|tc dc |a e|asc
do|oaotc,, uc cstos iaeto|cs |||eao uc c| eooi||eto dc e|ascs, |atcotc o ao|i|csto,
cs codc|eo co csa soe|cdad, y uc csta eood|e|oo dc aotaqoo|so cs d||cetacotc
eoot|o|ada o cstao|||zada cd|aotc |a qcst|oo dc| odc| o|it|eo dc| Lstado. ta suc|ae|oo
dc| ea|ta||so, s|o coa|qo, a|ea |a suc|ae|oo dc |as e|ascs, sus eooi||etos dc |otc|c-
scs, y dc| odc| o|it|eo |so. Lo cstc u|t|o asceto, sc ucdc sca|a| s|o d|i|eu|tad
|a |oi|ucoe|a |cs|dua| dc |a doet||oa dc Sa|ot-S|oo, |a |dca dc uc |a ad|o|st|ae|oo dc |os
ooo|cs o| ot|os ooo|cs da|a aso a |a ad|o|st|ae|oo dc |os ooo|cs soo|c |as eosas
(uc Loqc|s e|ta eooe|ctacotc as dc uoa vcz,. ta ooe|oo dc Va|x dc |a suc|ae|oo dc|
Lstado cs, o| e|c|to, ueoo as soi|st|eada uc csto, y cs cv|dcotc co |as ootas dc sus
e|it|eas |o|e|a|cs dc lcqc| y co sus eocota||os ostc||o|cs soo|c |a eouoa y c| |oq|a-
a dc Gotoa. lc|o |as e|ascs, |os |otc|cscs dc e|ascs, c| eooi||eto dc e|ascs y c| odc|
o|it|eo soo a|a Va|x, co uo scot|do oas|eo, eoot|oqcotcs co |c|ae|oo a |a cx|stcoe|a dc
uo t|o dado dc soe|cdad (|a soe|cdad dc e|ascs,, y dado uc |a|acotc aoa||za |os
|otc|cscs, c| eooi||eto y c| odc| iuc|a dc| eootcxto dc |as e|ascs, oo |csu|ta e|a|o
oasta doodc cstos eooectos sc |c|ae|ooao eoo |a soe|cdad soe|a||sta. tos |otc|cscs dc
ases y |os eooi||etos dc ases ucdco dcsaa|cec| co |a soe|cdad soe|a||sta, c|o
_uc oeu||c eoo |as d|v|s|oocs dc |otc|cscs y |os eooi||etos uc oo cstao csceii|eacotc
v|oeu|ados eoo |as e|ascs? lay ai||ae|oocs co |os cse||tos |o|e|a|cs dc Va|x uc o-
d|iao |otc||cta|sc co c| scot|do dc uc |a ||cqada dc| eouo|so a|ea c| i|o dc todas |as
io|as dc d|v|s|oo dc |otc|cscs cot|c |os ooo|cs. Dcocos |csu|| scqu|acotc uc
Va|x oo sostuvo cstc uoto dc v|sta as uc co c| scot|do dc uc |os eooi||etos cot|c |os
ooo|cs ucdco sc| ao|oqados. lc|o |a auscoe|a dc a|qo as uc |od|eae|oocs d|sc|-
sas aec|ea dc ta|cs eucst|oocs oaec |os|o|c cstao|cec| ueoos ju|e|os eooe|ctos so-
o|c c||as. Aoo|a o|co: sc ucdc sca|a| uc Va|x sc ocqo a cot|a| co dcta||cs aec|ea dc |a
soe|cdad dc| iutu|o soo|c |a oasc dc uc ta| csceu|ae|oo dcqcoc|a co c| soe|a||so
uto|eo, ucsto uc oo cs os|o|c |cvc| |a io|a dc |a o|qao|zae|oo soe|a| uc ea|aetc||za|a
%"
a uoa soe|cdad oasada co ||oe||os uy d|st|otos dc |os cx|stcotcs, y dc odo s|||a| ta|
vcz sc ucda sostcoc| uc |os eooectos dcsa||o||ados dcot|o dc uo t|o dc soe|cdad c|
ea|ta||so oo sc|iao a|o|ados a|a c| aoa||s|s dc ot|a c| soe|a||so. lc|o cstos
a|qucotos oo eoot|a||cstao c| uoto ||oe|a|: uc |os uo|eos aoa||s|s eoov|oecotcs dc|
eooi||eto y c| odc| sc v|oeu|ao csceii|eacotc co Va|x eoo |os |otc|cscs dc e|ascs.
Dcsdc cstc asceto, sus cse||tos oo |ovcco uoa a|tc|oat|va c|aoo|ada a|a csas t|ad|-
e|oocs ||oe|a|cs dc| cosa|coto soe|a| euya aot|oo|oqia i||osoi|ea csta ecot|ada co
|os eooectos dc va|o|, oo|a o eoovcoe|oo.
to uc s|quc sc oasa co |a |dca iuodacota| dc |a jru:ii y rejru:ii ue a viua
sia, uc e|c|tacotc |csu|ta eooc|cotc eoo |a ooto|oqia a|x|sta dc |a jrais. Scquo
|o d|ec Va|x: 1a| eoo |os |od|v|duos cx|csao su v|da asi cs eoo soo. to uc soo,
o| eoos|qu|cotc, eo|oe|dc eoo su |oduee|oo, taoto eoo :e |odueco eoo eoo e
nu co uc |odueco. lc|o |a |oduee|oo oa dc sc| cotcod|da co uo scot|do uy
a||o, y eoo c| i|o dc dcta||a| sus |||eae|oocs tcocos uc || ueoo as a||a dc |o
uc csta |ocd|atacotc d|soo|o|c co |os t|aoajos dc Va|x.
ta |oduee|oo o eoost|tue|oo dc |a soe|cdad cs uoa oo|a |aet|ea dc sus |co|os, c|o
uc oo sc vc||i|ea co eood|e|oocs uc cstco cotc|acotc dcot|o dc su |otcoe|oo o eo-
|cos|oo. ta e|avc a|a cotcodc| c| o|dco soe|a|, co c| scot|do as qcoc|a| dc| tc||oo
uc oc d|st|oqu|do aotcs oo csta co |a |otc||o||zae|oo dc |os va|o|cs, s|oo co |as |c|ae|o-
ocs eao|aotcs cot|c |a |oduee|oo y |a rejru:ii dc |a v|da soe|a| o| sus aeto|cs
eoost|tuycotcs. 1ua rejru:ii es ieesarianeie jru:ii, s|o coa|qo, |a s|-
|cotc dc| eao|o cx|stc co aua a uc eoot||ouyc a |a |c|oduee|oo dc eua|u|c|
io|a o|dcoada dc v|da soe|a|. L| |oecso dc |a |c|oduee|oo eo|coza eoo |a |c|odue-
e|oo dc |as e||euostaoe|as atc||a|cs dc |a cx|stcoe|a ouaoa y dccodc dc csta, o sca
|a |c|oe|cae|oo dc |a csce|c y |a t|aosio|ae|oo dc |a oatu|a|cza. tos sc|cs ouaoos,
scquo d|ec Va|x, |odueco ||o|ccotc co |otc|eao|o eoo |a oatu|a|cza, co c| scot|do
a|adoj|eo dc uc cstao Irzaus a t|aosio|a| aet|vacotc c| uodo atc||a| eoo c| i|o
dc soo|cv|v|| co c|, ucsto uc ea|ceco dc uo aa|ato dc |ost|otos uc ucda |ovcc||cs
uoa adatae|oo as ceao|ea a su ao|cotc atc||a|. lc|o |o uc soo|c todo d|st|oquc a
|os sc|cs ouaoos dc |os ao|a|cs cs uc |os ||c|os soo eaaecs dc |oq|aa|
|ci|cx|vacotc su ao|cotc, eoot|o|aodo asi su |o|o |uqa| co c|, csto sc to|oa os|o|c
so|o cd|aotc c| |coquajc, uc cs as uc o|oquoo c| neui ue as aiviuaues jraia-
neie i:naias.
%#
_Cua|cs soo, aoa|it|eacotc, |as ||oe|a|cs eood|e|oocs uc eo||csoodco a |a |c|o-
duee|oo dc |as cst|uetu|as dc |otc|aee|oo? Sc |as ucdc aoa||za| eoos|dc|aodo |as s|-
qu|cotcs csce|cs: |as dcst|czas eoost|tuycotcs dc |os aeto|cs soe|a|cs, |a |ae|ooa||zae|oo
dc cstas dcst|czas eoo io|as dc aet|v|dad, |as ea|aetc|ist|eas oo cx||eadas dc |os
s|stcas dc |otc|aee|oo uc |oucvco y c||tco c| cjc|e|e|o dc ta|cs eaae|dadcs, |as
uc ucdco sc| aoa||zadas eoo eeneis ue nivaii, y uc ||aa|c |a u:aiuau ue
a esr::ra.
Dcsa||o||a|c c| a|qucoto co |as scee|oocs s|qu|cotcs dc cstc eaitu|o eoo |cic|coe|a a|
|coquajc, oo o|uc sca ut|| eoos|dc|a| |a v|da soe|a| eoo e|c|ta csce|c dc |coquajc,
s|stca dc |oio|ae|oo o |o uc iuc|c, s|oo o|uc c| |coquajc, eoo io|a soe|a| co si,
cjc||i|ea a|quoos ascetos, y so|o a|quoos ascetos, dc |a v|da soe|a| co su eoojuoto.
L| |coquajc ucdc sc| cstud|ado eoos|dc|aodo o| |o coos t|cs ascetos dc su |odue-
e|oo y |c|oduee|oo, eada uoo dc |os eua|cs cs ea|aetc|ist|eo dc |a |oduee|oo y |c|o-
duee|oo dc |a soe|cdad co io|a as qcoc|a|. L| |coquajc cs do|oado y oao|ado o|
|os aeto|cs, cs c|cado eoo cd|o dc eouo|eae|oo cot|c c||os y io|a uoa cst|ue-
tu|a uc co e|c|to scot|do csta eoost|tu|da o| c| oao|a dc |a eouo|dad dc |coquajc o
eo|cet|v|dad. uajo c| asceto dc su |oduee|oo co euaoto sc||c dc aetos dc |oeue|oo o|
uo oao|aotc |od|v|dua|, c| |coquajc cs: a, uoa dcst|cza, o uo eoojuoto uy eo|cjo dc
dcst|czas, uc oscc eada c|sooa uc eoooec c| |coquajc, o, ut|||zado a|a eooic|||
scot|do, ||tc|a|cotc, eoo uo a|tc e|cat|vo dc uo sujcto aet|vo, e, a|qo uc cs iei,
|ca||zado o| c| oao|aotc, c|o oo eoo |coo eoooe||coto dc eoo |o oaec. Ls dce||, uc
|ooao|ccotc ucda oi|cec| so|o uoa vc|s|oo i|aqcota||a dc |o uc soo |as oao|||dadcs
uc cjc|ec, o dc eoo |as cjc|ec.
Lo euaoto neui ue n:iiaii ei a iieraii, c| |coquajc |||ea c| uso dc cs-
ucas |otc||ctat|vos a|a cotcodc| oo so|o |o uc ot|os d|eco, s|oo tao|co |o uc sc
jrjiei ejresar: |a eoost|tue|oo dc| scot|do eoo uoa |ca||zae|oo iiers:ijeiva dc
cotcod||coto utuo co uo |otc|eao|o eoot|ouo, y c| uso dc |od|eae|oocs eootcxtua|cs,
eoo |o|cdadcs dc| s|stca, eoo a|tc |otcq|a| dc |a eoost|tue|oo y eo|cos|oo dc|
s|qo|i|eado. Coos|dc|ado eoo uoa esr::ra, c| |coquajc oo cs oscido o| o|oquo
oao|aotc a|t|eu|a|, y so|o ucdc sc| eooectua||zado eoo uoa ea|aetc|ist|ea dc uoa
eouo|dad dc oao|aotcs, ucdc eooecoi|sc|o eoo uo eoojuoto aost|aeto dc |cq|as uc
oo sc a||eao ceao|eacotc, s|oo uc |as c|cao dc uo odo qcoc|at|vo |os oao|aotcs
|co|os dc |a eouo|dad dc |coquajc. Vc |oooqo dce||, cotooecs, uc |a v|da soe|a|
%$
ucdc eoos|dc|a|sc eoo uo eoojuoto dc jraias rejru:iuas. S|qu|codo c| t|||c co-
iouc uc d|st|oqu|os aotcs, |as |aet|eas soe|a|cs ucdco sc| cstud|adas, co ||c|
tc||oo, dcsdc c| uoto dc v|sta dc su eoost|tue|oo eoo uoa sc||c dc as |ca||zados
o| |os aeto|cs, scquodo, eoo io|as eoost|tuycotcs dc iieraii, uc |ovo|ue|ao |a
eouo|eae|oo dc| s|qo|i|eado, y tc|ec|o, eoo esr::ras eoost|tuycotcs uc c|tcoc-
eco a eo|cet|v|dadcs o eouo|dadcs soe|a|cs.
Droeues mornies de in iuternooiu
tos c|ccotos o|a|cs dc |a |otc|aee|oo sc v|oeu|ao co io|a |otcq|a| eoo su eoost|tue|oo
eoo a|qo s|qo|i|eat|vo y eoo uo eoojuoto dc |c|ae|oocs dc odc|. Cada uoa dc cstas
eoocx|oocs dcoc eoos|dc|a|sc |qua|cotc oas|ea. tas oo|as i|qu|ao dc uoa aoc|a
|o|taotc taoto co |os cse||tos dc |os uc oao adotado uoa os|e|oo iuc|tccotc oatu-
|a||sta co |a tco|ia soe|a| (co csce|a| Du|soc|, eoo co |os dc u|cocs oao s|do sus
e|it|eos as ic|v|cotcs. Auouc Du|soc| so|o ||cqo a c|aoo|a| |coacotc sus |dcas
o||q|oa|cs co sus u|t|os t|aoajos, oo s|c|c sc |oe||oo a suo|aya| |a s|qo|i|eae|oo dc |as
oo|as eoo eriivas u oo||qato||as, cs dce||, uc oao dc sc| aoo|dadas cd|aotc |a
ooe|oo dc |as saiiies. Seoutz, w|oeo y ot|os, co eao|o, sc ost|a|oo as |coeua-
dos o| |a eaae|dad dc |as oo|as dc iIerir y jerniir. Vc |oooqo sostcoc| uc
todas |as oo|as soo a |a vcz eriivas y jernisivas. Cu|c|o d|st|oqu|| tao|co cot|c
oo|as y |cq|as, uc soo easua|cotc ut|||zadas eoo s|ooo|os o| |a ayo|ia dc
|os i||osoios osW|ttqcostc|o|aoos, t|ata|c |as |cq|as oo|at|vas o o|a|cs eoo uoa
suoeatcqo|ia dc |a ooe|oo as qcoc|a| dc |cq|a, uc v|oeu|a|c eoo |a dc cst|uetu|a.
ta eoost|tue|oo dc |a |otc|aee|oo eoo o|dco o|a| ucdc cotcodc|sc eoo |a aetua||za-
e|oo dc uereis y |a |os|e|oo dc iipaiies. Lx|stc uoa s|ct|ia |oq|ea cot|c aoas,
uc, s|o coa|qo, ucdc sc| uco|ada co |os oceoos. Ls dce|| uc |o uc cs uo dc|ceoo dc
uo a|t|e|aotc co uo coeucot|o aa|cec eoo uoa oo||qae|oo dc| ot|o dc |csoodc| dc uoa
aoc|a a|o|ada, y v|ecvc|sa, c|o cstc ocxo ucdc ecsa| s| uoa oo||qae|oo oo sc
|ceoooec o oo sc eu|c, y oo sc ucdc a||ea| ci|eazcotc o|oquoa saoe|oo. Asi, co |a
|oduee|oo dc |a |otc|aee|oo, todos |os c|ccotos oo|at|vos t|coco uc sc| t|atados eoo
uoa sc||c dc jreeisiies euya |ca||zae|oo cs eoot|oqcotc co |c|ae|oo eoo |a aetua||zae|oo
cx|tosa dc |as oo||qae|oocs cd|aotc |as |csucstas dc |os ot|os a|t|e|aotcs. Dc ta|
odo, |as saoe|oocs oo|at|vas soo cscoe|a|cotc d|ic|cotcs (eoo |o oa |ceoooe|do
Du|soc|, dc |as |c|ae|ooadas eoo |a t|aosq|cs|oo dc |as |cse||e|oocs tceo|eas o ut|||ta||as,
%%
uc |||eao |o uc voo w||qot ||aa |oos|e|oocs aoaosast|eas. Lo |as |cse||e|oocs
ta|cs eoo cv|tc toa| aqua eoota|oada, |a saoe|oo uc csta |ovo|ue|ada (c| ||csqo dc
covcocoa|sc, su|qc ceao|eacotc dc |a cjceue|oo dc| aeto: dccodc dc |c|ae|oocs
eausa|cs uc t|coco |a io|a dc cvcotos oatu|a|cs.
A| oaec| csta d|st|oe|oo, s|o coa|qo, Du|soc| tao|co oo||tc|o uo scot|do v|ta| co c|
uc |as oo|as ucdco sc| aoo|dadas dc uoa aoc|a ut|||ta||a o| |os a|t|e|aotcs co
|a |oduee|oo dc |a |otc|aee|oo, y uc dcoc sc| eooectua|cotc |c|ae|ooado eoo c|
ea|aetc| eoot|oqcotc dc |a |ca||zae|oo dc |as |ctcos|oocs oo|at|vas. Lsto s|qo|i|ea uc
uoa |ctcos|oo oo|at|va ucdc sc| |ceoooe|da eoo oo||qato||a, oo o|uc uo aeto| a|
uc sc a||ea eoo oo||qae|oo aectc ta| oo||qae|oo eoo uo eo|o|so o|a|, s|oo
o|uc |cvc y u|c|c cv|ta| |as saoe|oocs uc |c sc|ao a||eadas co c| easo dc| oo
eu|||coto. Lo |c|ae|oo eoo |a c|sceue|oo dc sus |otc|cscs, o| eoos|qu|cotc, uo
aeto| ucdc aoo|da| |as |ctcos|oocs o|a|cs cxaetacotc dc |a |sa io|a uc |o
oaec eoo |as |cse||e|oocs tceo|eas: co eada easo tao|co ucdc ea|eu|a| |os ||csqos
|ovo|ue|ados co uo aeto a|t|eu|a| co iuoe|oo dc |a |ooao|||dad dc cseaa| dc |a saoe|oo.
Ls uo c||o| c|ccota| suooc| uc |a |ostau|ae|oo dc uoa oo||qae|oo o|a| |||ea ocec-
sa||acotc uo eo|o|so o|a| eoo csta. lo| c|ccota| uc sca, cs |o|taotc |os|st||
co cstc uoto, o|uc cs |qoo|ado s|stcat|eacotc co |a t|ad|e|oo dc| cosa|coto
soe|a| uc v|oeu|a a Du|soc| eoo la|soos. lucsto uc |as saoe|oocs uc s|quco a |a
t|aosq|cs|oo dc |as |ctcos|oocs o|a|cs oo oc|ao eoo |a |ocv|tao|||dad dc |os cvcotos
dc |a oatu|a|cza, s|oo uc |||eao |as |caee|oocs dc |os ot|os, ti|eacotc cx|stc e|c|to
csae|o ||o|c a|a c| t|aosq|cso|, s| sc |o |dcot|i|ea eoo ta|, a|a iepiar c| ea|aetc|
dc |a saoe|oo uc dcoc scqu||sc. Lsta cs :ia dc |as io|as co uc |a |oduee|oo dc uo
o|dco oo|at|vo sc vc||i|ea co cst|ceoa |c|ae|oo eoo |a |oduee|oo dc s|qo|i|eado: |o uc
es |a t|aosq|cs|oo |csu|ta otcoe|a|cotc ocqoe|ao|c, y |a aoc|a co uc cs ea|aetc||za-
da o |dcot|i|eada aiceta |as saoe|oocs a |as uc ucdc csta| sujcta. Lsto cs ia|||a| y
csta io|a||zado co |os t||ouoa|cs dc just|e|a, c|o tao|co sc cxt|codc o| todo c| ea-
o dc |a eoost|tue|oo o|a| ucsto uc oc|a co |a v|da d|a||a.
tas saoe|oocs sc e|as|i|eao iae||cotc, co uo o|vc| aost|aeto, co iuoe|oo dc s| |os |ceu|-
sos uc soo ov|||zados a|a |odue|| |a saoe|oo soo |otc|oos, o sca uc |ovo|ue|ao
c|ccotos dc |a c|sooa||dad dc| aeto|, o cxtc|oos, o sca uc toao ea|aetc|ist|eas dc|
eootcxto dc |a aee|oo. Cada uoa dc cstas ucdc sc| eatcqo||zada adcas co iuoe|oo dc
s| |os |ceu|sos uc c| aqcotc saoe|ooado| cs eaaz dc ov|||za| soo os|t|vos o ocqa-
%&
t|vos co |c|ae|oo eoo |os dcscos dc| aeto| uc cs c| o|aoeo dc |a saoe|oo. Dc cstc odo,
|a aetua||zae|oo dc |as saoe|oocs |otc|oas ucdc iuoda|sc co uo eo|o|so o|a|
os|t|vo dc| aeto|, o ocqat|vacotc co |a aos|cdad, c| tco| o |a eu|a, |a aetua||zae|oo
dc |as saoe|oocs cxtc|oas ucdc iuoda|sc co oic|tas dc |ceocosa o, o| c| ot|o |ado,
ucdc csq|||| |a acoaza dc |a iuc|za. Cov|acotc, co s|tuae|oocs eooe|ctas dc
|otc|aee|oo, va||as dc cstas ucdco oc|a| s|u|taocacotc, y o|oquoa saoe|oo cxtc|-
oa |csu|ta ci|eaz a coos uc ooqa co jucqo uoa saoe|oo |otc|oa: uoa |ceocosa
so|o cs ta| s| eo|oe|dc eoo |os dcscos dc uoa c|sooa.
ta |otc||ctae|oo dc |as oo|as, y su eaae|dad a|a oaec| uc uoa |otc||ctae|oo
:eie, o| a|tc dc |os a|t|e|aotcs co |a |otc|aee|oo, cstao v|oeu|adas dc aoc|as
sut||cs eoo su su|s|oo a |as |ctcos|oocs o|a|cs. ta ia|ta dc advc|tcoe|a dc cstc
oceoo, o co todo easo |a |oeaae|dad a|a cstao|cec| cx|ie|tacotc sus eoosceuco-
e|as, sc |c|ae|ooa eoo a|quoos dc |os dcicetos ea|aetc|ist|eos dc| iuoe|ooa||so dc
Du|soc|-la|soos, eoo as||so dc |a i||osoiia osW|ttqcostc|o|aoa. ta eoo|d|oae|oo
o|a| dc |a |otc|aee|oo cs as|ct||eacotc |otc|dccod|cotc eoo su |oduee|oo eoo ea-
|aetc| s|qo|i|eat|vo y eoo su cx|cs|oo dc |c|ae|oocs dc odc|. Lsto t|coc dos ascetos,
cst|ceoacotc |c|ae|ooados cot|c si: a) |a os|o|||dad dc eooucs cot|c d|ic|cotcs |dcas
dc| uodo, o, coos ae|oseo|eacotc, cot|c d|st|otas dci|o|e|oocs dc |o uc es, i) |a
os|o|||dad dc eooucs cot|c eo|cos|oocs d|vc|qcotcs dc |as oo|as eouocs.
Re|ac|onea de poder en |a |nteracc|on
ta ooe|oo dc aee|oo csta pianeie vii:aua i a ue juer. Lsto cs co e|c|to scot|do
|ceoooe|do o| |os i||osoios, uc oao|ao dc uc a|qu|co ucdc, cs eaaz dc o t|coc
odc| a|a co |c|ae|oo eoo |a tco|ia dc |a aee|oo. lc|o sus auto|cs |a|acotc o ouoea
|c|ae|ooao ta|cs d|seus|oocs eoo |os aoa||s|s dc| eooecto dc odc| co soe|o|oqia y, o|
eoos|qu|cotc, oo |as v|oeu|ao eoo c| aoa||s|s dc |as reaiies ue juer cot|c |os aeto|cs o
co |as eo|cet|v|dadcs. ta |c|ae|oo cot|c |a aee|oo y c| odc| ucdc sc| couoe|ada s||c-
cotc. ta aee|oo |||ea dc odo |ot|iosceo |a a||eae|oo dc cd|os a|a eooscqu||
|csu|tados, |odue|dos cd|aotc |a |otc|vcoe|oo d||ceta dc uo aeto| co c| eu|so dc |os
cvcotos: |a aee|oo uc sc |otcota eooe|cta| cs uoa suoe|asc dc |os |oecdc|cs dc| aeto|,
o dc su aostcoe|oo dc oaec|, c| odc| |c|cscota |a eaae|dad dc uo aqcotc a|a ov|||za|
|ceu|sos eoo c| i|o dc eoost|tu|| csos cd|os. Lo cstc scot|do as qcoc|a|, c| odc| sc
%'
|ci|c|c a |a ajaiuau raisIrnaura dc |a aee|oo ouaoa y, dc aui co adc|aotc, co a|as
dc |a e|a||dad, c|ca|c cstc scquodo tc||oo, |csc|vaodo c| ||c|o a|a uo uso as
|cst||oq|do, |c|ae|ooa|, dc odc|, uc sc|a cx||eado co |o uc s|quc.
ta eaae|dad t|aosio|ado|a dc |a aee|oo ouaoa cs eo|oeada co ||c| |aoo o| Va|x,
y |csu|ta c| c|ccoto e|avc dc |a ooe|oo dc jrais.
1odos |os s|stcas dc tco|ia soe|a| oao tco|do uc oeua|sc dc c||o, co e|c|to scot|do,
dc |a t|aosio|ae|oo dc |a oatu|a|cza o| c| ooo|c y dc| ea|aetc| |oeaosao|ccotc
od|i|eado| dc si |sa dc |a soe|cdad ouaoa. lc|o co ueoas cseuc|as dc| cosa-
|coto soe|a|, |a eaae|dad t|aosio|ado|a dc |a aee|oo iuc eooeco|da co iuoe|oo dc uo
dua||so, eoo uo eoot|astc aost|aeto cot|c c| uodo ocut|a| dc |a oatu|a|cza, o| uoa
a|tc, y c| uodo ea|qado dc va|o|cs dc |a soe|cdad ouaoa, o| ot|a. Lo ta|cs cseuc-
|as dc cosa|coto, a|t|eu|a|cotc co |as asoe|adas eoo c| iuoe|ooa||so, eoo su aecoto
ucsto co |a adatae|oo a| ao|cotc, c| a|eaoec dc |a o|sto||e|dad dc| ooo|c cs
iae||cotc aoaodooado. So|o co |as t|ad|e|oocs ai|ocs a |a i||osoiia ocqc||aoa y (e|c|tas
vc|s|oocs, dc| a|x|so, |a eaae|dad t|aosio|ado|a dc |a aee|oo, eoo |oecso
autocd|ado| dc| t|aoajo, iuc cstao|ce|da eoo uoto ecot|a| dc| aoa||s|s. L| t|aoajo cs,
eoo d|ec toW|to, uo ov||coto dc cd|ae|oo... uoa odc|ae|oo o io|ae|oo', y co
eoosceucoe|a uoa dcst|uee|oo os|t|va dc| uodo uc csta |cscotc co |a oatu|a|cza.
la|cec oaoc| oeas dudas dc uc cstc a||o coias|s s|qu|o s|codo oas|eo co c| cosa-
|coto adu|o dc Va|x, auouc oo s|qo|i|eat|vacotc c|aoo|ado, co sus Cr:iurisse
coeoot|aos |a ai||ae|oo, co uo |coquajc uc |c|oduec dc ec|ea su tc|aoa |oc|-
s|oo co c| |io dc iucqo, uc c| t|aoajo cs c| iucqo v|vo, odc|ado|, |c|cscota |a
|c|aocoe|a dc |as eosas, su |otco|a||dad, co ot|as a|ao|as, su io|ae|oo co c|
eu|so dc| t|co v|v|cotc. S|o coa|qo, Va|x sc |coeuo e|ce|cotccotc oo o| c|
t|aoajo eoo eaae|dad t|aosio|ado|a dc |a aet|v|dad, s|oo o| su dcio|ae|oo eoo
oeuae|oo dcot|o dc |a d|v|s|oo |odust||a|-ea|ta||sta dc| t|aoajo, y c| odc|, co euaoto
|ovo|ue|ado co c| |otc|eao|o soe|a| cot|c |os ooo|cs, eoo oc |od|eado aotcs dc uoa
aoc|a |c|||oa|, iuc aoa||zado eoo uoa |o|cdad csceii|ea dc |as |c|ae|oocs dc
e|asc y oo eoo uo |asqo dc |a |otc|aee|oo soe|a| co qcoc|a|.
L| odc| co c| scot|do dc |a eaae|dad t|aosio|ado|a dc |a aet|v|dad ouaoa cs |a
eaae|dad dc| aeto| a|a |otc|vco|| co uoa sc||c dc cvcotos dc odo dc a|tc|a| su eu|so,
&
eoo ta|, cs c| ucdc uc cd|a cot|c |as |otcoe|oocs o ocecs|dadcs y |a |ca||zae|oo
eooe|cta dc |os |csu|tados ouseados. L| odc| co c| scot|do as cst|ceoo, |c|ae|ooa|, cs
uoa |o|cdad dc |a |otc|aee|oo, y ucdc sc| dci|o|do eoo |a eaae|dad a|a ascqu|a|
|csu|tados doodc |a |ca||zae|oo dc cstos |csu|tados dccodc dc |a aet|v|dad dc rs. Ls,
co cstc scot|do eoo |os ooo|cs t|coco odc| soo|c ot|os: cstc cs c| odc| eoo
uniiaii. Aui oay uc sca|a| a|quoos uotos oas|eos. a, L| odc|, sca co c| scot|do
a||o eoo co c| |cst||oq|do, sc |ci|c|c a ajaiuaues. A d|ic|coe|a dc |a eouo|eae|oo
dc| s|qo|i|eado c| odc| oo eoo|a cx|stcoe|a so|o euaodo cs cjc|e|do, auouc u|t|acotc
oo cx|stc ot|o e||tc||o o| c| eua| sc ucda dcost|a| uc odc| oscco |os aeto|cs. Lsto
cs |o|taotc, o|uc odcos oao|a| dc| odc| eoo a|qo a|aecoado a|a uo uso
iutu|o. o, ta |c|ae|oo cot|c c| odc| y c| eooi||eto cs dc iodo|c eoot|oqcotc: ta| eoo |o oc
io|u|ado, c| eooecto dc odc|, co uoa u ot|a io|a, oo |||ea |a cx|stcoe|a dc| eooi||eto.
Lsto csta eoot|a ap:is usos, o aousos, dc |o uc cs u|zas |a as iaosa io|u|ae|oo
dc| odc| co |a ||tc|atu|a soe|o|oq|ea, |a dc Vax wcoc|, dc aeuc|do eoo |a eua| c| odc| cs
|a eaae|dad dc uo |od|v|duo dc |ca||za| su vo|uotad, auo eoot|a |a vo|uotad dc ot|os. ta
o|s|oo dc| auo co a|quoas vc|s|oocs dc csta dci|o|e|oo cs s|qo|i|eat|va: cotooecs, c|
easo v|coc a sc| uc c| odc| |csuooc c| eooi||eto, ucsto uc c| odc| so|o cx|stc
euaodo |a |cs|stcoe|a dc |os ot|os t|coc uc sc| vcoe|da y soct|da su vo|uotad. e, Ls c|
eooecto dc |otc|cs, aotcs uc c| dc odc| eoo ta|, c| uc sc |c|ae|ooa d||cetacotc eoo
c| eooi||eto y |a so||da||dad. S| c| odc| y c| eooi||eto i|ceucotccotc a|eoao juotos, oo cs
o|uc c| uoo |||uc |oq|eacotc a| ot|o, s|oo o|uc c| odc| csta uo|do a |a |osceu-
e|oo dc |otc|cscs, y |os |otc|cscs dc |os ooo|cs ucdco oo ||cqa| a eo|oe|d||. 1odo |o uc
u|c|o dce|| eoo csto cs uc |cot|as uc c| odc| cs uo |asqo dc toda io|a dc |otc|aee|oo
ouaoa, |a d|v|s|oo dc |otc|cscs oo |o cs. d, Lsto oo |||ea uc |as d|v|s|oocs dc |otc|c-
scs ucdao sc| suc|adas co toda soe|cdad ci||ea, y cs e|c|tacotc ocecsa||o oooc|-
sc a |a v|oeu|ae|oo dc| |otc|cs eoo o|otct|eos cstados dc oatu|a|cza.
L| uso dc| odc| co |a |otc|aee|oo ucdc sc| cotcod|do co iuoe|oo dc |os |ceu|sos o
iae|||dadcs uc |os a|t|e|aotcs ao|tao y ov|||zao eoo c|ccotos dc su |oduee|oo,
d|||q|codo asi su eu|so. L||os |oe|uyco oo so|o |as dcst|czas cd|aotc |as eua|cs |a
| otc|aee| oo cs eoost| tu| da eoo ea|aetc| s| qo| i| eat| vo, s| oo tao| co y csto dcoc
couoe|a|sc aui so|o co io|a aost|aeta todos |os dcas |ceu|sos uc uo a|t|e|aotc
cs eaaz dc ao|ta| a|a |oi|u|| o eoot|o|a| |a eoodueta dc |os ot|os uc soo a|tc dc |a
|otc|aee|oo, |oe|uso |a oscs|oo dc auto||dad y |a acoaza dc| uso dc |a iuc|za. Lsta-
|ia cotc|acotc iuc|a dc |uqa| c| t|ata| dc cstao|cec| co cstc cstud|o uoa c|aoo|ada
&
t|o|oqia dc |os |ceu|sos dc| odc|. V| uo|ea |coeuae|oo co cstc uoto cs oi|cec| uo
csuca eooectua| qcoc|a||zado uc |otcq|c |a ooe|oo dc odc| dcot|o dc |a vc|s|oo
tco||ea dcsa||o||ada co c| |cscotc eaitu|o. to ocecsa||o, s|o coa|qo, cs |c|ae|ooa|
cstc aoa||s|s dc| odc| |cootaodo|o a |a |oduee|oo dc s|qo|i|eado co |a |otc|aee|oo.
Lsto ucdc |ca||za|sc dc |a cjo| aoc|a |cto|oaodo o|cvccotc a| a|eo dc |cic|coe|a
dc |a aee|oo dc la|soos, o as csceii|eacotc a |as e|it|eas cx|csadas eoot|a cstc
o| |os uc |ce|o|c|oo |a |oi|ucoe|a dc |a ctooctodo|oqia. 1a| e|it|ea oa adotado a
q|aodcs |asqos |a io|a uc s|quc. Lo |a tco|ia dc la|soos sc a|qucota, c| aeto|
csta |oq|aado a|a oaec| |o uc oaec eoo |csu|tado dc va|o|cs |otc||o||zados, eoo
d|sos|e|oocs dc ocecs|dad dc |a c|sooa||dad (co eoojuoe|oo eoo |as eood|e|oocs oo
oo|at|vas dc |a aee|oo,: sc |ota a ar eoo uo |oeauto oo cosaotc dc su eu|tu|a, y
su |otc|aee|oo eoo |os ot|os eoo |a aetua||zae|oo dc ta|cs d|sos|e|oocs dc ocecs|dad y
oo eoo |o uc |ca|cotc cs, uoa sc||c dc |ca||zae|oocs dc dcst|cza. Ls dce|| uc,
s|qu|codo a Ga|i|osc|, sc oa |cstado atcoe|oo so|o a |a |otc||q|o|||dad, a| aocjo eoqo|t|vo
dc |a eouo|eae|oo y a |os s|stcas dc eouo|eae|oo. 1odo csto cs t|atado eoo |csu|-
tado dc| t|aoajo utuo dc a|tc dc |os aeto|cs, c|o eoo s| iuc|a s|c|c c| csiuc|zo
dc jares co eo|aoo|ae|oo, eoot||ouycodo |qua|cotc eada uoo a |a |oduee|oo dc |a
|otc|aee|oo, y tco|codo eoo uo|eo |otc|cs c| dc sostcoc| uoa aa||coe|a dc scqu||dad
ooto|oq|ea, cd|aotc |a eua| sc eoost|tuyc c| eootco|do s|qo|i|eat|vo. Aui sc ucdc
oota| |a iuc|tc |oi|ucoe|a |cs|dua| dc| |oo|ca dc| o|dco dc la|soos, c|o dcsojado dc
su eootco|do vo||t|vo y |cdue|do a uo d|a|oqo |oeo|o|co.
l|cotc a csto dcocos dcstaea| uc |a e|cae|oo dc a|eos dc s|qo|i|eado oeu||c co euaoto
neuiaii ue as aiviuaues jraias y co iuoe|oo dc |os d|ic|coe|a|cs dc odc| uc |os
aeto|cs soo eaaecs dc ao|ta|. Lsto t|coc e|ue|a| |o|taoe|a co |a tco|ia soe|a|, uc
dcoc eoos|dc|a| eoo uoa dc sus ta|cas ||oe|a|cs |a aeoodae|oo utua dc| odc| y |as
oo|as co |a |otc|aee|oo soe|a|. La eairaii reIeiva ue s nars ue sipiiIiau
ejerineia uese:iiiris araer:sis ei reaii i a jsesii ue juer, ya sca
cstc u|t|o uo |csu|tado dc |a dcst|cza suc||o| ||oquist|ea o d|a|cet|ea dc uoa c|sooa co
|a eoovc|sae|oo eoo ot|a, dc |a oscs|oo dc t|os adceuados dc eoooe||coto tceo|eo, dc
|a ov|||zae|oo dc |a auto||dad o |a iuc|za, cte. to uc asa o| |ca||dad soe|a| csta co
|c|ae|oo |ocd|ata eoo |a d|st||oue|oo dc| odc|, oo so|o co |os o|vc|cs as uodaoos dc |a
|otc|aee|oo d|a||a, s|oo tao|co co c| o|vc| dc |as eu|tu|as c |dco|oqias q|ooa|cs, y su
|oi|ucoe|a co vc|dad ucdc scot||sc co eada ||oeoo dc |a v|da soe|a| eot|d|aoa.
&
Rac|ona||zac|on y ret|ex|v|dad
Ya oc sca|ado uc co |a ayo|ia dc |as cseuc|as t|ad|e|ooa|cs dc| cosa|coto soe|a|,
|a |ci|cx|v|dad cs t|atada c|acotc eoo uo csto|oo, euyas eoosceucoe|as ucdco sc|
|qoo|adas o dcoco sc| |cdue|das co |o os|o|c a uo o|vc| io|o. Lsto va|c taoto |csce-
to dc |a ctodo|oqia, co |a uc |a |ot|oscee|oo cs du|acotc eoodcoada eoo eoot|a-
||a a |a e|coe|a, eoo |csceto dc |a |c|cscotae|oo eooectua| dc |a eoodueta ouaoa
co si. lc|o oada |csu|ta tao ecot|a| co |a v|da ouaoa o| cs tao d|st|ot|vo dc csta eoo
c| eoot|o| |ci|cx|vo dc |a eoodueta, uc todos |os |co|os eoctcotcs dc |a soe|cdad
csc|ao dc |os ot|os. Lo |os cse||tos dc |os cosado|cs soe|a|cs uc oo |ceoooeco uc
csto sca |o ecot|a| oay uoa cxt|aa a|adoja, eoo i|ceucoe|a sca|ada o| sus e|it|eos:
o|uc c| |ceoooe||coto dc su |sa eoctcoe|a eoo auto|cs |||ea justacotc
|o uc cstao oo||tc|aodo co |as |otc||ctae|oocs uc oi|ceco dc |a eoodueta dc |os ot|os.
N|oquo aeto| cs eaaz dc eoot|o|a| c| i|ujo dc su aee|oo cxoaust|vacotc, y euaodo sc |c
|dc uc cx||uc o| uc o|zo |o uc o|zo co uo ocoto y co uo s|t|o a|t|eu|a|cs,
ucdc ota| o| |csoodc| uc o| o|oquoa |azoo, s|o eo|octc| co odo a|quoo |a
aectae|oo dc |os ot|os dc su c|sooa eoo eoctcotc. lc|o csto so|o va|c a|a |os
ascetos dc |a |otc|aee|oo d|a||a uc sc eoos|dc|ao eoo t||v|a|cs, oo a|a |o uc sc
juzqa |o|taotc co |a eoodueta dc uo aqcotc, a|a |o eua| s|c|c sc csc|a uc ucda
da| |azoocs s| sc |as |dco (oo eoos|dc|a|c aui oasta doodc csta oosc|vae|oo ucdc
a||ea|sc iuc|a dc |a eu|tu|a oee|dcota|,. lucsto uc c| da| |azoocs |ovo|ue|a a| aeto| co
c| su|o|st|o dc uoa cx||eae|oo vc|oa| dc |o uc od|ia qu|a| so|o ||ie|tacotc su
eoodueta, oay uoa i|oa |ioca cot|c |a |ae|ooa||zae|oo, ta| eoo yo oc usado c| tc||oo,
y |a |ae|ooa||zae|oo s|qo|i|eaodo c| da| ia|sas |azoocs dcsucs dc uo cvcoto. L| da|
|azoocs sc cot|c|aza iot|acotc eoo |a cva|uae|oo dc |a |csoosao|||dad o|a| o| |os
aetos, y o| eoos|qu|cotc sc |csta iae||cotc a| d|s|u|o o a| coqao. Aecta| csto uc
aeaoo dc sca|a|, s|o coa|qo, co aoc|a a|quoa cs |o |so uc sostcoc| uc todas
|as |azoocs soo c|acotc cx||eae|oocs dc ||oe||o oi|ce|das o| |os aeto|cs aec|ea
dc |o uc oaeco, a |a |uz dc eaooocs aectados dc |csoosao|||dad, |odccod|cotccotc
dc uc cstos oayao cstado |oe|u|dos co a|quo scot|do co sus |oecdc|cs.
lay dos scot|dos scquo |os eua|cs |os aeto|cs ucdco sostcoc| uc sus |azoocs soo
va||das, y su coeajc |cei|oeo cs dc oo cucas eoosceucoe|as co |a v|da soe|a|. Lo
c| ||c|o sc |aotca oasta uc uoto |as |azoocs cxucstas o| uo aqcotc cx|csao co
&!
juzqa| soo|c uoa d|seus|oo ostc||o| co uo o|vc| aost|aeto, dcocos eoos|dc|a| aotc
todo dos ascetos dcsdc |os eua|cs |a eoodueta dc |os aeto|cs ucdc sc| oaea a|a
c||os |sos: ||c|o, c| dc |a ot|vae|oo, y scquodo, c| dc |as |o|cdadcs cst|uetu|a-
|cs dc |a |otc|aee|oo.
La mot|vac|on de |a acc|on
Coctc|iaos uo c||o| s| suus|c|aos uc |as csce|cs dc cx||eae|oocs uc |os aeto-
|cs ouseao y aect ao |cscet o dc | a eooduet a dc | os ot |os cst ao | | | t adas a | a
|ae|ooa||zae|oo dc |a eoodueta, cs dce|| co euaoto sc |csuc uc c| aeto| eo|codc
adceuadacotc |o uc csta oae|codo y o| uc |o csta oae|codo. Lo c| |coquajc eo|||co-
tc, eoo oc coe|ooado aotcs, |as |azoocs oo cstao e|a|acotc d|st|oqu|das dc |os
ot|vos, uoo od|ia |cquota|: _Cua| iuc su |azoo a|a oaec| x? eoo uo cu|va|cotc
dc _Cua| iuc su ot|vo a|a oaec| x? S|o coa|qo, sc |ceoooec uc |cquota| o| |os
ot|vos dc a|qu|co a|a aetua| eoo |o oaec cs otcoe|a|cotc ousea| c|ccotos co su
eoodueta dc |os uc c| |so ucdc oo tcoc| |coa eooe|coe|a. Ls o| csto, a | ju|e|o,
uc c| tc||oo ot|vos |oeoose|cotcs oo |csu|ta a|t|eu|a|cotc v|o|coto co c| |coquajc
eo|||cotc, |cot|as uc a|cec coos iae|| aecta| |azoocs |oeoose|cotcs. V| uso dc
ot|vae|oo, o| eoos|qu|cotc, eoo |cic|coe|a a dcscos dc |os uc uo aeto| ucdc o oo
sc| eoose|cotc, o so|o ucdc vo|vc| eoose|cotcs dcsucs dc oaoc| |ca||zado c| aeto a|
uc uo ot|vo a|t|eu|a| sc |ci|c|c, dc oceoo sc ajusta o|co a| uso dc |os |cqos.
ta ot|vae|oo ouaoa ucdc sc| adceuadacotc eooeco|da eoo suoo|d|oada a uo
o|dco jc|a|u|eo, taoto co uo scot|do dc dcsa||o||o eoo co iuoe|oo dc |a d|st||oue|oo dc
|os dcscos co eua|u|c| t|co dado co |a v|da dc uoa c|sooa. uo |oiaotc oo cs uo sc|
eaaz dc |ci|cx|v|dad: |a eaae|dad dc eoot|o| dc |as |o|as aet|v|dadcs sc |cd|ea i||c
y iuodacota|cotc co |c|ae|oo eoo c| do|o|o dc| |coquajc, auouc csto oo cxe|uyc |a
os|o|c a||eae|oo dc |a tcs|s dc Vcad dc uc |a |ci|cx|v|dad csta iuodada co su o|vc|
as |||t|vo co |a |ce||oe|dad dc |as |c|ae|oocs soe|a|cs du|aotc |a |otc|aee|oo dc|
|oiaotc eoo |os ot|os |co|os dc| q|uo ia|||a|. Aoo|a o|co: auouc c| |oiaotc uy
cuco ucdc eoooec| uoas oeas a|ao|as, uc s||vco eoo s|qoos co su |otc|aee|oo
eoo ot|os, uo o|o oo a|eaoza a||a oscs|oo dc |as dcst|czas ||oquist|eas, o uo do|-
o|o dc |as eo|cj|dadcs dc |a tc||oo|oqia dcost|at|va dc| yo, c| i, c| tu oasta
uoa cdad uc csta cot|c |os dos y |os t|cs aos. So|o euaodo csto oeu||c t|coc |a eaa-
e|dad, o sc csc|a uc vc|dad su eoot|o| dc |o uc o|zo, co c| ot|o oay uc |cquota|
&"
oasta uc uoto su cx||eae|oo sc eooio|a a |o uc qcoc|a|cotc cs |ceoooe|do, co su
ao|cotc soe|a|, eoo eoodueta |azooao|c. L| u|t|o scot|do, a su vcz, dccodc dc
autas dc e|ccoe|a as o coos d|iusacotc |otcq|adas a |as eua|cs |os aeto|cs sc
|ci|c|co eoo c| i|o dc dc||va| cx||eae|oocs iuodadas dc sus eooduetas |cei|oeas. to
uc Seoutz ||aa c| aeo|o dc eoooe||coto uc |os aeto|cs oscco, y uc a||eao co
|a |oduee|oo dc |a |otc|aee|oo, euo|c co |ca||dad dos c|ccotos aoa|it|eacotc sca|a-
o|cs. Lx|stc |o uc oc ||aado qcoc||eacotc eoooe||coto utuo, uc sc |ci|c|c a |os
csucas |otc||ctat|vos cd|aotc |os eua|cs |os aeto|cs eoost|tuyco y eo|codco |a
v|da soe|a| eoo s|qo|i|eat|va, csto ucdc d|st|oqu||sc dc |o uc ||aa|c c| scot|do eo-
uo, as|o|c dc eoos|dc|a||o eo|cod|codo uo euc|o as o coos a|t|eu|ado dc
eoooe||coto tco||eo a| uc cs os|o|c |ceu|||| a|a cx||ea| o| uc |as eosas soo |o uc
soo, u oeu||co eoo |o oaeco, co c| uodo oatu|a| y co c| soe|a|.
tas e|ccoe|as dc| scot|do eouo auota|ao ti|eacotc c| eoooe||coto utuo uc cs
ao|tado co eua|u|c| coeucot|o o| |os a|t|e|aotcs, cstc u|t|o dccodc co io|a
oas|ea dc uo a|eo dc scqu||dad ooto|oq|ea |ov|sto o| c| scot|do eouo. Lo odo
a|quoo c| scot|do eouo t|coc so|acotc uo ea|aetc| |aet|eo eoo c| eoooe||coto dc
uo ||o|o dc eoe|oa. No|a|cotc, co e|c|ta cd|da sustaoe|a| sc dc||va y |csoodc a |as
aet|v|dadcs dc |os cxc|tos, uc |ca||zao |a eoot||oue|oo as d||ceta a |a |ae|ooa||zae|oo
cx|ie|ta dc |a eu|tu|a. tos cxc|tos |oe|uyco a todos |os uc t|coco |a auto||dad y |a
cot|ada ||v||cq|ada a |os do|o|os dc| eoooe||coto csce|a||zado: saec|dotcs, aqos,
e|cotii|eos, i||osoios. L| scot|do eouo, o| e|c|to, cs co a|tc c| eoooe||coto aeuu|a-
do dc |os |cqos, c|o |as e|ccoe|as dc| scot|do eouo |ci|cjao y coea|oao tao|co |as
c|scet|vas dcsa||o||adas o| |os cxc|tos. Coo sca|a Lvaos-l||teoa|d, c| |cqo dc |a
eu|tu|a cu|oca eoos|dc|a |a ||uv|a eoo c| |csu|tado dc eausas oatu|a|cs uc ucdco
sc| cxucstas o| uo ctco|o|oqo, auouc cs ||ooao|c uc c| |so ucda oi|cec|
a|qo as uc uoa cx||eae|oo |ud|cota||a dc csta csce|c, uo azaodc ea|aetc||za |os
o|iqcocs dc |a ||uv|a dcot|o dc uoa eoso|oqia d|ic|cotc.
ta |ae|ooa||zae|oo dc |a aee|oo o| |a via dc| scot|do eouo cs uo icoocoo dc vasto
a|eaoec co soe|o|oqia, ucs |os |o|os e|cotii|eos soe|a|cs |ctcodco sc| cxc|tos uc
|ovcco eoooe||coto auto||zado. Lo eoosceucoe|a, sc |aotca |a eucst|oo e|ue|a|:
_Lo uc scot|do |os aeo|os dc eoooe||coto, uc |os aeto|cs c|cao a|a eoost|tu||
o da| cx|stcoe|a a |a |sa soe|cdad uc cs c| oojcto dc aoa||s|s, soo eo||cq|o|cs a |a |uz
dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo y |a tco|ia soe|o|oq|eas (aq. 1s1 y s|qs.,? S|o |c |a tcoqa, dc a|eao-
&#
za| |os |ud|cotos dc |a iaeu|tad dc eoot|o|a| su |o|a eoodueta co uoa io|a aiio eoo
|a dc uo adu|to, y dc cxaod|| dc cstc odo c| eoot|o| |ae|ooa| uc ucdc cjc|ec| soo|c
auc||a. lc|o auouc uo o|o oo oaec eoo sc| |ci|cx|vo, oaec eoo dcscos, eoo uo
eoojuoto dc ocecs|dadcs o|qao|eas a|a euya |ov|s|oo dccodc dc ot|os, uc cd|ao
co su e|ce|cotc |oeo|o|ae|oo a uo uodo soe|a| dci|o|do. Lo eoosceucoe|a, sc ucdc
|csu|| uc c| c||odo as tc|aoo dc |a soe|a||zae|oo |||ea c| dcsa||o||o dc |a
eaae|dad dc| |oiaotc a|a c| aocjo dc |a tcos|oo, cd|aotc |o eua| |oq|a aet|vacotc
|a at|tud a|a aeooda| sus dcscos a |as dcaodas o |as cxcetat|vas dc |os ot|os
(ka|d|oc| ||aa a csto |a io|ae|oo dc uo s|stca dc scqu||dad oas|ea,. Dado uc |os
odos dc aocja| |as ocecs|dadcs o|qao|eas |c|cscotao |a ||c|a aeoodae|oo uc
c| o|o cicetua co c| uodo, y co uo scot|do |o|taotc, |a dc ax|o a|eaoec, a|cec
|cqit|o suooc| uc uo s|stca dc scqu||dad oas|ea o sca, uo |||t|vo o|vc| dc
aocjo dc |as tcos|oocs co|a|zadas co |as ocecs|dadcs o|qao|eas s|quc s|codo ecot|a|
co c| dcsa||o||o ostc||o| dc |a c|sooa||dad, y dado uc cstos |oecsos oeu||co co
||c| tc||oo aotcs uc c| o|o adu|c|a |as dcst|czas ocecsa||as a|a eoot|o|a| eoos-
e|cotccotc su a|cod|zajc, a|cec |cqit|o ai||a| uc cstao o| dcoajo dc| uo|a| dc
auc||os ascetos dc |a eoodueta uc, a|cod|dos ostc||o|cotc y co eoojuoe|oo eoo c|
eoot|o| |ci|cx|vo dc csc a|cod|zajc, soo iae||cotc vc|oa||zados y asi oceoos eoos-
e|cotcs o| c| o|o ayo| o c| adu|to. S|o coa|qo, |oe|uso c| a|cod|zajc as tc|aoo
dc| |oiaotc cs cotcod|do co uo scot|do c||ooco, s| sc |o eooe|oc eoo uoa c|a adata-
e|oo a uo uodo cxtc|oo dado aot|e|adacotc, c| |oiaotc cs dcsdc |os ||c|os dias dc
su v|da uo sc| uc o|dca aet|vacotc |os a|eos dc su |otc|aee|oo eoo |os ot|os y uc,
tco|codo dcscos uc co a|quoa e||euostaoe|a vao a eooea| eoo |os dc |os ot|os, ucdc
||cqa| a coeoot|a|sc |ovo|ue|ado co eooi||etos dc |otc|cscs eoo c||os.
Cuc |as ocecs|dadcs ouaoas cstao jc|a|u|eacotc o|dcoadas, |oe|uycodo eoo oue|co
uo s|stca dc scqu||dad oas|ea uc co q|ao a|tc cs |oaeecs|o|c a |a eooe|coe|a dc| aeto|
cs, o| suucsto, uoa ai||ae|oo oo |oeoot|ovc|t|o|c y uc t|coc ueoos uotos co eouo
eoo c| coias|s qcoc|a| dc |a tco|ia s|eoaoa|it|ea, c|o csto oo |||ea uo eo|o|so eoo
|os c|ccotos as dcta||ados dc| csuca tco||eo o tc|acut|eo dc l|cud.
L| aotco||coto dc uo a|eo dc scqu||dad ooto|oq|ea cs, eoo ot|os ascetos dc |a
v|da soe|a|, uoa |ca||zae|oo eoot|oua dc |os aeto|cs |cqos. Dcot|o dc |a |oduee|oo dc |os
odos dc |otc|aee|oo co |os eua|cs c| eoooe||coto utuo |cuc||do a|a sostcoc| csa
|otc|aee|oo cs oo |oo|cat|eo, y o| eoos|qu|cotc sc |o ucdc da| o| scotado co
&$
q|ao a|tc, |a scqu||dad ooto|oq|ea csta iuodada |ut|oa||acotc. tas s|tuae|oocs e||t|-
eas sc vc||i|eao euaodo ta| iuodacoto |ut|oa||o ucda |ad|ea|cotc d|s|oeado, y euao-
do co eoosceucoe|a |as dcst|czas eoost|tuycotcs aeostuo|adas dc |os aeto|cs ya oo
coq|aoao eoo |os eooocotcs ot|vae|ooa|cs dc su aee|oo. ta scqu||dad dc sc|, uc
co q|ao cd|da cs aectada s|o eucst|ooa|coto co |a ayo|ia dc |as io|as d|a||as dc
|a v|da soe|a|, |csu|ta asi dc dos t|os |c|ae|ooados cot|c si: c| sostco||coto dc uo
o|dco pisiivaneie o|dcoado dc| sc| y dc| ot|o, y c| aotco||coto dc uo o|dco
cicet|vo co c| aocjo dc |as ocecs|dadcs suojct|vas. tas tcos|oocs y ao|va|coe|as co
|a ot|vae|oo ucdco dc||va| dc uoa u ot|a dc cstas iucotcs, y eoo ta|cs sc| aoa||zadas
eoo eooi||etos dcot|o y cot|c |as eaas co |a cst|at|i|eae|oo dc d|eoas ocecs|dadcs.
&%
Lectura comp|ementar|a N

4
Tomada de: Pierre Bourdieu y otros. El oficio del socilogo.
Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI, 1975 pgs. 51-81.
La conatrucc|on de| oojeto
||. B| hecho ae conatruye. |aa tormaa de |a renunc|a emp|r|ata
L| uoto dc v|sta d|ec Saossu|c e|ca c| oojcto. Ls dce|| uc uoa e|coe|a oo od|ia
dci|o||sc o| uo sceto| dc |o |ca| uc |c eo||csoodc|ia eoo |o|o. Coo |o sca|a Va|x, |a
tota||dad eooe|cta, eoo tota||dad dc| cosa|coto, eoo uo eooe|cto dc| cosa|coto cs,
ii Ia, uo |odueto dc| cosa|coto y dc |a eooece|oo j...[. L| todo, ta| eoo aa|cec co |a
cotc, eoo todo dc| cosa|coto, cs uo |odueto dc |a cotc uc |cosa y uc sc a|o|a
c| uodo dc| uo|eo odo os|o|c, odo uc d|i|c|c dc |a a|o|ae|oo dc csc uodo co c| a|tc,
|a |c||q|oo, c| csi||tu |aet|eo. L| sujcto |ca| aot|coc, aotcs eoo dcsucs, su autoooia
iuc|a dc |a cotc j...[
1
. jK. Mar, e i ?c[. Ls c| |so ||oe||o c|stco|oq|eo, |ost|u-
coto dc |a |utu|a eoo c| |ca||so |oqcouo, uc io|u|a Vax wcoc|: No soo d|ec Vax
wcoc| |as |c|ae|oocs |ca|cs cot|c eosas |o uc eoost|tuyc c| ||oe||o dc dc|||tae|oo dc
|os d|ic|cotcs eaos e|cotii|eos s|oo |as |c|ae|oocs eooectua|cs cot|c |oo|cas. So|o a||i
doodc sc a||ea uo ctodo oucvo a oucvos |oo|cas y doodc, o| |o taoto, sc dcseuo|co
oucvas c|scet|vas oaec uoa e|coe|a oucva
z
jMa eier, e i.

?![.
loe|uso s| |as e|coe|as iis|eas c||tco a vcecs |a d|v|s|oo co suouo|dadcs dctc||oadas,
eoo |a sc|cooq|aiia o |a oecaooq|aiia, o| |a yuxtaos|e|oo dc d|vc|sas d|se|||oas |cic||-
das a uo |so sceto| dc |o |ca|, cs so|o eoo i|ocs |aqat|eos: |a |ovcst|qae|oo e|cotii|ea
sc o|qao|za dc oceoo co to|oo dc oojctos eoost|u|dos uc oo t|coco oada co eouo eoo
auc||as uo|dadcs dc|||tadas o| |a c|ece|oo |oqcoua. lucdco vc|sc |os |azos uc atao
1 Va|x, ka||. lot|oduet|oo qcoc|a|c a |a e||t|uc dc l'ceooo|c o||t|uc (t|ad. V. uoc| y t. Lv|a|d,, co
Diras, t. l, Ga|||a|d, la|is, 1us, . zss - zs. Lo eastc||aoo vcasc Va|x, ka||. Leneis I:iuanei-
aes jara a r:ia ue a ein:a j:ia, vo|. l, uucoos A||cs: S|q|o xxl, 1u1, . zz.
z wcoc|, V. Lssais s:r a ierie ue a sieie, j. i., . 1!.
&&
auo |a soe|o|oqia e|cotii|ea a |as eatcqo|ias dc |a soe|o|oqia csootaoca co c| oceoo dc
uc a coudo sc dcd|ea a e|as|i|eae|oocs o| sceto|cs aa|cotcs, o| cjc|o, soe|o|oqia
dc |a ia|||a, soe|o|oqia dc| t|co ||o|c, soe|o|oqia |u|a| o u|oaoa, soe|o|oqia dc |a juvco-
tud o dc |a vcjcz. Lo qcoc|a|, |a c|stco|oqia c|||sta eooe|oc |as |c|ae|oocs cot|c
e|coe|as vce|oas, s|eo|oqia y soe|o|oqia, o| cjc|o, eoo eooi||etos dc |i|tcs, o|uc
sc |aq|oa |a d|v|s|oo e|cotii|ea dc| t|aoajo eoo d|v|s|oo |ca| dc |o |ca|.
Ls os|o|c vc| co c| ||oe||o du|soc||aoo scquo c| eua| oay uc eoos|dc|a| |os oceoos
soe|a|cs eoo eosas (sc dcoc ooc| c| aecoto co eoos|dc|a| eoo, c| cu|va|cotc csc-
eii|eo dc| qo|c dc cstado tco||eo o| c| eua| Ga|||co eoost|uyc c| oojcto dc |a iis|ea odc|-
oa eoo s|stca dc |c|ae|oocs euaot|i|eao|cs, o dc |a dce|s|oo ctodo|oq|ea o| |a eua|
Saussu|c oto|qa a |a ||oquist|ea su cx|stcoe|a y oojcto d|st|oqu|codo |a |coqua dc |a a|a-
o|a: co ciceto, cs uoa d|st|oe|oo sccjaotc |a uc io|u|a Du|soc| euaodo, cx||e|taodo
tota|cotc |a s|qo|i|eae|oo c|stco|oq|ea dc |a |cq|a ea|d|oa| dc su ctodo, ai||a uc
o|oquoa dc |as |cq|as ||ie|tas uc |oe|uyco |os sujctos soe|a|cs sc coeucot|a iotcq|a-
cotc co |as a||eae|oocs uc dc c||as oaeco |os a|t|eu|a|cs, ya uc |oe|uso ucdco csta|
s|o uc |as a||uco co aeto
s
. L| scquodo |ciae|o dc Las repas d|ec e|a|acotc uc sc
t|ata dc |ce|sa| uoa aet|tud cota| y oo dc as|qoa| a| oojcto uo sa:s ooto|oq|eo jLnie
D:riein, e i.

??[. Y s| csta suc|tc dc tauto|oqia, o| |a eua| |a e|coe|a sc eoost|uyc
eoost|uycodo su oojcto eoot|a c| scot|do eouo s|qu|codo |os ||oe||os dc eoost|uee|oo
uc |a dci|oco, oo sc |ooc o| su so|a cv|dcoe|a, cs o|uc oada sc oooc as a |as
cv|dcoe|as dc| scot|do eouo uc |a d|ic|coe|a cot|c oojcto |ca|, |ceoost|u|do o| |a
c|ece|oo y oojcto e|cotii|eo, eoo s|stca dc |c|ae|oocs cx|csacotc eoost|u|do
!
.
No cs os|o|c aoo||a| csiuc|zos co |a ta|ca dc eoost|u|| c| oojcto s| oo sc aoaodooa |a
|ovcst|qae|oo dc csos oojctos |ceoost|u|dos, oceoos soe|a|cs dca|eados, c|e|o|dos
y ea||i|eados o| |a soe|o|oqia csootaoca
s
, o |oo|cas soe|a|cs euya as||ae|oo a
s Du|soc|, L|lc. Les repes ue a rieiue sipi:e, z cd|e. |cv|sada y aucotada, la|is, l. A|eao:
1uo1, e|tado scquo |a 1s cd. dc lul, la|is, 1us, . u. jlay cd. cs.: Las repas ue neu sipi-
, uucoos A||cs: Seoa||c, |us.[
! Ls, s|o duda, o|uc |a s|tuae|oo dc eo|cozo o dc |ceo|cozo sc eucota cot|c |as as iavo|ao|cs a |a
cx||e|tae|oo dc |os ||oe||os dc eoost|uee|oo uc ea|aetc||zao a uoa e|coe|a, uc |a a|qucotae|oo
o|c|ea dcs|cqada o| |os du|soc||stas a|a |ooc| c| ||oe||o dc |a csce|i|e|dad dc |os oceoos
soe|a|cs eoosc|va, auo ooy, uo va|o| uc oo cs so|o a|uco|oq|eo.
s Vueoos soe|o|oqos ||oe||aotcs oo|ao eoo s| oasta|a da|sc uo oojcto dotado dc |ca||dad soe|a| a|a
oscc|, a| |so t|co, uo oojcto dotado dc |ca||dad soe|o|oq|ea: dcjaodo a uo |ado |as |oouc|ao|cs
oooq|aiias dc a|dca, od|iao e|ta|sc todos csos tcas dc |ovcst|qae|oo uc oo t|coco ot|a |oo|ca-
t|ea uc |a u|a y s||c uesipiaii dc q|uos soe|a|cs o dc |oo|cas c|e|o|dos o| |a eooe|coe|a
eouo, co uo ocoto dado.
&'
cx|st|| eoo |oo|cas soe|o|oq|eos cs taoto as q|aodc euaoto as |ca||dad soe|a|
t|coco a|a |a eouo|dad dc soe|o|oqos
. No oasta u|t|||ea| c| aeo|a|coto dc e||tc-

||os toados dc |a cxc||coe|a eouo (|coscsc co todos csos tcas dc |ovcst|qae|oo
dc| t|o c| oe|o dc |os ado|csecotcs dc uo eo|cjo u|oaoist|eo co |a zooa cstc dc |a
c||ic||a dc la|is, a|a eoost|u|| uo oojcto uc, |odueto dc uoa sc||c dc d|v|s|oocs
|ca|cs, c|aocec eoo uo oojcto eouo y oo aeecdc a |a d|qo|dad dc oojcto e|cotii|eo
justacotc o|uc sc soctc a |a a||eae|oo dc tceo|eas e|cotii|eas. S|o duda uc A||co
l. ua|too y lau| l. taza|sic|d t|coco |azoo euaodo sca|ao uc cx|cs|oocs ta|cs eoo
eoosuo ou|coto o wo|tc-eo||a| e||c eoost|uyco oojctos csceii|eos uc, |||cduet|o|cs
a |os oojctos eouocs, toao co eoos|dc|ae|oo oceoos eoooe|dos, |os uc o| c| s||c
ciceto dc a|ox|ae|oo, adu|c|co uo scot|do oucvo
, c|o |a ocecs|dad dc eoost|u||

dcoo|oae|oocs csceii|eas uc, auo eoucstas eoo a|ao|as dc| voeaou|a||o eouo,
eoost|uyco oucvos oojctos a| cstao|cec| oucvas |c|ae|oocs cot|c |os ascetos dc |as
eosas oo cs as uc uo |od|e|o dc| ||c| q|ado dc |a |utu|a c|stco|oq|ea eoo |os
oojctos |ceoost|u|dos dc |a soe|o|oqia csootaoca. Lo ciceto, |os eooectos uc uc-
dco suc|a| a |as ooe|oocs eouocs oo eoosc|vao a|s|adacotc c| odc| dc |cs|st||
s|stcat|eacotc a |a ||aeao|c |oq|ea dc |a |dco|oqia: a| ||qo| aoa|it|eo y io|a| dc |os
eooectos ||aados oc|ato||os sc oooc c| ||qo| s|otct|eo y |ca| dc |os eooectos uc
sc oao ||aado s|stcat|eos o|uc su ut|||zae|oo suooc |a |cic|coe|a c|aocotc a|
s|stca tota| dc sus |otc||c|ae|oocs
s
. uo oojcto dc |ovcst|qae|oo, o| as a|e|a| y
a|ec|a||o uc sca, oo ucdc sc| dci|o|do y eoost|u|do s|oo co iuoe|oo dc uoa jriena-
No cs easua||dad s| sceto|cs dc |a soe|o|oqia, eoo c| cstud|o dc |os cd|os dc eouo|eae|oo odc|-
oos o dc| t| co | | o|c, soo | os as c|cao| cs a | as |oo| cat| eas y csucas dc | a soe| o| oqia
csootaoca: adcas dc uc csos oojctos cx|stco ya co taoto uc tcas oo||qados dc |a eoovc|sae|oo
eouo soo|c |a soe|cdad odc|oa, dcoco su ea|qa |dco|oq|ea a| oceoo uc cs eoo c| |so uc sc
|c|ae|ooa c| |otc|cetua| euaodo cstud|a |a |c|ae|oo dc |as e|ascs ou|a|cs eoo |a eu|tu|a. ta |c|ae|oo dc|
|otc|cetua| eoo |a eu|tu|a coe|c||a todo c| |oo|ca dc su |c|ae|oo eoo |a eood|e|oo dc |otc|cetua|, ouoea
tao d|aat|eacotc |aotcada eoo co c| |oo|ca dc su |c|ae|oo eoo |as e|ascs ou|a|cs eoo
e|ascs dcs|ov|stas dc eu|tu|a.
ua|too, A. l. y taza|sic|d, l. l. Soc luoet|oos oi Cua||tat|vc Aoa|ys|s |o Soe|a| csca|eo, co t|sct,
S. V. y Sc|sc|, N. J. (cds.,. Sipy: 1ie Irpress I a Deaue, l|cot|ec la||, Loq|cWood C||iis
(N.J.,, 1u1, . us-1zz.
s tos eooectos y |oos|e|oocs dci|o|dos cxe|us|vacotc o| su ea|aetc| oc|ato||o ucdco oo sc|
as uc | a io|u| ae| oo | oq| eacotc | ||c|oeoao| c dc |coo| e| oocs y, o| cstc ot| vo, soo a | os
eooectos s|stcat|eos y |oos|e|oocs tco||eas |o uc c| oojcto |ceoost|u|do cs a| oojcto eoost|u|do.
A| ooc| c| aecoto cxe|us|vacotc co c| ea|aetc| oc|ae|ooa| dc |as dci|o|e|oocs, sc eo||c c| c||q|o dc
toa| uoa s||c tc||oo|oqia e|as|i|eato||a, eoo oaec S. C. Dodd (Dineisiis I Siey, NcW Yo|s,
1u!z, u Cc|at|ooa| Dci|o|t|oos Cc|at|ooa||y Dci|ocd, 4neriai J:ria I Sipy, xtvlll, 1u!z-
1u!s, . !sz-!su, o| uoa vc|dadc|a tco|ia, aoaodooaodo a|a uoa |ovcst|qae|oo u|tc||o| c| |oo|ca
dc |a s|stcat|e|dad dc |os eooectos |oucstos y auo dc su iceuod|dad tco||ea. Coo |o suo|aya
C.G. lcc|, ||v||cq|aodo |as dci|o|e|oocs oc|ae|ooa|cs co dct||coto dc |as cx|qcoe|as tco||eas,
|a ||tc|atu|a ctodo|oq|ea eoosaq|ada a |as e|coe|as soe|a|cs t|codc a suqc||| uc |a soe|o|oqia tcod|ia
'
ia eria uc c||ta soctc| a uo s|stcat|eo cxaco todos |os ascetos dc |a
|ca||dad ucstos co |c|ae|oo o| |os |oo|cas uc |c soo |aotcados.
||-1. Lns nhoionoioues oei emirismo
Lo |a aetua||dad sc eo|oe|dc dcas|ado iae||cotc eoo toda |a |ci|cx|oo t|ad|e|ooa| soo|c
|a e|coe|a, co c| scot|do dc uc oo oay oosc|vae|oo o cxc||cotae|oo uc oo |||uco
o|otcs|s. ta dci|o|e|oo dc| |oecso e|cotii|eo eoo d|a|oqo cot|c o|otcs|s y cxc||co-
e|a, s|o coa|qo, ucdc |coaja|sc a |a |aqco aot|ooo|i|ea dc uo |otc|eao|o co uc
|os dos soe|os asu||iao |o|cs c|icetacotc s|ct||eos c |otc|eao|ao|cs, c|o oo oay
uc o|v|da| uc |o |ca| oo t|coc ouoea |a |o|e|at|va ucsto uc so|o ucdc |csoodc| s| sc
|o |otc||oqa. uaeoc|a|d sostcoia, co ot|os tc||oos, uc c| vceto| c|stco|oq|eo j...[ va
dc |o |ae|ooa| a |o |ca| y oo a |a |ovc|sa, dc |a |ca||dad a |o qcoc|a|, eoo |o |oicsaoao
todos |os i||osoios dcsdc A||stotc|cs oasta uaeoo jCasi S:iearu, e i. ?a[.
S| oay uc |ceo|da| uc |a tco|ia do|oa a| t|aoajo cxc||cota| dcsdc |a |sa eooec-
e|oo dc a|t|da oasta |as u|t|as ao|u|ae|oocs dc |aoo|ato||o
u
, o auo as uc s|o tco|ia
oo cs os|o|c ajusta| o|oquo |ost|ucoto o| |otc||cta| uoa so|a |cetu|a
1o
cs o|uc |a |c|c-
scotae|oo dc |a cxc||coe|a eoo |otoeo|o dc uoa eo|ooae|oo ||o|c dc toda |||eae|oo
tco||ea dcja t|as|ue|| co ||cs dc |od|e|os, o| cjc|o co |a eoov|ee|oo, todavia uy cxtco-
d|da, dc uc cx|stco oceoos uc od|iao t|asecodc| ta| eoo soo a |a tco|ia a|a |a eua| y
o| |a eua| iuc|oo e|cados. S|o coa|qo, c| dcsaio|tuoado dcst|oo dc |a ooe|oo dc totc|so
(uc tcv|-St|auss eoa|a a| dc o|stc||a, oasta|ia a|a dcst|u|| |a e|ccoe|a co |a |oo|ta||-
dad e|cotii|ea dc |os oceoos: uoa vcz aoaodooada |a tco|ia uc |os uoia, |os oceoos dc|
totc|so vuc|vco a su cstado dc datos dc doodc uoa tco|ia |os oaoia saeado o| uo
t|co y dc doodc ot|a tco|ia oo od|a saea||os as uc eooi|||codo|cs ot|o scot|do
11
.
uc |ovcc|sc, a|a |ca|a| su o|vco|| dc d|se|||oa e|cotii|ea, dc uoa a||a eoo os|o|c qaa dc
tc||oos oc|ae|ooa|cotc dci|o|dos y dc uo c|co eoostaotc y uoivoeo, eoo s| |a io|ae|oo dc
|os eooectos e|cotii|eos ud|c|a sc| sca|ada dc |a c|aoo|ae|oo tco||ea. Ls |a io|u|ae|oo dc s|stcas
eooectua| cs dotados dc uoa c|t| ocoe| a tco|| ea | o uc sc c| ca co c| |oq|cso e| cotii| eo: ta| cs
io|u|ae|oocs cx|qco c| dcseuo|||coto tco||eo euyo |c|at|vo c|||sta u oc|ae|ooa||sta dc |a c|-
t|ocoe|a ci||ea j...[ oo od|ia da|sc o| si so|o (lcc|, C.G. I:iuaneias I Ciej Irnaii ii
Lnjiria Heseari, Co|eaqo: toodoo: uo|vc|s|ty oi Co|eaqo l|css, 1usz, . !,.
u loc|, k. . 1ie Lpi I SieiiIi Disvery, j. i., . 1o.
1o Duoc, l. La ierie jiysi:e, j. i., . z.
11 tcv|-St|auss, C|audc. Le enisne a:j:rui:i, la|is: lul, 1uz, . joay cd. cs.[.
'
uasta oaoc| |otcotado uoa vcz soctc| a| aoa||s|s sceuoda||o uo atc||a| |ceoq|do co
iuoe|oo dc ot|a |oo|cat|ea, o| aa|cotccotc ocut|a| uc sc ucst|c, a|a saoc|
uc |os uaa as ||eos oo od|iao ouoea |csoodc| eo|cta y adceuadacotc a |os
|otc||oqaotcs a|a |os eua|cs y o| |os eua|cs oo oao s|do eoost|u|dos. No sc t|ata dc
|uqoa| o| ||oe||o |a va||dcz dc |a ut|||zae|oo dc uo atc||a| dc scquoda aoo s|oo
dc |ceo|da| |as eood|e|oocs c|stco|oq|eas dc csc t|aoajo dc rerau:ii, uc sc
|ci|c|c s|c|c a oceoos eoost|u|dos (o|co o a|, y oo a datos. 1a| t|aoajo dc |otc||c-
tae|oo, dc| eua| Du|soc| d|o ya c| cjc|o co L s:iiui, od|ia eoost|tu|| |a cjo|
|oe|tae|oo a |a v|q||aoe|a c|stco|oq|ea co |a cd|da co uc cx|qc uoa cx||e|tae|oo
ctod|ea dc |as |oo|cat|eas y ||oe||os dc eoost|uee|oo dc| oojcto uc cstao eo-
|cod|dos taoto co c| atc||a| eoo co c| oucvo t|ata|coto uc sc |c a||ea. tos uc
csc|ao ||aq|os dc |a t|iada it|ea, ariivs, uaa y nj:ers dcseoooeco |o uc
sca|a a csos oojctos |ceoost|u|dos ||aados oceoos e|cotii|eos (|ceoq|dos o| c|
eucst|ooa||o o o| c| |ovcota||o ctooq|ai|eo, dc |os oojctos |ca|cs uc eoosc|vao |os
uscos y uc, o| su cxecdcotc eooe|cto, oi|ceco a |a |odaqae|oo ostc||o| |a os|o|-
||dad dc eoost|uee|oocs |odci|o|dacotc |coovadas. A| oo tcoc| co eucota csos jrei-
niiares ejisenpis, sc csta cxucsto a eoos|dc|a| dc odo d|ic|cotc |o |dcot|eo
c |dcot|i|ea| |o d|ic|cotc, a eoa|a| |o |oeoa|ao|c y a o|t|| eoa|a| |o eoa|a-
o|c, o| c| oceoo dc uc co soe|o|oqia |os datos, auo |os as oojct|vos, sc oot|coco
o| |a a||eae|oo dc cstadist|eas (euad|os dc cdad, o|vc| dc |oq|csos, cte., uc |||-
eao suucstos tco||eos y o| |o |so dcjao cseaa| |oio|ae|oo uc ouo|c|a od|do
eata| ot|a eoost|uee|oo dc |os oceoos
1z
. L| os|t|v|so, uc eoos|dc|a |os oceoos
eoo datos, sc |||ta ya sca a |c|otc||ctae|oocs |oeoosceucotcs, o|uc cstas sc
dcseoooeco eoo ta|cs, ya sca a s||cs eooi||ae|oocs ootco|das co eood|e|oocs
tceo|eas tao sccjaotcs eoo sca os|o|c: co todos |os easos cicetua |a |ci|cx|oo
ctodo|oq|ea soo|c |as eood|e|oocs dc |c|tc|ao|||dad eoo uo sust|tuto dc |a |ci|cx|oo
c|stco|oq|ea soo|c |a |c|otc||ctae|oo sceuoda||a.
So|o uoa |aqco ut||ada dc| |oecso cxc||cota| ucdc oaec| dc |a suoo|d|oae|oo a
|os oceoos c| |c|at|vo uo|eo. Lsce|a||sta dc uoa e|coe|a |uqoada, c| soe|o|oqo
csta a|t|eu|a|cotc |oe||oado a |cai||a| c| ea|aetc| e|cotii|eo dc su d|se|||oa soo|cva-
|o|aodo |os ao|tcs uc c||a oi|cec a |as e|coe|as dc |a oatu|a|cza. c|otc||ctado scquo
1z Ci|. uou|d|cu, l. y lassc|oo, J.C. ta eoa|ao|||tc dcs systccs dcdueat|oo, co . Castcl y J. C.
lassc|oo (cds.,, Lu:aii, ueriraie e uevejjnei, Cao|c|s du Ccot|c dc Soe|o|oq|c Lu|occooc,
o. !, Voutoo, la|is, ta laya, 1u, . zo-ss.
'
uoa |oq|ea uc oo cs ot|a uc |a dc |a oc|coe|a eu|tu|a|, c| |c|at|vo e|cotii|eo dc |a
suoo|d|oae|oo a| oceoo dcscooea co |a |couoe|a u|a y s||c aotc c| dato. A csos
|aet|e|stas dc |as e|coe|as dc| ooo|c uc t|coco uoa ic oeo eouo co |o uc N|ctzseoc
||aaoa c| doqa dc |a |oaeu|ada c|ece|oo, cs |ce|so |ceo|da||cs, eoo A|cxaod|c
koy|c, uc |a cxc||coe|a, co c| scot|do dc cxc||coe|a o|uta, oo dcscco o|oquo |o|,
eoo oo iuc|a c| dc oostaeu|o co c| oae||coto dc |a e|coe|a e|as|ea
1s
.
Ceu||c, co ciceto, eoo s| c| c|||so |ad|ea| |ous|c|a eoo |dca| a| soe|o|oqo aou-
|a|sc eoo ta|. ta soe|o|oqia sc|ia coos vu|oc|ao|c a |as tcotae|oocs dc| c|||so s|
oastasc eoo |ceo|da||c, eoo dceia lo|oea|c, uc |os oceoos oo oao|ao. Cu|za |a
a|d|e|oo dc |as e|coe|as dc| ooo|c sca |a dc oeua|sc dc :i ije :e iaia. Lo
ciceto, euaodo c| soe|o|oqo u|c|c saea| dc |os oceoos |a |oo|cat|ea y |os eooectos
tco||eos uc |c c||tao eoost|u|||os y aoa||za||os, s|c|c eo||c c| ||csqo dc saea||os dc
|a ooea dc sus |oio|aotcs. No oasta eoo uc c| soe|o|oqo cseueoc a |os sujctos, |cq|s-
t|c i|c|cotc sus a|ao|as y |azoocs, a|a cx||ea| su eoodueta y auo |as just|i|eae|oocs
uc |oooco: a| oaec| csto, eo||c c| ||csqo dc sust|tu|| ||sa y ||aoacotc a sus |o|as
|cooe|oocs o| |as |cooe|oocs dc u|cocs cstud|a o o| uoa cze|a ia|sacotc e|coti-
i|ea y ia|sacotc oojct|va dc |a soe|o|oqia csootaoca dc| e|cotii|eo y dc |a soe|o|oqia
csootaoca dc su oojcto.
Co||qa|sc a aotcoc| a|a |odaqa| |o |ca| o |os ctodos dc eucst|ooa|coto dc |o |ca|
auc||os c|ccotos e|cados co |ca||dad o| uoa |odaqae|oo uc sc dcseoooec y sc o|cqa
eoo ta|, cs s|o duda |a cjo| aoc|a dc csta| cxucsto, ocqaodo uc |a eo|ooae|oo
suooc |a eoost|uee|oo, a eo|ooa| uoa oada uc sc oa eoost|u|do a csa| dc todo.
lod|iao da|sc e|cotos dc cjc|os co uc, e|cycodo sujcta|sc a |a ocut|a||dad a| |||ta|sc
a saea| dc| d|seu|so dc |os sujctos |os c|ccotos dc| eucst|ooa||o, c| soe|o|oqo |oooc, a|
ju|e|o dc cstos, ju|e|os io|u|ados o| ot|os sujctos y tc||oa o| e|as|i|ea||os eoo |c|ae|oo
a ju|e|os uc c| |so oo saoc e|as|i|ea| o a toa| o| cx|cs|oo dc uoa aet|tud |oiuoda
ju|e|os suc|i|e|a|cotc |ovoeados o| |a ocecs|dad dc |csoodc| a |cquotas |oocecsa-
||as. 1odavia as: c| soe|o|oqo uc o|cqa |a eoost|uee|oo eoot|o|ada y eoose|cotc dc su
d|staoe|a a |o |ca| y dc su aee|oo soo|c |o |ca|, ucdc oo so|o |ooc| a |os sujctos
1s A. koy|c, L:ues Caieeiies, l. 4 Ia:ie ue a sieie assi:e, lc|aoo, la|is, 1u!o, . . Y aq|cqa:
tas <cxc||coe|as> dc |as uc sc |ce|aa o oao|a dc |ce|aa|sc as ta|dc Ga|||co, auo |as uc cjceuta
|ca|cotc, oo soo o| oao|ao dc sc| ouoea as uc cxc||coe|as dc cosa|coto (|o|d., . z,.
'!
|cquotas uc su cxc||coe|a oo |cs |aotca y o|t|| |as uc co ciceto su|qco dc auc||as,
s|oo |oe|uso |aotca||cs, eoo toda |oqcou|dad, |as |cquotas uc sus |o|os |oos|tos |c
|aotcao, cd|aotc uoa eooius|oo os|t|v|sta cot|c |as |cquotas uc su|qco oojct|vacotc
y auc||as uc sc |aotcao eoose|cotccotc. L| soe|o|oqo oo saoc uc oaec| euaodo,
dcso||cotado o| uoa ia|sa i||osoiia dc |a oojct|v|dad, sc |oooc aou|a|sc co taoto ta|.
No oay oada as so||codcotc uc c| o|c|c|||so, uc |couoe|a a| dcoc| y a| dc|c-
eoo dc |a eoost|uee|oo tco||ea co |ovceoo dc |a soe|o|oqia csootaoca y |ccoeucot|a |a
i||osoiia csootaoca dc |a aee|oo ouaoa eoo cx|cs|oo dc uoa dc||oc|ae|oo eoose|co-
tc y vo|uota||a, t|aosa|cotc co si |sa: ouc|osas coeucstas dc ot|vae|oocs (soo|c
todo |ct|oscet|vas, suooco uc |os sujctos ucdao qua|da| co a|quo ocoto |a vc|-
dad oojct|va dc su eoo|ta|coto (y uc eoosc|vao eoot|ouacotc uoa co||a adc-
euada,, eoo s| |a |c|cscotae|oo uc |os sujctos sc oaeco dc sus dce|s|oocs o dc sus
aee|oocs oo dco|c|a oada a |as |ae|ooa||zae|oocs |ct|oscet|vas
1!
. Sc ucdco y sc dc-
oco, s|o duda, |ceoqc| |os d|seu|sos as |||ca|cs, c|o a eood|e|oo dc vc| co c||os oo |a
cx||eae|oo dc| eoo|ta|coto s|oo uo asceto dc| |so uc dcoc cx||ea|sc. Cada
vcz uc c| soe|o|oqo e|cc c|ud|| |a ta|ca dc eoost|u|| |os oceoos co iuoe|oo dc uoa
|oo|cat|ea tco||ea, cs o|uc csta do|oado o| uoa eoost|uee|oo uc sc dcseoooec
y uc c| dcseoooec eoo ta|, |ceoq|codo a| i|oa| oada as uc |os d|seu|sos i|et|e|os
uc c|aoo|ao |os sujctos a|a coi|cota| |a s|tuae|oo dc coeucstado y |csoodc| a |cquo-
tas a|t|i|e|a|cs o |oe|uso a| a|t|i|e|o o| cxec|coe|a eoo cs |a auscoe|a dc |cquotas.
Cuaodo c| soe|o|oqo |couoe|a a| ||v||cq|o c|stco|oq|eo cs a|a eac| s|c|c co |a
soe|o|oqia csootaoca.
||-z. Hitesis o suuestos
Sc| i a i ae| | dcost | a| uc t oda | aet | ea e| cot i i | ea, | oe| uso y soo| c t odo euaodo
ooeceadacotc |ovoea c| c|||so as |ad|ea|, |||ea suucstos tco||eos y uc c|
soe|o|oqo oo t|coc as a|tc|oat|va uc ovc|sc cot|c |otc||oqaotcs |oeoose|cotcs, o|
taoto |oeoot|o|adas c |oeooc|cotcs, y uo euc|o dc o|otcs|s ctod|eacotc eoost|u|das
eoo ||as a |a |ucoa cxc||cota|. Ncqa| |a io|u|ae|oo cx|ie|ta dc uo euc|o dc
1! ta ooe|oo dc o|o|oo, s|o duda, dcoc su cx|to, |aet|eo y tco||eo, a uc eooecot|a todas |as ||us|oocs dc
|a i||osoiia atoist|ea dc| cosa|coto y dc |a i||osoiia csootaoca dc |as |c|ae|oocs cot|c c| cosa-
|coto y |a aee|oo, eocozaodo o| c| |o| ||v||cq|ado dc |a cx|cs|oo vc|oa| eoo |od|eado| dc |as
d|sos|e|oocs co aeto. Nada oay dc so||codcotc, cotooecs, s| |os soe|o|oqos uc e|cqacotc eooiiao
co |os soodcos sc cxooco eoot|ouacotc a eooiuod|| |as dce|a|ae|oocs dc aee|oo, o co| auo |as
dce|a|ae|oocs dc |otcoe|oo eoo |as |ooao|||dadcs dc aeeioo.
'"
o|otcs|s oasadas co uoa tco|ia, cs eoodcoa|sc a |a adoe|oo dc suucstos ta|cs eoo
|as |cooe|oocs dc |a soe|o|oqia csootaoca y dc |a |dco|oqia, cs dce|| |os |oo|cas y
eooectos uc sc t|coco co taoto sujcto soe|a| euaodo oo sc |os u|c|c tcoc| eoo
soe|o|oqo. Dc cstc odo, L||ou katz dcucst|a eoo |os auto|cs dc |a coeucsta uo||-
eada oajo c| titu|o 1ie Iejes Ciie oo ud|c|oo coeoot|a| co uoa |ovcst|qae|oo oasa-
da co uoa |cooe|oo, |a dc asa eoo uo||eo ato|zado dc |cecto|cs, |os cd|os dc
eata| ci||eacotc c| icoocoo as |o|taotc co atc||a dc d|ius|oo eu|tu|a|, a
saoc| c| i|ujo co dos t|cos ,1w-sej Iw), uc oo odia sc| cstao|ce|do s|oo a eosta
dc uoa |utu|a eoo |a |c|cscotae|oo dc| uo||eo eoo asa dcs|ov|sta dc toda cst|ue-
tu|a
1s
jL. Kaz, e i. ?[.
Auo euaodo sc ||oc|a|a dc |os suucstos dc |a soe|o|oqia csootaoca, |a |aet|ea so-
e|o|oq|ea, s|o coa|qo, oo od|ia |ca||za| ouoea c| |dca| c|||sta dc| |cq|st|o s|o su-
ucstos, auouc as oo iuc|a o| c| oceoo dc uc ut|||za |ost|ucotos y tceo|eas dc
|cq|st|o. Lstao|cec| uo d|sos|t|vo eoo ||as a uoa cd|e|oo, cs |aotca| uoa |cquota
a |a oatu|a|cza, dceia Vax l|aoes. ta cd|da y |os |ost|ucotos dc cd|e|oo y co
qcoc|a| todas |as oc|ae|oocs dc |a |aet|ea soe|o|oq|ea, dcsdc |a c|aoo|ae|oo dc |os
eucst|ooa||os y |a eod|i|eae|oo oasta c| aoa||s|s cstadist|eo, soo ot|as taotas tco|ias co
aeto, co ea||dad dc |oecd||cotos dc eoost|uee|oo, eoose|cotcs o |oeoose|cotcs, dc
|os oceoos y dc |as |c|ae|oocs cot|c |os oceoos. ta tco|ia ||ie|ta co uoa |aet|ea,
tco|ia dc| eoooe||coto dc| oojcto y tco|ia dc| oojcto, t|coc taoto as os|o|||dadcs dc
oo sc| eoot|o|ada, y o| taoto |oadceuada a| oojcto co su csce|i|e|dad, euaoto cs
coos eoose|cotc. A| ||aa| ctodo|oqia, eoo a coudo sc oaec, a |o uc oo cs s|oo
uo dcea|oqo dc |cectos tceoo|oq|eos, sc cseaotca |a eucst|oo ctodo|oq|ea |o-
|acotc d|eoa, |a dc |a oe|oo cot|c |as tceo|eas (ct||eas o oo, |cic|cotcs a |a s|qo|-
i|eae|oo c|stco|oq|ea dc| t|ata|coto uc |as tceo|eas cseoq|das oaeco cxc||cota|
1s katz,L. 1oc 1Wo-Stc l| oW oi Couo| eat| oo: Ao u-to-datc co|t oo ao lyotocs| s, I:ii
Djiiii D:aery, vo| . z1, S|| oq 1us, . 1-s: Dc todas | as | dcas cxucstas co 1ie Iej s
Ciie, |a o|otcs|s dc| i|ujo co dos t|cos cs |ooao|ccotc |a coos aoyada co datos ci||eos.
ta |azoo dc c||o cs e|a|a: c| |oyceto dc |ovcst|qae|oo oo aot|e|aoa |a |o|taoe|a uc |cv|st||iao co c|
aoa||s|s dc datos |as |c|ae|oocs |otc|c|sooa|cs. Dado uc |a |aqco dc uo uo||eo ato|zado |os||aoa
taotas |odaqae|oocs soo|c |os nass neuia, |o as so||codcotc cs uc |as |cdcs dc |oi|ucoe|a |otc|-
c|sooa|cs ud|c|ao ||aa|, o| oeo uc sca, |a atcoe|oo dc |os |ovcst|qado|cs. la|a cd|| eoo uc
iuc|za uoa tceo|ea ucdc cxe|u|| uo asceto dc| icoocoo, oasta saoc| eoo, eoo ot|as |oo|cat|eas
y ot|as tceo|eas, |os soe|o|oqos |u|a|cs y |os ctoo|oqos eata|oo dcsdc t|co at|as |a |oq|ea dc| w-
sej-Iw. tos cjc|os dc cstos dcseuo|||cotos uc oay uc |cdcseuo||| aouodao: cs asi eoo A. l.
ua|too y l. l. taza|sic|d |ceuc|dao uc c| |oo|ca dc |os q|uos |oio|a|cs, dc |os uc oaec
ueoo t|co c|ao eoose|cotcs ot|os soe|o|oqos, so|o aa|ce|c|oo ta|diacotc y eoo uo dcseuo||-
|coto so||codcotc a |os |ovcst|qado|cs dc |a wcstc|o L|cet||e, ei|.. Soc looet|oos oi Cua||tat|vc
Aoa|ys|s |o Soe|a| csca|eo (. i.,.
'#
a| oojcto y a |a s|qo|i|eae|oo tco||ea dc |os |oo|cas uc sc u|c|co |aotca| a| oojcto
a| eua| sc |as a||ea.
lo| cjc|o, uoa tceo|ea aa|cotccotc tao |||c|oeoao|c c |ocv|tao|c eoo |a dc
ucst|co a| aza| ucdc ao|u||a| eo|ctacotc c| oojcto dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo, eada
vcz uc cstc oojcto dcoc a|qo a |a cst|uetu|a dc q|uos uc c| ucst|co a| aza| t|coc
justacotc o| |csu|tado ao|u||a|. Asi, L||ou katz sca|a uc a|a cstud|a| csos
eaoa|cs dc| i|ujo dc |oi|ucoe|a, uc soo |os eootaetos cot|c |od|v|duos, c| |oyceto dc
|ovcst|qae|oo sc oa |cvc|ado eoo |ooc|aotc o| c| oceoo dc uc |ceu||ia a uo ucst|co
a| aza| dc |od|v|duos aost|aidos dc su cd|o soe|a| j...[. Cada |od|v|duo dc uo ucst|co
a| aza| oo ucdc oao|a| as uc o| si |so, y |os eauers dc o|o|oo, co c| ad|oo
c|ceto|a| dc 1u!o, oo odiao sc| |dcot|i|eados s|oo daodo ic dc su dce|a|ae|oo. Y
suo|aya, adcas, uc csta tceo|ea oo c||tc eoa|a| |os eauers eoo sus scqu|-
do|cs |cscet|vos, s|oo so|o |os eauers y |os oo eauers co qcoc|a|
1
. lucdc vc|sc
eoo |a tceo|ea aa|cotccotc as ocut|a| eoot|coc uoa tco|ia ||ie|ta dc |o soe|a|,
|a dc uo uo||eo eooeco|do eoo uoa asa ato|zada, cs dce||, co cstc easo, |a
tco|ia eoose|cotc o |oeoose|cotccotc asu|da co |a |ovcst|qae|oo uc, o| uoa suc|tc
dc a|ooia |ccstao|ce|da, sc usaoa eoo csta tceo|ea
1
. Ct|a tco|ia dc| oojcto, y a|
|so t|co ot|a dci|o|e|oo dc |os oojct|vos dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo, oao|ia |ceu|||do a|
uso dc ot|a tceo|ea dc ucst|co, o| cjc|o c| soodco o| sceto|cs: |cq|st|aodo c|
eoojuoto dc |co|os dc e|c|tas uo|dadcs soe|a|cs cxt|aidas a| aza| (uo cstao|ce|-
|coto |odust||a|, uoa ia|||a, uo uco|o,, sc |oeu|a c| cd|o dc cstud|a| |a |cd eo-
|cta dc |c|ae|oocs dc eouo|eae|oo uc ucdco cstao|cec|sc co c| |otc||o| dc csos
q|uos, eo|cod|codo uc c| ctodo, a|t|eu|a|cotc adceuado a| easo cstud|ado,
t|coc taoto coos ci|eae|a euaoto as oooqcoco cs c| sceto| y uc c| icoocoo dc|
eua| sc u|c|co cstud|a| sus va||ae|oocs dccodc as dc| e||tc||o scquo c| eua| csta
dci|o|do csc sceto|. Soo todas |as oc|ae|oocs cstadist|eas uc cs |ce|so soctc| a
|a |otc||oqae|oo c|stco|oq|ea: A |a cjo| cstadist|ea (eoo a |a coos oucoa ta-
o|co, oo oay uc cx|q|||c o| oaec||c dce|| as uc |o uc d|ec, y dc| odo y oajo |as
eood|e|oocs co uc |o d|ec
1s
. la|a oocdcec| vc|dadc|acotc a| |c|at|vo uc io|u-
1 katz, L. . i. . !.
1 C. kc|| y t. l. l|soc| ucst|ao uc asi eoo, co |as |ovcst|qae|oocs dc |a cseuc|a dc L. Vayo, |a tceo|ea
y |os suucstos soo ai|ocs, |a oosc|vae|oo eot|d|aoa dc |os eootaetos ea|a a ea|a y dc |as |c|ae|oocs
|otc|c|sooa|cs dcot|o dc |a c|csa |||ea |a eoov|ee|oo dudosa uc c| cuco q|uo dc t|aoajo cs
| a ec| u| a cscoe| a| co | a o| qao| zae| oo dc | a c| csa y uc cst c q| uo y sus | co| os oocdceco
sustaoe|a|cotc a dctc||oae|oocs aicet|vas j...[. L| s|stca dc Vayo dc||va dc dos oe|oocs cscoe|a-
|cs. uoa vcz eu||das todo csta dado, |os ctodos, c| eao dc |otc|cs, |as |cse||e|oocs |aet|eas,
|os |oo|cas |csc|vados a|a |a |ovcst|qae|oo (y co a|t|eu|a|, |a |od|ic|coe|a a |os |oo|cas dc
e|asc, dc |dco|oqia, dc odc| (l|aot Soe|o|oqy: 1oc L||tc aod toc Aoo||q|ocs, co koa|ovssy, V. cd.
Cooo Iriiers I toc Sia Sieies, l|||oo|s: 1oc l|cc l|css, G|coeoc, 1us, . zs1-sou,.
1s l. S||aod, Saisi:e e ejerieie, renar:es ue neiue, la|is: V. |v|c|c, 1uzz, . z!.
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|a S||aod y a|a oo oaec| dce|| a |a cstadist|ea ot|a eosa uc |o uc d|ec, oay uc
|cquota|sc co eada easo |o uc d|ec y ucdc dce||, co uc |||tcs y oajo uc eood|e|o-
ocs j I. Siniaiu, e i. ?J[.
ii-J. Ln rnisn ueutrniiono oe ins teouions. oh]eto ooustruioo o nrternoto
Ll |c|at|vo dc |a ocut|a||dad ct|ea uc Vax wcoc| oooia a |a |oqcou|dad o|a||zaotc
dc |a i||osoiia soe|a| t|codc a t|aosio|a|sc ooy co uo aoda|coto |ut|o|zado dc| eatc-
e|so soe|o|oq|eo. S| sc e|cyc|a co |as |c|cscotae|oocs as eoatas dc| |cecto
Wcoc||aoo, oasta|ia |ceavc|sc dc |a a|e|a||dad aicet|va c |oe|tae|oocs |dco|oq|eas so-
o|c |a s|qo|i|eae|oo dc |os eooectos y |a c|t|ocoe|a dc |as tceo|eas. ta ||us|oo dc uc
|as oc|ae|oocs ax|o|oq|eacotc ocut|as soo tao|co c|stco|oq|eacotc ocut|as
|||ta |a e|it|ea dc| t|aoajo soe|o|oq|eo, c| suyo o c| dc ot|os, a| cxaco, eas| s|c|c
iae|| y cstc|||, dc sus suucstos |dco|oq|eos y a| dc sus va|o|cs u|t|os. ta d|seus|oo s|o
i|o soo|c |a ocut|a||dad ax|o|oq|ea sc ut|||za a coudo eoo sust|tuto dc |a d|seus|oo
|o|acotc c|stco|oq|ea soo|c |a ocut|a||dad ctodo|oq|ea dc |as tceo|eas y, o|
csa |azoo, |oo|e|ooa uoa oucva qa|aotia a |a ||us|oo os|t|v|sta. lo| uo ciceto dc
uesjazaniei, c| |otc|cs o| |os suucstos ct|eos y o| |os va|o|cs o i|ocs u|t|os cs
uo aa|ta|sc dc| cxaco e|it|eo dc |a tco|ia dc| eoooe||coto soe|o|oq|eo uc csta |||-
eada co |os aetos as c|ccota|cs dc |a |aet|ea.
lo| cjc|o, _oo cs o|uc sc |cscota eoo |a |ca||zae|oo a|ad|qat|ea dc |a ocut|a||-
dad co |a oosc|vae|oo c| uc, cot|c todas |as tceo|eas dc |ceo|cee|oo dc datos, |a cot|cv|s-
ta oo d|||q|da sc |a soo|cva|o|a i|ceucotccotc, co dct||coto dc |a oosc|vae|oo ctooq|ai|ea
uc, euaodo c|ca oo|as oo||qadas o| |a t|ad|e|oo, |ca||za as eo|ctacotc c| |dca|
dc| |ovcota||o s|stcat|eo cicetuado co uoa s|tuae|oo |ca|? Ls os|o|c sosceoa| dc |as
|azoocs dc| iavo| uc qoza csta tceo|ea euaodo sc oosc|va uc o| |os tco||eos o| |os
ctodo|oqos y o| s|u|c|a |os usua||os dc| |ost|ucoto, oada czu|oos s|o coa|qo co
euaoto a eooscjos y eoos|qoas, sc us|c|oo jaas a |otc||oqa|sc ctod|eacotc soo|c |as
d|sto|s|oocs csceii|eas uc |oduec uoa |c|ae|oo soe|a| tao |oiuodacotc a|t|i|e|a|: euaodo
oo sc eoot|o|ao sus suucstos ||ie|tos y sc coi|cota eoo sujctos soe|a|cs |qua|cotc
|cd|sucstos a oao|a| ||o|ccotc dc eua|u|c| eosa, aotc todo dc c||os |sos, c |qua|-
cotc d|sucstos a adota| uoa |c|ae|oo io|zada c |otcc|aotc a |a vcz eoo c| |coquajc,
|a cot|cv|sta oo d|||q|da uc |oc |a |ce||oe|dad dc| d|a|oqo oao|tua| (o| ot|a a|tc oo
cx|q|o|c o| |qua| co eua|u|c| cd|o y s|tuae|oo, |oe|ta a |os sujctos a |odue|| uo areIa
vc|oa|, o| |o dcas dcs|qua|cotc a|t|i|e|a| scquo |a d|staoe|a cot|c |a |c|ae|oo eoo c|
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|coquajc iavo|ce|do o| su e|asc soe|a| y |a |c|ae|oo a|t|i|e|a| eoo c| |coquajc uc sc cx|qc
dc c||os. C|v|da| c| eucst|ooa|coto dc |as tceo|eas io|a|cotc as ocut|a|cs s|qo|i|ea
oo advc|t||, cot|c ot|as eosas, uc |as tceo|eas dc coeucsta soo tao|co tceo|eas dc
soe|ao|||dad soe|a|cotc ea||i|eadas jL. Siaznaii y 4. Sra:ss, e i. ?c[. ta oosc|-
vae|oo ctooq|ai|ea, uc cs a |a cxc||cotae|oo soe|a| |o uc |a oosc|vae|oo dc |os ao|a-
|cs co su cd|o oatu|a| cs a |a cxc||cotae|oo co |aoo|ato||o, oaec oota| c| ea|aetc|
i|et|e|o y io|zado dc |a ayo| a|tc dc |as s|tuae|oocs soe|a|cs e|cadas o| uo cjc|e|e|o
|ut|oa||o dc |a soe|o|oqia uc ||cqa a dcseoooec| taoto as |a |caee|oo dc |aoo|ato||o
euaoto uc so|o eoooec c| |aoo|ato||o y sus |ost|ucotos, tcsts o eucst|ooa||os.
Lo taoto oo oay |cq|st|o c|icetacotc ocut|a| oo cx|stc uoa |cquota ocut|a|. L| soe|o|o-
qo uc oo soctc sus |o|as |otc||oqae|oocs a |a |otc||oqae|oo soe|o|oq|ea oo od|ia
oaec| uo aoa||s|s vc|dadc|acotc ocut|a| dc |as |csucstas uc |ovoea. Sca uoa |c-
quota tao uoivoea co aa||coe|a eoo: _t|aoajo ustcd ooy?. L| aoa||s|s cstadist|eo dc-
ucst|a uc |ovoea |csucstas d|ic|cotcs dc a|tc dc |os eacs|oos dc Cao||a o dc|
su| a|qc||oo, |os eua|cs s| sc |ci|oa|ao a uoa dci|o|e|oo oojct|va dc| t|aoajo, cs dce|| a |a
dci|o|e|oo uc uoa ceoooia odc|oa t|codc a da| dc |os aqcotcs ceooo|eos, dco|c|ao
da| |csucstas sccjaotcs. So|o a eood|e|oo dc uc sc |otc||oquc soo|c su |o|a |cquo-
ta, co |uqa| dc |oouoe|a|sc |ce||tadacotc o| |o aosu|do o |a a|a ic dc |as |csucs-
tas, c| soe|o|oqo t|coc a|quoa os|o|||dad dc dcseuo||| uc |a dci|o|e|oo dc t|aoajo uc
|||ea su |cquota csta dcs|qua|cotc a|cjada dc auc||a uc |as dos eatcqo|ias dc
sujctos dao co sus |csucstas
1u
. lucdc vc|sc eoo uoa |cquota uc oo cs t|aosa|cotc
a|a c| uc |a oaec ucdc oseu|cec| c| oojcto uc |ocv|tao|ccotc eoost|uyc, |oe|uso s| |a
|sa oo oa s|do oceoa a|a eoost|u|||o jJ.I. Cuirje y D. Lwu, e i. ?[.
Dado uc sc ucdc |cquota| eua|u|c| eosa a eua|u|c|a y uc eas| s|c|c a|qu|co t|coc
oucoa vo|uotad a|a |csoodc| euaodo coos a|qo a eua|u|c| |cquota, auo |a as
|||ca|, s| u|co |otc||oqa, ea|cotc dc uoa tco|ia dc| eucst|ooa||o, oo sc |aotca c| |oo|ca
dc| s|qo|i|eado csceii|eo dc sus |cquotas, eo||c c| c||q|o dc coeoot|a| eoo dcas|ada
iae|||dad uoa qa|aotia dc| |ca||so dc sus |cquotas co |a |ca||dad dc |as |csucstas uc
|ce|oc
zo
: |otc||oqa|, eoo |o oaec D. tc|oc|, a suo|o|cta||os dc aiscs suodcsa||o||ados
1u uou|d|cu, l. 1ravai e ravaiIe:rs ei 4perie, z a|tc, la|is, ta laya: Voutoo, 1uz, . sos-so!.
zo S| c| aoa||s|s sceuoda||o dc |os doeucotos |oo|e|ooados o| |a coeucsta as |oqcoua cs eas|
s|c|c os|o|c, y |cqit|o, cs o|uc |csu|ta uy |a|o uc |os sujctos |otc||oqados |csoodao vc|da-
dc|acotc eua|u|c| eosa y oo |cvc|co a|qo co sus |csucstas dc |o uc soo: sc saoc o| cjc|o uc
| as oo-|csucstas y ocqa|sc a |csoodc| ucdco sc| | otc||ctados co si | sos. S| o coa|qo, | a
|ceuc|ae|oo dc| scot|do uc eoot|coco, a csa| dc todo, suooco uo t|aoajo dc |cet|i|eae|oo, auouc
as oo iuc|a a|a saoc| eua| cs | a |cquota a | a uc vc|dadc|acotc |csood| c|oo y uc oo cs
ocecsa||acotc |a uc sc |cs oa |aotcado.
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soo|c |a |oe||oae|oo a |oyceta|sc co sus oc|ocs e|ocatoq|ai|eos |cic||dos, euaodo oo
|csceto dc |a |cetu|a dc |a |cosa,

cs csta| cxucsto cv|dcotccotc a |ceoqc| uo Ia:s
vis uc oo t|coc ot|a s|qo|i|eae|oo uc |a uc |c eooi|c|c c| soe|o|oqo t|ataodo|os eoo
uo d|seu|so s|qo|i|eaotc
z1
. S|c|c uc c| soe|o|oqo cs |oeoose|cotc dc |a |oo|cat|ea
uc |oe|uyc co sus |cquotas, sc ||dc |a eo|cos|oo dc auc||a uc |os sujctos |oe|u-
yco co sus |csucstas: |as eood|e|oocs cstao dadas, cotooecs, a|a uc asc |oadvc|t|-
do c| cuivoeo uc ||cva a |a dcse||e|oo, co tc||oos dc auscoe|a, dc |as |ca||dadcs
oeu|tadas o| c| |ost|ucoto |so dc |a oosc|vae|oo y o| |a |otcoe|oo, soe|a|cotc
eood|e|ooada, dc u|co ut|||za c| |ost|ucoto.
L| eucst|ooa||o as ec||ado oo qa|aot|za ocecsa||acotc |a uo|voe|dad dc |as |csucs-
tas o| c| so|o oceoo dc uc socta todos |os sujctos a |cquotas io|a|cotc |dcot|-
eas. Suooc| uc |a |sa |cquota t|coc c| |so scot|do a|a sujctos soe|a|cs
d|staoe|ados o| d|ic|coe|as dc eu|tu|a, c|o uo|dos o| c|tcocec| a uoa e|asc, cs dcs-
eoooec| uc |as d|ic|cotcs |coquas oo d|i|c|co so|o o| |a cxtcos|oo dc su |cx|eo o su
q|ado dc aost|aee|oo s|oo o| |a tcat|ea y |oo|cat|ea uc t|aos|tco. ta e|it|ea uc
oaec Vax|c Coasta|oq dc| soi|sa dc| s|eo|oqo cs c|t|ocotc s|c|c uc sc dcseo-
ooec c| |oo|ca dc |a s|qo|i|eae|oo d|ic|coe|a| uc |as |cquotas y |as |csucstas asu-
co |ca|cotc scquo |a eood|e|oo y |a os|e|oo soe|a| dc |as c|sooas |otc||oqadas: L|
cstud|aotc uc eooiuodc su c|scet|va eoo |a dc |os o|os cstud|ados |ceoqc su |o|a
c|scet|va co c| cstud|o co uc e|cc ootcoc| |a dc |os o|os j...[. Cuaodo |cquota:
_1|aoaja| y juqa| cs |a |sa eosa? _Cuc d|ic|coe|a oay cot|c t|aoajo y jucqo?,
|ooc, o| |os sustaot|vos uc su |cquota eoot|coc, |a d|ic|coe|a adu|ta uc a|ce|c|a
eucst|ooa| j...[. Cuaodo c| coeucstado| e|as|i|ea |as |csucstas oo scquo |as a|ao|as
uc |as eoost|tuyco s|oo dc aeuc|do eoo c| scot|do uc |cs da|ia s| c| |so |as ouo|c|a
dado co |os t|cs o|dcocs dc| jucqo-iae|||dad, jucqo-|out|||dad y jucqo-||oc|tad, oo||qa a
|os cosa|cotos |oiaot||cs a cot|a| co csos eoo|ta|cotos i||osoi|eos
zz
. la|a csea-
z1 tc|oc|, D. 1ie Iassiip I 1rauiiia Siey. Nucva Yo|s: 1oc l|cc l|css oi G|coeoc, 1uss. S|o
cot|a| co uoa e|it|ea s|stcat|ea dc |os suucstos |dco|oq|eos |||eados co uo eucst|ooa||o, uc dc
11 |cquotas so|o eootcoia dos |cic|cotcs a| t|aoajo y a| sa:s ceooo|eo (eoot|a s soo|c |os nass
neuia, e|oc, d|a||os, |ad|o, tc|cv|s|oo, ucdc oosc|va|sc uc uoa tco|ia uc toc co eucota |as eood|-
e|oocs oojct|vas dc cx|stcoe|as dc| suo|o|cta||o y, co a|t|eu|a|, |a |ocstao|||dad qcoc|a||zada uc |o
ea|aetc||za, ucdc cx||ea| |a at|tud dc| suo|o|cta||o dc |aq|oa|sc a|aecoc|o o c||od|sta, y auo dc
|a a|t|eu|a| oda||dad dc csas |oycee|oocs, co taoto uc |a tco|ia dc |a odc|o|zae|oo, uc
|oooc tc|oc|, cs |otcotc a|a cx||ea| |a |c|ae|oo uc c| suo|o|cta||o aot|coc eoo su t|aoajo o c|
o|vco||. Auouc o|uta| y q|osc|o, a|cec uc cstc e||tc||o c||tc d|st|oqu|| uo |ost|ucoto |dco|oq|eo,
eoodcoado a |odue|| uo s||c areIa, dc uo |ost|ucoto e|cotii|eo.
zz Coasta|oq, V. Jouc| o'cst as jouc|, . i.
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a| a cstc ctooecot||so ||oquist|eo, oo oasta, eoo sc oa v|sto, soctc| a| aoa||s|s dc
eootco|do |as a|ao|as ootco|das co |a cot|cv|sta oo d|||q|da, a ||csqo dc dcja|sc |ooc|
|as ooe|oocs y eatcqo|ias dc |a |coqua c|cada o| |os sujctos: oo cs os|o|c ||oc|a|sc
dc |as |ceoost|uee|oocs dc| |coquajc, ya sc t|atc dc| c|tcoce|cotc a| e|cotii|eo o dc| dc
su oojcto, as uc cstao|ce|codo |a d|a|cet|ea uc ||cva a eoost|uee|oocs adceuadas o|
|a eooi|ootae|oo ctod|ea dc dos s|stcas dc |ceoost|uee|oocs
zs
jLevi-Sra:ss, C.
Ma:ss, M. Maiivsi, S. es i. ?a, ?s y ac[.
No sc oao saeado todas |as eoosceucoe|as ctodo|oq|eas dc| oceoo dc uc |as tceo|eas
octas e|as|eas dc |a soe|o|oqia ci||ea cstao eoodcoadas, o| su |sa oatu|a|cza, a
e|ca| s|tuae|oocs dc cxc||cotae|oo i|et|e|as cscoe|a|cotc d|ic|cotcs dc |as cxc||-
cotae|oocs soe|a|cs uc eoot|ouacotc |oduec |a cvo|ue|oo dc |a v|da soe|a|. Cuaoto
|as eooduetas y aet|tudcs cstud|adas as dccodco dc |a eoyuotu|a, |a |ovcst|qae|oo,
co |a eoyuotu|a a|t|eu|a| uc c||tc |a s|tuae|oo dc coeucsta, csta as cxucsta a
eata| so|o |as aet|tudcs u o|o|oocs uc oo va|co as a||a dc |os |i|tcs dc csta s|tua-
e|oo. Asi, |as coeucstas uc t|atao soo|c |as |c|ae|oocs cot|c |as e|ascs y, as |ce|sa-
cot c, soo|c c| ascet o o| i t | eo dc csas |c| ae| oocs, cst ao eas| | ocv| t ao| ccot c
eoodcoadas a tc||oa| eoo |a aq|avae|oo dc |os eooi||etos dc e|asc o|uc |as cx|qco-
e|as tceo|eas a |as eua|cs sc dcoco sujcta| |as oo||qao a cxe|u|| |as s|tuae|oocs e|it|eas
y, o| c||o |so, sc |cs vuc|vc d|iie|| eata| o |cvc| |as eooduetas uc oaec|ao dc uoa
s|tuae|oo eooi||et|va. Coo |o oosc|va Va|ec| Vaqct, oay uc |c|t||sc a |a o|sto||a
a|a dcseuo||| |as eoostaotcs (s| cs uc cx|stco, dc |caee|oocs a s|tuae|oocs oucvas. ta
oovcdad o|sto||ea aetua eoo |caet|vo a|a |cvc|a| |as v||tua||dadcs |atcotcs. Dc a||i
|a ut|||dad dc scqu|| a| q|uo cstud|ado euaodo sc coi|cota a s|tuae|oocs oucvas, euya
cvoeae|oo oo cs oada as uc uo |ccd|o a|a sa||| dc| aso, ucs oo sc ucdco
u|t|||ea| |as |cquotas oasta c| |oi|o|to
z!
.
Lstaos co eoot|a dc |a dci|o|e|oo |cst||et|va dc |as tceo|eas dc |ceo|cee|oo dc datos
uc eooi|c|c a| eucst|ooa||o uo ||v||cq|o |od|seut|do y |a os|o|||dad dc vc| oada as uc
sust|tutos a|ox|at|vos dc |a tceo|ea |ca| co ctodos oo oostaotc tao eod|i|eados y tao
|ooados eoo |os dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo ctooq|ai|ea (eoo sus tceo|eas csceii|eas, dcs-
zs Dc cstc odo, |a cot|cv|sta oo d||cet|va y c| aoa||s|s dc eootco|do oo od|iao sc| ut|||zados eoo uoa
csce|c dc at|oo aoso|uto, c|o dcoco |oo|e|ooa| uo cd|o dc eoot|o|a| eoot|ouacotc taoto c|
scot|do dc |as |cquotas |aotcadas eoo |as eatcqo|ias scquo |as eua|cs soo aoa||zadas c |otc||c-
tadas |as |csucstas.
z! Vaqct, V. C:iue ue:ue uiree ues njreneis ::reis, la|is: C.N..S., 1uso, . xxxl.
e||e|oo o|io|oq|ea, tceoo|oqia, ea|toq|aiia, |cx|eoq|aiia, o|oq|aiia, qcoca|oqia, cte.,.
Lo ciceto, oay uc |cst| tu| | a | a oosc|vae| oo ctod| ea y s| stcat| ea su || ado
c|stco|oqieo
zs
. tcjos dc eoost|tu|| |a io|a as ocut|a| y eoot|o|ada dc |a c|aoo|ae|oo
dc datos, c| eucst|ooa||o suooc todo uo eoojuoto dc cxe|us|oocs, oo todas cseoq|das, y
uc soo taoto as c|o|e|osas o| euaoto c|aoceco |oeoose|cotcs: a|a odc| eoo-
icee|ooa| uo eucst|ooa||o y saoc| uc sc ucdc oaec| eoo |os oceoos uc |oduec, oay
uc saoc| |o uc oaec c| eucst|ooa||o, cs dce||, cot|c ot|as eosas, |o uc oo ucdc oaec|.
S|o oao|a| dc |as |cquotas uc |as oo|as soe|a|cs uc |cqu|ao |a s|tuae|oo dc coeucs-
ta |ooioco |aotca|, o| coe|ooa| auc||as uc c| soe|o|oqo o|tc oaec| euaodo aecta
uoa dci|o|e|oo soe|a| dc |a soe|o|oqia, uc oo cs s|oo c| ea|eo dc |a |aqco uo||ea dc |a
soe|o|oqia eoo |cic|codu, o| s|u|c|a |as |cquotas as oojct|vas, |as uc sc |ci|c|co
a |as eooduetas, oo |ceoqco s|oo c| |csu|tado dc uoa oosc|vae|oo cicetuada o| c| sujcto
soo|c su |o|a eoodueta. 1aoeo |a |otc||ctae|oo va|d|ia as s| c||a sc out||c|a dc |a
|otcoe|oo cx|csa dc d|sec|o|| ctod|eacotc dc |as aee|oocs |as |otcoe|oocs eooicsa-
das y |os aetos dce|a|ados uc ucdco aotcoc| eoo |a aee|oo |c|ae|oocs uc vayao
dcsdc |a va|o|ae|oo cxaqc|ada, o |a o|s|oo o| |oe||oae|oo, a |o sce|cto oasta |as dcio|-
ae|oocs, |c|otc||ctae|oocs c |oe|uso a |os o|v|dos sc|cet|vos, ta| |otcoe|oo suooc
uc sc ootcoqa c| cd|o dc |ca||za| e|cotii|eacotc csta d|st|oe|oo, sca o| c| eucst|ooa-
||o |so, sca o| uo uso csce|a| dc csta tceo|ea (|coscsc co |as coeucstas soo|c |os
|csuucstos o soo|c |os i:upes-enjs eoo euas|oosc|vae|oo, o o|co o| |a oosc|va-
e|oo d||ceta. Sc |oduec, o| taoto, a |ovc|t|| |a |c|ae|oo uc e|c|tos ctodo|oqos cstao|c-
eco cot|c c| eucst|ooa||o, s||c |ovcota||o dc a|ao|as, y |a oosc|vae|oo dc t|o
ctooq|ai|eo eoo |ovcota||o s|stcat|eo dc aetos y oojctos eu|tu|a|cs
z
: c| eucst|ooa||o
oo cs oada as uc uoo dc |os |ost|ucotos dc |a oosc|vae|oo, euyas vcotajas
ctodo|oq|eas, eoo o| cjc|o |a eaae|dad dc |ceoqc| datos oooqcocos |qua|co-
tc a|ce|ao|cs o| uo aoa||s|s cstadist|eo, oo dcoco d|s|u|a| sus |i|tcs c|stco|oq|eos,
dc aoc|a uc oo so|o oo cs |a tceo|ea as ceooo|ea a|a eata| |as eooduetas
zs Sc coeoot|a|a uoa cxos|e|oo s|stcat|ea dc csta ctodo|oqia co |a oo|a dc Va|ec| Vaqct ya e|tada.
z A| ooc| todas |as tceo|eas ctooq|ai|eas dcot|o dc |a eatcqo|ia dcsva|o||zada dc| :aiaive aiaysis,
|os uc ||v||cq|ao aoso|utacotc c| uaot|tat|vc aoa|ys|s sc eoodcoao a vc| co c| so|o uo |ceu|so o|
uoa suc|tc dc ctooecot||so ctodo|oq|eo uc ||cva a |cic||||os a |a cstadist|ea eoo a su vc|dad, a|a
tc||oa| v|codo oada as uc uoa euas|-cstadist|ea co |a uc sc coeucot|ao euas|d|st||oue|oocs,
euas|eo||c|ae|oocs y euas|datos ci||eos: ta |cuo|oo y c| aoa||s|s dc |os euas|datos cstadist|-
eos s|o duda ucdco sc| |aet|eados as s|stcat|eacotc dc |o uc |o oao s|do co c| asado, o| |o
coos s| sc |cosa co |a cst|uetu|a |oq|ea dc| aoa||s|s euaot|tat|vo a|a tcoc||a |cscotc co |a cotc y
cxt|ac| |ceaue|oocs y d||cet|vas qcoc|a|cs (ua|too, A. l. y taza|sic|d, l. l. Soc luoet|oos oi
Cua||tat|vc Aoa|ys|s |o Soe|a| csca|eo, . i.).
oo|a||zadas, euyos |oecsos ||qu|osacotc dctc||oados soo a|tacotc |cv|s|o|cs
y ucdco sc|, co eoosceucoe|a, eatados co v||tud dc |a oosc|vae|oo o |a |otc||oqae|oo
saqaz dc a|quoos |oio|aotcs, s|oo uc sc eo||c c| c||q|o dc dcseoooec| csc asceto
dc |as eooduetas, co sus usos as ||tua||zados, c |oe|uso, o| uo ciceto dc uesjaza-
niei, a dcsva|o||za| c| |oyceto |so dc su eatae|oo
z
.
tos ctodo|oqos suc|co |ceocoda| c| |ceu|so a |as tceo|eas e|as|eas dc |a ctoo|oqia,
c|o oae|codo dc |a cd|e|oo |a cd|da dc todas |as eosas y dc |as tceo|eas dc cd|e|oo
|a cd|da dc toda tceo|ea, oo ucdco vc| co c||as as aoyos suoa|tc|oos o |ceu|sos
a|a coeoot|a| |dcas co |as ||c|as iascs dc uoa |ovcst|qae|oo
zs
, cxe|uycodo o| csto
c| |oo|ca |o|acotc c|stco|oq|eo dc |as |c|ae|oocs cot|c |os ctodos dc |a ctoo-
|oqia y |os dc |a soe|o|oqia. L| dcseoooe||coto |cei|oeo cs tao c|jud|e|a| a|a c|
|oq|cso dc uoa y ot|a d|se|||oa eoo c| cotus|aso dcscd|do uc ucdc |ovoea|
|cstaos |oeoot|o|ados, o| ot|a a|tc, |as dos aet|tudcs oo soo cxe|us|vas. ta |cstau-
|ae|oo dc |a uo|dad dc |a aot|oo|oqia soe|a| (cotcod|da co c| |coo scot|do dc| tc||oo y
oo eoo s|ooo|o dc ctoo|oqia, suooc uoa |ci|cx|oo c|stco|oq|ea uc |otcota|ia dc-
tc||oa| |o uc |as dos ctodo|oqias dcoco, co eada easo, a |as t|ad|e|oocs dc eada uoa
dc |as d|se|||oas y a |as ea|aetc|ist|eas dc oceoo dc |as soe|cdadcs uc toao o|
oojcto. S| oo cx|stco dudas dc uc |a |o|tae|oo dcseoot|o|ada dc ctodos y eooec-
tos uc oao s|do c|aoo|ados co c| cstud|o dc |as soe|cdadcs s|o cse||tu|a, s|o t|ad|e|oocs
o|sto||eas, soe|a|cotc oeo d|ic|coe|adas y s|o tcoc| ueoos eootaetos eoo ot|as so-
e| cdadcs, ucdco eoodue| | a aosu|dos (| coscsc o| cj c| o co e| c|tos aoa| | s| s
eu|tu|a||stas dc |as soe|cdadcs cst|at|i|eadas,, cs oov|o uc oay uc eu|da|sc dc toa|
|as |||tae|oocs eood|e|ooa|cs o| |i|tcs dc va||dcz |ooc|cotcs a |os ctodos dc |a
ctoo|oqia: oada ||dc a||ea| a |as soe|cdadcs odc|oas |os ctodos dc |a ctoo|oqia,
cd|aotc c| soct||coto, co eada easo, a |a |ci|cx|oo c|stco|oq|ea dc |os suucstos
||ie|tos dc csos ctodos uc sc |ci|c|co a |a cst|uetu|a dc |a soe|cdad y a |a |oq|ea dc
sus t|aosio|ae|oocs
zu
.
z lovc|sacotc, c| |cic|cotc |otc|cs uc |os ctoo|oqos eooecdco a |os ascetos as dctc||oados dc
|a eoodueta, a coudo cs a|a|c|o eoo |a |od|ic|coe|a o| c| uso dc |a cstadist|ea, uc cs |a uo|ea eaaz
dc cd|| |a d|staoe|a cot|c |as oo|as y |as eooduetas |ca|cs.
zs Ci|. o| cjc|o, ua|too, A.l. y taza|sic|d, l. l. Soc luoet|oos oi Cua||tat|vc Aoa|ys|s |o Soe|a|
csca|eo, . i. Sc|||z, C. Dcutseo V. y Coos S. w. sc |ous|c|oo dci|o|| |as eood|e|oocs co |as
eua|cs od|ia |ca||za|sc uoa t|asos|e|oo i|uetiic|a dc |as tceo|eas dc |os||ae|oo ctoo|oq|ea ,Heseari
Meius ii Sia Heaiis, cv. vo|. l, cd. Vctouco, 1usu, . su-s,.
zu 1a| sustaot|vae|oo dc| ctodo ctoo|oq|eo cs |a uc |ca||za . u|c|stcdt co su a|tieu|o 1oc t||tat|oo oi
Aoto|oo|oq|ea| Vctood |o Soe|o|oqy, 4neriai J:ria I Sipy, tlv, 1u!s-1u!u, . zs-so.
No oay oc|ae|oo o| as c|ccota| y, co aa||coe|a, autoat|ea uc sca dc t|ata|coto
dc |a |oio|ae|oo uc oo |||uc uoa c|cee|oo c|stco|oq|ea c |oe|uso uoa tco|ia dc|
oojcto. Ls cv|dcotc, o| cjc|o, uc cs toda uoa tco|ia, eoose|cotc o |oeoose|cotc, dc |a
cst|at|i|eae|oo soe|a| |o uc csta co jucqo co |a eod|i|eae|oo dc |os |od|eado|cs dc |a os|-
e|oo soe|a| o co |a dca|eae|oo dc |as eatcqo|ias (tcoqaosc |cscotcs, o| cjc|o, |os
d|ic|cotcs iod|ecs cot|c |os eua|cs sc ucdc cseoqc| a|a dci|o|| |os q|ados dc e||sta||za-
e|oo dc| status,. tos uc, o| o|s|oo o ||udcoe|a, sc aost|coco dc saea| todas |as
eoosceucoe|as dc csta cv|dcoe|a sc cxooco a |a e|it|ea i|ceucotccotc d|||q|da a |as
dcse||e|oocs cseo|a|cs uc t|codco a suqc||| uc c| ctodo cxc||cota| t|coc o| iuo-
e|oo dcseuo||| |c|ae|oocs cot|c datos o |o|cdadcs |ccstao|ce|das dc csos datos.
Nada oay dc as coqaoso, dceia DcWcy, uc |a aa|cotc scoe|||cz dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo
e|cotii|ea ta| eoo |a dcse||oco |os t|atados dc |oq|ea, csta scoe|||cz csce|osa a|eaoza
su uoto eu||oaotc euaodo sc ut|||zao |as |ct|as dc| a|iaocto a|a |c|cscota| |a a|t|eu|a-
e|oo dc| oojcto: tco|codo co uo easo, AuCD, co ot|o uClG, co uo tc|ec|o CDLl y asi
suecs|vacotc, sc eooe|uyc uc cs C c| uc cv|dcotccotc dctc||oa c| icoocoo. lc|o
c| uso dc cstc s|oo||so cs uo cd|o uy ci|eaz dc oseu|cec| c| oceoo dc uc |os
atc||a|cs co eucst|oo oao s|do ya cstaoda||zados y dc d|s|u|a| o| c||o uc toda |a ta|ca
dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo |oduet|va-dcduet|va dcseaosa co |ca||dad soo|c oc|ae|oocs co v||tud
dc |as eua|cs |os atc||a|cs soo oooqcoc|zados
so
. S| |os ctodo|oqos cstao as atco-
tos a |as |cq|as uc sc dcoco oosc|va| co |a ao|u|ae|oo dc |as eatcqo|ias ya eoost|tu|-
das uc co |as oc|ae|oocs uc c||tco eoost|u|||as, cs o|uc c| |oo|ca dc |a
eoost|uee|oo dc| oojcto oo ucdc |cso|vc|sc ouoea dc aotcaoo y dc uoa vcz a|a s|c-
|c, ya sc t|atc dc d|v|d|| a uoa oo|ae|oo co eatcqo|ias soe|a|cs, o| o|vc| dc |oq|cso o
scquo |a cdad. lo| c| oceoo dc uc toda taxoooia |||ea uoa tco|ia, uoa d|v|s|oo |oeoos-
e|cotc dc sus a|tc|oat|vas, sc oc|a ocecsa||acotc co iuoe|oo dc uoa tco|ia |oeoose|cotc,
cs dce||, eas| s|c|c dc uoa |dco|oqia. lo| cjc|o, dado uc |os |oq|csos va|iao dc uoa
aoc|a eoot|oua, |a d|v|s|oo dc uoa oo|ae|oo o| o|vc| dc |oq|csos |||ea ocecsa||aco-
tc uoa tco|ia dc |a cst|at|i|eae|oo: oo sc ucdc t|aza| uoa |ioca dc sca|ae|oo aoso|uta
cot|c |os ||eos y |os oo|cs, cot|c |os ea|ta||stas tc||atco|cotcs o |ooo|||a||os y |os t|aoa-
jado|cs. A|quoos auto|cs |ctcodco dcdue|| dc cstc oceoo |a eoosceucoe|a dc uc co
oucst|a soe|cdad oo eaoc ya oao|a| dc uoa e|asc ea|ta||sta, o| oooc| |a ou|qucsia a |os
t|aoajado|cs
s1
. Ls taoto eoo dce||, aq|cqa la|cto, uc oo cx|stco aoe|aoos, ucsto uc
oo sc saoc a uc cdad, o sca co uc ocoto dc |a v|da, eo|coza |a vcjcz.
so DcWcy, J. Lpi: 1ie 1iery I Ii:iry. Nucva Yo|s: lo|t, 1uss, . !s1, o 1.
s1 la|cto, v. C:rs uLinie jii:e, t. ll. G|oco|a: D|oz, . sss. tas tceo|eas as aost|aetas dc
d| v| s| oo dc| atc|| a| t| coco o| ciceto j ustacotc aou| a| | as uo| dadcs eooe|ctas eoo qcoc|ae| oo,
o|oq|aiia y ea||c|a.
!
lao|ia uc |cquota|sc, o| u|t|o, s| c| ctodo dc aoa||s|s dc datos uc a|cec c| as
ato a|a a||ea|sc co todos |os t|os dc |c|ae|oocs euaot|i|eao|cs, eoo cs c| aoa||s|s
u|t|va||ado, oo dcoc soctc|sc s|c|c a |a |otc||oqae|oo c|stco|oq|ea, co ciceto,
a|t|codo dc uc sc ucdc a|s|a| o| tu|oo |a aee|oo dc |as d|ic|cotcs va||ao|cs dc| s|stc-
a eo|cto dc |c|ae|oocs dcot|o dc| eua| aetuao, a i|o dc eata| |a ci|eae|a |o|a dc
eada uoa dc c||as, csta tceo|ea oo ucdc eata| |a ci|eae|a uc ucdc tcoc| uo iaeto| a|
|osc|ta|sc co uoa cst|uetu|a c |oe|uso |a ci|eae|a |o|acotc cst|uetu|a| dc| s|stca dc
iaeto|cs. Adcas, a| ootcoc| o| uo eo|tc s|oe|oo|eo uo s|stca dci|o|do o| uo cu|||o||o
uotua|, sc csta cxucsto a dcja| cseaa| |o uc c| s|stca dcoc a su asado y, o|
cjc|o, c| scot|do d|ic|cotc uc ucdco tcoc| dos c|ccotos sccjaotcs co c| o|dco dc
|a s|u|taoc|dad o| su c|tcocoe|a a s|stcas d|ic|cotcs co c| o|dco dc |a suecs|oo, cs
dce||, o| cjc|o, co d|ic|cotcs t|ayceto||as o|oq|ai|eas
sz
. Gcoc|a|cotc, uoa oao|| ut|-
||zae|oo dc todas |as io|as dc ea|eu|o uc c||tc c| aoa||s|s dc uo eoojuoto dc |c|ae|o-
ocs suood|ia uo eoooe||coto y uoa eooe|coe|a c|icetacotc e|a|os dc |a tco|ia dc|
oceoo soe|a|, eoos|dc|ado co |os |oecd||cotos co v||tud dc |os eua|cs eada uoo dc
c||os sc|cee|ooa y eoost|uyc c| t|o dc |c|ae|oo cot|c va||ao|cs uc dctc||oao su oojcto.
Asi eoo |as |cq|as tceo|eas dc| uso dc tceo|eas soo iae||cs dc c|ca| co |a eod|i|ea-
e|oo, asi soo d|iie||cs dc dctc||oa| |os ||oe||os uc c||tco uoa ut|||zae|oo dc eada
tceo|ea uc tcoqa co eucota eoose|cotccotc |os suucstos |oq|eos o soe|o|oq|eos dc
sus oc|ae|oocs y, auo as, a |asa|sc co |a |aet|ea. Lo euaoto a |os ||oe||os dc
|os ||oe||os, |os uc ||qco c| uso eo||ceto dc| ctodo cxc||cota| co soe|o|oqia y, o|
csa |azoo, eoost|tuyco c| iuodacoto dc |a tco|ia dc| eoooe||coto soe|o|oq|eo, cstao co
cstc uoto tao oucstos a |a c|stco|oqia csootaoca uc ucdco sc| eoostaotccotc
t|aosq|cd|dos co ooo|c |so dc |cectos o io|u|as dc |as eua|cs sc e|cc saea|
a|t|do. Dc cstc odo, |a |sa |otcoe|oo ctodo|oq|ea dc oo atcoc|sc s|oo a |as cx|c-
s|oocs eoose|cotcs, ucdc ||cqa| a oto|qa|, a eoost|uee|oocs ta|cs eoo c| aoa||s|s jc|a|-
u|eo dc o|o|oocs, c| odc| dc c|cva| |as dce|a|ae|oocs, auo |as as suc|i|e|a|cs, a
aet|tudcs uc soo su ||oe||o, cs dce|| dc t|aosuta| aq|eacotc |o eoose|cotc co
|oeoose|cotc, o o| uo |oecso |dcot|eo, c|o uc i|aeasa o| |azoocs |ovc|sas, a ousea|
|a cst|uetu|a |oeoose|cotc dc| cosajc dc |cosa o| cd|o dc uo aoa||s|s cst|uetu|a|
uc oo ucdc ot|a eosa, co c| cjo| dc |os easos, uc |cdcseuo||| coosacotc a|quoas
vc|dadcs ||c|as aotco|das eoose|cotccotc o| |os |odueto|cs dc| cosajc.
sz Ci | . uou| d| cu, l. lassc| oo, J. C. y dc Sa| ot - Va| t | o, V. Hajjr jeuappi :e e nn:ii a i i,
Cao|c|s du Ccot|c dc soe|o|oq|c cu|occooc, o z, Voutoo, la|is, ta laya, 1us, . !s-s.
"
Dc| |so odo, c| ||oe||o dc |a ocut|a||dad ct|ea, |uqa| eouo dc todas |as t|ad|e|oocs
ctodo|oq|eas, a|adoj|eacotc ucdc |oe|ta|, co su io|a |ut|oa||a, a| c||o| c|stco|oq|eo
uc as||a |cvco||. Ls co ooo|c dc uoa eooece|oo s|||sta dc| |c|at|v|so eu|tu|a| uc
e|c|tos soe|o|oqos dc |a eu|tu|a ou|a| y dc |os cd|os odc|oos dc eouo|eae|oo
ucdco e|ca|sc |a ||us|oo dc aetua| dc aeuc|do eoo |a |cq|a dc o|o dc |a e|coe|a ctoo|oq|ea
a| eoos|dc|a| todos |os eoo|ta|cotos eu|tu|a|cs, dcsdc |a eaoe|oo io|s|o||ea oasta uoa
eaotata dc uaeo, asaodo o| uoa eaoe|ooe|||a dc oda, eoo s| c| va|o| uc |os d|ic|co-
tcs q|uos |cs |ceoooeco oo io|a|a a|tc dc |a |ca||dad, eoo s| oo iuc|a |ce|so |cic|||
s|c|c |as eooduetas eu|tu|a|cs a |os va|o|cs a |os eua|cs sc |ci|c|co oojct|vacotc a|a
|cst|tu|||cs su scot|do |o|acotc eu|tu|a|. L| soe|o|oqo, uc sc |oooc |qoo|a| |as d|ic-
|coe|as dc va|o|cs uc |os sujctos soe|a|cs cstao|ceco cot|c |as oo|as eu|tu|a|cs, |ca||za
dc oceoo uoa t|aosos|e|oo ||cqit|a, co taoto |oeoot|o|ada, dc| |c|at|v|so a| eua| sc vc
oo||qado c| ctoo|oqo euaodo eoos|dc|a eu|tu|as eo||csood|cotcs a soe|cdadcs d|ic|cotcs:
|as d|ic|cotcs eu|tu|as cx|stcotcs co uoa |sa soe|cdad cst|at|i|eada cstao oojct|va-
cotc s|tuadas uoas co |c|ae|oo eoo |as ot|as, o|uc |os d|ic|cotcs q|uos sc s|tuao uoos
co |c|ae|oo eoo ot|os, co a|t|eu|a| euaodo sc |ci|c|co a c||as, o| c| eoot|a||o, |a |c|ae|oo
cot|c eu|tu|as eo||csood|cotcs a soe|cdadcs d|ic|cotcs so|o ucdc cx|st|| co y o| |a
eoa|ae|oo uc cicetua c| ctoo|oqo. L| |c|at|v|so |otcq|a| y ceao|eo dcscooea co c|
|so |csu|tado uc c| ctooecot||so ct|eo: co |os dos easos c| oosc|vado| sust|tuyc su
|o|a |c|ae|oo o| |os va|o|cs dc |os uc oosc|va (y dc csc odo a su va|o|,, a |a |c|ae|oo
uc cstos aot|coco oojct|vacotc eoo sus va|o|cs.
_Cua| cs c| iis|eo |cquota uaeoc|a|d uc aecta|ia qasta| sus oaoc|cs co eoost|u||
uo aa|ato ea|cotc dc todo s|qo|i|eado tco||eo? Nuc|osas coeucstas soe|o|oq|eas oo
|cs|st||iao ta| |otc||oqaotc. ta |couoe|a u|a y s||c aotc c| dato dc uoa |aet|ea uc
|cduec c| euc|o dc o|otcs|s a uoa sc||c dc aot|e|ae|oocs i|aqcota||as y as|vas
eoodcoa a |as ao|u|ae|oocs e|cqas dc uoa tceo|ea uc qcoc|a autoat|eacotc are-
Ias, eoost|uee|oocs vc|qoozosas uc soo |a ea||eatu|a dc| oceoo ctod|ea y eoose|co-
tccotc eoost|u|do, cs dce|| dc uo odo e|cotii|eo. A| ocqa|sc a sc| c| sujcto e|cotii|eo
dc su soe|o|oqia, c| soe|o|oqo os|t|v|sta sc dcd|ea, sa|vo o| uo ||aq|o dc| |oeoose|co-
tc, a oaec| uoa soe|o|oqia s|o oojcto e|cotii|eo.
C|v|da| uc c| oceoo eoost|u|do, scquo |oecd||cotos io|a|cotc |||c|oeoao|cs, c|o
|oeoose|cotcs dc si |sos, ucdc oo sc| ot|a eosa uc uo areIa, cs ad|t||, s|o as
cxaco, |a os|o|||dad dc a||ea| |as tceo|eas a |a |ca||dad dc| oojcto a| uc sc |as a||ea.
#
_No cs so||codcotc uc |os uc sost|coco uc uo oojcto uc oo sc ucdc eata| o| cd||
o| |as tceo|eas d|soo|o|cs oo t|coc cx|stcoe|a e|cotii|ea, sc vcao ||cvados, co su |aet|-
ea, a oo eoos|dc|a| eoo d|qoo dc sc| eoooe|do as uc |o uc ucdc sc| cd|do o, co|,
a eooecdc| so|o |a cx|stcoe|a e|cotii|ea a todo |o uc cs as|o|c dc sc| cd|do? tos uc
oo|ao eoo s| todos |os oojctos iuc|ao a|ce|ao|cs o| uoa so|a y |sa tceo|ea, o
|od|ic|cotccotc o| todas |as tceo|eas, o|v|dao uc |as d|ic|cotcs tceo|eas ucdco eoo-
t||ou||, co cd|da va||ao|c y eoo dcs|qua|cs |cod||cotos, a| eoooe||coto dc| oojcto, so|o
s| |a ut|||zae|oo csta eoot|o|ada o| uoa |ci|cx|oo ctod|ea soo|c |as eood|e|oocs y |os
|i|tcs dc su va||dcz, uc dccodc co eada easo dc su adceuae|oo a| oojcto, cs dce|| a |a
tco|ia dc| oojcto
ss
. Adcas, csta |ci|cx|oo so|o ucdc c||t|| |a |c|ovcoe|oo e|cado|a uc
cx|qc |dca|cotc |a a||eae|oo dc uoa tceo|ea, |otc||qcoe|a uc|ta y uc |a cotc dcoc
|csue|ta|, y a Iriri, |a e|cae|oo y a||eae|oo dc oucvas tceo|eas.
||.-4 La ana|oq|a y |a conatrucc|on de h|potea|a
la|a odc| eoost|u|| uo oojcto y a| |so t|co saoc| eoost|u|||o, oay uc sc| eoos-
e|cotc dc uc todo oojcto e|cotii|eo sc eoost|uyc dc||oc|ada y ctod|eacotc y cs
|ce|so saoc| todo c||o a|a |cquota|sc soo|c |as tceo|eas dc eoost|uee|oo dc |os
|oo|cas |aotcados a| oojcto. uoa ctodo|oqia uc oo sc |aotca|a ouoea c| |oo|c-
a dc |a eoost|uee|oo dc |as o|otcs|s uc sc dcoco dcost|a| oo ucdc, eoo |o
sca|a C|audc uc|oa|d, da| |dcas oucvas y iceuodas a auc||os uc oo |a t|coco,
sc|v||a so|acotc a|a d|||q|| |as |dcas co |os uc |as t|coco y a|a dcscovo|vc||as a
i|o dc saea| dc c||as |os cjo|cs |csu|tados os|o|cs j. . .[ c| ctodo o| si |so oo
coqcod|a oada
s!
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Coot|a c| os|t|v|so uc t|codc a vc| co |a o|otcs|s so|o c| |odueto dc uoa qcoc|a-
e|oo csootaoca co uo ao|cotc |oiceuodo y uc csc|a |oqcouacotc uc c| eoooe|-
|coto dc |os oceoos o, a |o suo, |a |oduee|oo a a|t|| dc |os oceoos, eooduzea dc
odo autoat|eo a |a io|u|ae|oo dc o|otcs|s, c| aoa||s|s c|dct|eo dc lussc||, eoo c|
aoa||s|s o|sto||eo dc koy|c dcucst|ao, a |oos|to dc| |oecd||coto a|ad|qat|eo
dc Ga|||co, uc uoa o|otcs|s eoo |a dc |a |oc|e|a oo ucdc sc| eoou|stada o| eoos-
ss L| uso oooaoiaeo dc uoa tceo|ea a|t|eu|a| cs c| as i|ceucotc y tao|co c| as i|ceucotccotc
dcouoe|ado: Dad uo a|t|||o a uo o|o d|ec ko|ao y sc vc|a uc todo |c oao|a dc a|cec| c|cec-
do| dc uo a|t|||azo,1ie Ciu: I Ii:iry, j. i., . 11z,.
s! uc|oa|d, C. Iiru:ii Ie:ue ue a neueiie ejerineia, j. i., Caj. II, a|aq|aio z.
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t|u|da s|oo a eosta dc uo qo|c dc cstado tco||eo uc, a| oo oa||a| o|oquo uoto dc
aoyo co |as scosae|oocs dc |a cxc||coe|a, oo odia |cq|t|a|sc as uc o| |a eooc-
|coe|a dc| dcsaiio |aq|oat|vo |aozado a |os oceoos y a |as |aqcocs |oqcouas o
eu|tas dc |os oceoos
ss
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1a| cx|o|ae|oo dc |os u|t||cs ascetos, uc suooc uo d|staoe|a|coto dce|s|vo
|csceto dc |os oceoos, ucda cxucsta a |as iae|||dadcs dc| |otu|e|oo|so, dc| io|a-
||so o dc |a u|a csceu|ae|oo, a| |so t|co uc so|o ucdc cvad||sc ||uso||acotc
dc |os eood|e|ooa|cotos dc| |coquajc o dc |os eoot|o|cs dc |a |dco|oqia. Coo |o
suo|aya . u. u|a|toWa|tc, uo cosa|coto e|cotii|eo uc |ceu||c a| odc|o aoa|oq|eo
cs s|c|c uo cosa|coto a| odo dc| eoo s| (as iI iiiiip) j...[, |a eoot|aa|t|da
dc| |ceu|so a |os odc|os cs uoa v|q||aoe|a eoostaotc
s
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eooecto qcoc||eo ootco|do o| |oduee|oo, dc |a cscoe|a cs|||tua| o dc |a eo|a
||cs|oo|sta dc |o |ca|, w coc| so|o ouseaoa cx||e|ta| |as |cq|as dc iuoe|ooa|coto y
|as eood|e|oocs dc va||dcz dc uo |oecd||coto uc todo |ovcst|qado|, auo c| as
os|t|v|sta, ut|||za eoose|cotc o |oeoose|cotccotc, c|o uc oo ucdc sc| do|oado
as uc s| sc ut|||za eoo eoooe||coto dc eausa. lo| oos|e|oo a |as eoost|uee|oocs
csceu|at|vas dc |a i||osoiia soe|a|, euyos |ci|oa|cotos |oq|eos oo t|coco ot|a i|oa||-
dad uc eoost|u|| uo s|stca dcduet|vo o|co o|dcoado y uc soo |||ciutao|cs o| sc|
|odcost|ao|cs, c| t|o |dca| eoo quia a|a |a eoost|uee|oo dc o|otcs|s, scquo |a
cx|cs|oo dc Vax w coc|, cs uoa i|ee|oo eooc|cotc co |a eua| |a s|tuae|oo o |a aee|oo
cs eoa|ada y cd|da, uoa eoost|uee|oo eooeco|da a|a eooi|oota|sc eoo |o |ca|,
uoa isr:ii jrina a uoa d|staoe|a ta| uc c||tc cd|| y |cdue|| y oo a|ox|-
ss L. lussc||, D|c k||ss|s dc| c|oa|seoco w|sscoseoaitco uod d|c t|aoszcodcota|c loaoocoo|oq|c:
L|oc L|o|c|tuoq |o d|c oaoocoo|oq|seoc lo||osoo|c (t|ad. i|aoecsa L. Gc||c|, ta e||sc dcs se|coecs
cu|occoocs ct |a ocoocoo|oq|c t|aosecodaota|c, Les L:ues

Iiisjii:es, o. z y !, la|is joay
cd. cs.[ , - koy|c, as scos|o|c uc eua|u|c| ot|o o|sto||ado| dc |a e|coe|a a |a |oqco|os|dad cxc||-
cota| dc Ga|||co, oo vae||a s|o coa|qo co oosc|va| co c| |cju|e|o dc eoost|u|| uoa iis|ea a|u|cd|aoa
c| ||oe||o oto| dc |a |cvo|ue|oo e|cotii|ea |o|e|ada o| Ga|||co. Ls |a tco|ia, cs dce||, co cstc easo |a
| otu| e| oo tco|| ea dc| || oe| | o dc | oc|e| a, uc |cecdc a | a cxc|| coe| a y | a oaec os| o| c vo| v| codo
eooeco|o|cs |as cxc||coe|as susect|olcs dc va||da| |a tco|ia. Ci. koy|c, A. L:ues Caieeiies, lll,
Caiee e a i uiierie. la|is: lc|aoo, 1u, . zz-zz.
s u|atoWa|tc, . u. SieiiIi Ljaiaii. Cao||dqc: Cao||dqc uo|vc|s|ty l|css, 1us, . us. No cs
easua| s|, co e|coe|as uc eoo |a ceoooct|ia, |ceu||co dcsdc oaec t|co a |a eoost|uee|oo dc
odc|os, |a eooe|coe|a dc| c||q|o dc |ouo|zae|oo eoot|a |a cxc||coe|a uc cs |ooc|cotc a todo
|oecso io|a||sta, cs dce|| s|||i|eado|, cs as aecotuado uc co soe|o|oqia. l. A | o c | t o s t | o | a
eoa|tada ||||tada uc s|qo|i|ea c| oao|to dc |azooa| eeris jarii:s: ta o|otcs|s sc vuc|vc |||ciutao|c
dcsdc c| ocoto co uc toda oosc|vae|oo eoot|a||a dc |a |sa ucdc |uta|sc a |a va||ae|oo dc |os
iaeto|cs uc auc||a ocut|a||za suoo|codo|os eoostaotcs (l. A|oc|t, Vodc|| l|atoo|sus, co L. 1o|tseo
(cd.,, Lpi uer SziawisseiiaIei, k|ccoocuc| uod w|tseo, ko|o, uc||io, 1u, . !o-!s!,.
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ada. L| t|o |dca| c||tc cd|| |a |ca||dad o|uc sc |dc eoo c||a y sc dctc||oa a|
dctc||oa| |a d|staoe|a uc |o sca|a dc |o |ca| j M. eier, e i. a![.
Coo |a eood|e|oo dc |cse|od|| dc |as ao|qucdadcs uc dcja suos|st|| wcoc| a| |dcot|-
i|ea| c| t|o |dca| eoo c| odc|o, co c| scot|do dc easo-cjc|o o easo-|i|tc, eoost|u|-
do o eo|ooado, c| |azooa|coto eoo asajc dc |os |i|tcs eoost|tuyc uoa tceo|ea
|||cc|azao|c dc eoost|uee|oo dc o|otcs|s: c| t|o |dca| ucdc cxtcodc|sc taoto co uo
easo tco||eacotc ||v||cq|ado co uo q|uo eoost|u|do dc t|aosio|ae|oocs (|ceuc|dc-
sc, o| cjc|o, c| |o| uc oaeia juqa| uou||qaod a| t||aoqu|o |cetaoqu|o eoo soo|tc
||v||cq|ado dc |a dcost|ae|oo dc |a |taqo||e|dad,
s
eoo co uo easo a|ad|qat|eo
uc ucdc sc|, ya sca uoa u|a i|ee|oo ootco|da o| c| asajc dc |os |i|tcs y o| |a
aecotuae|oo uo||atc|a| dc |as |o|cdadcs c|t|ocotcs, ya sca uo oojcto |ca|cotc
oosc|vao|c uc |cscota co c| as a|to q|ado c| ouc|o ayo| dc |o|cdadcs dc|
oojcto eoost|u|do. la|a cseaa| a |os c||q|os |ooc|cotcs a cstc |oecd||coto, oay
uc eoos|dc|a| a| t|o |dca|, oo co si |so o| o| si |so a |a aoc|a dc uoa
ucst|a |cvc|ado|a uc oasta|ia eo|a| a|a eoooec| |a vc|dad dc |a eo|cee|oo iotcq|a
s|oo eoo uo c|ccoto dc uo q|uo dc t|aosio|ae|oocs |ci|||codo|os a todos |os ea-
sos dc |a csce|c dc| eua| cs uoo ||v||cq|ado. Dc cstc odo, eoost|uycodo o| uoa
i|ee|oo ctodo|oq|ea c| s|stca dc eooduetas uc ood|iao |os cd|os as |ae|ooa|cs
a| sc|v|e|o dc i|ocs |ae|ooa|cotc ea|eu|ados, Vax wcoc| oot|coc uo cd|o ||v||cq|a-
do a|a eo|codc| |a qaa dc eooduetas |ca|cs uc c| t|o |dca| c||tc oojct|va|,
oojct|vaodo su d|staoe|a d|ic|coe|a| a| t|o u|o. No cx|stc c| t|o |dca| co c| scot|do dc
ucst|a |cvc|ado|a ,Iisaiia seisiva), uc oaqa vc| |o uc sc ousea, eoo |o |od|-
eaoa uaeoo, a| dcseuo|c|to, oajo uoa io|a aq|aodada o co su as a|to q|ado dc
otcoe|a, uc ucda to|oa|sc oojcto dc uo uso ||qu|oso, sc ucdc cv|ta| |o uc sc oa
||aado c| a|a|oq|so dc| cjc|o d|aat|eo, va||aotc dc| a|a|oq|so dc |a Irai,aise
r:sse a eood|e|oo dc advc|t|| co c| easo cxt|co soct|do a oosc|vae|oo, c| |cvc|a-
do| dc| eoojuoto dc easos |soo|ios dc |a cst|uetu|a dc| s|stca,
ss
cs csta |oq|ea |o
uc oaec a Vauss ||v||cq|a| c| jai eoo Irna a|oxist|ea dc |a csce|c, |os
eao|os dc t|o tota| y aqooist|eo, o uc c||tc vc| co c| cstud|aotc ||tc|a||o a||s|cosc
s vcasc uaeoc|a|d, C. Le raiiaisne ajji:e. j. i, . u1-u.
ss Asi, Goiiao eooe|oc a| oos|ta| s|u|at||eo |cuo|eaodo|o co |a sc||c dc |ost|tue|oocs, eua|tc|cs o
|otc|oados: c| easo ||v||cq|ado co |a sc||c eoost|u|da ucdc sc| cotooecs auc| uc, toado a|s|ada-
cotc, cjo| d|s|u|a o| sus iuoe|oocs oi|e|a|cotc ouao|ta||as |a |oq|ea dc| s|stca dc |os easos
|soo|ios (ei|. Goiiao. 4sies. la|is: Ld|t|oos dc V|ou|t, 1us,.
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dc o||qco ou|qucs y co su |oe||oae|oo a| d||ctaot|so, uo uoto dc a|t|da ||v||cq|ado
a|a eoost|u|| c| odc|o dc |c|ae|oocs os|o|cs cot|c |a vc|dad soe|o|oq|ea dc |a eood|-
e|oo dc cstud|aotc y su t|aosi|qu|ae|oo |dco|oq|ea.
L| ars iiveiieiui, cotooecs, dcoc |||ta|sc a |oo|e|ooa| |as tceo|eas dc cosa|coto
uc c||tao eoodue|| ctod|eacotc c| t|aoajo dc eoost|uee|oo dc o|otcs|s a| |so
t|co uc d|s|ou||, o| |a eooe|coe|a dc |os c||q|os uc ta| c|csa |||ea, |os
||csqos uc |c soo |ooc|cotcs. L| |azooa|coto o| aoa|oqia uc ueoos c|stco|oqos
eoos|dc|ao c| ||oe||o ||c|o dc| dcseuo|||coto e|cotii|eo csta ||aado a dcscca|
uo ac| csceii|eo co |a e|coe|a soe|o|oq|ea uc t|coc o| csce|i|e|dad oo odc| eoos-
t|tu|| su oojcto s|oo o| c| jreuiniei njaraiv
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e|oo |dcoq|ai|ea dc easos uc oo eoot|coco co si |sos su eausa, c| soe|o|oqo dcoc
u|t|||ea| |as o|otcs|s dc aoa|oqias os|o|cs oasta eoost|u|| |a csce|c dc |os easos
uc cx||eao c| easo eoos|dc|ado. Y a|a eoost|u|| csas aoa|oqias |sas, cs |cqit|o
uc sc ayudc eoo o|otcs|s dc aoa|oqias dc cst|uetu|a cot|c |os icoocoos soe|a|cs y
|os icoocoos ya cstao|ce|dos o| ot|as e|coe|as, eocozaodo o| |as as |ox|as,
||oquist|ea, ctoo|oqia o, |oe|uso, o|o|oqia. No ea|cec dc |otc|cs oosc|va Du|soc|
|ovcst|qa| s| uoa |cy, cstao|ce|da o| uo o|dco dc oceoos, oo sc coeucot|a co ot|a a|tc,
n:ais n:aiuis, csta eoa|ae|oo ucdc |oe|uso sc|v|| a|a eooi||a||a y eo|codc|
cjo| su a|eaoec. Lo sua, |a aoa|oqia cs uoa io|a |cqit|a dc eoa|ae|oo y csta cs
c| uo|eo cd|o |aet|eo uc d|soocos a|a eooscqu|| uc |as eosas sc vuc|vao |otc||q|-
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yc oo so|o c| |ost|ucoto ||v||cq|ado dc |a |utu|a eoo |os datos |ceoost|u|dos, uc
|ctcodco |os|stcotccotc sc| eoos|dc|ados co si |sos y o| si |sos, s|oo ta-
o|co c| ||oe||o dc |a eoost|uee|oo o|otct|ea dc |c|ae|oocs cot|c |as |c|ae|oocs.
su vcasc, o| cj c| o, lo| ya, G. Iiu:i i aiu 4ia py i i Maienai s. l|| oectoo (N.J.,: l|| oectoo
uo|vc|s|ty l|css, 1us!, ts. l y ll. Du|soc| suqc|ia ya ||oe||os dc uoa |ci|cx|oo soo|c c| ouco uso dc
|a aoa|oqia. L| c||o| dc |os soe|o|oqos o|o|oq|stas oo cs oaoc||a usado (|a aoa|oqia,, s|oo oaoc||a usado
a|. Cu|s|c|oo oo eoot|o|a| |as |cycs dc |a soe|o|oqia o| |as dc |a o|o|oqia, s|oo dcdue|| |as ||c|as dc
| as scquodas. lc|o ta| cs dcduee| oocs ea|ceco dc va| o|, ucs s| | as | cycs dc | a v| da sc vuc| vco a
coeoot|a| co | a soe| cdad, cs oaj o oucvas io|as y eoo ea|aetc|cs csceii| eos uc | a aoa| oqia oo
c||tc eoojctu|a| y uc so|o ucdc a|eaoza|sc o| |a oosc|vae|oo d||ceta. lc|o s| sc oa eocozado a
dctc||oa|, eoo ayuda dc |oecd||cotos soe|o|oqieos, e|c|tas eood|e|oocs dc |a o|qao|zae|oo soe|a|,
ouo|c|a s|do c|icetacotc |cqit|o cxa|oa| |ucqo s| oo |cscotaoao s||||tudcs a|e|a|cs eoo |as
eood|e|oocs dc |a o|qao|zae|oo ao|a|, ta| eoo |o dctc||oa c| o|o|oq|sta dc su |ado. lucdc |cvc|sc
|oe|uso uc toda o|qao|zae|oo dcoc tcoc| ea|aetc|cs eouocs uc oo cs |out|| dcseuo||| (L. Du|soc|,
c|cscotat|oos |od|v|duc||cs ct |c|cscotat|oos eo||cet|vcs, Hev:e ue Meajiysi:e e dc Mrae, t.
vl, ayo 1sus, |c|odue|do co: Soe|o|oq|c e jiisjiie, la|is, l. A|eao, 1uz!, s cd., lul, la|is, 1us,.
!o L. Du|soc|, iiiu.
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ooe|oo, dao dc odc|o, uc sc |c ucdc eooic||| |as |o|cdadcs y iuoe|oocs eouocotc
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e|cotccotc eoo i|ocs dc dcse||e|oo, dc cx||eae|oo o |cv|s|oo y, o| c||o, |coacotc
aocjao|c, c|o a eood|e|oo dc oo c|ca| s|ooo|os dc cstc tc||oo uc dco a cotcodc|
uc c| odc|o ucda sc|, co cstc easo, ot|a eosa uc uoa eo|a uc aetua eoo uo
|cooaso eoo |o |ca| y uc, euaodo cs ootco|da o| uo s||c |oecd||coto dc ajustc y
cxt|ao|ae|oo, oo eooduec co odo a|quoo a| ||oe||o dc |a |ca||dad uc ||ta. Dul|c
e||t|eaoa |os odc|os ceao|eos dc to|d kc|v|o o| aotcoc| eoo |os oceoos so|o uoa
sccjaoza suc|i|e|a|. S||cs |oecd||cotos dc cxos|e|oo uc oao|ao so|o a |a |aq|-
oae|oo, ta|cs |ost|ucotos oo ucdco qu|a| c| dcseuo|||coto ucsto uc oo soo s|oo, a |o
suo, ot|a eosa uc uoa ucsta co io|a dc uo saoc| |cv|o y uc t|codco a |ooc| su
|oq|ea |o|a, cv|taodo asi |ovcst|qa| |a |oq|ea oojct|va uc sc t|ata dc eoost|u|| a|a cx||-
ea| tco||eacotc |o uc oo oaeco as uc |c|cscota|
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dc |as |cooe|oocs dc| scot|do eouo oaeco cosa| co csos autoatas uc eoost|uiao
vaueaosoo y Cat, y uc, co auscoe|a dc| eoooe||coto dc |os ||oe||os |ca|cs dc iuoe|o-
oa|coto, ac|aoao a ceao|sos oasados co ot|os ||oe||os a|a |odue|| uoa s||c
|c|oduee|oo dc |as |o|cdadcs as icoocoa|cs: eoo |o suo|aya Gco|qcs Caoqu||oc,
|a ut|||zae|oo dc odc|os sc |cvc|o iceuoda co o|o|oqia co c| ocoto co uc sc sust|tuyc-
|oo |os odc|os ceao|eos, eooeco|dos co |a |oq|ea dc |a |oduee|oo y t|aos|s|oo dc
coc|qia, o| odc|os e|oc|oct|eos uc dcseaosao co |a t|aos|s|oo dc |oio|ae|oo y dao
asi eoo |a |oq|ea dc| iuoe|ooa|coto dc |os e||eu|tos oc|v|osos
!s
. No cs uoa easua||dad s|
|a |od|ic|coe|a a |os ||oe||os eoodcoa a uo oc|ae|ooa||so uc |||ta sus ao|e|oocs a
sa|va| |as aa||coe|as, s|o c|ju|e|o dc |oooc| taotos odc|os eoo icoocoos oay, o
u|t|||ea| a|a uo |so icoocoo odc|os uc |oe|uso oo soo eoot|ad|eto||os o|uc,
|oduetos dc uo t|aoajo e|cotii|eo, cstao |qua|cotc dcs|ov|stos dc ||oe||os. ta |ovcst|-
!1 Lo cstc a|aq|aio, c| voeao|o tco|ia sc toa|a co c| scot|do dc tco|ia a|e|a| dc |o soe|a| (ei. s:jra,
a|aq. l., . !s-so,.
!z Lot|c |os odc|os |oeoot|o|ados uc oostaeu||zao |a eatae|oo dc |as aoa|oqias |oiuodas, oay uc
tcoc| co eucota tao|co |os uc t|aos|tc c| |coquajc co sus ctaio|as, auo |as as uc|tas (ei|.
s:jra, a|aq. l-!, . s-!1,.
!s Caoqu||oc, G. Aoa|oq|cs aod Vodc|s |o u|o|oq|ea| D|seovc|y, SieiiIi Ciaipe, Iisria S:uies ii
ie Iiee:a, Sia aiu 1eiiia Ciuiiis Ir SieiiIi Disvery aiu 1eiiia Iiveiii, Irn
4ii:iy ie Iresei, Syos|u oo toc l|sto|y oi Se|coec, lc|ocaoo, toodoo, 1us, . so-szo.
qae|oo a||eada ucdc eootcota|sc, s|o duda, eoo ta|cs vc|dadcs co uo so, scquo |a
cx|cs|oo dc uoas, c|o u|cocs eooiuodco uoa |cst|tue|oo a|ox|ada (y oo |ox|a, dc|
icoocoo eoo |a tco|ia dc |os icoocoos sc cxooco a |ocxo|ao|cs i|aeasos y s|o coa|-
qo |oeo|cos|o|cs co taoto oo sc ae|a|c c| odc| cx||eat|vo dc eo|oe|dcoe|a.
Cooiuod|codo cot|c |a s||c senejaiza y |a aiap:a, |c|ae|oo cot|c |c|ae|oocs uc
dcoc sc| eoou|stada eoot|a |as aa||coe|as y eoost|u|da o| uo vc|dadc|o t|aoajo dc
aost|aee|oo y o| uoa eoa|ae|oo eoose|cotccotc |ca||zada, |os nues nineis,
uc oo eatao as uc |as sccjaozas cxtc||o|cs sc oooco a |os nues aiapis
uc ouseao |a eo|cos|oo dc |os ||oe||os oeu|tos dc |as |ca||dadcs uc |otc||ctao.
azooa| o| aoa|oqia d|ec |a Aeadc|a cs io|a| uo |azooa|coto iuodado co |as
sccjaozas o |c|ae|oocs dc uoa eosa eoo ot|a o as o|co, eo|||qc Cou|oot, iuodado co
|as |c|ae|oocs o sccjaozas co taoto cstas ucst|co |as |c|ae|oocs. Lo ciceto, |a v|s|oo
dc |a cotc, co c| ju|e|o aoa|oq|eo, sc |ci|c|c uo|eacotc a |a |azoo dc |as sccjaozas:
cstas oo t|coco o|oquo va|o| dcsdc c| ocoto uc oo |cvc|ao |as |c|ae|oocs co c| o|dco
dc oceoos co uc |a aoa|oqia sc a||ea
!!
.
tos d|ic|cotcs |oecd||cotos dc eoost|uee|oo dc o|otcs|s ucdco aucota| su ci|ea-
e|a |ceu|||codo a |a io|a||zae|oo uc, adcas dc |a iuoe|oo cse|a|cecdo|a dc uoa cstc-
ooq|aiia ||qu|osa dc eooectos y |a iuoe|oo e|it|ea dc uoa dcost|ae|oo |oq|ea dc| ||qo|
dc |as dci|o|e|oocs y dc |a eooc|coe|a dc| s|stca dc couoe|ados, tao|co ucdc eu-
|||, oajo e|c|tas eood|e|oocs, uoa iuoe|oo ocu|ist|ea a| c||t|| |a cx|o|ae|oo s|stcat|-
ea dc |o os|o|c y |a eoost|uee|oo eoot|o|ada dc uo euc|o s|stcat|eo dc o|otcs|s eoo
csuca eo|cto dc |as cxc||coe|as os|o|cs. lc|o s| |a ci|eae|a ceao|ea, y ctod|-
ea a |a vcz, dc |os sioo|os y dc |os oc|ado|cs dc |a |oq|ea o dc |a atcat|ea, |ost|u-
cotos dc eoa|ae|oo o| cxec|coe|a, scquo |a cx|cs|oo dc Va|e ua|out, c||tc
||cva| a su tc||oo |a va||ae|oo |aq|oa||a, c| |azooa|coto aoa|oq|eo ucdc eu|||
tao|co, |oe|uso ea|cotc dc todo |ci|oa|coto io|a|, su iuoe|oo dc |ost|ucoto dc dcs-
euo|||coto, auouc as t|aoajosacotc y eoo coos scqu||dad. Lo su uso eo|||cotc, c|
odc|o |oo|e|ooa c| sust|tuto dc uoa cxc||cotae|oo a coudo |os|o|c co |os oc-
eoos y da c| cd|o dc eooi|oota| eoo |a |ca||dad |as eoosceucoe|as uc csta cxc||coe|a
cota| c||tc sca|a| eo|ctacotc, o|uc i|et|e|acotc: tucqo dc ousscau y
!! Cou|oot, A. Lssais s:r es Iiueneis ue is iiaissaies e s:r es araeres ue a rii:e
jiisjii:e. la|is: laeoctc, 1u1z, .s.
oajo uoa io|a dce|s|va, Va|x cosco, oosc|va C|audc tcv|-St|auss, uc |a e|coe|a
soe|a| a| |qua| uc |a iis|ea oo sc eoost|uyc a a|t|| dc |os datos dc |a scos|o|||dad: c|
oojct|vo cs eoost|u|| uo odc|o, cstud|a| sus |o|cdadcs y |as d|ic|cotcs aoc|as co
uc |caee|ooa co c| |aoo|ato||o, a|a a||ea| scqu|dacotc csas oosc|vae|oocs a |a |otc|-
|ctae|oo dc |o uc suecdc ci||eacotc
!s
.
Ls co |os ||oe||os dc su eoost|uee|oo y oo co su q|ado dc io|a||zae|oo uc |ad|ea c|
va|o| cx||eat|vo dc |os odc|os. lo| e|c|to, eoo sc oa dcost|ado a coudo dc
tc|oo|z a ussc||, c| |ceu|so a cv|dcoe|as e|cqas dc |os sioo|os eoost|tuyc uoa
cxec|cotc |otcee|oo eoot|a |as ooeceadas cv|dcoe|as dc |a |otu|e|oo: L| s|oo||so
cs ut||, |od|seut|o|ccotc, o|uc to|oa |as eosas d|iie||cs. Cuc|cos saoc| uc uc-
dc sc| dcdue|do dc uc. A| ||oe||o todo cs cv|dcotc o| si, y cs uy d|iie|| vc| s| uoa
|oos|e|oo cv|dcotc |oecdc o oo dc ot|a. ta cv|dcoe|a cs s|c|c coc|qa dc| ||qo|.
lovcotcos uo s|oo||so tao d|iie|| uc oada a|czea cv|dcotc. tucqo cstao|czea-
os |cq|as a|a oc|a| eoo |os sioo|os y todo sc vuc|vc ceao|eo
!
. lc|o |os atca-
t|eos tcod|iao coos |azoocs uc |os soe|o|oqos a|a |ceo|da| uc |a io|a||zae|oo
ucdc eoosaq|a| cv|dcoe|as dc| scot|do eouo co |uqa| dc eoodcoa||as. Sc ucdc,
dceia tc|oo|z, da| io|a dc ceuae|oo a |a eu|va uc asa o| todos |os uotos dc uoa
suc|i|e|c. L| oojcto c|e|o|do oo sc t|aosio|a co uo oojcto eoost|u|do eoo o| uo
scoe|||o a|tc dc aq|a atcat|ea: co|, co |a cd|da co uc s|oo||za |a |utu|a eoo
|as aa||coe|as, c| s|oo||so da a| oojcto |ceoost|u|do uoa |csctao|||dad usu|ada,
uc |o |csqua|da dc |a e|it|ea tco||ea. S| oay uc |ceavc|sc dc |os ia|sos |cst|q|os y
|od|q|os dc |a io|a||zae|oo s|o eoot|o| c|stco|oq|eo, cs o|uc |cdue|codo |as aa-
||coe|as dc |a aost|aee|oo a |oos|e|oocs uc ucdco sc| ooeceadacotc toadas dc
|a soe|o|oqia csootaoca o dc |a |dco|oqia, acoaza |odue|| a uc sc ucda aoo||a| c|
t|aoajo dc aost|aee|oo, uc cs c| uo|eo eaaz dc |oc| eoo |as sccjaozas aa|cotcs
a|a eoost|u|| |as aoa|oqias oeu|tas.
ta eatae|oo dc |as ooo|oqias cst|uetu|a|cs oo s|c|c t|coc ocecs|dad dc ac|a| a|
io|a||so a|a iuodacota|sc y a|a dcost|a| su ||qo|. uasta scqu|| c| |oecd||coto
uc eoodujo a laooissy a eoa|a| |a S:nna dc 1oas dc Au|oo y |a eatcd|a| qot|ea
!sC tcv|-St|auss. 1rises rji:es. la||s: l|oo, 1us, . !u joay cd. cs.[.
! usscl|, u. Mysiusn aod Lpi, aod Dizer Lssys. Douo|cday, Nucva Yo|s: Aoeoo| uooss, 1us, .
s (|ost. uo|. Iiisjiia Lssays. toodoo: Gco|qc A||co uoW|o, 1u1o, za cd., Mysiisn aod toq|e,
1u1 joay cd. cs.[.
a|a advc|t|| |as eood|e|oocs uc oaeco os|o|c, |cqit|a y iceuoda ta| oc|ae|oo: a|a
aeecdc| a |a aoa|oqia oeu|ta cseaaodo dc csa eu||osa cze|a dc doqat|so y c|-
||so, dc |st|e|so y os|t|v|so uc ea|aetc||za a| |otu|e|oo|so, oay uc |couoe|a| a
uc|c| coeoot|a| co |os datos dc |a |otu|e|oo scos|o|c c| ||oe||o uc |os uo|i|uc |ca|-
cotc y soctc| |as |ca||dadcs eoa|adas a uo t|ata|coto uc |as oaec |qua|cotc
d|soo|o|cs a|a |a eoa|ae|oo. ta aoa|oqia oo sc cstao|cec cot|c |a S:nna y |a Cae-
ura toadas, o| asi dce|||o, co su va|o| iae|a|, s|oo cot|c dos s|stcas dc |c|ae|oocs
|otc||q|o|cs, oo cot|c eosas uc sc oi|cec|iao a |a c|ece|oo |oqcoua s|oo cot|c oojctos
eoou|stados eoot|a |as aa||coe|as |ocd|atas y eoost|u|dos cd|aotc uoa c|aoo|ae|oo
ctod|ea (L. IaiIsy, e i.

a?).
Dc csta aoc|a, cs co su odc| dc |utu|a y dc qcoc|a||zae|oo, |os dos soo |osca|ao|cs,
uc sc |ceoooec c| nue eri: dcu|ae|oo io|a| dc |as |c|ae|oocs cot|c auc||as
uc dci|oco |os oojctos eoost|u|dos, ucdc sc| t|aosucsto a o|dcocs dc |a |ca||dad
icoocoa| uy d|ic|cotcs y |ovoea| o| aoa|oqia oucvas aoa|oqias, oucvos ||oe||os
dc eoost|uee|oo dc oojctos [I. D:ien, e i.

aa, A. Canjie, e i

a. Asi
eoo c| atcat|eo coeucot|a co |a dci|o|e|oo dc |ceta eoo eu|va dc eu|vatu|a ou|a
c| ||oe||o dc uoa tco|ia qcoc|a| dc |as eu|vas, ya uc |a |ioca eu|va cs uo cjo|
qcoc|a||zado| uc |a |ceta, asi |a eoost|uee|oo dc uo odc|o c||tc t|ata| d|ic|cotcs
io|as soe|a|cs eoo ot|as taotas |ca||zae|oocs dc uo |so q|uo dc t|aosio|ae|oocs
y oaec| su|q|| o| c||o |o|cdadcs oeu|tas uc oo sc |cvc|ao s|oo co |a ucsta co
|c|ae|oo dc eada uoa dc |as |ca||zae|oocs eoo todas |as ot|as, cs dce|| o| |cic|coe|a a|
s|stca eo|cto dc |c|ae|oocs co uc sc cx|csa c| ||oe||o dc su ai|o|dad cst|uetu|a|
!
.
Ls cst c c| | oecd| | cot o uc | c eooi | c| c su i ceuod| dad, cs dce| | su odc| dc
qcoc|a||zae|oo, a |as eoa|ae|oocs cot|c soe|cdadcs d|ic|cotcs o cot|c suos|stcas
dc uoa |sa soe|cdad, o| oos|e|oo a |as s||cs eoa|ae|oocs suse|tadas o| |a
sccj aoza dc | os eootco| dos. Lo | a cd| da co uc cstas ctaio|as e| cotii| eas
eooduzeao a |os ||oe||os dc |as ooo|oqias cst|uetu|a|cs uc ud|c|ao coeoot|a|sc
suc|q| das co | as d| i c|coe| as i coocoa| cs, soo, eoo sc oa d| eoo, t co|i as co
! Ls c| |so |oecd||coto, uc eoos|stc co eooeco|| c| easo a|t|eu|a| c |oe|uso c| eoojuoto dc easos
|ca|cs eoo easos a|t|eu|a|cs dc uo s|stca |dca| dc eoos|e|oocs |oq|eas, uc co |as oc|ae|oocs
as eooe|ctas dc | a |aet| ea soe| o| oq| ea eoo | a | otc||ctae| oo dc uoa |c| ae| oo cstadist| ea ucdc
tc||oa| |ov||t|codo |a s|qo|i|eae|oo dc |a ooe|oo dc s|qo|i|eat|v|dad cstadist|ea: asi eoo |a atcat|ea
udo eoos|dc|a| |a auscoe|a dc |o|cdadcs eoo uoa |o|cdad, dc| |so odo uoa auscoe|a dc
|c|ae|oo cstadist|ea cot|c dos va||ao|cs ucdc sc| a|tacotc s|qo|i|eat|va s| sc eoos|dc|a csta |caee|oo
dcot|o dc| s|stca eo|cto dc |c|ae|oocs dc |a uc io|a a|tc.
!
|o|atu|a ucsto uc, a| io|u|a| |os ||oe||os qcoc|ado|cs y uo|i|eado|cs dc uo s|stca
dc |c|ae|oocs, sat|siaeco eo|ctacotc |as cx|qcoe|as dc| ||qo| co c| o|dco dc |a
dcost|ae|oo y dc |a iceuod|dad, co c| o|dco dc| dcseuo|||coto, uc dci|oco uoa
e o o s t | u e e | o o t c o | | e a : q | a a t | e a s q c o c | a d o | a s d c c s u c a s , a s | o | c s d c s c |
t |aosucst as, |oo|e| ooao c| || oe| | o dc | os |oo| cas y dc eucst | ooa| cot os
|odci|o|dacotc |coovao|cs, |ca||zae|oocs s|stcat|eas dc uo s|stca dc |c|ae|oocs
vc||i|eadas o a vc||i|ea|, oo||qao a uo |oecd||coto dc vc||i|eae|oo uc oo ucdc sc|
as uc s|stcat|eo co si |so, |oduetos eoose|cotcs dc uo d|staoe|a|coto o|
|cic|coe|a a |a |ca||dad, |c|tco s|c|c a |a |ca||dad y c||tco cd|| co |a |sa |as
|o|cdadcs uc su |||ca||dad so|o os|o|||ta dcseuo||| eo|ctacotc, o| dcduee|oo
!s
.
!s Sc||a |od|scosao|c co e|coe|as soe|a|cs uoa cdueae|oo dc| csi||tu e|cotii|eo, a|a uc, o| cjc|o,
co sus |oio|cs dc coeucsta |os soe|o|oqos |oao as a coudo eoo c| |oecd||coto |oduet|vo uc
a |o suo eooduec a uo oa|aoec |cea|tu|at|vo (ei|. iiIra, a|aq. lll.z, . u1, a|a |co|qao|za| co iuoe|oo
dc uo ||oe||o uo|i|eado| (o dc va||os,, a i|o dc cx||ea| s|stcat|eacotc, c| eoojuoto dc |c|ae|oocs
ci||eacotc eo|ooadas, cs dce|| a|a oocdcec| co su |aet|ea a |a cx|qcoe|a tco||ea, auouc
iuc|a a| o|vc| dc uoa |oo|cat|ea |cq|ooa|.
"
Lectura comp|ementar|a N s
Tomada de: George Ritzer. Teora sociolgica contempornea.
Madrid: MacGraw-Hill, 1993, pgs. 364-369-372-375-379-380-384-391.
var|edadea de |a teor|a tem|n|ata contemporanea
ta tco|ia ic|o|sta eootco|aoca eoost|tuyc |a oasc ||tc|a||a dc| dcsa||o||o dc toda
tco|ia soe|o|oq|ea ic|o|sta, eoo |a uc aoa||za|cos co c| s|qu|cotc aa|tado dc cstc
eaitu|o. lo| taoto, |cscotaos aui uoa c|scet|va dc |a tco|ia ic|o|sta, uo s|stca
dc |dcas qcoc|a|cs euyo i|o cs dcse||o|| y cx||ea| |a v|da soe|a| y |a cxc||coe|a ouaoa
dcsdc c| uoto dc v|sta dc |as ujc|cs. Nucst|a cta aoo|a cs |cscota| |os tcas uc
oi|cec |a tco|ia ic|o|sta a|a |a eoost|uee|oo dc uoa tco|ia soe|o|oq|ea ic|o|sta.
tos cstud|osos y cstud|osas ic|o|stas eootco|aocos oao |odue|do uoa sc||c dc
cse||tos tco||eos cxt|ao|d|oa||acotc ||ea y a|tacotc d|vc|sa, uoa dcost|ae|oo dc |a
|ca||dad dc uo ov||coto |otc|cetua| a| uc Jcss|c uc|oa|d (co |cosa, dcoo|oa ||us-
t|ae|oo ic|o|sta. L| a|eaoec y |a eoot|oua cxaos|oo dc csta ||tc|atu|a oos suq|c|c
ea||i|ea||a dc dcsai|aotc, q|at|i|eado|a y, co oeas|oocs, a|qo eooiusa. L| aa dc |a
tco|ia ic|o|sta uc aui t|azaos eoost|tuyc uo eoost|ueto o t|o |dca|, a|a e|as|i|ea|
cstc eo|cjo euc|o dc t|aoajo |otc|cetua|
1
.
Nucst|a t|o|oqia dc |as tco|ias ic|o|stas sc oasa co |as dos |cquotas oas|eas (aoa||-
zadas as a|||oa, uc uoco todas |as tco|ias ic|o|stas: |a uc sc |ci|c|c a |a dcse||-
e|oo _uc oay dc |as ujc|cs? y |a uc sc |ci|c|c a |a cx||eae|oo _o| uc csta s|tuae|oo
1 Lx|stco ot|os s|stcas dc e|as|i|eae|oo, o| cjc|o, |os dcsa||o||ados o| Coaictz (1uss,, G|coooo
(1uu,, Jaqqa| (1uss,, Jaqqa| y ot ocooc|q (1us!,, tcoqc|aoo y w a| | aec (1uss,, So| t oW ct . a| .
(1uss,, y Soso|oii (1uso,. tos |ceto|cs dcoc|iao |csta||cs atcoe|oo a|a cu|||o|a| y a||a| c| t|o
|dca| |cscotado aui. Lo eoo|oae|oo, cstos csiuc|zos oao qcoc|ado uoa |a|qa ||sta dc t|os dc tco|ia
ic|o|sta, |oe|uycodo c| ic|o|so ocq|o, c| eoosc|vadu||so, c| cx|cs|oo|so, c| |ost|ucota||so, c|
ic|o|so |cso|aoo, c| ||oc|a||so, c| a|x|so, c| o|a||so, c| ic|o|so s|eoaoa|it|eo, c| |ad|ea||s-
o, c| sca|at|so, c| soe|a||so y c| s|otct|so. Nucst|a |o|a t|o|oqia |otcota |oe|u|| |a ayo|ia dc
cstas tco|ias, auouc oo s|c|c |as dcse||o|os eoo csas dcoo|oae|oocs csceii|eas.
#
cs |a uc cs? L| odc|o dc |csucsta a|a |a |cquota dcse||t|va qcoc|a |as ||oe|a|cs
eatcqo|ias a|a oucst|a e|as|i|eae|oo (vcasc 1ao|a 1,. Lo |o iuodacota|, |a |cquota
_uc oay dc |as ujc|cs? suq|c|c t|cs |csucstas. ta ||c|a cs uc |a |oea||zae|oo dc
|as ujc|cs y su cxc||coe|a co |a ayo|ia dc |as s|tuae|oocs d|i|c|c dc |a dc |os oo-
o|cs co csas |sas s|tuae|oocs. ta |ovcst|qae|oo sc ecot|a aui co |os dcta||cs dc csa
d|ic|coe|a. ta scquoda |csucsta cs uc |a |oea||zae|oo dc |as ujc|cs co |a ayo|ia dc
|as s|tuae|oocs oo d|i|c|c dcas|ado, c|o cs coos ||v||cq|ada y oo cs |qua| uc |a dc
|os ooo|cs. ta |csucsta sc ecot|a co |a oatu|a|cza dc csa dcs|qua|dad. ta tc|ec|a cs
uc |a s|tuae|oo dc |as ujc|cs oa dc eo|codc|sc tao|co a a|t|| dc |a |c|ae|oo dc
odc| d||ceta cot|c ooo|cs y ujc|cs. tas ujc|cs cstao o|||das, cs dce||, soo |c||-
|das, suoo|d|oadas, o|dcadas, usadas y oojcto dc aouso o| |os ooo|cs. tas dcs-
e||e|oocs sc ecot|ao aui co |a oatu|a|cza dc |a o|cs|oo. 1oda tco|ia ic|o|sta ucdc
sc| e|as|i|eada eoo tco|ia dc |a d|ic|coe|a, dc |a dcs|qua|dad y dc |a o|cs|oo.
1ao|a 1
S|nopa|a de |oa t|poa de teor|a tem|n|ata'
1|os oas|eos dc tco|ia ic|o|sta. D|st|oe|oocs dcot|o dc |as eatcqo|ias.
csucstas a |a |cquota dcse||t|va: csucstas a |a |cquota dcse||t|va:
_uc oay dc |as ujc|cs ? _o| uc |a s|tuae|oo cs eoo cs ?
1co|ias dc |a d|ic|coe|a
ta os|e|oo y |a cxc||coe|a icco|oa Lx||eae|oocs o|osoe|a|cs dc |a d|ic|coe|a.
dc |a ayo|ia dc |as s|tuae|oocs Lx||eae|oo |ost|tue|ooa| dc |a d|ic|coe|a.
cs d|ic|cotc dc |a dc |os ooo|cs Lx||eae|oo s|eo-soe|o|oq|ea dc |a d|ic|coe|a
co |dcot|ea s|tuae|oo.
1co|ias dc |a dcs|qua|dad
ta os|e|oo dc |as ujc|cs co |a Lx||eae|oocs ||oc|a|cs a |a dcs|qua|dad
ayo|ia dc |as s|tuae|oocs oo so|o Lx||eae|oocs a|x|stas dc |a dcs|qua|dad
cs d|ic|cotc dc |a dc |os ooo|cs, s|oo Lx||eae|oocs dc Va|x y Loqc|s
coos ||v||cq|ada o uesip:a Lx||eae|oocs a|x|stas eootco|aocas
1co|ias dc |a o|cs|oo
tas ujc|cs oo so|o soo d|ic|cotcs Lx||eae|oocs s|eoaoa|it|eas dc |a o|cs|oo.
o dcs|qua|cs s|oo uc sc oa||ao Lx||eae|oocs |ad|ea|-ic|o|stas dc |a o|cs|oo.
o|||das, aet|vacotc eoost|c|das, Lx||eae|oocs soe|a||stas ic|o|stas dc |a
suoo|d|oadas, o|dcadas, usadas y o|cs|oo.
soo oojcto dc aouso o| a|tc Lx||eae|oocs ic|o|stas dc |a o|cs|oo dc |a
dc |os ooo|cs. tc|ec|a o|a
ta eo| uoa dc | a | zu| c|da eat cqo|| za | as va|| cdadcs dc t co|i a i c| o| st a scquo su |csucst a a | a
|cquota oas|ea _Cuc oay dc |as ujc|cs? ta eo|uoa dc |a dc|ceoa cstao|cec d|st|oe|oocs dcot|o dc
csas eatcqo|ias co iuoe|oo dc |a |cquota oas|ea cx||eat|va _o| uc csta s|tuae|oo cs |a uc cs?
$
Lo oucst|o aoa||s|s d|st|oqu|os t|cs eatcqo|ias oas|eas d|ic|coe|a, dcs|qua|dad y o|c-
s|oo co tc||oos dc sus d|st|otas |csucstas a |a scquoda |cquota cx||eat|va, _o| uc
csto cs eoo cs? (tos d|vc|sos t|os dc |csucstas sc |csuco co |a 1ao|a 1.,
Lstc ctodo dc e|as|i|eae|oo eu|c uoa |o|taotc iuoe|oo: oos c||tc e|as|i|ea| oo
so|o c| euc|o qcoc|a| dc |a tco|ia ic|o|sta eootco|aoca, s|oo tao|co |a ||tc|atu|a co
cxaos|oo, a|t|eu|a|cotc |a ||tc|atu|a tco||ea soo|c c| qcoc|o |ca||zada co soe|o|oqia
dcsdc |os aos scscota. ta cxaos|oo dc csta ||tc|atu|a |ci|cja oo so|o |a |caet|vae|oo dc
uoa |otcsta ic|o|sta v|s|o|c co |a soe|cdad, s|oo tao|co c| ov||coto s|o |cecdco-
tcs dc |as ujc|cs dc |oeo|o|a|sc a |a cdueae|oo suc||o|, eoo ||ecoe|adas, doeto|a-
das y iaeu|tat|vas cot|c |os aos scscota y oucst|os dias (tcoqc|aoo y wa||aec, 1uss,
vcttc| ct a|., 1usz,. Dc cstc odo, |as eucst|oocs ic|o|stas oao |oq|ado |ot|odue||sc
d||cetacotc co c| d|seu|so aeadc|eo y uo|vc|s|ta||o dc |a soe|o|oqia |oics|ooa|. lc|o
eoo |os soe|o|oqos sc oao o||cotado oae|a |a cx|o|ae|oo dc |as eucst|oocs dc| qcoc|o,
oao ut|||zado dc uo odo ea|aetc|ist|eo uoa a|tc dc| euc|o cx|stcotc dc tco|ia soe|o|o-
q|ea eoo uoto dc a|t|da a|a |o uc sc dcoo|oa co |a d|se|||oa soe|o|oqia dc| qcoc-
|o. Auouc c| tc||oo qcoc|o suc|c ut|||za|sc cuicist|eacotc co soe|o|oqia, a|a |as
ujc|cs, |a soe|o|oqia dc| qcoc|o cs, co tc||oos csceii|eos, c| cstud|o dc |os |o|cs y
|as |dcot|dadcs dc| ooo|c y |a ujc|, y |as |c|ae|oocs cot|c |os ooo|cs y |as ujc|cs,
uoa eucst|oo ||qc|acotc d|ic|cotc dc| coiouc ||oe|a| dc| ic|o|so soo|c |as ujc-
|cs. Lstc coiouc soo|c |a |c|ae|oo cot|c ooo|cs y ujc|cs oo cu|va|c a uoa tco|ia
ic|o|sta. Coo ocos sca|ado as a|||oa, c| oojct|vo dc |a tco|ia ic|o|sta cs |csco-
ta| uoa c|scet|va dc |a cxc||coe|a ouaoa ecot|ada co |as ujc|cs. Coo ost|a|c-
os as adc|aotc, uoa soe|o|oqia ic|o|sta ucdc dcse||o|| c| uodo soe|a| dcsdc uo
uoto dc v|sta ecot|ado co |as ujc|cs. Soo|c todo, |a soe|o|oqia dc| qcoc|o eooe|oc c|
qcoc|o s||ccotc eoo uoa va||ao|c cot|c ueoas ot|as dcot|o dc |as |c|ae|oocs y |as
cst|uetu|as soe|a|cs. No oostaotc, a|quoos soe|o|oqos y soe|o|oqas uc a|tco dc| uoto
dc v|sta dc |a soe|o|oqia dc| qcoc|o oao |odue|do oo|as |c|cvaotcs a|a |a tco|ia ic|-
o|sta (y ueoos soe|o|oqos y soe|o|oqas cstao d||cetacotc |||eados co |a |odue-
e|oo dc uoa tco|ia ic|o|sta,.
L| |csto dc cstc aa|tado cxa|oa |as tco|ias ic|o|stas dc |a d|ic|coe|a, dc |a dcs|qua|-
dad y dc |a o|cs|oo. Dcse||o|os eada t|o co |iocas qcoc|a|cs c |dcot|i|eaos a|quoas
dc |as d|ic|coe|as cot|c c||os y dc sus |ceocodae|oocs a|a c| eao|o. S|o coa|qo, cs
|ce|so sca|a| dos eucst|oocs |o|taotcs. l||c|a, |a ayo|ia dc| t|aoajo tco||eo sc
%
|cs|stc a uoa e|as|i|eae|oo cst||eta. uoa ucdc |dcot|i|ea| su ||oe|a| |coeuae|oo tco-
||ea o d|st|oqu|| sus ||oe|a|cs couoe|ados tco||eos. Scquoda, sc t|ata dc uoa |cv|s|oo
sc|cet|va. Dado c| coo|c vo|uco dc cse||tos ic|o|stas y soe|o|oq|eos soo|c |a s|tua-
e|oo dc |as ujc|cs, uo aoa||s|s cxoaust|vo csta iuc|a dc| a|eaoec dc cstc eaitu|o.
1eor|aa de |aa d|terenc|aa de qnero
Auouc c| coiouc soo|c |as d|ic|coe|as dc qcoc|o eoost|tuyc uoa os|e|oo |oo||ta||a co
c| ic|o|so eootco|aoco, a|quoas |oi|uycotcs eoot||oue|oocs a |a tco|ia ic|o|sta
eootco|aoca aot|coco cstc coiouc (uc|o|soW, 1uso, G||||qao, 1usz, kcss|c| y
Vekcooa, 1us, J. V|||c|, 1u, udd|es, 1uso, So|toW, 1uu,. 1ao|co cx|stco |ovcst|-
qae|oocs (l|tc, 1u, Vastc|s y Jooosoo, 1u, uc ucst|ao dcseuo|||cotos aec|ea
dc |as d|ic|coe|as dc qcoc|o y uc oao |oi|u|do |oiuodacotc co c| cosa|coto ic|-
o|sta eootco|aoco. Adcas, ueoa ||tc|atu|a soe|o|oq|ea |ce|cotc soo|c c| qcoc|o
t|coc o| tcas |as d|ic|coe|as cot|c qcoc|os. Lot|c csta ||tc|atu|a sc coeucot|ao t|aoa-
jos tco||eos eoo uoa c|scet|va cscoe|a|cotc |ost|tue|ooa|, euas| iuoe|ooa||sta, dc |a
soe|cdad (J. uc|oa|d, 1usz,, cse||tos o|osoe|a|cs (A. oss|, 1u, 1uss,, cse||tos s|oo-
||eo-|otc|aee|oo|stas (ucst, 1uss, tcvc|, 1us,, t|aoajos icoocoo|oq|eos (uc|qc| y kc||oc|,
1u!,, y cse||tos ctooctodo|oq|eos (Ga|i|osc|, 1u,. Lo ciceto, s| aad|os a cstc
oue|co oas|eo dc cse||tos |a vasta ||tc|atu|a ci||ea |ca||zada o| soe|o|oqos uc toao
|os iaeto|cs dc| scxo y c| qcoc|o eoo va||ao|cs |odccod|cotcs ecot|a|cs, c| coiouc
soo|c |as d|ic|coe|as dc qcoc|o ucdc ta| vcz eoost|tu|| c| as |o|taotc co soe|o|oqia
(luoc|, 1u, Staecy y 1oo|oc, 1uss,.
L| tca ecot|a| dc |a ||tc|atu|a eootco|aoca soo|c |as d|ic|coe|as dc qcoc|o cs uc |a
v|da |otc||o| siu|ea dc |as ujc|cs cs, o| |o uc |csceta a su eooi|qu|ae|oo qcoc|a|,
d|ic|cotc dc |a dc |os ooo|cs. tas ujc|cs t|coco uoa v|s|oo d|st|ota y dao uoa |o|-
taoe|a d|ic|cotc a |a eoost|uee|oo soe|a| dc |a |ca||dad o|uc d|i|c|co dc |os ooo|cs
iuodacota|cotc co |o toeaotc a sus va|o|cs c |otc|cscs oas|eos (udd|es, 1uso,, a su
odo dc oaec| ju|e|os dc va|o| (G||||qao, 1usz,, a su eoost|uee|oo dc ot|vos dc |oq|o
(kauiao y |eoa|dsoo, 1usz,, a su e|cat|v|dad ||tc|a||a (G||oc|t y Guoa|, 1uu,, a sus
iaotasias scxua|cs (l|tc, 1u, adWay, 1us!, So|toW ct a|., 1uss,, a su scot|do dc |a
|dcot|dad (taWs y SeoWa|tz, 1u,, y a sus |oecsos qcoc|a|cs dc eooe|coe|a c |od|v|-
&
dua||dad (kasc|, 1us, J. V|||c|, 1u,. uo scquodo tca cs uc |a eooi|qu|ae|oo qcoc-
|a| dc |as |c|ae|oocs y |as cxc||coe|as v|ta|cs dc |as ujc|cs soo d|st|ot|vas. tas ujc-
|cs sc |c|ae|ooao eoo su dcsecodcoe|a o|o|oq|ea dc odo d|ic|cotc a |os ooo|cs (A.
oss|, 1u, 1uss,, |os o|os y |as o|as t|coco cst||os dc juqa| d|st|ot|vacotc d|ic|co-
tcs (ucst, 1uss, tcvc|, 1us,, |as ujc|cs adu|tas sc |c|ae|ooao cot|c c||as (uc|o|soW,
1uso, y eoo |as ujc|cs uc cstud|ao dc uo odo a|t|eu|a|. Lo ciceto, |a cxc||coe|a
v|ta| qcoc|a| dc |as ic|oas dcsdc |a |oiaoe|a oasta |a vcjcz cs iuodacota|cotc d|ic-
|cotc a |a dc |os ooo|cs (J. uc|oa|d, 1us1,. Lo eoo|oae|oo, csta ||tc|atu|a soo|c |as
d|ic|coe|as dc eooe|coe|a y cxc||coe|a v|ta| |cscota uoa uo|ea |csucsta a |a |cquota
_uc oay dc |as ujc|cs?
ta scquoda |cquota, _o| uc? oos |oo|e|ooa |as |iocas ecot|a|cs dc va||ae|oo dco-
t|o dc cstc coiouc qcoc|a| soo|c |as d|ic|coe|as dc qcoc|o. tas cx||eae|oocs dc |as
d|ic|coe|as s|eo|oq|eas y |c|ae|ooa|cs cot|c ooo|cs y ujc|cs soo cscoe|a|cotc dc
t|cs t|os: o|o|oq|eas, |ost|tue|ooa|cs y eoost|u|das, csto cs, soe|o-s|eo|oq|eas.
Bxp||cac|onea o|o|oq|caa de |aa d|terenc|aa de qneroa . tas cx||eae|oocs o|o|oq|-
eas oao s|do ea|aetc|ist|eas dc| cosa|coto eoosc|vado| soo|c |as d|ic|coe|as dc qc-
oc|o. l|cud v|oeu|o |as d|ic|cotcs cst|uetu|as dc c|sooa||dad dc |os ooo|cs y |as
ujc|cs a sus d|ic|coe|as qco|ta|cs y a |oecsos eoqo|t|vos y coe|ooa|cs uc eo|co-
zao euaodo |os o|os dcseuo|co sus d|ic|coe|as i|s|o|oq|eas. tos soe|o-o|o|oqos t|ooc|
1|qc| y oo|o lox (1u1, oao|ao dc o|oq|aas va||ao|cs suoyaecotcs a |a ||c|a cvo-
|ue|oo ooio|da uc eoodujc|oo a uc |as ujc|cs cstao|ce|c|ao vioeu|os coe|ooa|cs
eoo sus o|jos y a uc |os ooo|cs cstao|ce|c|ao vioeu|os |aet|eos eoo ot|os ooo|cs.
S|o coa|qo, c| a|qucoto o|o|oq|eo tao|co sc oa ut|||zado co cse||tos as |o|e|os a|
ic|o|so. L| aoa||s|s dc Vastc| y Jooosoo soo|c |a aoatoia dc |a scxua||dad icco|oa
oa |oo|e|ooado a |as tco|ias ic|o|stas |os oceoos oas|eos a|a |cio|u|a| |a eucst|oo
dc |a |cqu|ae|oo soe|a| dc |a scxua||dad, y A||ec oss| (1u,1uss, oa cxa|oado eoo
||qo| |os iuodacotos o|o|oq|eos dc |a eoodueta csceii|ea dc| qcoc|o. oss| oa v|oeu|a-
do |as iuoe|oocs o|o|oq|eas d|ic|cotcs dc ooo|cs y ujc|cs a |as d|ic|cotcs autas dc
dcsa||o||o oo|ooa|cotc dctc||oado du|aotc c| e|e|o v|ta| y c||o, a su vcz, a |a va||a-
e|oo scxua|cotc csceii|ea co ea|aetc|ist|eas ta|cs eoo |a scos|o|||dad a |a |uz y a|
soo|do y a |as d|ic|coe|as co |as eoocx|oocs cot|c c| |ado dc|ceoo y c| |zu|c|do dc|
ec|co|o. Lstas d|ic|coe|as, euad|ao eoo |os d|ic|cotcs cst||os dc jucqo |oiaot|| sca|ados
'
o| Ca|o| G||||qao (1usz,, Jaoct tcvc| (1us, y aoac|a ucst (1uss,, |a iaosa , aos|c-
dad aotc |as atcat|eas icco|oa, y tao|co c| oceoo aa|cotc dc uc |as ujc|cs
cstao as |ca|adas y d|sucstas a|a c| eu|dado dc |os o|os dc uoa aoc|a as
co||ucecdo|a uc |os ooo|cs. L| ic|o|so dc oss| |c ||cva a aooqa| o| cd|das
soe|oeu|tu|a|cs uc oaqao os|o|c uc eada qcoc|o eocosc, cd|aotc c| a|cod|zajc
soe|a|, |as dcsvcotajas o|o|oq|eacotc dadas, c|o eoo o|o-soe|o|oqa aooqa tao|co
o| c| |ceoooe||coto |ae|ooa| dc |as |||eae|oocs dc |a |ovcst|qae|oo o|o|oq|ea.
Bxp||cac|onea |nat|tuc|ona|ea de |aa d|terenc|aa de qnero . tas cx||eae|oocs |ost|-
tue|ooa|cs dc |as d|ic|coe|as dc qcoc|o suc|co aecotua| tao|co |as iuoe|oocs d|st|ot|-
vas dc |a e||aoza y c| eu|dado dc |os o|jos. Coos|dc|ao |a |csoosao|||dad dc |a atc|o|dad
eoo uoo dc |os ||oe|a|cs dctc||oaotcs dc |a as a||a d|v|s|oo scxua| dc| t|aoajo
uc v|oeu|a a |as ujc|cs co qcoc|a| eoo |as iuoe|oocs dc csosa, ad|c y aa dc easa,
eoo |a csic|a ||vada dc| ooqa| y |a ia|||a, y o| taoto eoo uoa sc||c dc cvcotos y
cxc||coe|as v|ta|cs uy d|ic|cotcs a |as dc |os ooo|cs. Lo cstc eootcxto, |as ujc|cs
dcsa||o||ao |otc||ctae|oocs d|st|ot|vas dc sus ctas, |otc|cscs y va|o|cs, |asqos ea|ae-
tc|ist|eos ocecsa||os dc cxt|ovc|s|oo co |as |c|ae|oocs, atcoe|oo y ea||o a |os dcas,
y |cdcs a|t|eu|a|cs dc aoyo a ot|as ujc|cs (ad|cs, o|jas, oc|aoas, csosas, a|-
qas, uc oao|tao co su |sa csic|a sca|ada dc |as dc |os ooo|cs. Auouc a|quoos
dc |os tco||eos |ost|tue|ooa|cs dc |as d|ic|coe|as aectao |a d|v|s|oo scxua| dc| t|aoajo
eoo soe|a|cotc ocecsa||a (uc|qc| y uc|qc|, 1uss,, ot|os soo eoose|cotcs dc uc |a
d|st|oe|oo cot|c csic|as sca|adas a|a ujc|cs y ooo|cs coeaja co |as autas qcoc|a-
|cs dc dcs|qua|dad cot|c |os qcoc|os (J. uc|oa|d, 1us1, V. Jooosoo, 1usu, kc||y-Godo|,
1uss, o |oe|uso dc o|cs|oo (udd|es, 1uso,. S|o coa|qo, |os cse||tos uc sc oao e|tado
co cstc aa|tado sc ecot|ao iuodacota|cotc co |a d|ic|coe|a dc qcoc|o y co sus
|aiecs |ost|tue|ooa|cs.
1eor|aa aoc|o-pa|co|oq|caa de| qnero. tas cx||eae|oocs soe|o-s|eo|oq|eas dc |as
d|ic|coe|as cot|c |os qcoc|os soo dc dos t|os: tco|ias icoocoo|oq|eas y oscst|ue-
tu|a||stas, y tco|ias dc |a soe|a||zae|oo. tas ||c|as (uut|c|, 1uuo, C|xous y C|ccot,
1us, l|ax, 1uuo, Ga|i|osc|, 1u, Goiiao, 1u, kcss|c| y Vekcooa, 1us, taWs y
SeoWa|tz, 1u, Vo|, 1us, Staotoo, 1uss, sc ecot|ao co |a eoot|oua eooi|qu|ae|oo dc
oucst|a eu|tu|a, |coquajc y |ca||dad eot|d|aoa cd|aotc eooectos dc||vados dc cxc||co-
e|as aseu||oas y cd|aotc |as eatcqo|ias d|eoto|eas s||cs dc |as t||i|eae|oocs
dc |a aseu||o|dad y |a ic|oc|dad. Aecotuao |a eoot||oue|oo eooectua| c |otc|aee|ooa|
dc todos oosot|os a|a c| aotco||coto dc csas t||i|eae|oocs, y |os odos co uc csta
|otc|vcoe|oo eo|cet|va dctc||oa, a t|avcs dc |a dci|o|e|oo, |as csic|as d|st|ot|vas y |os
c|i||cs s|eo|oq|eos dc |as ujc|cs y |os ooo|cs. L| |oo|ca dc| |coquajc eoo uo
do|o|o cscoe|a|cotc aseu||oo oa s|do aoa||zado o| ueoas tco||eas, cot|c c||as
Do|otoy L. S|to y Aud|c to|dc (uc as adc|aotc aoa||za|cos,, c|o iuc c| oojcto dc
cstud|o a|t|eu|a| dc uo q|uo dc ic|o|stas i|aoecsas: lc|coc C|xous, tuec l||qa|ay,
Ju||a k||stcva. Lstas cosado|as, io|adas co uoa t|ad|e|oo ||qu|osacotc i||osoi|ea,
toa|oo eoo uoto dc a|t|da uoa |dca ecot|a| dc| s|eoaoa||s|s i|aoecs: uc todos |os
|coquajcs cx|stcotcs co oucst|os dias soo ia|oecot||eos ,sc aoyao co y soo uo |ci|cjo
dc |as cxc||coe|as y |as eooectua||zae|oocs dc |os ooo|cs!, y uc csta |c|ae|oo cot|c
|coquajc y aseu||o|dad sc cstao|cec euaodo c| o|o dcseuo|c c| |coquajc y su |dcot|dad
cd|aotc c| a|cod|zajc dc |os at|ooi|eos dc su soe|cdad. la|t|codo dc csta |dca, y
aectaodo|a, |aotca|oo c| ic|o|so dc |a io|a as d|aat|ea |a eucst|oo dc eoo
od|iao |as ujc|cs cx|csa| su cxc||coe|a.
ta tco|ia dc |a soe|a||zae|oo (vcasc Stoesa|d y Jooosoo, 1uso, wa|u-|eoa|dsoo, 1us1,
a|a uoa o|o||oq|aiia eo|cta, eo|ccota |os aoa||s|s |ost|tue|ooa|cs a| ecot|a|sc co
|as cxc||coe|as dc a|cod|zajc soe|a| uc io|ao a |as c|sooas co qcoc|a| y a |os
o|os co a|t|eu|a| a|a adota| |o|cs y v|v|| co |as d|ic|cotcs csic|as |ost|tue|ooa|cs dc
|a aseu||o|dad y |a ic|oc|dad.
Sa|vo co c| easo dc |os tco||eos eoosc|vado|cs ,tco||eos oo ic|o|stas uc e|cco co |a
|ocv|tao|||dad dc |a d|ic|coe|a y, o| taoto, co |a ocecs|dad dc |couoe|a| a sus dcao-
das!, |as |ceocodae|oocs soo|c |a s|tuae|oo dc |as ujc|cs |oucstas o| cstas
tco|ias dc |a d|ic|coe|a dc qcoc|o sc ecot|ao co |a ocecs|dad dc| |cscto. tos tco||eos dc
|a d|ic|coe|a |ce|aao ti|eacotc uc |os odos d|st|ot|vos dc sc| dc |as ujc|cs sc
|ceooozeao oo eoo odos uc sc a|cjao dc |o oo|a|, s|oo eoo a|tc|oat|vas v|ao|cs a
|os odos aseu||oos, y uc c| eoooe||coto uo||eo, |os ei|eu|os aeadc|eos y |a
autcot|ea cst|uetu|ae|oo dc |a v|da soe|a| toco sc||acotc co eucota |os odos dc sc|
icco|oos. Lo ciceto, co c| cxt|co as ic|o|sta dc| eoot|ouu dc cstc coiouc tco||-
eo, coeoot|aos uoa v|cjis|a dcaoda dc| ic|o|so: euaodo |os odos dc sc| dc |as
ujc|cs sc |oeu|uco co |a v|da uo||ea y sc eoov|c|tao co a|tc dc c||a c| uodo eoos-
t|tu||a uo |uqa| as scqu|o y as ouaoo a|a todos...
1eor|aa de |a dea|qua|dad entre |oa qneroa
Cuat|o tcas ea|aetc||zao |as tco|ias dc |a dcs|qua|dad cot|c |os qcoc|os. l||c|o, |os
ooo|cs y |as ujc|cs oo so|o cstao s|tuados co |a soe|cdad dc aoc|a d|ic|cotc, s|oo
tao|co dcs|qua|. Lo eooe|cto, |as ujc|cs t|coco coos |ceu|sos atc||a|cs, cstatus
soe|a|, odc| y oo|tuo|dadcs a|a |a auto||ca||zae|oo uc |os ooo|cs dc |dcot|ea os|-
e|oo soe|a| , ya sc oasc csa os|e|oo co |a e|asc, |a |aza, |a oeuae|oo, |a cto|e|dad, |a
|c||q|oo, |a cdueae|oo, |a oae|ooa||dad o eua|u|c| ot|o iaeto| soe|a|cotc |c|cvaotc. Sc-
quodo, csta dcs|qua|dad |oecdc dc |a |sa o|qao|zae|oo dc |a soe|cdad, oo dc o|oqu-
oa d|ic|coe|a o|o|oq|ea o dc c|sooa||dad cot|c |os ooo|cs y |as ujc|cs. L| tc|ec| tca
dc toda tco|ia dc |a dcs|qua|dad cs uc auouc |os sc|cs ouaoos |od|v|dua|cs ucdco
va||a| co |o toeaotc a su c|i|| dc eaae|dadcs y |asqos, o|oquo odc|o dc va||ae|oo
oatu|a| |c|cvaotc d|st|oquc a |os scxos. Lo ciceto, todos |os sc|cs ouaoos sc ea|aetc-
||zao o| uoa |oiuoda ocecs|dad dc ||oc|tad a|a |a auto||ca||zae|oo y o| uoa a|cao|-
||dad iuodacota| uc |cs ||cva a adata|sc a |os eoost|c||cotos y a |as oo|tuo|dadcs
dc |as s|tuae|oocs co |as uc sc coeucot|ao. Ai||a| uc cx|stc dcs|qua|dad cot|c |os
qcoc|os, cu|va|c cotooecs a dce|| uc |as ujc|cs t|coco s|tuae|ooa|cotc coos ea-
ae|dad uc |os ooo|cs a|a c|eata|sc dc |a ocecs|dad dc auto||ca||zae|oocs uc
eoa|tco eoo |os ooo|cs. Cua|to, todas |as tco|ias dc |a dcs|qua|dad suooco uc
taoto |os ooo|cs eoo |as ujc|cs |csoodc|ao cjo| aotc cst|uetu|as y s|tuae|oocs
soe|a|cs as |qua||ta||as. Lo ot|as a|ao|as, aot|coco uc cs os|o|c eao|a| |a s|tua-
e|oo. Lsta e|ccoe|a d|st|oquc a |os tco||eos y tco||eas dc |a dcs|qua|dad cot|c |os qcoc-
|os dc |os dc |a d|ic|coe|a dc qcoc|os, u|cocs t|coco uoa |aqco dc |a v|da soe|a| co |a
uc |as d|ic|coe|as dc qcoc|o soo, eua|u|c|a uc sca su eausa, c|du|ao|cs, |oiuoda-
cotc |oeu|eadas co |a c|sooa||dad y so|o a|e|a|cotc |ccd|ao|cs.
tas cx||eae|oocs dc |a dcs|qua|dad cot|c |os qcoc|os va|iao co iuoe|oo dc cstc eouo
euc|o dc |otc||ctae|oo. Aoa||zaos a eoot|ouae|oo dos ||oe|a|cs va||aotcs dc tco|ia
ic|o|sta eootco|aoca uc sc ecot|ao c |otcotao cx||ea| |as dcs|qua|dadcs cot|c |os
qcoc|os: c| ic|o|so ||oc|a| y c| ic|o|so a|x|sta.
ta dcse||e|oo dc |as ujc|cs c|adas dc su |coa ouao|dad |oecdc dc 1oc lutu|c
oi Va|||aqc (1usz, dc Jcss|c uc|oa|d. uc|oa|d cs uoa soe|o|oqa uc oa cse||to soo|c |a
eucst|oo dc| qcoc|o dcsdc |os aos eua|cota, ueoo aotcs dc uc |os soe|o|oqos c|e|-
o|c|ao |a |o|taoe|a dc csta eucst|oo. 1oc lutu|c oi Va|||aqc eoost|tuyc, ta| vcz, su
||o|o as iaoso soo|c cstc tca. Coo |a voz dcsaas|ooada dc |a eo|||cotc ||oe|a| dc
|a soe|o|oqia, |ost|tue|ooa|cotc o||cotada y ci||eacotc iuodacotada, uc|oa|d |c-
scota a |os soe|o|oqos uoa oucva y dcvastado|a dcse||e|oo dc |a |ost|tue|oo dc| at||-
oo|o. L| at||oo|o cs a |a vcz uo s|stca eu|tu|a| dc e|ccoe|as c |dca|cs, uo a||cq|o
|ost|tue|ooa| dc |o|cs y oo|as, y uo eo|cjo dc cxc||coe|as |otc|aet|vas a|a |as
ujc|cs y |os ooo|cs. Cu|tu|a|cotc, c| at||oo|o csta |dca||zado eoo c| dcst|oo y
|a iucotc dc |ca||zae|oo dc |as ujc|cs, uoa ocod|e|oo uc eoo|oa docst|e|dad, |cs-
oosao|||dad y eoost|c||coto a|a |os ooo|cs, y a|a |a soe|cdad cstadouo|dcosc co
s u e o o j u o t o u o a a s o e | a e | o o c s c o e | a | c o t c | q u a | | t a | | a c o t | c c s o s o y c s o s a .
lost|tue|ooa|cotc, c| at||oo|o eooi|c|c auto||dad y ||oc|tad a| |o| dc| a||do y, co
ciceto, |a oo||qae|oo dc sa||| dc| ooqa|, eoo|oa |a |dca dc |a auto||dad aseu||oa eoo |a
dc |a dcst|cza scxua| y eaae|dad aseu||oa, y dce|cta uc |a csosa oa dc sc| eo|a-
e|cotc, dccod|cotc, s||c dc csi||tu, y csta| cscoe|a|cotc ecot|ada co |as aet|v|da-
dcs y |as ta|cas docst|eas. Dc cstc odo, ucs, oos coeoot|aos eoo dos at||oo|os
dcot|o dc todo at||oo|o |ost|tue|ooa|: c| at||oo|o dc| ooo|c, co c| uc c| sc vc
eoost|c|do y ||coo dc ea|qas, |cot|as cxc||cota |o uc |as oo|as d|etao - auto||-
dad, |odccodcoe|a, y dc|ceoo a| sc|v|e|o docst|eo, coe|ooa| y scxua| o| a|tc dc |a
csosa, y c| at||oo|o dc |a ujc|, co c| uc c||a |cai||a |a e|ccoe|a eu|tu|a| dc |ca||-
zae|oo, |cot|as cxc||cota oo|at|vacotc |a io|zosa auscoe|a dc odc| y |a dcco-
dcoe|a, |a oo||qae|oo dc |oo|e|ooa| sc|v|e|os docst|eos, coe|ooa|cs y scxua|cs y
uoa c|a q|adua| dc |a jovco c|sooa |odccod|cotc uc iuc aotcs dc easa|sc. tos
|csu|tados dc todo csto ucdco coeoot|a|sc co |os datos uc |dco c| cst|cs ouaoo:
ujc|cs asauas, scao |as uc scao sus dcaodas dc |ca||zae|oo, y ooo|cs i asa-
us eua|csu|c|a uc scao sus dcaodas dc ||oc|tad, uotuao a|to co todos |os |od|eado|cs
dc cst|cs, ya sca a||tae|oocs dc eo|azoo, a|cos, do|o|cs dc eaocza, csad|||as,
dcsayos, |osoo|o y tco| a |as e||s|s oc|v|osas, |as ujc|cs i asauas, eua|u|c|a
uc sca su eooece|oo dc| cst|qa soe|a|, y |os ooo|cs asaus uotuao oajo co todos
|os |od|eado|cs dc| cst|cs. L| at||oo|o, ucs, cs oucoo a|a |os ooo|cs y a|o a|a
|as ujc|cs y dcja|a dc sc| asi so|o euaodo |as a|cjas sc s|cotao |o sui|e|cotccotc
||o|cs dc |os eoost|c||cotos |ost|tue|ooa|cs |cdo|oaotcs eoo a|a ocqoe|a| c| t|o
dc at||oo|o uc as sat|siaqa sus ocecs|dadcs y su c|sooa||dad |od|v|dua|.
la|a |as ic|o|stas ||oc|a|cs, |a soe|cdad cstadouo|dcosc, eoo sus dc|ceoos c |ost|tue|o-
ocs eoost|tue|ooa|cs, c||tc as ||oc|tad c |qua|dad |od|v|dua| uc |a ayo|ia dc |as
dcas soe|cdadcs. S|o coa|qo, co d|eoa soe|cdad |a |qua|dad dc oo|tuo|dadcs ta-
o|co csta |||tada o| c| |ae|so y c| scx|so. Lstos s|stcas dc e|ccoe|as soo |c|o|s-
ecoe|as d|siuoe|ooa|cs dc |os v|cjos t|cos, auota|ados so|o o| |a t|ad|e|oo, |as
!
eoovcoe|oocs y |os |cju|e|os s|o iuodacoto. L| scx|so, a| |qua| uc c| |ae|so, oo||qa
a |os ooo|cs y a |as ujc|cs a cot|a| co o|dcs ea|aetc||o|oq|eos |iq|dos, ||dc a |a
eouo|dad d|sooc| dc todos |os ta|cotos dc |a oo|ae|oo, |oi|ava|o|a a |as ujc|cs y
o|cqa eoostaotccotc oucst|os as uc||dos va|o|cs eu|tu|a|cs dc |a cst|a y ||oc|tad
|od|v|dua|. tas ic|o|stas ||oc|a|cs sost|coco uc |a soe|cdad cstadouo|dcosc eootc-
o|aoca dcoc eao|a| y c|||oa| c| scx|so, y |cosao uc sc dcoc cduea| a |a ayo|ia
dc |as c|sooas a|a uc eo|codao |o |azooao|c uc cs |a e|it|ea ic|o|sta.
tas ic|o|stas ||oc|a|cs |oooco |as s|qu|cotcs cst|atcq|as a|a c|||oa| |a dcs|qua|-
dad cot|c |os qcoc|os: |a ov|||zae|oo co |o dc| uso dc |os eaoa|cs o|it|eos y |cqa|cs
cx|stcotcs a|a |oq|a| c| eao|o, |a |qua|dad dc oo|tuo|dadcs ceooo|eas, |a |ot|odue-
e|oo dc eao|os co |a ia|||a, co |a cseuc|a y co |os cosajcs dc |os cd|os dc eou-
o|eae|oo dc asas eoo c| i|o dc uc |as c|sooas oo sc soe|a||eco co |o|cs dc scxo
|iq|dacotc sca|ados, y c| csiuc|zo dc todos |os |od|v|duos a|a dcsai|a| c| scx|so
a||i doodc |o coeucot|co co su v|da eot|d|aoa. la|a |as ic|o|stas ||oc|a|cs sc ||cqa|a a
uoa s|tuae|oo |dca| euaodo eada |od|v|duo ucda c|cq|| c| odo dc v|da uc as |c
eoovcoqa y euaodo sc |csctc y aectc csa c|cee|oo, ya sca aa o ao dc easa,
|oics|ooa| oo easado o |co|o dc uoa ia|||a dc doo|c |oq|cso, s|o o|os o eoo o|os,
octc|oscxua| u oooscxua|. tas ic|o|stas ||oc|a|cs e|cco uc cstc |dca| cosa|za |a
|aet|ea dc |a ||oc|tad y |a |qua|dad, |dca|cs eu|tu|a|cs ecot|a|cs dc |os Lstados uo|dos
dc Ac||ea. L| ic|o|so ||oc|a| cs, ucs, eoat|o|c eoo c| ctoos cstadouo|dcosc
do|oaotc o| su oas|ea aectae|oo dc |as |ost|tue|oocs y |a eu|tu|a dc| ais, su o||co-
tae|oo |cio||sta y su at|aee|oo o| |os va|o|cs dc| |od|v|dua||so, |a c|cee|oo, |a ||oc|-
tad y |a |qua|dad dc oo|tuo|dadcs.
1eor|aa de |a oprea|on de qnero
1odas |as tco|ias dc |a o|cs|oo dc qcoc|o dcse||oco |a s|tuae|oo dc |as ujc|cs eoo |a
eoosceucoe|a dc uoa |c|ae|oo dc odc| d||ceta cot|c |os ooo|cs y |as ujc|cs co |a uc
|os ooo|cs, uc t|coco |otc|cscs eooe|ctos y iuodacota|cs co c| eoot|o|, uso, su|-
s|oo y o|cs|oo dc |as ujc|cs, ||cvao a eaoo cicet|vacotc sus |otc|cscs. la|a |as
tco||eas y tco||eos dc |a o|cs|oo dc qcoc|o, |as ujc|cs sc coeucot|ao co uoa s|tuae|oo
co |a uc |os ooo|cs |as usao, |as eoot|o|ao, |as soctco y o||co. Lsta auta dc
o|cs|oo csta |oiuoda y odc|osacotc |oeo|o|ada co |a o|qao|zae|oo dc |a soe|cdad,
"
uoa cst|uetu|a oas|ea dc do|oae|oo ||aada eouocotc jariarau. L| at||a|eado
oo cs |a eoosceucoe|a aza|osa y sceuoda||a dc ot|a sc||c dc iaeto|cs
scao cstos |a
o|o|oqia, |a soe|a||zae|oo co |o|cs dc scxo o c| s|stca dc e|ascs
. Coost|tuyc uoa cs-

t|uetu|a ||a||a dc odc| uc sc aot|coc |otcoe|ooada y dc||oc|adacotc. Lo ciceto,
a|a |a ayo|ia dc |as tco||eas y tco||eos dc |a o|cs|oo, |as d|ic|coe|as dc qcoc|o y |a
dcs|qua|dad cot|c |os qcoc|os soo suo|oduetos dc| at||a|eado.
V|cot|as |as ||c|as tco||eas ic|o|stas sc ecot|a|oo co eucst|oocs |c|at|vas a |a dcs-
|qua|dad cot|c |os qcoc|os, |o uc ea|aetc||za a |a tco|ia ic|o|sta eootco|aoca cs |a
|otcos|dad y |a iuc|za dc |a |coeuae|oo o| |a o|cs|oo (Jaqqa|, 1uss,. Dcocos |ce|sa|
aui uc |a ayo|ia dc |as tco||eas ic|o|stas eootco|aocas soo tco||eas dc |a o|cs|oo
y e|c|tacotc |os dcsa||o||os tco||eos as oovcdosos y ||eos dc| ic|o|so eootco|a-
oco oao s|do |os t|aoajos dc cstc q|uo dc tco||eas. tos t|aoajos tco||eos soo|c |a o|cs|oo
dc qcoc|o |c|cscotao |a uota dc |aoza, |a i|ootc|a d|oa|ea co cxaos|oo dc |a tco|ia
ic|o|sta eootco|aoca. S|o coa|qo, auouc, eoo vc|cos as adc|aotc, a|quoos
soe|o|oqos y soe|o|oqas oao oceoo |o|taotcs eoot||oue|oocs a csta ||tc|atu|a, |os soe|o-
|oqos y soe|o|oqas uc aoa||zao eucst|oocs dc qcoc|o, oo sc s|cotco, eoo eouo|dad,
at|aidos o| |as tco|ias dc |a o|cs|oo. l|ooao|ccotc cs csta d|vc|qcoe|a dc coiouc
tco||eo soo|c |a s|tuae|oo dc |as ujc|cs
co v||tud dc |a eua| |os soe|o|oqos sc |oe||oao o|

|as tco|ias dc |a d|ic|coe|a y dc |a dcs|qua|dad y |as tco||eas y tco||eos ic|o|stas sc
|oe||oao o| |as tco|ias dc |a o|cs|oo
, |o uc cx||ea c| dcsaeuc|do aetua| cot|c |as dos

eouo|dadcs |csceto dc s| |a tco|ia soe|o|oq|ea oa tco|do sc||acotc co eucota o oo |as
|||eae|oocs dc |as eucst|oocs |aotcadas o| |as ic|o|stas.
A eoot|ouae|oo oos oeua|cos dc |as euat|o ||oe|a|cs va||aotcs dc tco|ia ic|o|sta,
todas c||as sc ecot|ao co |a o|cs|oo c|o d|i|c|co co |o uc |csceta a |as cx||eae|oocs
dc |a o|cs|oo. Lstas tco|ias soo: c| ic|o|so s|eoaoa|it|eo, c| ic|o|so |ad|ea|, c|
ic|o|so soe|a||sta y c| ic|o|so dc |a tc|ec|a o|a.
|em|n|amo rad|ca|. to uc ea|aetc||za a| ic|o|so |ad|ea| cs uoa |otcosa va|o|ae|oo
os|t|va dc |as ujc|cs y, eoo eoosceucoe|a dc c||o, uoa |oiuoda |od|qoae|oo y csa|
aotc su o|cs|oo
z
. tas ic|o|stas |ad|ea|cs suo|ayao c| q|ao c||to dc |a ujc| uc
dcsaiia uo s|stca uo|vc|sa| uc |a dcva|ua, su |od|qoae|oo aotc |a o|cs|oo dc |as
z
Lstc aa|tado cs uoa adatae|oo dc tcoqc|aoo y wa||aec (1uss: 1!1-1!!,
#
ujc|cs sc cx|csa co uo so||codcotc y dcta||ado eata|oqo dc |as oicosas uc sc oao
eoct|do eoot|a todas |as ujc|cs dc| uodo. lo| su aas|ooada eoo|oae|oo dc ao|
c |od|qoae|oo, |as ic|o|stas |ad|ea|cs sc asccjao a |os q|uos |ae|a|cs y cto|eos as
|||taotcs, y sus |ctcos|oocs |ceuc|dao a |as dcaodas dc uc |o ocq|o cs oc|oso
dc |os cstadouo|dcoscs ocq|os o a| tcst|oo|o dc o|cs|oo dc |os judios. Cooio|c
aoa||ecos su ||aa|coto a |as ujc|cs co ooo|c dc |as ujc|cs, vc|cos eoo ayo|
e|a||dad |a ostu|a dc| ic|o|so |ad|ea| soo|c |a o|qao|zae|oo soe|a|, |a o|cs|oo dc
qcoc|o y |as cst|atcq|as a|a c| eao|o.
tas ic|o|stas |ad|ea|cs e|cco uc toda soe|cdad sc ea|aetc||za o| |a o|cs|oo. 1oda
|ost|tue|oo eoost|tuyc uo s|stca co c| uc uoas c|sooas do|oao a ot|as, y co |as
cst|uetu|as as oas|eas dc |a soe|cdad, co |as autas asoe|at|vas cot|c q|aodcs q|uos
o eatcqo|ias dc qcotc, ucdc c|e|o||sc uoa eoot|oua auta dc do|oae|oo y suoo|d|oa-
e|oo
cot|c |as e|ascs, |as eastas, |os q|uos |ae|a|cs, cto|eos y |c||q|osos, |as eatcqo-
|ias dc cdad y c| qcoc|o
. Dc todos cstos s|stcas dc do|oae|oo y suoo|d|oae|oo, |a

cst|uetu|a as iuodacota| dc o|cs|oo cs c| qcoc|o, c| s|stca dc at||a|eado. L|
at||a|eado oo so|o eoost|tuyc, eoo dcse||o|o Loqc|s, |a ||c|a cst|uetu|a dc do|oa-
e|oo y suoo|d|oae|oo dc |a o|sto||a, s|oo uc oa vco|do s|codo c| s|stca as odc|oso
y du|adc|o dc dcs|qua|dad, c| odc|o soe|a| oas|eo dc do|oae|oo. Vcd|aotc su a|t|e|-
ae|oo co c| at||a|eado, |os ooo|cs a|codco a dcs|ce|a| a ot|os sc|cs ouaoos, a
vc||os eoo sc|cs oo ouaoos y a eoot|o|a||os. Dcot|o dc| at||a|eado |os ooo|cs
eo|codco y |as ujc|cs a|codco |o uc cs |a suoo|d|oae|oo. L| at||a|eado cs uoa
iucotc dc eu|a y dc |c|cs|oo, dc sad|so y asou|so, dc ao|u|ae|oo y coqao,
uc |u|sa a |os ooo|cs y a |as ujc|cs a ot|as io|as dc t||aoia. la|a |as ic|o|stas
|ad|ea|cs, c| at||a|eado eoost|tuyc |a cst|uetu|a as |o|taotc dc dcs|qua|dad soe|a| y
|a uc coos sc c|e|oc eoo ta|.
Lo cstc aoa||s|s cs dc sua |o|taoe|a su |aqco dc| at||a|eado eoo uo s|stca co
uc |os ooo|cs y |as o|qao|zae|oocs do|oadas o| |os ooo|cs |aet|eao |a v|o|coe|a
eoot|a |as ujc|cs. ta v|o|coe|a oo s|c|c sc coea|oa co ao|c|ta y d||ceta e|uc|dad
iis|ea. lucdc oeu|ta|sc co |aet|eas as eo|cjas dc cx|otae|oo y eoot|o|: co e||tc||os
dc oda y oc||cza, co |dca|cs t||ao|eos dc |a atc|o|dad, |a oooqa|a, |a east|dad y |a
octc|oscxua||dad, co aeoso scxua| co c| |uqa| dc t|aoajo, co |aet|eas dc q|oceo|oqia,
oostct||e|a y s|eotc|a|a, co t|aoajo docst|eo iat|qoso oo aqado y co t|aoajo asa|a||a-
do a| aqado. ta v|o|coe|a cx|stc a||i doodc uo q|uo eoot|o|a co su |o|o |otc|cs |a
$
v|da, |as oo|tuo|dadcs, |os coto|oos, |as aee|oocs y |as c|ece|oocs, dc ot|o q|uo,
eoo oaeco |os ooo|cs eoo |as ujc|cs. lc|o c| tca dc |a v|o|coe|a eoo e|uc|dad
iis|ea ao|c|ta cs e|avc co |a |c|ae|oo uc cstao|cec c| ic|o|so |ad|ea| cot|c c| at||a|eado
y |a v|o|coe|a: |a v|o|ae|oo, c| aouso scxua|, |a |ost|tue|oo io|zosa eoo cse|av|tud
scxua|, c| aouso dc |a csosa, c| |oecsto, |a vcjae|oo scxua| dc |os o|os, |a o|stc|cetoia
y ot|as io|as cxecs|vacotc |ad|ea|cs dc e||uqia y c| sad|so cx|ie|to co |a o|ooq|a-
iia, qua|dao |c|ae|oo eoo |as |aet|eas o|sto||eas c |otc|eu|tu|a|cs dc |a uca dc o|ujas,
|a eoodcoa dc uc|tc o| adu|tc||o, |a c|sceue|oo dc |as |cso|aoas, c| |oiaot|e|d|o icc-
o|oo, |a |aet|ea eo|oa dc| vcodajc dc |os |cs, |os su|e|d|os io|zosos dc |as v|udas
o|oducs, y |a sa|vajc |aet|ea dc |a cxt||ae|oo dc| e|ito||s. A t|avcs dc csta |cotc |ad|ea|
sc oos oi|cec uoa |aqco dc |as ujc|cs ut||adas y saoq|aotcs, uoa |c|cscotae|oo
v|sua| dc |o uc oaec c| at||a|eado.
L| at||a|eado cx|stc eoo io|a soe|a| euas| uo|vc|sa| dco|do soo|ctodo a uc |os oo-
o|cs ucdco cjc|ec| c| |ceu|so dc odc| as oas|eo, |a iuc|za iis|ea, a|a cstao|cec| su
eoot|o|. uoa vcz uc c| at||a|eado sc cstao|cec, |os ot|os |ceu|sos dc odc|
ceooo|-
eo, |dco|oq|eo, |cqa| y coe|ooa|
tao|co ucdco cjc|ec|sc a|a aotcoc||o. lc|o |a

v|o|coe|a iis|ea s|c|c eoost|tuyc su u|t|a a|a dc dcicosa, y taoto co |as |c|ae|oocs
|otc|c|sooa|cs eoo |otc|q|ua|cs, csa v|o|coe|a sc ut|||za |cct|das vcecs a|a |otc-
qc| a| at||a|eado dc |a oos|e|oo |od|v|dua| y eo|cet|va dc |as ujc|cs.
tos ooo|cs e|cao y aot|coco c| at||a|eado oo so|o o|uc t|coco |os |ceu|sos a|a
oaec||o, s|oo o|uc t|coco |otc|cscs |ca|cs co oaec| uc |as ujc|cs |cs s||vao dc
oc||a|cotas eo|ae|cotcs. tas ujc|cs soo, o| uo |ado, c| cd|o as ci|eaz dc
sat|siaec| c| dcsco scxua| aseu||oo. Sus euc|os soo, adcas, cscoe|a|cs a|a |a
|oduee|oo dc o|jos, uc sat|siaeco |as ocecs|dadcs |aet|eas y, eoo |os s|eoaoa||s-
tas oao ost|ado, ocu|ot|eas dc |os ooo|cs. tas ujc|cs eoost|tuyco uoa iuc|za dc
t|aoajo ut||, eoo oao |od|eado |os a|x|stas. 1ao|co ucdco eoost|tu|| s|qoos o|oa-
cota|cs dc| cstatus y c| odc| dc| ooo|c. Coo eoac|as, a|a |os o|jos y |os
va|oocs adu|tos ec|osacotc eoot|o|adas, eoost|tuyco eo|ae|cotcs eoac|as, iuco-
tcs dc aoyo coe|ooa| y ut||cs eoot|astcs uc |ciuc|zao eoostaotccotc |a c|ece|oo
dc |os va|oocs dc su s|qo|i|eado soe|a| ecot|a|. Lstas ut||cs iuoe|oocs suq|c|co uc |os
ooo|cs ouseao o| dou|c| aotcoc| eootcotas a |as ujc|cs. lc|o e||euostaoe|as
soe|a|cs d|ic|cotcs eooecdco d|st|oto |aoqo a cstas iuoe|oocs, y o| taoto, ||cvao a va||a-
e|oocs |otc|eu|tu|a|cs co |a eooi|qu|ae|oo dc| at||a|eado. tas ic|o|stas |ad|ea|cs, a
%
d|ic|coe|a dc |as ic|o|stas s|eoaoa|it|eas, oos oi|ceco uoa cx||eae|oo dc |a o|cs|oo
uo|vc|sa| dc qcoc|o y uo odc|o a|a eo|codc| |as va||ae|oocs |otc|eu|tu|a|cs dc csta
o|cs|oo.
_Coo sc ucdc dcst|u|| c| at||a|eado? tas |ad|ea|cs aot|coco uc csta dc||ota dcoc
eocoza| eoo uoa |ceoost|uee|oo oas|ea dc |a eooe|coe|a dc |as ujc|cs, dc aoc|a
uc toda ujc| |ceooozea su |o|o va|o| y iuc|za, |ceoaec |as |cs|oocs dc| at||a|eado
uc eoos|quco uc sc eoos|dc|c a si |sa dco||, dccod|cotc y sceuoda||a, y t|aoajc
co so||da||dad eoo ot|as ujc|cs, s|o tcoc| co eucota |as d|ic|coe|as cot|c c||as, a|a
cstao|cec| uoa eooi|aoza oasada co |a oc|aodad icco|oa, c| aoyo, |a cst|a, y |a
dcicosa utua. Cuaodo sc cstao|czea csta oc|aodad, suq|c|co dos cst|atcq|as: uo
coi|cota|coto e|it|eo eoo todo asceto dc |a do|oae|oo at||a|ea| a||i doodc cx|sta, y
uo ayo| q|ado dc sca|at|so a cd|da uc |as ujc|cs sc |otcq|co co c|csas,
ooqa|cs, eouo|dadcs, ecot|os dc e|cat|v|dad a|tist|ea y |c|ae|oocs ao|osas d|||q|das
o| ujc|cs.
_Coo cva|uaos c| ic|o|so |ad|ea|? Lo c| |aoo coe|ooa| eada uoo dc oosot|os
|csoodc a c| co iuoe|oo dc oucst|o q|ado dc |ad|ea||so c|sooa|: uoos |o eoos|dc|a|ao
cxecs|vacotc e|it|eo, y ot|os tota|cotc eoov|oecotc. lc|o dcsdc uo uoto dc v|sta
tco||eo a|ce|aos uc c| ic|o|so |ad|ea| |oeo|o|a |os a|qucotos dc| ic|o|so
a|x|sta y dc| ic|o|so s|eoaoa|it|eo soo|c |as |azoocs dc |a suoo|d|oae|oo dc |as
ujc|cs, c |oe|uso dcsa||o||a cstas tco|ias. Sc t|ata dc| as a||o dc |os t|os dc
ic|o|so uc ocos aoa||zado. Adcas, |as ic|o|stas |ad|ea|cs oao |ca||zado |ovcs-
t|qae|oocs |c|cvaotcs a|a aoya| su tcs|s dc uc c| at||a|eado dcseaosa, co u|t|a
|ostaoe|a, co |a |aet|ea dc |a v|o|coe|a eoot|a |as ujc|cs (ua||y, 1uu, uuoeo, 1us,
DWo|s|o, 1us, 1usu, l|yc, 1uss, G||ii|o, 1us, 1us1, V|||ct, 1uo, |eo, 1u, 1uso,.
l|cscotaoao uo |oq|aa |azooao|c, auouc ta| vcz |oeo|cto, a|a eao|a| |a s|tua-
e|oo. lao s|do e||t|eadas o| ecot|a|sc cxe|us|vacotc co c| at||a|eado. Lstc coiouc
a|cec s|||i|ea| |as |ca||dadcs dc |a o|qao|zae|oo soe|a| y |a dcs|qua|dad soe|a| y o|
csta |azoo sc a|cja dc |a |ca||dad co |o toeaotc a |os eao|os uc |oooc a|a cjo|a|
|a s|tuae|oo. L| oojct|vo cx|ie|to dc| tc|ec| q|uo dc tco|ias dc |a o|cs|oo, c| ic|o|so
soe|a||sta, cs |ccd|a| cstc dciceto dc| ic|o|so |ad|ea|.
|em|n|amo aoc|a||ata. L| ic|o|so soe|a||sta sc cx|csa co uo eoojuoto dc cse||tos
tco||eos uy d|vc|sos, uo|dos as o| su aqcoda tco||ea uc o| sus eooe|us|oocs
&
tco||eas sustaot|vas (L|ostc|o, 1uu, la|tao, 1uu, la|tsoes, 1uss, Vaek|oooo, 1usz,
1usu, udd|es, 1uso, S|to, 1u!, 1us, 1us, 1uu, 1us, 1usu, 1uuoa, 1uuoo,. 1|cs
ctas quiao a| ic|o|so soe|a||sta: |a siotcs|s tco||ea, (vcasc c| eaitu|o 1s,, uoa
eoo|oae|oo dc cxtcos|oo y |ce|s|oo tco||eas, y uo ctodo cx|ie|to y adceuado a|a c|
aoa||s|s soe|a| y c| eao|o soe|a|.
tos y |as soe|a||stas ic|o|stas sc t|aza|oo c| |oyceto io|a| dc |oq|a| uoa siotcs|s
tco||ea, y suc|a| |as tco|ias ic|o|stas cx|stcotcs. Lo eooe|cto, |os y |as ic|o|stas
soe|a||stas sc |oooco uo|| |o uc c|e|oco eoo |as dos t|ad|e|oocs ic|o|stas as
va||osas: c| cosa|coto ic|o|sta a|x|sta y c| ic|o|so |ad|ea|.
Dc cstc |oyceto dc siotcs|s oao oae|do dos suova||cdadcs d|st|ot|vas dc ic|o|so
soe|a||sta. ta ||c|a sc ecot|a cxe|us|vacotc co |a o|cs|oo dc |as ujc|cs y co su
eo|cos|oo cd|aotc |as |dcas dc |a o|cs|oo dc e|asc (dc| a|x|so, y dc |a o|cs|oo
dc qcoc|o (dc| ic|o|so |ad|ea|,. Vcd|aotc csta |otc|scee|oo tco||ea, cstos y cstas
tco||eas sc |oooco |dcot|i|ea| |os c|ccotos eouocs y |as d|ic|coe|as cot|c |as d|st|o-
tas cxc||coe|as dc |a suoo|d|oae|oo dc |as ujc|cs. L| tc||oo uc ut|||zao eoo ayo|
i|ceucoe|a a|a dcse||o|| c| s|stca cs c| dc jariarau ajiaisa (L|ostc|o, 1uu,
la|tao, 1uu,.
ta scquoda va||aotc dc ic|o|so soe|a||sta |otcota dcse||o|| y cx||ea| todas |as io|as
dc |a o|cs|oo soe|a| ut|||zaodo |as |dcas dc |as jc|a|uias dc qcoc|o y e|asc a|a cx|o-
|a| |os s|stcas dc o|cs|oo oasados oo so|o co |a e|asc y c| qcoc|o, s|oo tao|co co |a
|aza, |a cto|e|dad, |a cdad, |a |cic|coe|a scxua| y |a |oea||zae|oo dcot|o dc |a jc|a|uia
uod|a| dc oae|oocs. L| tc||oo uc as ut|||zao a|a c| s|stca uc dcse||oco cs c| dc
uniiaii (l|yc, 1uss, to|dc, 1us!, D. S|to, 1uu,. tas ujc|cs oeuao uo |uqa|
ecot|a| co cstc coiouc tco||eo co dos scot|dos. l||c|o, eoo co todo ic|o|so, |a
o|cs|oo dc |as ujc|cs eoost|tuyc c| ||oe|a| tca dc aoa||s|s. tas tco||eas dc |a do|-
oae|oo ucdco dcse||o|| as eoctcotccotc uc |as dc| at||a|eado ea|ta||sta |as
va||ae|oocs y d|ic|coe|as co csa o|cs|oo. Scquodo, |a |oea||zae|oo y cxc||coe|a dc |as
ujc|cs co c| uodo eoost|tuyc uo uoto dc v|sta vcotajoso dcsdc doodc eootc|a|
todas |as io|as dc do|oae|oo. Lo u|t|a |ostaoe|a cstas tco||eas sc |coeuao o|
todas |as cxc||coe|as dc |a o|cs|oo, scao aseu||oas o icco|oas. Lx|o|ao |oe|uso |a
io|a co uc a|quoas ujc|cs o|||das a|t|e|ao aet|vacotc co |a o|cs|oo dc ot|as
ujc|cs eoo, o| cjc|o, |as ujc|cs o|aoeas co |a soe|cdad cstadouo|dcosc uc
'
o||co a |as ujc|cs ocq|as. Lo ciceto, uoa cst|atcq|a dc todas |as ic|o|stas soe|a||s-
tas cs ataea| |os |cju|e|os y |as |aet|eas dc o|cs|oo ueir dc |a |o|a eouo|dad dc
ujc|cs (l|yc, 1uss, to|dc, 1us!,.
1aoto c| coiouc dc| at||a|eado ea|ta||sta eoo c| dc |a do|oae|oo aot|coco uo
eo|o|so, cx|ie|to o ||ie|to , eoo c| atc||a||so o|sto||eo eoo cst|atcq|a aoa|it|-
ea (Jaqqa|, 1uss,. L| naeriaisn iisri, uo ||oe||o oas|eo dc |a tco|ia soe|a| a|-
x|sta, sost|coc uc |as eood|e|oocs atc||a|cs dc |a v|da ouaoa, |oe|u|das |as aet|v|dadcs
y |as |c|ae|oocs uc |odueco csas eood|e|oocs, eoost|tuyco |os iaeto|cs e|avc uc
eooi|qu|ao |a cxc||coe|a ouaoa, |a c|sooa||dad, |as |dcas y |as d|sos|e|oocs soe|a-
|cs, uc csas eood|e|oocs eao|ao co c| t|aoseu|so dc| t|co dco|do a |a |o|ocotc
d|oa|ea uc cx|stc co c||as, y uc |a o|sto||a cs uo |cq|st|o dc |os eao|os co |as
eood|e|oocs atc||a|cs dc |a v|da dc uo q|uo y dc |os eao|os eo||csood|cotcs co sus
cxc||coe|as, c|sooa||dadcs, |dcas y d|sos|e|oocs soe|a|cs. tos atc||a||stas o|sto||-
eos aot|coco uc eua|u|c| aoa||s|s soe|a| dcoc |dcot|i|ea| eoo dcta||c y |ce|s|oo o|sto-
||eos |as ea|aetc|ist|eas dc |as eood|e|oocs atc||a|cs dc| q|uo y |os vioeu|os cot|c
csas eood|e|oocs y |as cxc||coe|as, |as c|sooa||dadcs, |os cvcotos, |as |dcas y |as
|ost|tue|oocs soe|a|cs ea|aetc|ist|eas dc| q|uo. A| v|oeu|a| c| atc||a||so o|sto||eo eoo
su coiouc soo|c |a do|oae|oo
s
, |as ic|o|stas soe|a||stas |otcotao a|eaoza| c| oojct|vo
dc dcsa||o||a| uoa tco|ia uc |otc||ctc |a as cxtcod|da dc |as |ost|tue|oocs soe|a|cs, |a
do|oae|oo, y uc auo asi sc eo|octa i||ccotc eoo |os aoa||s|s |ce|sos c o|sto-
||eacotc eooe|ctos dc |as d|sos|e|oocs soe|a|cs y atc||a|cs uc dao io|a a |as
s|tuae|oocs a|t|eu|a|cs dc do|oae|oo.
L| atc||a||so o|sto||eo, sc||o d|st|ot|vo dc| ic|o|so soe|a||sta, ucst|a e|a|acotc
|a coo|c dcuda dc csta cseuc|a eoo c| cosa|coto dc Va|x. lc|o co |o toeaotc a| uso
dc cstc ||oe||o, |as ic|o|stas soe|a||stas oao |do as |cjos uc |os a|x|stas co t|cs
scot|dos |o|taotcs: co su |cdci|o|e|oo dc |as eood|e|oocs atc||a|cs, co su |ccva|ua-
e|oo dc| s|qo|i|eado dc |a |dco|oqia, y co su coiouc dc |a do|oae|oo. l||c|o, oao
a||ado c| s|qo|i|eado dc |as iuiiies naeriaes dc |a v|da ouaoa. tas a|x|stas
usao cstc eooecto a|a |cic|||sc so|o a |a d|oa|ea ceooo|ea dc |a soe|cdad, a|t|eu-
s
Dcsdc aoo|a ut|||za|cos c| tc||oo uniiaii a|a |cic|||oos a |as |coeuae|oocs ecot|a|cs dc
aoas va||aotcs dc ic|o|so soe|a||sta. Aoos q|uos sc |coeuao, dc oceoo, o| |a jc|a|uia,
eooeco|da co scot|do a||o, as uc o| uo s|stca a|t|eu|a| dc jc|a|uia.
!
| a|cot c | os odos co uc | os d| vc|sos o| cocs soo e|cados a|a c| c|eado c
|otc|eao|ados co c|. L||as |dcot|i|eao |as |aiecs dc |a dcs|qua|dad y dc| eooi||eto dc
e|asc co |as d|vc|sas d|sos|e|oocs cx|otado|as, uc eoov|c|tco a uoos co ||eos y a
ot|os co oo|cs. L| aoa||s|s ic|o|sta soe|a||sta |oe|uyc |a d|oa|ea ceooo|ea y ta-
o|co, co tc||oos as qcoc|a|cs, ot|as eood|e|oocs uc e|cao y aot|coco |a v|da oua-
oa: c| euc|o ouaoo, su scxua||dad c |||eae|oo co |a |oe|cae|oo y |a e||aoza dc |os
o|jos, c| aotco||coto dc| ooqa|, eoo sus ta|cas docst|eas oo |ceoooe|das c |aqa-
das, c| aoyo coe|ooa|, y |a |oduee|oo dc eoooe||coto. tas d|sos|e|oocs cx|otado-
|as co todas cstas aet|v|dadcs uc aot|coco |a v|da co||uceco a uoos y coo|ceco a
ot|os. L| iuodacoto cscoe|a| dc toda tco|ia dc |a do|oae|oo cs uoa |coa eo|cos|oo
dc todas cstas d|sos|e|oocs oas|eas dc |a |oduee|oo y |a cx|otae|oo dc |a v|da.
Lsta |cdci|o|e|oo dc| eooecto dc |as eood|e|oocs atc||a|cs t|aosio|a c| suucsto
a|x|sta dc uc |os sc|cs ouaoos soo |odueto|cs dc o|cocs co |a |dca dc |os sc|cs
ouaoos eoo e|cado|cs y aotcocdo|cs dc |a v|da ouaoa. Lsta t|aosio|ae|oo oos
||cva a |a scquoda d|ic|coe|a cot|c c| atc||a||so o|sto||eo a|x|sta y c| atc||a||so
o|sto||eo dcsa||o||ado o| c| ic|o|so soe|a||sta, cs dce||, a |a |coeuae|oo dc cstc
u|t|o o| |os uc a|quoos a|x|stas dcoo|oa|iao, eoo dcs|ce|o, Ieineis iueai-
iaes neiaes: |a eooe|coe|a, |a ot|vae|oo, |as |dcas, |as dci|o|e|oocs soe|a|cs dc |a
s|tuae|oo, c| eoooe||coto, |a |dco|oqia, |a vo|uotad dc aetua| co |otc|cs |o|o o co
|otc|cs dc ot|os
!
. la|a |as ic|o|stas soe|a||stas todos cstos iaeto|cs |oi|uyco |oiuoda-
cotc co |a c|sooa||dad y |a aee|oo ouaoas, co |as cst|uetu|as dc do|oae|oo uc sc
||cvao a |a |aet|ea cd|aotc csa aee|oo. Adcas, cstos ascetos dc |a suojct|v|dad
ouaoa soo |oduetos dc cst|uetu|as soe|a|cs uc cstao |ocxt||eao|ccotc cot|c|aza-
das eoo ot|as |qua|cotc odc|osas y soi|st|eadas: |as uc |odueco |os o|cocs ceooo-
|eos. tas d|sos|e|oocs cx|otado|as co |as cst|uetu|as soe|a|cs tao|co co||uceco a
uoos |cot|as coo|ceco c |oov|||zao a ot|os. L| aoa||s|s dc |os |oecsos uc
cst|uetu|ao |a suojct|v|dad ouaoa cs dc sua |o|taoe|a a|a uoa tco|ia dc |a do|-
oae|oo, y csc aoa||s|s tao|co dcoc |ca||za|sc eoo |ce|s|oo a||eaodo |os ||oe||os dc|
atc||a||so o|sto||eo.
!
A| quoos ocoa| x| st as, csce| a| cot c | os t co| | eos e| i t | eos, oao | ccva| uado t ao| co c| s| qo| i | eado
cx||eat|vo dc |a |dco|oqia (vcasc c| Caitu|o !,.
!
ta tc|ec|a d|ic|coe|a cot|c |as ic|o|stas soe|a||stas y |as a|x|stas cs uc a|a |as
||c|as c| oojcto dc aoa||s|s oo cs |a dcs|qua|dad cot|c |as e|ascs, s|oo uoa a||a sc||c
dc dcs|qua|dadcs soe|a|cs |otc||c|ae|ooadas. L| ic|o|so soe|a||sta dcsa||o||a uoa dcs-
e||e|oo dc |a o|qao|zae|oo soe|a| co |a uc |as cst|uetu|as uo||eas dc |a ceoooia, |a
o|it|ea y |a |dco|oqia |otc|aetuao eoo |os |oecsos ||vados c iot|os dc |a |c|oduee|oo
ouaoa, |a docst|e|dad, |a scxua||dad y |a suojct|v|dad a|a aotcoc| uo s|stca o||-
iaect|eo dc do|oae|oo, euyas iuoe|oocs soo d|sec|o|o|cs taoto eoo autas soe|a|cs
du|adc|as c |c|sooa|cs, eoo co |as as d|vc|sas sut||czas dc |as |c|ae|oocs
|otc|c|sooa|cs. la|a aoa||za| cstc s|stca, |as ic|o|stas soe|a||stas sc t|as|adao eoos-
taotccotc dcsdc |a dcse||e|oo dc |os q|aodcs s|stcas dc do|oae|oo a |a cx|o|a-
e|oo s|tuae|ooa|cotc csceii|ea y dcta||ada dc |as cxc||coe|as eot|d|aoas uodaoas
dc |as c|sooas o|||das. Su cst|atcq|a a|a c| eao|o dcseaosa co cstc dcseuo||-
|coto, co c| uc |otcotao |||ea| a |os q|uos o|||dos uc cstud|ao y a t|avcs dc|
eua| csc|ao uc taoto |os |od|v|duos eoo |os q|uos a|codao, co ayo| o coo|
cd|da , a aetua| a|a |oq|a| su caoe|ae|oo eo|cet|va.
uoa |o|taotc e|it|ea uc sc oa oceoo a| ic|o|so soe|a||sta y, dc oceoo, a todas |as
va||aotcs dc ic|o|so dcse||tas oasta aoo|a, cs uc, a csa| dc sus dcaodas dc
caoe|ae|oo, t|codco a ecot|a|sc co |os suucstos y as||ae|oocs dc ujc|cs o|aoeas,
dc e|asc cd|a y dc| At|aot|eo No|tc. Lx|stc uoa |coeuae|oo eada vcz ayo| dcot|o dc
|a tco|ia ic|o|sta o| |a |oo|cat|ea |aet|ea y tco||ea uc |aotca |a cx|otae|oo dc |as
ujc|cs dc uoa dctc||oada e|asc, |aza, q|uo cto|eo o os|e|oo |otc|oae|ooa|, o| a|tc
dc ot|as ujc|cs. Lsta |oo|cat|ea eoost|tuyc |a |coeuae|oo dc |a tco|ia uc vaos
a aoa||za| co c| s|qu|cotc aa|tado.
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El autor
El autor de este texto es el profesor Guillermo Briones socilogo de la educacin quien
ha desempeado labores docentes y de investigacin en las universidades de Chile,
Flacso, San Marcos de Lima, Nacional de Colombia, Pedaggica Nacional de Colombia,
entre otras. Ha sido profesor visitante en los Programas de Doctorado en Educacin en
las Universidades Catlica de Chile, Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educacin,
de Santiago de Chile y en la Universidad de Extremadura de Espaa.
El profesor Briones ha sido Asesor Tcnico Principal de la UNESCO durante 12 aos con
funciones en la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, de Lima y en el Ministerio de
Educacin de Colombia. Tambin se ha desempeado como consultor internacional de
CEPAL, UNESCO, UNICEF, IDRC y SECAB con misiones en varios pases de Amrica
Latina y consultor del Ministerio de Educacin y del Consejo Superior de Chile.
Ha realizado numerosas investigaciones en el campo de la sociologa de la educacin y
de evaluacin de sistemas y programas de educacin y salud comunitaria.
Entre sus libros principales se encuentran: La evaluacin interactiva, Mtodos y tcnicas
de investigacin para las ciencias sociales, evaluacin de programas sociales, Mtodos
y tcnicas de investigacin para la educacin y las ciencias sociales, Formacin de
docentes en investigacin educativa, Preparacin y evaluacin de proyectos educativos
y filosofa y Teora de las ciencias sociales. Cada uno de esos textos tiene tres y ms
ediciones.
Actualmente es profesor de la Facultad de Ciencias Sociales de la Universidad de Chile
y profesor emrito de la misma institucin. Es tambin Director del Centro Iberoamericano
de Educacin a Distancia (CIEDIS).

Epistemologia de Las Ciencias Sociales

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Epistemologia de Las Ciencias Sociales

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L|stco|oqia

SUPUESTOS FILOSFICOS DE LAS CIENCIAS SOCIALES

SUPUESTOS DE LAS PRINCIPALES ESCUELAS FILOSFICAS

ta| vcz c| auto| as |dcot|i|eado eoo csta cseuc|a

adceuada |oio|ae|oo, dcs|coeuae|oo dc |os jc-

soo c|ccotos eooectua|cs uc io|ao a|tc dc| t|o |dca|.

eoo tao|co ot|as e|co-

cstao oasados co c| eoooe||coto eouo, c|o oo dc |a cxc||coe|a uc oot|coc

cs uo eoojuoto cst|uetu|ado dc eoo|ta|cotos |od|v|dua|cs uc sc dao

y |os q|uos co |os

t|atao dc da| |csucstas a |a tota||dad dc |oo|cas uc sc |aotcao

oos dctuv|os a cxa|oa|,

scot||cotos e|ce|cotcs. Aoos c|c-

tasatos sost|coc uc c| eao|o oo sc |oduec

TEORAS DERIVADAS DEL PARADIGMA INTERPRETATIVO

TEORAS DERIVADAS DE LOS PARADIGMAS TERICOS

TEORAS DERIVADAS DEL PARADIGMA EXPLICATIVO

TEORAS DERIVADAS DEL PARADIGMA EXPLICATIVO

TEORAS DERIVADAS DEL PARADIGMA EXPLICATIVO

TEORAS DERIVADAS DEL PARADIGMA EXPLICATIVO

. No oasta u|t|||ea| c| aeo|a|coto dc e||tc-

, c|o |a ocecs|dad dc eoost|u||

. Coost|tuyc uoa cs-

co v||tud dc |a eua| |os soe|o|oqos sc |oe||oao o|

, |o uc cx||ea c| dcsaeuc|do aetua| cot|c |as dos

. Dc todos cstos s|stcas dc do|oae|oo y suoo|d|oae|oo, |a

tao|co ucdco cjc|ec|sc a|a aotcoc||o. lc|o |a

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