Sustainability and Engineering

Aran Eales & Mike Clifford Copyright University of Nottingham, !"# $ublished at Smash%ords

&he University 'f Nottingham, University $ark, Nottingham N() *+, U, http-..%%%/nottingham/a0/uk 1irst published- 2anuary !"#

E30ept for third party materials 4materials o%ned by someone other than &he University of Nottingham5 and %here other%ise indi0ated, the 0opyright in the 0ontent provided in this resour0e is o%ned by the University of Nottingham and li0ensed under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6ShareAlike U, /! 7i0ense 4896NC6SA5/

&his e8ook is a U6N': resour0e/ 1or the online version follo% this link-

http-..uno%/nottingham/a0/uk.resour0es.resour0e/asp3;hid<"0=d)=##6)=db6>))>6 b?!@6)?A"#)=b0)>a

&his e8ook has been put together using material generated by &he University 'f Nottingham, in 0ombination %ith material from third6party BCreative CommonsC sour0es/ &he prin0iple of sustainability has been upheld through the produ0tion of this e8ook through the re6use of the openly li0ensed material/ &his resour0e is in turn being made openly available for anyone %ith an interest in learning/ :e %ould like to thank all of the individuals and organisations %hose Creative Commons resour0es are in0luded, or have been adapted, as part of this publi0ation/

&able of Contents

Chapter "- Module 'utline Chapter - Energy Chapter #- Materials Chapter =- :ater Chapter @- 1ood and Agri0ulture Chapter ?- 8uildings Chapter )- So0ial +imensions of Sustainability and Engineering Chapter A- E0onomi0s Chapter >- Moving 1or%ard

Chapter 1: Module Outline

&his module is intended to give you a broad understanding of issues related to environmental sustainability in the 0onte3t of engineering/ &he environmental problems fa0ing our %orld are be0oming more apparent day by day, and the term DsustainabilityE is used more freFuently in the media/ &his module %ill e3plore the 0on0ept of sustainability and dis0uss some of the issues surrounding the subGe0t/

Ea0h 0hapter %ill begin %ith an overvie% of the 0ontent, and %ill then introdu0e key fa0tors and the 0urrent %orld systems in pla0e for the subGe0t matter su0h as energy, materials, food, %ater and shelter/ &he so0ial and e0onomi0 fa0tors of sustainability in an engineering 0onte3t %ill also be 0overed/ &he problems asso0iated %ith these systems %ill then be highlighted, spe0ifi0ally their environmental or so0ial impa0ts and %hat part of the systems that 0ould be 0onsidered unsustainable/ Alternatives %ill then be introdu0ed and outlined in0luding %hat options there are and %hat are the 0hallenges involved in implementing them/

Scope of Module

&he issues around sustainability are enormous, and it is not the role or s0ope of this module to 0over everything in great depth, as there is enough information on any single subGe0t for a masters or $h/+/ &he aim of this module instead is to introdu0e the key 0on0epts of haHards fa0ing the global 0ommunity in the 0oming years, ho% %e got to our 0urrent state and ideas for %hat 0an be done to modify the 0urrent traGe0tory/

Teaching Method

&he module is self taught through online resour0es/ 9ou %ill be e3pe0ted to %ork through the 0ontent at your o%n pa0e/ &here %ill be several resour0es in0luded in the body of the module su0h as links to %ebsites, pod0asts or videos online, %hi0h you 0an bro%se as ne0essary/ As mentioned, the module is intended to introdu0e 0ertain 0on0epts around sustainability and instigate interest for you to 0ondu0t personal resear0h in topi0s of interest/

Assessment

&he assessment %ill be an essay or presentation for %hi0h you must resear0h a topi0 of your 0hoi0e related to the module 0ontent/ &he essay %ill be0ome part of the learning resour0es for this module I essays and presentations %ill be published on line for use by people doing the module in the future/ &here %ill be more information about the assessment to%ards the end of the module I but bear it in mind as you are going through the 0hapters I make a note if anything spe0ifi0ally interests you or you feel you %ould %ant to resear0h more about a parti0ular topi0/

Introduction
We do not inherit the Earth from our ancestors - we borrow it from our children 4Anon5 *apid e3pansion of population, resour0e 0onsumption and asso0iated pollution by the human ra0e has put a strain on the natural e0osystems of the Earth %e rely upon to survive/ &he limits to our e3pansion are beginning to sho%, as signifi0ant issues su0h as resour0e depletion, 0limate 0hange, s0ar0ity of %ater, soil fertility depletion and 0hanges in biodiversity o00ur/ A term Dsustainable developmentE has emerged and is being used in0reasingly by the media to des0ribe a need for 0onstru0ting a %ay of organising ourselves that doesnJt detrimentally harm the planet or so0iety/ &his 0hapter aims to e3plore the term DsustainabilityE and put it into 0onte3t %ith engineering, a profession that has 0ontributed to the 0urrent problemati0 system as mu0h as providing a platform for 0reating solutions to the problems/ +efinitions of sustainability %ill be given, follo%ed by an introdu0tion to ethi0al issues behind the topi0/ &he 0on0ept of e3ponential gro%th %ill then be e3plored in detail and applied to global patterns of gro%th and 0onsumption/ 1inally the limits to this gro%th %ill be outlined, before dis0ussing the role of an engineer in the sustainability agenda/

Figure 1- Sustainable +evelopment is based around # 0ore 0onsiderationsK e0onomi0, so0ial and environmental 4or e0ologi0al I see "/ 5

1igure " sour0ed from &he 'pen University under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6ShareAlike /! 7i0en0e/ http-..openlearn/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<=!@?)A&se0tion<=

A definition of Sustainability
&he %ord DsustainE %hen used as an a0tion or a pro0ess is asso0iated %ith 0on0epts su0h as Dto 0arry onE or to Dkeep goingE/ 1or e3ample you sustain your body by giving it suffi0ient nutrients, food and %ater/ Lo%ever you 0ould keep your body going on stimulants and unhealthy food %hi0h %ould prolong survival, but %ith a poor standard of living and probably not for very long/ &hus it 0ould be 0alled an unsustainable health program/

Similarly environmental sustainability embodies this 0on0ept of enduran0e applied to the EarthCs natural systems and our relationship %ith them as a human ra0e/ Mt is a 0on0ept of organising ourselves %ith a long term vie% of the futureK aiming for a system that %ill sustain us and the %orld and not 0ause signifi0ant 0atastrophe to either/

&he most 0ommon definition of sustainability 0omes from the ">A) 8runtland report and is as follo%s-

NMeeting present needs %ithout 0ompromising the ability of future generations to meet their needsN 48runtland *eport, ">A)5

Several other definitions of sustainability have sin0e been suggested, %hi0h in0lude-

NSustainable means using methods, systems and materials that %onJt deplete resour0es or harm natural 0y0lesN 4*osenbaum, ">>#5/

Sustainability Nidentifies a 0on0ept and attitude in development that looks at a siteJs natural land, %ater, and energy resour0es as integral aspe0ts of the developmentN 4Oieira,">>#5

NSustainability integrates natural systems %ith human patterns and 0elebrates 0ontinuity, uniFueness and pla0emakingN 4Early, ">>#5

DSustainable developments are those %hi0h fulfil present and future needs 4:EC+, ">A)5 %hile PonlyQ using and not harming rene%able resour0es and uniFue human6 environmental systems of a site- PairQ, %ater, land, energy, and human e0ology and.or those of other Poff6siteQ sustainable systems 4*osenbaum ">># and Oieria ">>#5/E

+efinitions Sour0e- Psee reference Q

Above te3t sour0ed from :ikispa0es under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6ShareAlike #/! 7i0en0e/ http-..meangreen%ikima0hine/%ikispa0es/0om.Sustainability

,ey %ords and themes from these definitions are as follo%s-

Needs I humans have basi0 needs for survival

Resources I the %orld provides resour0es for these needs

Natural cycles/systems/balance I planet earth is a self6sustaining system %ithout humans, %e affe0t these systems %hen %e use resour0es for our needs

Continuity I finding %ays of meeting our needs through using natureJs resour0es %ithout affe0ting the natural 0y0les in a %ay that %ill detriment future survival

No% %at0h this "@ minute do0ule0ture from the University of Mdaho about the definitions of sustainability- http-..%ebpages/uidaho/edu.sustainability.0hapters.0h! .0h! 6p!"/asp

Activity

:hat does sustainability mean to you; :rite do%n key %ords you asso0iate %ith the %ord DsustainabilityE/ 1rom these %ords then dra% up a definition of sustainability/

Ethics of Sustainability
Motivations for e3ploring sustainability 0an be different depending on your %orld vie%logi0, emotion or instin0t 0an be the drivers/ (enerally they are based around 0on0epts of humanity inherently striving for survival/ &he follo%ing are three vie%points for sustainability-

The Ecologist +oesnJt see the human ra0e as a separate entity from the planet and its resour0es, but part of it/ &heir motivations for preserving the planet are that nature and humanity have an inherent value and should be prote0ted be0ause of that/

The Environmentalist Sees nature or the planet as separate from the human ra0e/ Mt is there for humans, and as su0h humans should have ste%ardship over the %orld/ &hey see the planet as something to be preserved so that humans 0an survive and evolve/

The Economist Understands the measures of unsustainability arising from a 0onsumer led 0ulture treating finite resour0es as an in0ome, but has faith that market for0es and a Dbusiness as usualE approa0h %ill result in a natural 0risis aversion o00urringK that the system %ill sort itself out through te0hnologi0al advan0es if left to its o%n devi0es/

Mt is not intended to go deeply into philosophy in this module, but it is important to 0onsider for yourself %hat motivations you may have, 4if any5 on this subGe0t/ &o assess motivations you first need to pla0e yourself %ith or in the %orld, and this is a subGe0tive e3perien0e/

Engineers have a role in so0iety to design and implement systems that benefit humanity/ 8efore an engineer 0an undertake a proGe0t, they must first have a full grasp of their motivations for being an engineer, and %hether the aims and obGe0tives of the proGe0t fit in %ith their ethi0al standpoint/

Activity

Mmagine you %ork for a 0ivil engineering 0ompany and your 0ompany has been asked to build a road through an0ient %oodland/ &he 0onstru0tion of the road %ill destroy the habitat of an endangered snail/ 'pponents to the road say that an0ient %oodland has an inherent value, and it is a travesty to %ipe out the only pla0e this snail lives in the %orld/ Supporters of the road argue that it %ill bring so0ial and e0onomi0 benefits to the village it is 0onne0ting, %hi0h is inhabited by many people living in poverty/ &hey argue that the e0onomi0 benefits of the road %ill in0rease the Fuality of life for the residents of the village/ &he 0ompany you %ork for stand to make a large profit by se0uring the 0ontra0t to build the road/

:hat %ould be the primary 0on0erns for an e0ologi0al engineer, an environmental engineer and an e0onomi0al engineer;

:ould anything 0hange if it %as panda rather than a snail that %as endangered;

:orld%ide trends %ill no% be presented to illuminate the 0on0epts of %hy people are talking about sustainability/ &hese 0ome under t%o themes- e3ponential gro%th of population and 0onsumption 4the needs as e3pressed above5 and asso0iated limits to gro%th due to depleted resour0es and in0reasing pollution resulting from the 0onsumption of the resour0es/

Exponential Growth

1igure "/#/" adapted and sour0ed from :ikipedia 4Author- M0Sush5 under a the Creative Commons CC! "/! Universal $ubli0 +omain +edi0ation 7i0ense http-..en/%ikipedia/org.%iki.1ile-E3ponential/svg

&he above graph sho%s three different fun0tions in0reasing over time/ &he y a3is is the amount of somethingK the 3 a3is is in0reasing time/ &he red graph in0reases proportionally, the blue in0reases 0ubi0ally, and the green graph in0reases e3ponentially/ Mn this e3ample the e3ponential graph doubles over a set period of time but it 0ould triple, Fuadruple or in0rease by any fa0tor of 3 over time/

&he green graph is the important one as it is this model that many %orld systems su0h as population gro%th and resour0e 0onsumptions follo%/ &he shape of that graph and the 0on0epts it introdu0es are essential to understanding the traGe0tory of patterns in so0iety/

Example: A bacteria is introduced to a lake of a finite size. The bacteria cover a set area of the surface of the lake, and this area doubles in size ever hour. After ! hour the bacteria covers !" of the lake. #ow man hours will it take to cover the whole lake$ %t takes & hours for the bacteria to cover 'ust under one third of the lake ()*"+, but in the ne,t hour and a half, it covers the whole of the lake. This e,am-le is intended to demonstrate the nature of e,-onential growth . amounts become ver large ver /uickl .

Mt 0ould be 0onsidered that %e are no% in that final hour, %here the amount of %ater left on the lake is our remaining resour0es/ Mf it is kno%n that the %orld is strained %ith our presen0e 0urrently, those strains %ill double in a short period of time, and double again after that unless radi0al 0hanges are made/

World Population and Associated Impacts

*eal life situations follo% the pattern of e3ponential gro%th/ &he most familiar of these is the %orld population graph, %hi0h you have probably seen before-

Figure 1 ! 1 :orld $opulation sin0e A+ "!!!

1igure "/=/" sour0ed from Slideshare/net 4Author- &oni Menninger5 under a 0reative 0ommons attribution6non 0ommer0ial li0ense http-..%%%/slideshare/net.amenning.gro%th6in6a6finite6%orld6sustainability6and6the6e3ponential6fun0tion

(lobal population has Gust rea0hed ) billion people/ "!! years ago there %ere about "/? billion people in the %orld and in the ">?!Js there %ere about half the people there are today/ Mn the last @! years the population has doubled, and this trend sho%s no signs of 0hanging/ Ea0h person on the %orld reFuires resour0es to survive so naturally there %ill follo% e3ponential graphs for %orld resour0e use over the same time period/

Although a bigger population generally means more mouths to feed, there is not an even distribution of 0onsumption patterns throughout the %orld/ 'ne of the biggest indi0ators of unsustainability is in the misdistribution of %ealth/ 'ver a third of the %orld still live in poverty %ith limited a00ess to energy, %ater or food/

Mn !!?, a team of s0holars %ith the United Nations UniversityCs :orld Mnstitute for +evelopment E0onomi0s *esear0h published the first paper to tally, for the entire %orld, all the maGor elements of household %ealth, everything from finan0ial assets and debts to land, homes, and other tangible property/

&his resear0h, based on year !!! data, found that the ri0hest " per0ent of the %orldCs adult population, individuals %orth at least R@"=,@" , o%ned #>/> per0ent of the %orldCs household %ealth, a total greater than the %ealth of the %orldCs poorest >@ per0ent, those adults %orth under R"@!,"=@ %ho hold, together, Gust >/= per0ent of the %orldCs %ealth/ Psee reference @Q

$ersonal %ealth is distributed so unevenly a0ross the %orld that the ri0hest t%o per 0ent of adults o%n more than @! per 0ent of the %orldCs assets %hile the poorest half hold only " per 0ent of %ealth 0see reference 12/ &he USA 0onsumes @S of the %orldJs energy %ith a share of the %orld population of =/@S 0see reference &2/ &he figures for material, %ater and food 0onsumption bet%een the ri0hest nations and the poorest display a similar level of disparity/

$opulation gro%th is mu0h higher in developing 0ountries, %hile resour0e 0onsumption and pollution is higher in developed 0ountries/ &he gap bet%een the ends of the spe0trum has been in0reasing in a similar e3ponential fashion/

&he fo0us of sustainability is as mu0h on humanity 4the so0ial 0orner of the sustainability triangle5 as it is on nature 4the e0ologi0al5, and to redu0e this ineFuality and provide a

basi0 standard of living 0onditions for the earthJs inhabitants is paramount to the sustainability 0hallenge/

Global Trends over Time in Food Water and Ener!y and Economics
Figure 1 " # (lobal %ater use by se0tor

1igure "/@/ sour0ed from &he MmpEE $roGe0t, &he Cambridge6MM& institute/ http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.;se0tion<topi0s&topi0<%ater&page<slidesho%

:ater demonstrates a similar pattern to food, but note the differen0e in time s0ales/ Natural %ater systems are under pressure from overuse, pollution and impa0ts of 0limate 0hange/ :ater supply %ill be 0overed in Chapter = in more detailK 0areful 0onsideration must be given to this pre0ious resour0e on %hi0h all life depends/

Figure 1 " $ (lobal Energy Consumption sin0e "A@!

1igure "/@/# sour0ed from &he 'pen University under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike /! 7i0en0e http-..openlearn/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<#>>@=@&se0tion<"

Energy %ill be 0overed in the ne3t 0hapter, but note the start of the 0urve is around the time of the industrial revolution, %hen the stream engine %as invented and fossil fuels be0ame the main sour0e of industrial energy/ Energy use is linked to e0onomi0 development, and in the 0urrent 0onte3t, pollution and resour0e depletion- t%o key fa0tors of unsustainability/

Figure 1 " ! :orld (+$ " A+ 6 !!!

4Sour0e- visualising e0onomi0s/0om Psee referen0e "!Q5

1igure "/@/= sour0ed from OisualiHing E0onomi0s under a Creative Commons Attribution6Non0ommer0ial6Share Alike #/! United States 7i0ense http-..visualiHinge0onomi0s/0om.0ool6data.

&he graph above sho%s the e3ponential in0rease in gross domesti0 produ0t of the %orld, %hi0h is effe0tively a measure of %ealth/ E0onomi0 gro%th has been the 0entral driving fa0tor for the advan0ement of humanity and the negative environmental and so0ial 0onseFuen0es or De3ternalitiesE that have resulted from it/ Mt is a 0hallenging subGe0t to 0omprehend fully, but e0onomi0s and its relevan0e and importan0e in an engineerCs role in understanding sustainability %ill be delved into in 0hapter A/

"iophysical #imits
Mn ">) the book D7imits to (ro%thE %as published 0see reference !*2 %hi0h made an assessment of humanityJs impa0t on the %orld, follo%ed this %ith predi0tions of future trends based on at the time 0urrent 0onsumption patterns, and 0al0ulated %hat levels %e 0ould approa0h %ithout 0ausing irreversible impli0ations by 0rossing them/

&he follo%ing are 0ategories of the limits, other%ise kno%n as planetary boundaries-

Assimilative 0apa0ity of the atmosphere to hold Carbon +io3ide 7oss of biodiversity Luman interferen0e %ith nitrogen.phosphorous 0y0les stratospheri0 oHone depletion '0ean a0idifi0ation (lobal s0ar0ity of fresh %ater Adverse 0hanges in land use Chemi0al pollution Atmospheri0 aerosol loading

Figure 1 % # (raphi0al *epresentation of the planetary boundaries, and 0urrent situation

(3ource4 3tockholme resilience 0see reference !52+

1igure "/?/ sour0ed from Sto0kholm *esilien0e 4Sto0kholm University5 %ith permission http-..%%%/sto0kholmresilien0e/org.resear0h.resear0hne%s.tippingto%ardstheunkno%n.Fuantitativeevolutionof boundaries/=/)0f>0@aa" "e")bab= A!!!=#===/html

1igure "/?/ graphi0ally represents the > planetary boundaries/ &he green areas are the estimated safe limits %ithin these boundaries, and the red areas are our 0urrent measured levels %ithin the boundaries/ 7imits to the graph are that some of the boundaries have no data, and it does not sho% at %hat rate these levels have 0hanged over time/ &he graph sho%s that in some 0ase 4su0h as loss of biodiversity and C' emissions5 %e have already 0rossed the boundaries/ Mn other 0ases there is still room for gro%th, but levels are in0reasing rapidly as e3plained earlier/

Many of these biophysi0al limits to gro%th 0an be observed as measures of unsustainability rather than a la0k of sustainability/ &here is an important differen0e%hen attempting to address these problems, if %e only seek to find DFui0k fi3esE to avoid the effe0ts of unsustainability then it is likely that the problems %ill reo00ur in the future a different form/ A key 0on0ept is to look at the roots of unsustainability and implement a -aradigm shift to 0reate systems %ith a holisti0 vie% of our relationship %ith the earth and to ea0h other that %ill see us not Gust surviving but flourishing into the future/

&he underlying theme to take from these graphs is that e3ponential gro%th on a finite planet %ill eventually fail I the %orld 0annot support us if %e 0ontinue at the 0urrent traGe0tory/

Figure 1 % $ &imeframes and $ossible 1uture S0enarios

1igure "/?/# sour0ed from MM& 'pen Course%are under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike #/! United States http-..dspa0e/mit/edu.bitstream.handle.") "/".#>"#=."6>?=1all6 !!=.'0%:eb.Civil6and6Environmental6 Engineering."6>?=1all6 !!=.7e0tureNotes.inde3/htm

The en!ineer$s %ole in Sustainability

Engineering4 The art of directing the great sources of -ower and 6ature to the use and benefit of 7an.E 6&homas &redgold, "A"A 0see reference !&2

Engineering is defined as the dis0ipline, art, skill and profession of a0Fuiring and applying s0ientifi0, mathemati0al, e0onomi0, so0ial and pra0ti0al kno%ledge, in order to design and build stru0tures, ma0hines, devi0es, systems, materials and pro0esses/ 4dictionar .com5

+evelopment 0an be 0alled the sum of our produ0ts and proGe0ts, i/e/ our appli0ation of te0hnology/ Mn these appli0ations engineers 0arry out, influen0e or de0ide the options evaluated, the de0ision6making 0riteria, the de0ision and the detailed design and implementation.produ0tion/

1or development to be0ome BsustainableC, engineers must in0orporate BsustainabilityC into all our planning and engineering of produ0ts and proGe0ts/ &e0hnology is neither good nor bad in itself 6 ho% %e 0hoose to apply it determines %hether a good balan0e is a0hieved/

Engineering integrates %ith all aspe0ts of so0ietyK it takes 0on0epts from maths and s0ien0es and puts them into 0onte3t through so0ial and e0onomi0 0onsiderations before implementing them as tangible out0omes in so0iety/ Mt is essential that engineering understands so0ial and environmental 0onstraints and does not Gust 0onform to e0onomi0 ne0essities/ &he purely business influen0e has been the paradigm norm of engineering, %hi0h has led to the problems outlined above/

8ill ,elly des0ribes ho% so0ial responsibility is key to an engineerCs role-

3ocial res-onsibilit is not a new issue for the engineering -rofession. %t is fundamental to defining engineering as a -rofession. 8ollowing the conce-t that the outward -art of an engineer9s social res-onsibilit is affecting -ublic -olic , the engineering -rofession is challenged toda to hel- define social res-onsibl as -art of defining the -rinci-les and -ractices of sustainable develo-ment. 03ee reference !:2

Above te3t sour0ed from 0n3/org 4Author- 8ill ,elly5 under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike /! United States http-..0n3/org.0ontent.m">!? .latest.

&his module %ill 0onsider an engineerCs role in so0iety and ho% that relates to aspe0ts of sustainability/ An engineer has a duty to implement their kno%ledge of ho% the %orld %orks to design systems, pro0esses and te0hnology that %ill benefit humanity/ As e3plained in this 0hapter, humanity fa0es grave 0hallenges in survival, and as su0h a kno%ledge of these 0hallenges and a %illingness to solve them these must be refle0ted in an engineerCs duty to so0iety/

Mn making the %orld sustainable a key 0on0ept is designK %e need to design ho% so0iety, the e0onomy and the environment 0an all fun0tion as one holisti0ally and symbioti0ally, %ithout one detrimentally affe0ting the other/ A fundamental part of engineering is design and as su0h it %ill be engineers, integrated and embedded in so0iety that 0an use their skills to steer humanity a%ay from 0ollapse to a bright and optimisti0 future/

1ollo% this slide sho% from Cambridge University %hi0h is entitled D:hat do engineers need to kno% about sustainable development;E

http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.;se0tion<topi0s&topi0<Mntro&oES+&page<slidesho%

&he Engineering Coun0il in the U, has produ0es a guidan0e on sustainability, %hi0h defines ? prin0iples that engineers should adhere to-

Contribute to building a sustainable so0iety, present and future Apply professional and responsible Gudgement and take a leadership role +o more than Gust 0omply %ith legislation and 0odes Use resour0es effi0iently and effe0tively Seek multiple vie%s to solve sustainability 0hallenges

Summary
&his 0hapter has outlined a broad perspe0tive of %hat sustainability is and ho% and %hy personal ethi0s are paramount to 0onfront before 0onfronting the 0hallenge of sustainability/ :e have dis0ussed e3ponential gro%th, its impli0ations for %orld population and resour0e 0onsumption, %hat the bio6physi0al limits to gro%th on the planet are, and %hy and ho% the engineering profession has a role to play in the sustainability arena/

Mn the follo%ing 0hapters %e %ill look in more depth at spe0ifi0 areas outlined above I areas that have e3perien0ed e3ponential gro%th, and are putting e0ologi0al pressures on the earth to%ards the planetary boundaries outlined/

Further %eadin!
Online Teaching Materials

Ne& 'ersey (nstitute of Technology Mntrodu0tion to Sustainability http-..o0%/nGit/edu.n0e.eps.eps6? Sustainability Metri0s http-..o0%/nGit/edu.files.eps? )elft *niversity of Technology Sustainable +evelopment for engineers, 7e0ture "- Mntrodu0tion http-..o0%/tudelft/nl.0ourses.sustainable6development.sustainable6development6for6 engineers.le0tures.le0ture6"6introdu0tion. .eps? 60ohen.inde3/php

Tle0ture!#/mp=

*niversity of (daho $rin0iples of Sustainability +o0ule0ture- Sustainable +evelopment http-..%ebpages/uidaho/edu.sustainability.0hapters.0h! .0h! 6p!#/asp

Web Resources :ikipedia Sustainability http-..en/%ikipedia/org.%iki.Sustainability 9ou&ube Animation on Sustainability http-..%%%/youtube/0om.%at0h;v<8@Ni&N!0hG! &o%ards Sustainability http-..%%%/to%ards6sustainability/0o/uk. (lobal Edu0ation $roGe0thttp-..%%%/theglobaledu0ationproGe0t/org.earth.about%all0hart/php United nations $opulation statisti0s- http-..%%%/un/org.esa.population. U, Engineering Coun0il (uidan0e on Sustainability http-..%%%/eng0/org/uk.about6 us.sustainability

+oo,s 3ustainabilit b ;esign4 a subversive strateg for transforming our consumer culture, 2ohn */ Ehrenfeld, !!A, 9ale University $ress

The <rinci-als of 3ustainabilit , Simon +resner, !!A, Earths0an, 7ondon

<ositive ;evelo-ment4 from vicious circles to virtuous c cles through built environment design, 2anis 8irkeland, !!A, Earths0an, 7ondon

The 3ustainabilit =evolution4 -ortrait of a -aradigm shift, Andres * Ed%ards, !!@, Ne% So0iety $ublishers/

%eferences
"/http-..openlearn/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php; id<=!@?)A&se0tion<=A00essed on- #rd 1eb !"

/ http-..meangreen%ikima0hine/%ikispa0es/0om.Sustainability A00essed on- #rd 1eb !"

#/ 7unk%ill , http-..en/%ikipedia/org.%iki.1ile-E3ponential/svg A00essed on- =th 1eb !" , li0en0e- CC SA 89

=/ http-..%%%/slideshare/net.amenning.gro%th6in6a6finite6%orld6sustainability6and6 the6e3ponential6fun0tion A00essed on- #rd Mar0h !"

?/ CLM779MAN2A*', http-..the%at0hers/adorraeli/0om. !""."!."#.feeding6the6 %orld6solutions6for6a60ultivated6planet.A00essed on- =th 1eb !" , li0en0e- CC 89 SA

)/ Loughton, 2ohn 4">>)5 D(lobal :arming- &he Complete 8riefingE Cambridge University $ress, p/"") Available online- http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.; se0tion<topi0s&topi0<%ater&page<slidesho%Uref a00essed @th May !"

A/ http-..openlearn/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<#>>@=@&se0tion<" A00essed on- =th 1eb !"

>/ http-..visualiHinge0onomi0s/0om.0ool6data.A00essed on- =th 1eb !"

"!/ 7imits to gro%th- the #!6year update, +onella L/ Meado%s et al/, *outledgeK *evised edition edition 4" Nov !!=5, MS8N6"!- "A==!)"==A

""/ &he 7imits to (ro%th first edition, +onella L/ Meado%s et al/, Universe 8ooks, ">) MS8N !6A)??#6"?@6!

" / http-..o0%/mit/edu.0ourses.s0ien0e6te0hnology6and6so0iety.sts6!!#6the6rise6of6 modern6s0ien0e6fall6 !"!.A00essed on- "st 1eb !"

"#/http-..%%%/sto0kholmresilien0e/org.resear0h.resear0hne%s.tippingto%ardstheunk no%n.Fuantitativeevolutionofboundaries/=/)0f>0@aa" "e")bab= A!!!=#===/html A00essed on- #rd 1eb !"

"=/ +esign for Sustainability, 7e0ture "- (lobal Challenges, 2erome Connor et al/ http-..dspa0e/mit/edu.bitstream.handle.") "/".#>"#=."6>?=1all6 !!=.'0%:eb. Civil6and6Environmental6Engineering."6>?=1all6 !!=.7e0tureNotes.inde3/htm A00essed on- "st 1eb !"

"@/ http-..engineering/mit/edu.live.ne%s.??!6engineering6the6art6of6dire0ting6the6 great6sour0es A00essed on- "st 1eb !"

"?/ Sustainability in Engineering Edu0ation and Ethi0s , 8ill ,elly , the Creative Commons Attribution 7i0ense http-..0n3/org.0ontent.m">!? .latest. A00essed on- >th 1eb !"

Chapter 2: Energy
:e use energy for everything %e do, %hether it is in industry, agri0ulture, transport, or the domesti0 setting/ Sin0e the industrial revolution, the maGority of this energy has 0ome from a dense, energy ri0h resour0e kno%n 0olle0tively as fossil fuels/ &he impa0ts of the use of fossil fuels are be0oming more re0ognised, in the form of resour0e depletion and pollution 0aused from burning these fuels/ &his 0hapter %ill firstly give an introdu0tion to energyK ho% to measure it and %hat forms there are/ Mt %ill then outline %orld%ide energy use I %hat %e use energy for and %here %e get this energy from/ &he effe0ts of this 0onsumption pattern %ill be highlighted, before presenting a sustainable energy strategy %hi0h in0ludes redu0ing energy, using it more effi0iently and introdu0ing rene%able energy te0hnologies/

Ener!y &efinitions
-hat is .nergy/

&he s0ientifi0 definition of energy is the ca-acit to do work. Energy is transferred from one form to another through a pro0ess, and during this pro0ess %e get the out0ome of useful %ork being done/ E3amples of energy pro0esses are burning %ood in a stove to keep a house %arm, 0ombustion of petrol to move a vehi0le and 0onverting the energy from food into helping us fun0tion in our daily lives/

0o& do &e measure it/ 1 Power and Energy

:e need to introdu0e some s0ientifi0 terms so %e 0an refer to Fuantities of energy simply/ &he main point here is to understand the differen0e bet%een $o%er and Energy/ Energy as mentioned above is the ca-acit to do %ork, %hereas po%er is the rate of doing %ork/

Energ (the ca-acit to do work+ is measured in >oules (>+ or Watt-hours (Wh+ <ower (rate of using or -roducing energ + is measured in Watt (W+ or kilowatts (kW+ Energy < $o%er 3 &ime or $o%er < Energy . time

A Note on *nits

&here are several different %ays of Fuantifying energyK barrels of oil eFuivalent, 8ritish &hermal Units 4for heat5 or Calories to name a fe%/ :atts and :att6hours are generally used as a standard %ay of 0omparing amounts of energy/

$o%er and Energy E3amples-

2o&er density &his is the amount of po%er per unit area and it is measured in k:.m / E,am-le4

Solar radiation represents the po%er density 0oming from the sun in the form of ele0tromagneti0 radiation 4energy5 that falls on a surfa0e/ +uring summer months at noon, on a 0lear day, po%er density values from as mu0h as >!!:.m to "!!! :.m 0an be measured/ 03ee reference )2

.nergy density

&his is the amount of energy stored in a given region or spa0e per unit volume or mass/ E,am-le4

&he energy of a barrel of oil 4"@A/> litres5 is =#> k:h/ Mts energy density is therefore )?=! k:h.m#/ 03ee reference )2

Conversion efficiency

&he se0ond la% of thermodynami0s states that %hen energy is 0onverted from one form to another some of this energy %ill be lost/ Another %ay of stating this is that in any energy pro0ess entro- 4or disorder5 is in0reased, %hi0h means that it is impossible to have a 0ompletely "!!S effi0ient pro0ess/ Even if all of the energy in a 0losed system is 0onverted from one form of energy into another, the useful energy is less than the total/ Energy %hi0h is not useful may take the form of heat loss, or may result in sound %aves et0/ &he measure of ho% mu0h energy you put in to ho% mu0h 0ome out is kno%n as the 0onversion effi0ien0y/

E,am-le4

A thermal po%er station is able to e3tra0t "?>"k:h of ele0tri0al energy from a barrel of $etroleum 4%hi0h 0ontains =#> k:h of energy5/ &he stationJs 0onversion effi0ien0y is

#A/@S/ 0see reference )2

E,am-le4

Commer0ial photovoltai0 modules 0an rea0h effi0ien0ies of "AS, i/e/ if the in0ident radiation is "!!! :.m it %ill produ0e "A! :.m / 0see reference )2

World Ener!y 'se

1rom the early "Ath 0entury global energy use e3perien0ed an e3ponential gro%th as represented in the graph belo% 4sho%n from "A@!5/ A maGor 0ontributor to this trend %as the invention of the steam engine, %hi0h heralded a ne% era of the use of fossil fuels su0h as 0oal/ &o%ards the end of the !th 0entury the e3ponential nature of energy use tails off to a more linear gro%th, %ith a hint of flattening out to%ards the year !!!/ Efforts to e3plain this 0hange in traGe0tory based around theories of resour0e depletion %ill be in0luded later in the 0hapter/

Figure # # 1 (lobal primary Energy use sin0e "A@!

1igure / /" sour0ed from &he 'pen University under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike /! 7i0en0e http-..openlearn/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<#>>@=@&se0tion<"

Figure # # # (lobal energy 0onsumption by fuel type sin0e ">A!/ Note the figures are in %atts I this is be0ause it is sho%ing the average energy used over that year/ &his is the same for the follo%ing 0harts

1igure / / adapted for the purpose of this e8ook and sour0ed from the U/S/ Energy Mnformation Administration, Mnternational Energy 'utlook 4 !""5N http-..%%%/eia/doe/gov.oiaf.ieo.%orld/html

&he figure belo% sho%s that in !!? A!/>S of the %orlds primary energy 0omes from fossil fuels I Coal, (as and 'il/

Figure # # $ Energy produ0tion %orld%ide in !!A

1igure / /# sour0ed from Climate 7ab under a Creative Commons Attribution6ShareAlike #/! Unported 4CC 896 SA #/!5 li0ense http-..0limatelab/org.CoalT$o%er

Figure # # !- :hat %e use the energy for

1igure / /= sour0ed from Slideshare/net 4Author- Skeen5 under a Creative Commons Attribution6 #/! li0ense http-..%%%/slideshare/net.skeen.game6plan6v"!6"

&his 0hart sho%s %hat %e use %orld%ide energy for, %ith agri0ulture, Mndustry, transport and domesti0 the biggest se0tors/ &he forestry se0tor figures are of interest, as not only does the 0utting do%n of trees use a large amount of energy, but the trees lost as a result in0rease the effe0ts of 0limate 0hange, as they are natural 0arbon sinks/ Climate 0hange and its impli0ations for the future of the biosphere %ill be dis0ussed in more depth later in this 0hapter/

Figure # # "- Energy Use by *egion !!A

1igure / /@ sour0ed from Slideshare/net 4Author- Skeen5 under a Creative Commons Attribution6 #/! li0ense http-..%%%/slideshare/net.skeen.game6plan6v"!6"

&he differen0e in the levels of 0onsumption bet%een the poorest 0ountries 4around A!k:h per 0apita per year5 and that of ri0her 0ountries 4around A,!!!k:h per 0apita per year5 rea0hes t%o orders of magnitude/ *i0her 0ountries have been 0onsuming ele0tri0ity for many de0ades at a rate mu0h higher than the gro%th rate of their populations and even of their e0onomies/ Another important fa0t to 0onsider is that mu0h of the energy 0onsumed in Asia 4espe0ially China5 is used for produ0ing goods that are 0onsumed in the more e0onomi0ally developed 0ountries/ Mf this %as taken into a00ount the energy demographi0s %ould be even more out of proportion/

&he figures above serve to demonstrate the 0urrent %orld energy use/ &he main points to take from the graphs are-

&he maGority of our energy 0urrently 0omes from fossil fuels/ As mentioned, these fuels are in0redibly energy dense, and this has enabled us to progress in terms of te0hnology and infrastru0ture at a rate never before possible/ &he problems %ith be0oming reliant on fossil fuels %ill be e3plained in the ne3t se0tion/

&he energy use is not evenly distributed throughout the %orld/ As %ith other issues surrounding sustainability, ineFuality is an important issue/ More e0onomi0ally developed 0ountries 4ME+Cs5 0onsume the maGority of the %orldCs energy/

As %ill be demonstrated, even if alternative forms of energy are taken into 0onsideration and brought on line in a big %ay, there %ill still be a gap bet%een the amount of energy %e need and the energy that is available %ithout fossil fuels/ &he 0hallenge is to redu0e our 0onsumption of energy, %hi0h is no easy task %hen vie%ing the trends outlined in figure / /" I a steady in0rease of 0onsumption over the last "@! years/

Activity
&hink about the ele0tri0al energy you use in an average day/ Make a table and for ea0h a0tivity make a note of the po%er used 4e/g/ your laptop uses @!: I this should be %ritten on the ba0k of it, an energy saving light bulb uses " :5 and multiply this by the number of hours you use it for %hi0h %ill give you total energy for ea0h a0tivity/ Add up the energy 0olumn to find your total ele0tri0al energy 0onsumption for a day/

1ind out the 0onversion for k:h to tonnes of 0arbon and 0al0ulate your 0arbon footprint per year/ &his is Gust ele0tri0al energy/ Make a list of other forms of energy you use daily and resear0h.estimate 0arbon emitted for these a0tivities/ Lo% %ould this differ to somebody living in a less e0onomi0ally developed 0ountry; Lo% 0ould you redu0e your 0onsumption; 1or one a0tivity 4driving a 0ar, %at0hing &O, produ0ing a plasti0 bag, turning on 0entral heating5 dra% a flo% diagram of %here the energy 0omes from/ An e3ample for s%it0hing on a light is belo%S%it0h on a light- tra0e the energy flo% ba0k through the national grid as ele0tri0ity to the generator, round the turbine as angular momentum, ba0k through the pipe as steam, ba0k into the furna0e as burning 0oal, ba0k through the 0oal train to the *ussian

0oal mine ba0k deep do%n into the earthJs 0rust and reverse a million years to a dinosaur, through the digestive system to a prehistori0 plant life then right ba0k to the beginning as a UO ray travelling from the sun/ 4Mt 0arries on but %eJll stop there5/ :hat 0ould you do to redu0e your energy 0onsumption; &here are online 0arbon footprint 0al0ulators that guide you through the steps of energy use in your lifehttp-..%%%/0arbonfootprint/0om.0al0ulator/asp3 http-..footprint/%%f/org/uk.

Problems with Fossil Fuel 'se( %esource &epletion

1ossil fuels are a form of solar energy, stored in biomass %hi0h has 0ompa0ted in the earthJs 0rust over billions of years, %hi0h is the reason they are so energy dense/ &here is a finite amount of fossil fuels left in the earthJs sub6surfa0e/ A steady 0onsumption of a finite resour0e %ill have a 0ertain and inevitable 0on0lusion- the reserves %ill eventually run out/ An e3ponential 0onsumption of a finite resour0e %ill have the same effe0t, only mu0h Fui0ker/ &he debate on resour0e depletion is not then if, but when the resour0e %ill run out/

2ea, oil

Lubbert %as a US geophysi0ist %ho %orked for the oil industry in the USA during the ">@!s/ Le postulated that the amount of oil being dis0overed %as redu0ing, and made a predi0tion that oil produ0tion for the US %ould slo%, DpeakE and then drop off, follo%ing a bell shaped 0urve graph as follo%s-

Figure # $ 1 I LubbertJs 0urve/ &he dotted red line sho%s %hen the predi0tion %as made

1igure /#/" sour0ed from :ikipedia 4Author- Sfou0her5 under a Creative Commons Attribution6Share Alike (eneri0 7i0ense http-..en/%ikipedia/org.%iki.1ile-LubbertTUSThigh/svg

/@

8elo% is LubbertCs original predi0tion for %orld%ide oil supply/ Le appro3imated %orld oil supplies %ould peak Dabout half a 0enturyE after the report %as %ritten 4">@?5/

Figure # $ # :orld%ide peak oil predi0ted by Lubbert

1igure /#/ sour0ed from :ikipedia 4Author- Lank%ang5 under a Creative Commons Attribution6Share Alike /@ (eneri0 7i0ense http-..en/%ikipedia/org.%iki.User-,grr.Sandbo3.$eakToil

Another important point to 0onsider is %orld 0onsumption/ :hen 0onsumption e30eeds produ0tion there is a shortfall bet%een supply and demand/ At this point pri0es in oil go up, and there are 0on0erns about %here to se0ure oil from/

:e have already established that our 0urrent energy demands are reliant on oil and other fossil fuels/ 'n0e peak oil is rea0hed, as %ell as a rise in pri0e, energy se0urity %ill be0ome an issue/ As %ith other valuable resour0es, oil has the potential to 0ause international 0onfli0t/

LubbertJs peak has been used spe0ifi0ally for oil, but all produ0tion of fossil fuels and other mined minerals of %hi0h there is a finite supply follo% a similar 0urve, leading to peak gas, peak 0oal, peak uranium, peak 0opper et0/

Some reports estimate around =! years of petroleum supply remaining/ Natural gas supply is e3pe0ted to last only a little longer at around si3ty yearsK 0oal is mu0h more abundant and e3pe0ted to last Gust over !! yearsK ho%ever, it is one of the largest emitters of 0arbon dio3ide per unit of energy generated/

As fossil fuels be0ome harder to obtain, the energy reFuired to mine them be0omes greater/ &his is kno%n as the energy return on investment 4E*'M5- ho% mu0h energy you need to put in to ho% mu0h you get out/ Mn the early days of oil dis0overy this %as very high, as oil %as easy to find and didnJt reFuire mu0h energy to e3tra0t/ No% the return is mu0h lo%er, more energy is put in to get lo%er amounts out in a redu0ing spiral/

&he real problem %ith fossil fuels is that they form an e0onomi0 s0enario based on highly flu0tuating pri0es, that their availability is uneFually distributed 4Gust as mu0h bet%een North and South as bet%een ri0h and poor5 and that they have a demonstrated harmful impa0t on the e0osystem/

&he subGe0t of peak oil and the impli0ations of our relian0e on a substan0e that %ill one day run out has sparked heated debate in the last fe% years, espe0ially as the pri0e of oil has been steadily rising/

No% %at0h this &E+ talk 0overing in detail so0ietyJs addi0tion to oil, and strategies to over0ome this addi0tion by transitioning so0iety to a sustainable energy system/

*ob Lopkins &ransition &o%ns

http-..%%%/ted/0om.talks.lang.en.robThopkinsTtransitionTtoTaT%orldT%ithoutToil/html

Problems with Fossil Fuel 'sa!e( )limate )han!e

&he burning fossil fuels releases 0arbon dio3ide into the atmosphere/ Carbon dio3ide 4C! 5 traps the heat from the sun and 0auses global temperatures to rise, kno%n as the Dgreenhouse effe0tE/ &hese rising temperatures affe0t the earthJs e0osystems and biodiversity, the results of %hi0h are ever more present in the media I sea levels rising, droughts, and e3treme %eather/ As %ith resour0e depletion there is a debate to the s0ale and timeframe of the problem/ Mn this 0ase the Fuestions are about a5 the amount of C! in the atmosphere 0urrently and b5 %hat effe0t this is having on our 0limate/ Some argue that the sun is 0ausing the earth to heat up and C! levels are in0reasing as a result/ &he reason for this debate is that 0limate s0ien0e is an e3tremely 0ompli0ated field, and %ith so many 0ontributing fa0tors it is impossible to get e3a0t links bet%een all the parameters to prove e3a0tly %hat is going on/

'ne additional issue is the 0on0ept of positive feedba0k loops I an e3ample of this is the %arming of the atmosphere 0auses Ar0ti0 tundra to melt %hi0h 0ontains methane, releasing further greenhouse gases %hi0h add to the %arming of the atmosphere/ Another is as the Ar0ti0 melts there is less i0e to refle0t the suns heat a%ay from the earth, again adding to the %arming in a positive loop/ &hese problems introdu0e the 0on0ept of a Dpoint of no returnE a level of greenhouse gases %hi0h if %e meet %e %ill have no %ay of avoiding 0atastrophi0 0limate 0hange/

&he follo%ing %eb resour0e about 0limate 0hange e3plains the problems very 0on0isely

http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.; se0tion<topi0s&topi0<ClimateChange&page<slidesho%

Sustainable Ener!y Production * %eduction and Efficiency

Mn order to satisfy the basi0 needs of all of mankind sustainably, a transformation and in0rease of energy servi0es is reFuiredK one Fuarter of the %orldCs population 0urrently uses three Fuarters of available 0ommer0ial energy resour0esK resour0es that are being rapidly depleted and that are fa0ing e3haustion/ &he means of improving this situation begin by in0reasing energy effi0ien0y 4alongside promoting using less energy, or 0onservation5, by diversifying energy sour0es and by moving to the use of rene%able energies/ Reduce

&he first steps to a sustainable energy system solution is essential and involves redu0ing the amount of energy %e 0onsume/ &his is an often overlooked 0on0ept, as it involves 0hanging the 0urrent paradigm of steady e0onomi0 gro%th, %hi0h is generally asso0iated %ith in0reased energy 0onsumption/ &he e0onomi0 fa0tor of 0onstant gro%th %ill be e3plored in a later 0hapter, but in this se0tion it must be highlighted that %ithout fossil fuels, %e %ill not be able to 0ontinue our 0urrent energy 0onsumption, and these patterns of use must 0hange/

.fficiency

Mu0h of the energy %e use in burning fossil fuels is %asted/ Mn any energy transfer there are asso0iated losses, usually in the form of %asted heat going to the atmosphere/ Using the e3ample from earlier a thermal po%er plant is #A/@S effi0ient, transporting it from the po%er station to you houses looses another )S, then on0e it is in your home further energy %ill be lost through ineffi0ient applian0es/ Considering all these losses, and the pre0ious value of the resour0e in the first pla0e, it does seem absurd that the final end use is a light being left on %hen nobody is in the room or an empty room being kept %arm/ Mn transport use, 0ars 0an be made to be more effi0ient therefore using less fuel/ Lo%ever, there is a danger %hen 0onsidering effi0ien0y %ithout first 0onsulting the first ethos of redu0tion/ An in0reased effi0ien0y 0oupled %ith an in0reased usage 0ould have Hero net effe0t of in0reased energy use/

As al%ays, e0onomi0s 0omes into play here/ Mn industrial pro0esses, a large proportion of the 0osts of produ0tion are often energy 0osts/ Every business %ill %ant to ma3imise profits by minimising 0osts, so investment %ill be made to redu0e energy 0osts by making the produ0tion pro0esses as energy effi0ient as possible/ &hese measures are 0ondu0ted for finan0ial rather than sustainable motivations, but as a result many pro0esses are already as effi0ient as possible/

&he follo%ing presentation is about domesti0 energy use and highlights some of the main sour0es of %asted energy in the home-

http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.; se0tion<topi0s&topi0<+omesti0Energy&page<slidesho%

Sustainable Ener!y Systems * %enewable Ener!y

After 0onsidering seriously redu0ing energy usage, and implementing as effi0ient applian0es and te0hnology as possible, %e 0an think about using energy resour0es that are not finite in their resour0e/ Su0h resour0es are kno%n 0olle0tively as D*ene%able *esour0esE and te0hnology that harness these resour0es are 0alled D*ene%able Energy &e0hnologiesE/

Almost all end uses of energy, su0h as lighting, ele0tri0al outfitting, refrigeration, tele0ommuni0ations, %ater pumping and purifi0ation, food pro0essing, grain milling and other energy appli0ations 0an be supplied by te0hnologies that use rene%able sour0es/ 1urthermore, in many 0ases rene%able energy te0hnologies are te0hni0ally and finan0ially fle3ibleK their operating 0osts are also lo%er and, on0e set up, they are not subGe0t to fuel pri0e flu0tuations/ &he e3tensive use of rene%able energy not only enables lo0al produ0tion %ith se0ondary benefits of opportunities for Gob 0reation, but it also provides environmental benefits/

Figure # % 1 A list of the = types of energy %e are a%are of %ith their theoreti0al resour0e in the %orld/

1igure / /= sour0ed from Slideshare/net 4Author- Skeen5 under a Creative Commons Attribution6 #/! li0ense http-..%%%/slideshare/net.skeen.game6plan6v"!6"

:e get most of our energy from the sun I as %ell as being the sour0e for fossil fuels, it also 0reates %ind po%er 4through atmospheri0 heating5, %ave po%er 4via the %ind5, dire0t 4or ne%5 solar energy, hydro po%er 4through the %ater 0y0le5 and biomass energy 4energy from burning plants and trees5

Solar radiation that falls upon the EarthJs land surfa0es, appro3imately !3"!?&:h, is ,!!! times greater than the %orldJs annual primary energy demand, appro3imately >="! million &ons of $etroleum EFuivalent for !! 4"!>,!!!&:h5/ 3ource4 Aguilera et al 0see reference )2

(ravitational energy from the moon 0reates the tides and 0an be harvested as tidal energy

Leat in this sense %as 0reated %hen the earth %as formed, is stored beneath the 0rust of the earth and 0an be harnessed in a form kno%n as geothermal energy

+enefits of Rene&able .nergy

*ene%able energy resour0es 4sun, %ind, %ater flo%, geo6thermals5 are distributed, in various Fuantities, as energy demand is de0entralised so lo%er transmission losses 0an o00ur/

No impli0ations of finite resour0es running out, a 0onstant flo% of energy from the sun provides an on6going sour0e of energy/

*ene%able resour0es are pollution free/ Although the te0hnology itself %ill 0reate %aste and use energy during its 0onstru0tion and maintenan0e phases, there is no burning of fossil fuels during operation so no pollution/

Carbon payba0k is a term referring to the time taken for the 0arbon used in the manufa0ture of the rene%able energy te0hnology to be saved by the 0arbon free energy it produ0es/ &his 0an be a short period of time for rene%able energy te0hnologies/ 1or a %ind turbine for e3ample, the 0arbon payba0k 0an be as short as ? months/

)ra&bac,s to Rene&able .nergy

&he rene%able resour0e is inherently intermittent- the sun does not al%ays shine, the %ind %ill not al%ays blo%, and %ater flo%s are seasonal/ &hese fa0tors need to be taken into a00ount %hen designing rene%able energy systems/

&here is a lo% energy density of rene%able resour0es 0ompared to fossil fuels, for a fully rene%able energy system a 0onsiderable redu0tion in 0onsumption is therefore reFuired/ &here 0an be high initial 0apital 0osts %ith large s0ale rene%able energy su0h as %ind or hydro po%er/ Lo%ever this 0an be offset by the fa0t that there are 0omparably lo%er on6 going 0osts as there isnJt a 0onstant need to pur0hase fuel 4%ith the e30eption of biomass systems5/

Some rene%able te0hnologies su0h as hydro 0an have signifi0ant environmental 0onseFuen0es su0h as flooding of natural habitats destroying e0osystems and displa0ing populations 4 million people %ere displa0ed by the flooding of the 9angtHe in China for a hydro dam5/

8elo% is a table that outlines most of the maGor rene%able energies available and a des0ription of the te0hnologies that implement them/

The )urrent Situation of %enewable Ener!y

Sin0e ">)#, %hi0h 0an be 0onsidered as the starting point of politi0al and finan0ial support for resear0h and development into 0lean energy, rene%able energies have undergone a profound transformation su0h that they are no% a feasible sour0e of energy for many servi0es/ +espite this and a strong annual energy produ0tion in0rease from rene%able resour0es, market penetration remains lo% as it supplies a very small proportion of the global energy demand %hi0h has gro%n in the same period/

Currently, rene%able energies supply appro3imately "#/@S 4",#@ Mega&ons in $etroleum EFuivalent5 of the total energy demanded, in0luding 0ommer0ial and traditional, biomass energy sour0es/ Most of the "#/@S 0orresponds to the traditional use of biomass 4for heating and 0ooking5 and to the produ0tion of ele0tri0ity from large s0ale hydropo%er dams/ Mt is for this reason that the proportion of rene%able energy in a given region is dire0tly related to poverty levelsK in Afri0a, @!S of its energy mi3 is from rene%able sour0es/

&he in0rease in energy 0oming from rene%able sour0es has also gro%n noti0eably in %ealthy 0ountries during the last de0ade/ Lo%everK if rene%able supplies are analysed %ith respe0t to the total global energy suppliedK the per0entage of rene%able energy supplied has in fa0t diminished/

+espite this ho%ever, predi0ted market penetration of rene%ables remains at a moderate level/ &he Mnternational Energy Agen0y 4MEA5 fore0asts, in a best 0ase s0enario, that if further poli0ies to in0rease the levels of rene%able po%er %ere implemented that A/?S of the 0ommer0ial energy market %ould be gained by ! ! 4 S in ">>!5, e30luding hydropo%er/

&he reasons for this 0ontinued, moderately lo% market penetration are many/ +iffusion of ne% te0hnologies reFuires time, espe0ially in the energy se0torK the transition from 0oal to petroleum based po%er generation took many de0ades/

1urthermore, subsidies for fossil fuels, %hether transparent or hidden, slo% the progress of rene%ables to%ards be0oming a 0ompetitive alternative/ Attempts to e3ternalise energy system 0osts 4i/e/ in0luding 0osts asso0iated %ith environmental damage and

repair originating from the use of fossil fuels in the dire0t fuel 0osts5 have also not been put into pra0ti0e/

Above te3t sour0ed from Aguilera et al 4referen0e #5 and reprodu0ed %ith permission from Engineers :ithout 8oarders U,/

Summary
&his 0hapter has sho%n ho% so0iety reFuires energy to survive and ho% this energy use has in0reased e3ponentially over the last 0entury/ &he impli0ations of the maGority of this energy 0oming from fossil fuels has been demonstrated through the effe0ts of resour0e depletion 4%ith a spe0ifi0 fo0us on peak oil5 and 0limate 0hange/

A sustainable energy system has been suggested, %hi0h hinges on redu0ing energy 0onsumption/ &his 0oupled %ith redu0ing %asted energy through in0reased effi0ien0y and implementing on a bigger s0ale the use of rene%able energy te0hnologies %ill be ne0essary to keep the lights on through the ne3t de0ades/

3nline Teaching Material University of Mdaho- *ene%able energy http-..%ebpages/uidaho/edu.sustainability.0hapters.0h!?.0h!?6p"!/asp 'pen University- :hy Sustainable Energy Matters http-..openlearn/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<#>)># T.) Tal,s $lanning for the end of oil http-..%%%/ted/0om.talks.ri0hardTsearsTplanningTforTtheTendTofToil/html :inning the oil end game http-..%%%/ted/0om.talks.amoryTlovinsTonT%inningTtheToilTendgame/html -eb Resources &he 'il +rum- 8logs and information about peak oil %%%/theoildrum/net A visualisation of Europes Energyhttp-..%%%/guardian/0o/uk.environment.intera0tive. !"".de0. #.europe6energy6 intera0tive *ene%able U,- &he voi0e of :ind and Marine energy http-..%%%/b%ea/0om. +oo,s *ene%able Energy *esour0es, 2ohn &%idell and &ony :eir, &aylor and 1ran0is, 7ondon, !!>

*ene%able energy, $o%er for a sustainable 1uture, (odfrey 8oyle, '3ford University $ress, !!=

%eferences
1. Saul (riffith, &he (ame $lan A solution frame%ork for the 0limate 0hallenge/
Mar0h ", !!A, http-..%%%/slideshare/net.skeen.game6plan6v"!6"

2. 8ritish :ind energy Asso0iation, http-..%%%/b%ea/0om.onshore.inde3/html,

A00essed
nd

Mar0h !"

#/ Energy, &e0hnologies for Luman +evelopment and A00ess to 8asi0 Servi0es, Authors- Miguel Vngel Egido Aguilera, OalentWn Oillarroel 'rtega, EstefanWa CaamaXo MartWn, AgustW $YreH61oguet 40oord/5, &ranslation- Nkiru 'nye0hi, Editor- Sa0hi 1indlater

=/ &he open University, An Mntrodu0tion to Energy resour0es http-..openlearn/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<#>>@=@&se0tion<", A00essed @th Mar0h !"

5. US Energy Mnformation Administration,

http-..%%%/eia/doe/gov.oiaf.ieo.%orld/html, A00essed @th Mar0h !"

6. :ikipedia, http-..en/%ikipedia/org.%iki.1ile-LubbertTUSThigh/svg, A00essed @th

Mar0h !"

7. :ikipedia http-..en/%ikipedia/org.%iki.User-,grr.Sandbo3.$eakToil, A00essed >th

Mar0h !"

8. :ikipedia http-..en/%ikipedia/org.%iki.User-,grr.Sandbo3.$eakToil, A00essed Ath

Mar0h !"

9. +avid 2/C/ Ma0kay/ Sustainable energy I %ithout the hot air/ UM& Cambridge,
!!A/ MS8N >)A6!6>@==@ >6#6# Available free online from %%%/%ithouthotair/0om

10. Climate 7ab http-..0limatelab/org.CoalT$o%er A00essed ?th Mar0h !"

Chapter 3: Materials
An integral aspe0t of an engineerCs role is 0onverting energy and ra% materials into te0hnology, goods and servi0es reFuired by so0iety/ 7ook around you and pi0k an obGe0t/ :hat materials %ere needed to make that obGe0t, and %here did they 0ome from; :hat pro0esses did they go through to get to the final produ0t; :hat %ill happen to the produ0t on0e itJs rea0hed the end of its useful life;

Figure $ 1 1 $ro0esses during the life of a magaHine

1igure #/"/" sour0ed from Carbon Model under a Creative Commons Attribution #/! United States 7i0ense http-..0arbonmodel/org.l0a.

&he pie 0hart belo% sho%s the per0entage of global C! emissions by sour0e/ &he first 0hart sho%s that ?=S is from energy usage and the se0ond splits this up fairly evenly bet%een industry, building and transport/ &he last 0hart is the industry se0tion in more detail, sho%ing that steel, 0ement, paper, plasti0 and aluminium are all the biggest 0ontributors to C! emissions %orld%ide/

Figure $ 1 # ?lobal sources of C!

1igure #/"/ sour0ed %ith permission from Sustainable Materials :ith 8oth Eyes 'pen/ &his book is available free to vie% online http-..%ithbotheyesopen/0om.inde3/html

Laving 0overed the sustainability issues surrounding energy, %e %ill no% 0over material produ0tion/ &his %ill start by outlining the four main materials that are used by industry and other parts of so0iety I steel, aluminium, plasti0 and 0ement/ &he main uses for ea0h of these materials %ill be dis0ussed and %e %ill look into ho% they are produ0ed/

&he environmental 0on0erns highlighted by their produ0tion %ill then be looked at, spe0ifi0ally the energy used in the materialsJ manufa0ture, kno%n as Dembodied energyE and the %aste produ0ed on0e they have finished their life/ &he 0hapter %ill 0on0lude %ith steps an engineer 0an take to redu0e the environmental impa0ts of the materials they use, and 0ertain tools they 0an use to a0hieve this/

&his 0hapter is limited in its s0ope by only 0overing the Dbig fourE materials in depth, as the DotherE se0tion is a siHeable =@S/ As %ell as the C! effe0ts of these other materials, there are huge environmental and so0ial problems asso0iated %ith the produ0tion and disposal of materials su0h as 0opper, te3tiles, 0hemi0als, pharma0euti0als, gold, and other pre0ious metals su0h as 0obalt used in mobile phones/ &he mining of su0h pre0ious metals spe0ifi0ally has devastated lands0apes in Afri0a and South Ameri0a, and the undistributed %ealth patterns 0aused from distribution of these pre0ious metals has brought on so0ial unrest and in some 0ase, 0ivil %ar/ &he resour0e depletion of 0ommon metals su0h as 0opper %ill eventually be0ome a problem, as although they are highly re0y0led there is a finite amount of these metal ores left in the earthCs 0rust, %hi0h %ill eventually run out/ &he 0ontinued disposal of all materials into a linear %aste stream %hi0h outputs vast amounts of to3i0 %aste into landfill is beginning to take its toll on lands0ape and natural e0osystems/ &his 0hapter %ill 0over t%o impa0ts of the spe0ified materials in terms of the energy reFuired to get them into use, and the %aste 0reated by their disposal after use/

Mt is essential for an engineer to be a%are of these problems %ith material produ0tion and disposal %hen undertaking a proGe0t, and undertake measure to mitigate these effe0ts/

+aterial 'se Trends

As %orld population and asso0iated 0onsumption have gro%n, the use of natural resour0es to produ0e materials has in0reased e3ponentially/ Steel and 0ement, used primarily for the 0onstru0tion industry are t%o of the most utilised materials in the %orld as demonstrated by the pie 0harts above/ 8oth are an integral ingredient of the 0onstru0tion industry in rapidly e3panding developing 0ountries, and both use a large amount of energy to produ0e them/

Figure $ # 1 :orld produ0tion of steel and 0ement 4millions of tonnes5 sin0e ">#!

1igure #/ /" sour0ed from MM& open0ourse%are under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike #/! United States 7i0ense

http-..dspa0e/mit/edu.bitstream.handle.") "/".#>"#=."6>?=1all6 !!=.N*.rdonlyres.Civil6and6Environmental6 Engineering."6>?=1all6 !!=.)#!=E ""6 A#A6== !6>!C@6>??>E"A@ !#1.!.le0"Tintrodu0tionTGao/pdf

Figure $ # #- $roGe0tions for global steel and 0ement produ0tion

1igure #/ /" sour0ed from MM& open0ourse%are under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike #/! United States 7i0ense http-..dspa0e/mit/edu.bitstream.handle.") "/".#>"#=."6>?=1all6 !!=.N*.rdonlyres.Civil6and6Environmental6 Engineering."6>?=1all6 !!=.)#!=E ""6 A#A6== !6>!C@6>??>E"A@ !#1.!.le0"Tintrodu0tionTGao/pdf

As sho%n by figure #/ / , the produ0tion of steel and 0ement are set to in0rease too, %ith global 0ement produ0tion set to double in about @ years/ &he produ0tion of most materials follo%s a similar gro%th pattern, %ith in0rease in usage set to 0ontinue as resour0es allo%/

Steel
(lobal produ0tion of steel is 0urrently about "!!! million tonnes per year/ Mts high strength in 0ompression and tension, high stiffness, and du0tility make it a versatile and e3tremely useful material for an engineer, %hi0h is %hy steel is an integral part of many produ0ts/

Table $ $ 1 :orld%ide Usage of Steel

&able #/#/" sour0ed %ith permission from Sustainable Materials :ith 8oth Eyes 'pen/ &his book is available free to vie% online http-..%ithbotheyesopen/0om.inde3/html

&he maGority of steel is used as reinfor0ing bar in the 0onstru0tion industry, %hen it is 0oupled %ith 0on0rete to make a su00essful 0ombination to build 0heap, strong and Fui0k buildings and infrastru0ture/ &hese are ideal 0onditions for developers looking to redu0e 0osts and make profit Fui0kly/ &he other uses are varied, from ele0tri0ity pylons to stainless steel spoons/

$rodu0ing steel involves mining iron ore and heating it to a very high temperature 4"!!!oC5/ &he mining reFuires huge amounts of energy, as does the heating of the ore/ All this energy 0ontributes to steelJs Dembodied energyE, a 0on0ept that %ill be e3plored %hen looking at the impa0ts of material produ0tion/ &he important part at this point is to grasp the s0ale of steel use %orld%ide I look outside and see %hat you 0an find that in0orporates steel in the design/ Multiply that by the number of streets, to%ns, 0ities, 0ountries and 0ontinents in the %orld///

&here some are environmental advantages of steel, one being the fa0t that it is highly re0y0led and 0an 0ontinue to be re0y0led indefinitely 4although it loses its Fuality in ea0h 0y0le5/ Mt is also durable if prote0ted from 0orrosion, and 0an be salvaged for reuse, in some 0ases by up to >@S/

)ement
Cement is 0overed ne3t be0ause together %ith steel it drives nearly half of all global C' emissions/ Most of the demand is in rapidly developing 0ountries su0h as Mndia and China/ As mentioned earlier 0ement suits a rapidly e3panding population, as buildings 0an be put up 0heaply and Fui0kly and suit a versatile spread of building designs %hen 0ement is in0orporated/ Mt must be noted ho%ever that the Fuality and lifetime of buildings put up in this %ay are severely limited/

Cement is produ0ed %hen limestone is heated to "!!!oC %hi0h leaves lime/ 7ime mi3ed %ith %ater and sand harden %hen e3posed to the atmosphere/ &his is 0ement, a versatile and very effe0tive building material that 0an be used for a variety of purposes/

:hen 0ement is mi3ed %ith stones or blo0ks 40alled aggregate5 and poured into a mould itJs 0alled 0on0rete/ Con0rete has a lo%er embodied energy than 0ement as )@ I A!S is 0rushed aggregate 4%hi0h does also have an embodied energy due to the energy used %hen mining it5/

With its versatilit and low cost of materials, construction, and maintenance, concrete has emerged as the material of choice for new construction in the *@th and *!st centuries. With over !@ billion tons of concrete being -roduced annuall , the concrete industr is the largest consumer of natural resources and one of the biggest contributors to greenhouse gas emissions worldwide.

(3ource4 Aauren 7idori Buntz The green of The cement %ndustr 0see reference 52+ Cement and steel go %ell together be0ause 0on0rete is %eak in tension but steel has 0ompression and tension strength/ &hey bond %ell together, and the 0on0rete prote0ts the steel from 0orrosion/ *einfor0ing bars for use %ith 0on0rete are the biggest appli0ation of steel %orld%ide/

Con0rete is big emitter of C' , be0ause the rea0tion of turning limestone to lime itself gives off C' 4@!S of emissions5/ &he energy reFuired for this rea0tion involves the burning of fossil fuels %hi0h gives off more emissions 4=!S5/ &he final "!S is from the energy used in grinding and transportation/

:hen %alking around any urban 0entre it is impossible to go very far %ithout seeing a building that has used 0on0rete in its 0onstru0tion/ Mndeed any 0ivil engineer %ill find it very diffi0ult to be involved in any infrastru0ture or 0onstru0tion proGe0ts that donJt use 0on0rete/

A problem %ith 0ement, apart from the C' emissions is its lo% re0y0lability/ At the end of its life it 0annot be melted do%n to form ne% 0on0rete/ Lo%ever, it 0an be broken up and used as aggregate for more 0on0rete, but this often not the 0ase/ Con0rete is also a very haHardous material to %ork %ith, and 0an 0ause burns to human skin/

Aluminium
Similar to steel, aluminium is a metal that has a multitude of uses/ &he differen0e is that aluminium is mu0h less dense than steel, so is useful in appli0ations %hen %eight is an issue/ 1or this reason it is popular in the aviation and automobile industry/ &hese and other 0ommon uses of aluminium are listed belo%-

1igure #/#/" sour0ed %ith permission from Sustainable Materials :ith 8oth Eyes 'pen/ &his book is available free to vie% online http-..%ithbotheyesopen/0om.inde3/html

Again the biggest use is in the 0onstru0tion industry, but unlike steel %hi0h is mi3ed %ith 0on0rete for foundations and infrastru0ture, aluminium is used for 0ladding %indo%s, doors and roofing/

AluminiumJs lo%er density and versatility 0omes at a 0ostK the manufa0turing pro0ess to produ0e it reFuires in0reased energy I an order of magnitude higher than steel/

1or this reason it may seem unintuitive for pa0kaging and other Duse6on0eE appli0ations to be made from aluminium %hi0h reFuires so mu0h energy to be manufa0tured but enters the %aste stream immediately in this form/ Lo%ever the 0ost benefits of aluminiumJs versatility and lo% density out%eigh the energy 0osts of produ0ing it and the environmental 0osts %hen it be0omes a %aste/

Plastic
&here is a huge variety of plasti0 types and properties, %hi0h leads to an asso0iated large variety of end uses for plasti0/ Again, unless you are reading this in an open field 4and even then5 you %ill likely be in the vi0inity of a plasti0 item that started its life as a hydro0arbon/

&he first plasti0s %ere made from natural fibres su0h as tar or tree sap, but after the first %orld %ar as oil be0ome %idely available %orld%ide, the produ0tion of ethylene from this oil be0ame the base of plasti0s/ &he fa0t that plasti0s 0ome from oil is signifi0ant %hen 0onsidering the issues of peak oil as des0ribed in the previous 0hapter/ Mt is also interesting to 0onsider that if su0h long lasting and effe0tive produ0ts 0ould be made from oil, %hy are %e simply burning it in vehi0les for transportation;

$lasti0 has a variety of benefi0ial properties su0h as- ele0tri0al and thermal resistan0e, 0orrosion resistan0e, resistan0e to humidity, glossy shiny finish and 0hemi0al resistan0e/ Lo%ever the main benefi0ial property is that of being able to be inGe0tion moulded into intri0ate and detailed shapes, unlike steel %hi0h must be pressed/ &his makes it in0redibly versatile and fundamentally, at 0urrent energy and oil pri0es, e3tremely 0heap to manufa0ture/

&his versatility and lo% pri0e has meant that plasti0 is primarily used for one off uses, su0h as pa0kaging for produ0ts/ 'ther longer term uses 0an be found in the 0onstru0tion industry 4in pipes, ele0tri0al fittings and fi3tures5 and the automobile industry/

&he use of plasti0 has e3ploded over the last 0entury, itJs produ0tion doubles every "@ years and C' emissions from plasti0 are set to double from !!@ to !@!/ As a result plasti0 %aste has be0ome an immense issue to deal %ith, espe0ially in developing 0ountries %here the plasti0 industry and trade of plasti0 goods has in0reased at a mu0h faster rate than the %aste management s0hemes for this type of material/

*e0y0ling of plasti0 is possible, but only on0e it is separated from other forms of %aste and 0leaned, and then separated into the different forms.types of plasti0/ +ue to the nature of plasti0 being in large Fuantities of small units in pa0kaging it often enters the %aste stream dirty and mi3ed %ith other %aste/ $lasti0 takes hundreds of years to

biodegrade, and this fa0t is be0oming evident %ith large 0olle0tions of plasti0s building up in the seas and 0ountrysideCs of the %orld/

&he full issues of %aste %ill be 0onsidered in the ne3t se0tion, but again the important point is that an engineer, %hen 0onsidering materials for a design must understand the impli0ations of the use of materials su0h as plasti0/

Laving 0onsidered the main four materials used by so0iety %e %ill no% e3amine the problems 0aused by their manufa0ture and disposal/

Problems with +aterial 'se * Embodied Ener!y

&he produ0tion of all of the materials mentioned above %ill involve pro0esses that use energy/ As highlighted in the previous 0hapter, this energy %ill in most 0ases 0omes from the burning of fossil fuels %hi0h have their asso0iated environmental impa0ts/ &he term %hi0h refers to all the energy reFuired to e3tra0t and pro0ess the ra% materials, manufa0ture the produ0t and transport it bet%een ea0h stage of produ0tion is kno%n as the Embodied Energ .

E3amples of materials and their level of embodied energy are-

#igh4 Concrete, metals, as-halt, glass and -etroleum based thermo-lastics

Aow4 wood, fibres, re-used, re-c cled, b --roducts of other -rocesses

Table $ 4 1 Embodied Energy of Oarious Constru0tion Materials-

&able #/)/" sour0ed from MM& open0ourse%are under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike #/! United States 7i0ense http-..dspa0e/mit/edu.bitstream.handle.") "/".#>"#=."6>?=1all6 !!=.N*.rdonlyres.Civil6and6Environmental6 Engineering."6>?=1all6 !!=.)#!=E ""6 A#A6== !6>!C@6>??>E"A@ !#1.!.le0"Tintrodu0tionTGao/pdf

Materials %ith the lo%est embodied energy intensities, su0h as 0on0rete, bri0ks and timber, are usually 0onsumed in large Fuantities/ Materials %ith high energy 0ontent su0h as stainless steel are often used in mu0h smaller amounts/

Another %ay of looking at embodied energy is 0onsidering the eFuivalent 0arbon dio3ide released in the burning of fossil fuels to 0reate the materials/ &he 0hart belo% sho%s this for various materials/ Note the 0hange in embodied energy units from (2.m# to (2 per tonne/

Table $ 4 # Embodied energy and C'

&able #/)/ sour0ed from MM& open0ourse%are under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike #/! United States 7i0ense http-..dspa0e/mit/edu.bitstream.handle.") "/".#>"#=."6>?=1all6 !!=.N*.rdonlyres.Civil6and6Environmental6 Engineering."6>?=1all6 !!=.)#!=E ""6 A#A6== !6>!C@6>??>E"A@ !#1.!.le0"Tintrodu0tionTGao/pdf

Problems with +aterial Production( Waste

&he energy used to produ0e the materials for engineering proGe0ts is only half the problem/ :e must also 0onsider %hat happens to the produ0ts after their Din6useE life is over/ Some materials 0an be reused or re0y0led to go ba0k to the Din6useE streamK ho%ever a large maGority %ill end up as %aste, and %ill need to be disposed of/

.5ample6 Computers in the *SA

#! million 0omputers are thro%n a%ay ea0h year in US 4Z"=S are re0y0led no%5/ Leavy metals present in the 0omputers pollute %ater/ 'ther materials %ill pollute the environment, and the spa0e they take up put pressure on land usage/ &a0kling %aste flo%s 0an redu0e environmental impa0t and save money/

&he ele0troni0s and automobile industry are beginning to design for the end of life &he follo%ing passage states some fa0ts about %aste in the U,-

The DB -roduces around ))1 million tonnes of waste -er ear. Ef this, )@ million tonnes is household waste and the ma'orit (nearl :@ -er cent+ is not rec cled. %n landfill, biodegradable waste, such as food and garden waste, -roduces methane (C#5+, a -owerful greenhouse gas. There are more than !1@@ landfill sites in the DB and, in *@@!F the -roduced *1 -er cent of the DB9s methane emissions. 7ethane is a more -owerful greenhouse gas than carbon dio,ide. Along with the unnecessar carbon emissions associated with creating waste in the first -lace, this means that household waste contributes to climate change. =ec cling more, -reventing waste food and com-osting at home all hel- to reduce this im-act.

Above te3t sour0ed from &he 'pen University under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike /! 7i0en0e http-..labspa0e/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<= ?@?=&se0tion<"/ /

Note that only #! out of a total of ##@ million tonnes of %aste per year are from the domesti0 setting/ &he rest %ill be industrial %aste, %here an engineer %ill be in a position to influen0e/

&he follo%ing talk gives a good des0ription of the harms of plasti0 pollution/ http-..%%%/ted/0om.talks.diannaT0ohenTtoughTtruthsTaboutTplasti0Tpollution/html

'ften engineers are only 0on0erned %ith getting a produ0t to the market, and %hat happens to the produ0t after it finishes its life is left to %aste management systems and 0ompanies/ :ith more thought put in during the design phase, produ0ts 0an be manufa0tured for ease of dismantle, re6use or more effe0tive re0y0ling at the end of their life/

Problems With +aterial 'se( %esource Shorta!es

&he 0on0epts of e3ponential gro%th applied to fossil fuel depletion are appli0able to all resour0es reFuired for material produ0tion/ Mron ore for steel, hydro0arbons 4oil5 for plasti0, lime for 0on0rete and alumina for aluminium are all finite resour0es %hi0h at some point %ill deplete/

As more ra% materials are mined, the ore be0omes less easy to obtain so more energy is reFuired to mine it/ Mn fossil fuel terms this is referred to as Energy *eturn on Energy Mnvested and the same 0on0ept 0an be applied to obtaining natural resour0es 0ases the energy return is be0oming very small for the energy invested/ Mn some

&he fa0t that the %orld %ill run out of materials is obvious, ho%ever this is a long %ay off/ :hatJs more pressing is the disappearan0e of good sites of e3tra0tion, 0ausing more energy and money needed to be invested to e3ploit less 0onvenient sites/ &his %ill in turn drive up the pri0es and 0reate 0onfli0t due to the uneven geographi0al distribution of the resour0es/

&esi!n for Sustainable +aterial 'se

:e have dis0ussed sustainability issues surrounding the maGor materials used for engineering, ho% they are used and ho% mu0h of them %e are 0urrently 0onsuming/ Also highlighted %ere some of the environmental problems %ith the 0urrent produ0tion of the materials %e use for engineering proGe0ts/ At 0urrent 0onsumption rates, it is obvious that at some point %e %ill eventually run out of the natural resour0es %e reFuire for produ0ing materials, the pollution 0aused by their manufa0ture and disposal %ill rea0h a 0riti0al level, and %aste levels of used produ0ts %ill rea0h an unsupportable high/

&he rest of the 0hapter %ill suggest 0on0epts for sustainable material use/ An engineer %hen %orking on any proGe0t that reFuires or uses materials should have these impli0ations of material use in mind, and have these tools for sustainable material use ready to be implemented if at all possible/

&he follo%ing hierar0hy for dealing %ith %aste 0an be applied to material sele0tion and usage-

The &aste hierarchy

&he %aste hierar0hy is a management system for %aste, %hi0h has three key obGe0tives %hi0h are embodied in the hierar0hy/ &hese are minimising %aste produ0ed, making best use of %aste that is produ0ed and minimising any immediate or future risk of pollution from %aste management pra0ti0es/ :e 0ould vie% the hierar0hy as five levels-

*edu0e %aste I donCt 0reate %aste in the first pla0e/ *euse B%asteC I use produ0ts for a purpose more than one time/ *e0y0le %aste I repro0ess %aste materials to be used for ne% produ0ts/ *e0over %aste I in0inerate %aste and re0over energy for heat and po%er generation/ +ispose of %aste I pla0e %aste in landfill %hi0h is not suitable for re0overy, re0y0ling or reuse/

Above te3t sour0ed from &he 'pen University under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike /! 7i0en0e http-..openlearn/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<=!"@)A&se0tion<"

&he hierar0hy demonstrates measures to redu0e the effe0ts of material usage, and the order of the measures is key/ Although the above figure is aimed primarily at household %aste, the same prin0ipals 0an be applied to industrial %aste, and the engineering design pro0ess 0on0erning material use/

%educe )onsumption
1romm states that %e have 0hanged from a so0iety of DbeingE to a so0iety of DhavingE Psee reference )Q/ &his endless 0onsumption is fuelled by 0ompanies providing the produ0ts, %ith ubiFuitous advertising and selling te0hniFues/ &he result of this is that mu0h of produ0tion is 0onsumer driven, and any maGor redu0tion in 0onsumption %ill have to 0ome from a systemi0 0hange in a 0onsumer driven lifestyle/

Unfortunately this looks unlikely to 0hange, and apart from 0hanging their personal 0onsumption patterns, not an area that an engineer 0an make a big 0hange in/ &his se0tion %ill therefore look at %ays an engineer 0an make an impa0t I in the design and manufa0ture side of a produ0t/

&his is split into three parts I

in0orporating design ideas that use less material from the start by optimising 0omponents/ by e3tending the life of a produ0t %hi0h %ill redu0e the amount produ0ed over time/ the idea of in0reasing the effi0ien0y of the manufa0turing pro0ess 4and %hy this %onJt ne0essarily lead to su00essful results5/

*se less by design

A design spe0ifi0ation for a produ0t %ill in0lude its purpose, siHe, shape and geometry/ Also in0luded %ill be material properties6 strength, stiffness, lifetime as %ell as material available, and mainly, 0ost/ Mt is usual that the fa0tors of most importan0e %ill be suitability for the Gob and 0ost, %ith environmental fa0tors lo% do%n the list/

Mt 0an be possible to optimise geometries of a 0omponent %hile still maintaining its strength and stiffness, thereby redu0ing the material 0ontent/ An e3ample of this is the DME se0tion steel beam often found in buildings/ &he 0ross se0tion uses mu0h less steel than a solid bar, but be0ause of its shape it has the same strength properties as a full bar/ &he design 0ould be optimised further by finding out %here the prin0ipal loads %ill be, and making the bar thi0ker in these pla0es, and thinner every%here else/

Lo%ever, to do this the stru0tural engineer %ill have to order the bar spe0ially made, and the supplier %ill no doubt 0harge a premium for this servi0e/ &he reason for this is that is it usually easier 4and therefore 0heaper5 to manufa0ture standardised 0omponents than bespoke designs/

Another e3ample of designing for less material use 0an be found in 0on0rete- 0urrently re0tangles and linear designs are used for ease and 0ost, but %asteful on 0on0rete/ Mould optimisation 0ould save a huge amount of 0on0rete, and therefore energy/

+uring manufa0turing, metal goes through pro0esses of trimming, 0utting and ma0hining to get to the final produ0t/ Metal lost in this %ay is kno%n as Dyield lossE/ @S of steel and nearly half of aluminium never makes it into a 0omponent, but is re0y0led into fresh sheets/ &here is a huge amount of %asted energy in this pro0ess/ Component designers donJt al%ays 0onsider these manufa0turing pro0esses %hen designing a produ0t/ Mf they did, they 0ould make parts tessellate, %hi0h %ould save %astage in manufa0ture/

&he barriers to these tools of sustainable material use %ill soon be0ome familiarK it is possible if the engineer %ere to design for it from the beginning but not 0urrently implemented due to 0ost 0onsiderations and la0k of in0entives/

Ma,e longer life products

'ne %ay of redu0ing 0onsumption is to 0reate produ0ts %ith a longer life/ Mn developed 0ountries most of the demand for steel and aluminium is to repla0e end of life produ0ts, as opposed to building ne% ones for gro%th/ Mf produ0ts %ere designed to last longer, less material %ould be used in 0reating ne% produ0ts/ Lo%ever, it is not al%ays the 0ase that longer life produ0ts redu0e the overall energy used/ :hen 0onsidering produ0ts that use energy 4su0h as a 0ar5, %e must 0al0ulate energy savings from produ0ing a more effi0ient design and %eight that up %ith the embodied energy of manufa0turing a ne% produ0t/

:hen looking at the e0onomi0 0ase for making longer life produ0ts, it %ill almost al%ays be more e3pensive to make something more durable/ Manufa0turers %ill be looking for a Fui0k payba0k so the 0heaper, shorter term option %ill be more likely to be 0onsidered/ &his is taken to the e3treme in some 0ases, %here 0ompanies %ill in0orporate into the design a fault or fla% that %ill make the produ0t unusable after a set amount of time/ Mn

other %ords the produ0t is designed to fail after a set time limit for0ing the 0onsumer to thro% it a%ay and pur0hase another one, thereby in0reasing sales and profit margins/ &his is kno%n as Dmanufa0ture for obsoles0en0eE and is 0ommon in mobile phone manufa0ture/

Con0epts to make longer life produ0ts in0lude-

durability I in0orporating maintenan0e and restoration upgrading I in0luding modular and adaptable design 0as0ading I find ne% uses for the produ0t in its 0urrent 0ondition design for reuse and re0y0ling %hen finished

Above te3t sour0ed %ith permission from Sustainable Materials :ith 8oth Eyes 'pen/ &his book is available free to vie% online http-..%ithbotheyesopen/0om.inde3/html

Figure # 11 $ Energy and C! Consumption of (lobal Steel $rodu0tion Sin0e ">)@

Mmage sour0ed from MM& open0ourse%are under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6ShareAlike #/! United States 7i0ense http-..dspa0e/mit/edu.bitstream.handle.") "/".#>"#=."6>?=1all6 !!=.N*.rdonlyres.Civil6and6Environmental6 Engineering."6>?=1all6 !!=.C#"8==AA6@@CE6=?"E68"A161C8ECAA=A@EA.!.le0 T0onstru0tion/pdf

&he graph above sho%s ho% the energy 0onsumption per tonne of steel in the EU has de0reased by almost half in the last @ years/ &he reason for this is that the main 0ost of steel produ0tion is energyK energy is reFuired to e3tra0t ore by mining pro0esses, and large amounts of energy is needed to 0onvert the ore into a liFuid ready for pouring or 0asting/

Steel manufa0turers %ant to ma3imise profits and %ill a0hieve this by lo%ering 0osts/ Mnvestment is put into ne% te0hnology that in0reases effi0ien0y and therefore saves money/ &he energy 0onsumption per tonne has de0reased, but the number of tonnes produ0ed has in0reased, resulting in a net in0rease of energy use and asso0iated 0arbon emissions/ &he graph sho%s that produ0tion effi0ien0y is already very high due to 0ost 0onsiderations, so very little energy redu0tions 0an be made from a sustainability point of vie%/

&he same 0on0epts are true for plasti0, in that the manufa0turing pro0esses are already effi0ient/ &he MEA estimates it 0ould be made "@S more effi0ient/

%e,use +aterials at End of #ife

Normally design engineers only 0onsider the life of their produ0t up to its use/ Some %ill 0onsider maintenan0e and servi0ing during its life, but most assume their responsibility %ill stop on0e the produ0t has finished its useful life time/ &o redu0e %aste and the energy reFuired in building a ne% produ0t, it is possible to design 0ertain 0omponents of a ma0hine so they 0an be used for another purpose, or in fa0t the %hole produ0t 0an be reused/

E3amples of this in0lude-

"/ Shipping 0ontainers re6used as lo0k6ups for storage / Car dismantle 0ompanies breaking up old 0ars to re6use 0omponents #/ Ship breaking in Mndia I panels are o3ya0etylene tor0hed into segments and re6 rolled into sheets

Mn the 0ase of 0on0rete, if moulds %ere standardised 4like 7ego bri0ks5, then on0e the stru0ture %as de60onstru0ted, the individual bri0k 0ould be re6used for other appli0ations/ &he energy to transport the old pie0e of 0on0rete %ould be mu0h less than that to make ne% 0on0rete from s0rat0h/

1or plasti0, ne% plasti0 produ0ts are 0heap, so there is often little motivation for reusing plasti0 at end of life, so it is Gust thro%n a%ay/ Lo%ever, industrial pa0kaging is a big 0ontributor of %aste and emissions in the plasti0s gameK there is s0ope here for large savings by designing pa0kaging that 0an be re6used/ Again there is little finan0ial in0entive for 0ompanies to do this so itJs unlikely this %ill happen/ Unfortunately plasti0 is often used in lo% value appli0ations be0ause it is 0heap and versatile/ &his means there are fe% options for re6use or life e3tension/

'ne %ay of saving energy and %aste 0an be to divert manufa0turing s0rap before it is sent to be melted do%n for re0y0ling/ Manufa0turing s0rap 0an 0ome from yield losses as des0ribed above, over ordering, or defe0ts/ An e3ample of this 0an be found in the sheet metal business/ D8lanking skeletonsE are the sheets left over that have had shapes 0ut out of them/ Normally they are 0ut up and sent for re0y0ling, but some 0ompanies take the blanking sheets and 0ut smaller shapes out of %hatJs left I redu0ing the energy used

in re0y0ling and produ0ing 0omponents out of %hat %ould have been thro%n a%ay/ Another e3ample is e3truding aluminium s%arf into ne% sheets of aluminium for reuse/ Mn the aerospa0e industry, %here redu0ing 0omponent %eight is essential, >!S of the aluminium is 0ut a%ay from a big blo0k and ends up as s%arf/ Lo%ever, these t%o e3amples are the e30eption rather than the norm/ Currently most manufa0turing s0rap is sent straight for re0y0ling due to la0k of a%areness, the 0urrent design of the %aste handling systems and alloy mi3ing in %aste streams %hi0h tend to inhibit efforts to divert manufa0turing s0rap from re0y0ling/

+esign features to in0rease re6use of 0omponents at the end of their lives in0lude-

)esign to be adaptable standardised part spa0ing and 0onne0tions spe0ialised parts only at e3terior lo0ations 4easy to remove5 Anti0ipate possible future needs and design for upgrades

)esign for easy repair and deconstruction avoid mi3ed materials and 0oatings enable easy and Fui0k part repla0ement or separation develop de0onstru0tion plan

%ecyclin! and %ecovery of Waste

*e0y0ling 0onsumes less energy, and therefore produ0es less C' , than e3tra0ting and pro0essing ra% materials/ Mn !!A, the amount re0y0led in the U, saved the same amount of C' 4"A million tonnes5 as taking five million 0ars off the road, even %ith only #" per 0ent of household %aste being re0y0led or 0omposted/ *e0y0ling also redu0es the need for e3tra0ting 4mining, Fuarrying and logging5, refining and pro0essing ra% materials, all of %hi0h 0ause substantial air and %ater pollution/
Above te3t sour0ed from &he 'pen University under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike /! 7i0en0e http-..labspa0e/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<= ?@?=&se0tion<"/ /

Recycling of Metals

Mn the U,, 0onsumers dis0ard A=S of all 0ans, %hi0h means the overall rate of aluminium %aste, after 0ounting for produ0tion losses is AAS/ As the 0ost of energy rises, so does the 0ost of produ0tion of metals/ As a result the value of s0rap metal in0reases/ &his has led to an in0rease in metal being sold for s0rap, and in U, spe0ifi0ally, an in0rease in theft of metals for s0rap, su0h as lead being stolen from 0hur0h roofs or 0opper 0ables being stolen from the side of rail%ays/ &he energy 0ost of re0y0ling metal is mu0h less than produ0ing it from ore, and it is easier to separate ferrous metal from the %aste stream as magnets 0an be used/

Recycling of 2lastic

$lasti0 has a high re0y0lability, ho%ever different types of plasti0 0annot be mi3ed and additives and fillers added during the manufa0turing pro0ess tend to degrade the plasti0s/ As a result, plasti0 is easy to re0y0le in the fa0tory, but on0e in the %aste stream very diffi0ult to separate/

&he follo%ing is a talk about su00essful re0y0ling of plasti0 in the USA

http-..%%%/ted/0om.talks.mikeTbiddle/html

&here are = levels of plasti0 re0y0ling-

<rimar I dire0tly re6e3truded, possible only %here a pure %aste stream e3ists in the fa0tory

3econdar I A me0hani0al pro0ess %here %aste plasti0 is ground into small 0hips or po%der, %ashed and dried and 0onverted to resin for re6use/ Contaminants redu0e the Fuality of re0y0led plasti0

Tertiar I Mnvolves pyrolysis 4burning %ithout o3ygen5/ &his 0hemi0ally breaks do%n plasti0 into feedsto0k/ &e0hni0ally feasible but energy and finan0ial 0ost is high

Guaternar I $lasti0 is burnt for heat as energy re0overy/ Mf this pro0ess is 0ompleted effi0iently a very small amount of volatile organi0 0ompounds %ill be released/ &his 0ould be 0onsidered a better step than land fill, as at least energy is re0overed from the pro0ess/

Above te3t sour0ed %ith permission from Sustainable Materials :ith 8oth Eyes 'pen/ &his book is available free to vie% online http-..%ithbotheyesopen/0om.inde3/html

Many 0ities have in0inerators, %hi0h burn %aste and re0overy the heat gained from the pro0ess for distri0t heating systems and ele0tri0ity produ0tion/ &his is sometimes 0onsidered a sour0e of rene%able energy, but it is a Fuestionable term as generally the %aste produ0ts %ere not manufa0tured %ith rene%able resour0es/ &he effi0ien0y of the burn pro0ess is paramount, as the emissions from an in0inerator 0an be to3i0/ As resour0es be0ome s0ar0e and energy 0osts and therefore manufa0turing 0osts be0ome high, the 0ost benefits of re0y0ling %ill in0rease and more re0y0ling %ill o00ur/ Currently though, re0y0ling rates are Fuite lo% 0ompared to the amount of %aste produ0ed/

Engineers 0an mitigate against these issues by designing produ0ts %ith a higher re0y0lability/ &his 0an be done by avoiding mi3ing different materials %here possible, as they %ill have to be separated before re0y0ling/ Mn the 0ase of plasti0s, redu0ing the s0ale and variety of plasti0s on the market %ould in0rease re0y0ling rate too/

Sustainable +aterials
Mn some 0ases, materials 0an be repla0ed by sustainable substitutes/ 1a0tors affe0ting a material 0hoi0e are usually material properties, suitability for the Gob, availability and 0ost/ Mn 0hoosing sustainable material substitutes it may be that you have to 0ompromise %ith one of the parameters for sele0tion I su0h as strength, life of the materials, or 0ost/ 8elo% is an outline of materials and suggestions for alternatives/

Masonry 0an be used in pla0e of 0on0reteK it 0an be as strong and it releases lo%er emissions during its manufa0ture/ Lo%ever, must be still be bonded %ith 0ement, and it 0annot be moulded or reinfor0ed/ &he 0on0rete industry is a%are of the environmental effe0ts of its a0tions, and in re0ent years that has been a move to redu0e the emissions and other detrimental effe0ts of 0on0rete/

Steel 0an sometimes be used as a substitute for 0on0rete 0olumns, beams, foundation piles/ Although steel 0an be re0y0led, and you 0an do the same Gob %ith mu0h less steel than 0on0rete, it is more e3pensive and produ0es more emissions per unit mass or unit stiffness than 0on0rete/

&imber 0an be used as a repla0ement for steel and 0on0rete, it has a higher strength and stiffness per unit of embodied energy, but it is not nearly as durable/ Also, it must be prote0ted from fine rot/ &imber %ill be looked into as a potential material for buildings in the ne3t 0hapter/

Figure # 1! 1 Stiffness of various materials and embodied energy per stiffness

1igure /"=/" sour0ed from MM& open0ourse%are under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike #/! United States 7i0ense http-..dspa0e/mit/edu.bitstream.handle.") "/".#>"#=."6>?=1all6 !!=.N*.rdonlyres.Civil6and6Environmental6 Engineering."6>?=1all6 !!=.C#"8==AA6@@CE6=?"E68"A161C8ECAA=A@EA.!.le0 T0onstru0tion/pdf

As sho%n in 1igure /" /" above figure, for a relatively similar stiffness there is a greatly redu0ed embodied energy for %ood and bri0k 0ompared to 0on0rete, steel and aluminium/ Note ho%ever that the stiffness is measured in 0ompression only, and in many appli0ation 0ompression and tension are reFuired/

8io6ethylene from sugar 0an be used as substitute for 0rude oil/ Ethylene is less energy intensive, and has the advantage of being biodegradable/ &his 0onserved oil supplies and %ill offer less of a problem %ith %aste issues/ Lo%ever, land is reFuired to gro% sugar 0ane and there are so0ial and environmental problems %ith taking land a%ay from gro%ing food to gro%ing plasti0s for 0onsumer goods/

Mt has been demonstrated that materials %ith a lo%er environmental impa0t 0an repla0e traditional materials, and should be 0onsidered in the design pro0ess by engineers/ Lo%ever, issues su0h as 0ost and lifetime of materials %ill be important fa0tors in the de0ision making pro0ess/

Sustainable +aterials )oncepts for En!ineers

Aife C cle Anal sis (ACA+

7CA is the pro0ess of evaluating the effe0ts that a produ0t has on the environment over the entire period of itCs life 0y0le6 it 0overs all pro0esses reFuired- e3tra0tion, pro0essing, manufa0ture, distribution, use, reuse, maintenan0e, and disposal/ Mt 0ould be 0alled a DCradle to (raveE approa0h/

7CA 0an be a useful tool to 0onsider the environmental impa0ts of engineering proGe0ts/ MtJs key features are that it is produ0t orientated, as most industrial a0tivity evolves around produ0ts/ Mt is also holisti0 and integrative in that it integrates all the problems to avoid problem shifting/ Mt is a Fuantitative tool based on s0ientifi0 data and provides useful information for de0ision making %ith environmental 0onseFuen0es/

Mmage sour0ed from MM& open0ourse%are under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6ShareAlike #/! United States 7i0ense http-..dspa0e/mit/edu.bitstream.handle.") "/".#>"#=."6>?=1all6 !!=.N*.rdonlyres.Civil6and6Environmental6 Engineering."6>?=1all6 !!=.C#"8==AA6@@CE6=?"E68"A161C8ECAA=A@EA.!.le0 T0onstru0tion/pdf

Industrial Ecology

Mndustrial e0ology is the means by %hi0h humanity 0an deliberately and rationally approa0h and maintain a desirable 0arrying 0apa0ity, given 0ontinued e0onomi0, 0ultural, and te0hnologi0al evolution/ &he 0on0ept reFuires that an industrial system be vie%ed not in isolation from its surrounding systems, but in 0on0ert %ith them/ Mt is a systems vie% in %hi0h one seeks to optimiHe the total materials 0y0le from virgin material, to finished material, to 0omponent, to produ0t, to obsolete produ0t, and to ultimate disposal/ 1a0tors to be optimiHed in0lude resour0es, energy, and 0apital/

Mmage sour0ed from MM& open0ourse%are under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6ShareAlike #/! United States 7i0ense http-..dspa0e/mit/edu.bitstream.handle.") "/".#>"#=."6>?=1all6 !!=.N*.rdonlyres.Civil6and6Environmental6 Engineering."6>?=1all6 !!=.C#"8==AA6@@CE6=?"E68"A161C8ECAA=A@EA.!.le0 T0onstru0tion/pdf

&he above 0on0epts have all 0ome about from the inherent problems asso0iated %ith material use and disposal in industrial systems/ &hey are all different %ays of providing and alternative to the 0urrent system of design a produ0t, sell it, thro% it a%ay/ &hese ideas are not relatively ne% in the engineering %orld, but are still not %idely implemented/

Summary
:e have seen in this 0hapter that materials are used for everything %e do, that use of materials has in0reased steadily over time and the trends are set to 0ontinue to in0rease/ &he impa0t of this material use is in the embodied energy of the materials, the %aste 0reated by them and the depleting resour0es seen as a result/

Mt has been sho%n that engineers 0an redu0e the unsustainable nature of material produ0tion by having a holisti0 vie% of materials from the outset, and in0orporating sustainability into produ0e design/ &his 0an be done by redu0ing 0onsumption through longer life design, design for re6use at the end of life, and design for re0y0lability/ :e have also 0onsidered designing to in0orporate sustainable materials as substitutes to traditional materials/

Mt is 0lear that more needs to be done in the field of sustainable materials, redu0ing the energy in manufa0ture, redu0ing the amount of materials used and resear0h into natural substitutes/ As demonstrated in most 0ases, the leading impetus is the business 0ase, and usually the 0heapest option %ill be the driving for0e/ Mn the same %ay, it is the s0ale of 0onsumption driving by thirst for profit through 0ontinuous sales that is the 0ause of the impa0t of material use, and 0onsumers only pay for the end produ0t I they donJt take a00ount for any De3ternalitiesE su0h as so0ial or environmental harm/ Mt is this deeper issue that needs to be addressed in so0iety to implement a more sustainable traGe0tory/

Further %eadin!
3nline Teaching Resources

MM& 'pen0ourse%are- +esign for Sustainability http-..dspa0e/mit/edu.bitstream.handle.") "/".#>"#=."6>?=1all6 !!=.'0%:eb.Civil6 and6Environmental6Engineering."6>?=1all6 !!=.CourseLome.inde3/htm;seFuen0e<"

Urban and *ural :aste in China 'pen 7earn http-..openlearn/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<=!"@)A&se0tion<"

1ilm- &he Story of Stuff http-..%%%/storyofstuff/org. !"".! ."=.story6of6stuff6 .

University of Mdaho- *edu0e *euse *e0y0le http-..%ebpages/uidaho/edu.sustainability.0hapters.0h!#.0h!#6p!#/asp

-ebsites

+esign for sustainability http-..%%%/design6=6sustainability/0om.materials

Sustainable Materials http-..sustainablematerials/0om.

+oo,s

Sustainable Materials :ith 8oth Eyes 'pen, 2ulian M All%ood 2onathan M Cullennhttp-..%ithbotheyesopen/0om.read/php;0<

%eferences
"/ http-..0arbonmodel/org.l0a. a00essed Ath february

/ All%ood 2/M/, Cullen 2/M/, Carruth M/A/, Cooper +/*/, M08rien M/, Milford */7/, Moynihan M/, $atel A/C/L 4 !" 5 Sustainable Materials- %ith both eyes open, UM& Cambridge, England

http-..%ithbotheyesopen/0om.read/php;0<

A00essed "#th Mar0h !"

#/ Sustainable +esign- &he *ole of the Constru0tion Mndustry , 2ohn '0hsendorf !!= / http-..dspa0e/mit/edu.bitstream.handle.") "/".#>"#=."6>?=1all6 !!=.'0%:eb.Civil6 and6Environmental6Engineering."6>?=1all6 !!=.7e0tureNotes.inde3/htm A00essed Ath Mar0h !"

=/ &he DgreeningE of the 0on0rete industry- fa0tors 0ontributing to sustainable 0on0rete, ,untH, 7auren Midori, !!= http-..dspa0e/mit/edu.handle.") "/".#=@>= A00essed "#th 1ebruary !"

@/ :aste, 7ab Spa0e, &he 'pen University, http-..labspa0e/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<= ?@?=&se0tion<"/ / A00essed "=th Mar0h !"

?/ :aste Lierar0hy, 'pen University 'pen 7earn http-..openlearn/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<=!"@)A&se0tion<" A00essed on " th Mar0h !"

)/ Sustainability by +esign- a subversive strategy for transforming our 0onsumer 0ulture, 2ohn */ Ehrenfeld, !!A, 9ale University $ress

A/ Mndividual a0tions- :aste, 'pen 7earn, the 'pen University, http-..labspa0e/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<= ?@?=&se0tion<"/ / A00essed on "st Mar0h !"

Chapter : !ater
1or the vast maGority of human a0tivities I be that domesti0, industrial, or agri0ultural I %e reFuire fresh %ater/ Mt is a resour0e often taken for granted in more e0onomi0ally developed 0ountriesK people assume that fresh %ater %ill be available %hen the tap is turned on, and like ele0tri0ity do not Fuestion the pro0esses or 0onstraints involved in delivering it/ Lo%ever for many people in the %orld, easily available fresh %ater is not the 0ase and finding 0lean fresh %ater for drinking, 0leaning and gro%ing plants is a serious 0hallenge/ &he fresh %ater systems of the planet are under threat from 0limate 0hange, unsustainable use and pollution/

Engineers have a role in providing the infrastru0ture to supply %ater to the %orldJs population/ Andre% Mylius 4 !!!5 stated D&he engineers that help realise the %ater supply opportunities %ill be this 0enturyCs most valued pea0e keepers/ Competition for s0ar0e %ater resour0es is in0reasingly a sour0e of politi0al tension/ Engineering 0an play a maGor role in defusing it/E 03ee reference !2

&he image %e have of the Earth as the B8lue $lanetC is slightly misleading %hen %e 0onsider the %ater available for our use/ Most of the Earth is 0overed by seas and o0eans a00ounting for over >)S of total %ater on the planet, leaving less than #S of the planetCs %ater that is not salty 4potable5/ 'f the fresh%ater that is present, far underground to e3ploitE 03ee reference *2 per0ent is lo0ked in i0e0aps and gla0iers, and a large proportion of the remaining " per0ent lies too

7lobal -ater 8olumes6 &otal volume < "/=! billion 0ubi0 kilometres 1resh%ater < #@ million 0ubi0 kilometres 4less than #S of all %ater5 Usable fresh%ater appro3/ !!,!!! 0ubi0 kilometres 4less than "S of fresh%ater5 0see reference )2

&his 0hapter %ill outline the problems fa0ing the %orld today in terms of %ater/ :ater supply and %ater s0ar0ity of nations %orld%ide %ill be highlighted, introdu0ing the term D%ater debtE/ :e %ill look in detail at %hat the global uses of %ater are, desalination, %ater pollution before finally looking at international standards for %ater supply and distribution/

The -ydrolo!ical )ycle

Figure ! 1 1 1lo%s %ithin the hydrologi0al 0y0le

1igure =/"/" sour0ed from &he MmpEE $roGe0t, &he Cambridge6MM& institute/ &he MmpEE %ebsite is designed as an edu0ational resour0e/ Mt may be reprodu0ed, modified and used freely for edu0ational purposes http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.;se0tion<topi0s&topi0<%ater&page<slidesho%

Annually, around @!@,!!!km# of %ater is evaporated from the o0eans, and ) ,!!!km#.year is evaporated from land surfa0es to Goin the hydrologi0al 0y0le/ &his gives a total of around @)),!!!km#.year a0tive in the global %ater 0y0le/ 'f this total, appro3imately =@A,!!!km#.year 4A!S5 falls ba0k onto the o0eans and only !S 4"">,!!!km#.year5 falls onto the land/

'f the !S fresh%ater falling on land as pre0ipitation, most is transpired ba0k into the atmosphere almost immediately, leaving only AS of the total a0tive volume on the ground/ Mu0h of this forms ground%ater that may be0ome ina00essible and.or polluted and surfa0e %ater %hi0h may be0ome polluted/

(lobally, ),!!!km# more %ater is stored on land in Mar0h than in September %hen ?!!km# more is stored in the atmosphere than in Mar0h/ 0see reference &2.

Water Supply and Water Scarcity

Figure ! # 1 :ater Supply of a sele0tion of 0ountries Psee referen0e )Q

1igure =/ /" sour0ed from &he MmpEE $roGe0t, &he Cambridge6MM& institute/ &he MmpEE %ebsite is designed as an edu0ational resour0e/ Mt may be reprodu0ed, modified and used freely for edu0ational purposes http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.;se0tion<topi0s&topi0<%ater&page<slidesho%

Mn many 0ountries, only a very small proportion of available %ater is a0tually e3tra0ted for use/ &he total resour0e that is available to a 0ountry or a region is usually termed the BsupplyC/ &he amount that %e e3tra0t for use is termed the B%ithdra%alC/

1igure =/ / sour0ed from &he MmpEE $roGe0t, &he Cambridge6MM& institute/ &he MmpEE %ebsite is designed as an edu0ational resour0e/ Mt may be reprodu0ed, modified and used freely for edu0ational purposes http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.;se0tion<topi0s&topi0<%ater&page<slidesho%

&he figure above sho%s the availability of fresh %ater for a sele0tion of 0ountries/ Lighlighted on the graph are levels of regular, 0hroni0 and absolute %ater s0ar0ity/ &he table belo% outlines the figures for these levels/ "A 0ountries are in the absolute s0ar0ity 0ategory, and a further = have 0hroni0 %ater s0ar0ity status/ Table ! # 1 Water stress and scarcit categories 0see reference !!2

&able =/ /" sour0ed from &he MmpEE $roGe0t, &he Cambridge6MM& institute/ &he MmpEE %ebsite is designed as an edu0ational resour0e/ Mt may be reprodu0ed, modified and used freely for edu0ational purposes http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.;se0tion<topi0s&topi0<%ater&page<slidesho%

8y %idely6used %ater stress definitions, the U, is 0urrently subGe0t to o00asional or lo0al %ater stress/ &his is evident from our infreFuent e3perien0es of hosepipe bans and pleas for %ater 0onservation from %ater 0ompanies/ As 0limate 0hanges and pre0ipitation patterns alter, the o00urren0e of %ater stress is predi0ted to be0ome more %idespread/ &his, 0ombined %ith population in0reases in many pla0es, %ill result in more e3tensive %ater shortages relative to demand/ As %ith all 0ountry data this is aggregated average information/ :ithin these 0ountries, parti0ular regions may be relatively more %ater6ri0h or %ater6poor/ 1or e3ample, the South East of England is 0onsiderably more %ater6 stressed than Northern S0otland/

De initions

Mt is important to get a feel for %hat this a0tually means/ Absolute s0ar0ity in these terms 4@!!m#.person.year5 is less than "/@ 0ubi0 meters of %ater per person per day/ &his seems like a lot, but usually %e are only thinking about the domesti0 portion of %ater use rather than the per 0apita %ater availability ne0essary to maintain a fun0tioning e0onomy/ 7a0k of %ater availability 0an inhibit industrial and e0onomi0 development/

1or general human health reFuirements, volumes reFuired are as follo%-

6ormal =ecommended @! litres per person per day

7inimum =ecommended #! litres per person per day 4@ litres for 0ooking and drinking, @ litres for hygiene5

Emergenc Sphere guidelines "@ litres per person per day 0see reference !*2

Some of the most %ater s0ar0e 0ountries are small island nations su0h as Malta 4@!m#.0apita.year5 and the Maldives 4"!@m#.0apita.year5, Singapore 4"==m#.0apita.year5, and those of the Middle East region- ,u%ait 4"!5, UAE 4??5, 7ibya 4"!A5, Saudi Arabia 4"!>5, 8ahrain 4"=>5, [atar 4"?=5, 2ordan 4")=5, 9emen 4 in0reasing populations lead to over6use of %ater in some of these pla0es/ !5, Msrael 4##>5/ Ligh demand for industrial purposes and meeting domesti0 needs of

Water &ebt
Mf the amount of ground %ater %ithdra%n e30eeds natural inflo%, there is a %ater debt / Mn su0h 0ases, %ater should be 0onsidered as a non6rene%able resour0e that is being mined/ As the %orldCs population and industrial produ0tion of goods in0rease, the use of %ater %ill also a00elerate/ &he %orld per 0apita use of %ater in ">)@ %as about )!!m# .year giving a total human use of #A@! km#.year/ Mn !!? the %orld use of %ater %as about ?!!! km# . year, %hi0h is a signifi0ant fra0tion of the naturally available fresh %ater/ 0see reference !)2

Water &ebt
Figure ! $ 1 :ater debt for of the most indebted 0ountries Psee referen0e "=Q

1igure =/#/" sour0ed from &he MmpEE $roGe0t, &he Cambridge6MM& institute/ &he MmpEE %ebsite is designed as an edu0ational resour0e/ Mt may be reprodu0ed, modified and used freely for edu0ational purposes http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.;se0tion<topi0s&topi0<%ater&page<slidesho%

Some %ater6stressed 0ountries %ithdra% 0onsiderably more %ater than is rene%ed annually, leading to signifi0ant B%ater debtC/ Countries are arranged here in des0ending order of %ater debt severity/

,u%ait is 0urrently the %orldCs most %ater s0ar0e nation and also the %orst %ater debt 0ountry, %ith an annual rene%able fresh%ater supply of appro3imately !/! km#.year and an annual fresh%ater %ithdra%al of around !/@=km#.year 4 )!!S of available rene%able supply5/ Saudi Arabia e3tra0ts the greatest volume of %ater 4"=/? km#.year5 beyond its rene%able supply 4 /=km#.year5 and uses ) times more than it has available, but UAE 4"/>"km#.year debt and 0onsumption "! times rene%able supply5 and 7ibya 4=km#.year and nearly A times supply5 are also in severe %ater debt/

Lo%ever, even relatively %ater6ri0h 0ountries 0an e30eed their rene%able supplyK UHbekistan has appro3imately @!/=km#.year rene%able available fresh%ater, but %ithdra%s around @A/!@km#.year 4""@S of available supply5/ UHbekistan has e3perien0ed the detrimental effe0ts of this unsustainable over6use of fresh%ater and has %itnessed the deterioration of the Aral Sea and its asso0iated industry/ Mn 0omparison-

USA %ithdra%s only around !S of available rene%able supply U, %ithdra%s only around "!S of available rene%able supply

Canada %ithdra%s only around "/@S of available rene%able supply

8raHil %ithdra%s only around !/@S of available rene%able supply

:ater6debt 0ountries and regions meet their %ater %ithdra%als beyond the rene%able supply in a number of %ays, in0luding- dra%ing %ater a0ross politi0al boundaries, or depleting Bfossil aFuifersC in some 0ases 0ausing not only e3tra0tion of an0ient ground%ater reserves, but also 0ausing irreparable 0ollapse of the geologi0al stru0ture, thus preventing future re0harge/

Energy6ri0h but %ater6poor 0ountries, su0h as the %ater6stressed and %ater6debt oil6 produ0ing 0ountries of the Middle East may use desalination te0hniFues to produ0e fresh%ater from sea %ater, %hi0h %ill be dis0ussed ne3t/

&esalination
+esalination is the pro0ess of 0onverting sea%ater into fresh%ater/ Sea%ater 0ontains about #/@S salt, and one 0ubi0 meter of sea %ater 0ontains around =!kg of salt/ &o produ0e Bfresh%aterC the salt 0ontent must be redu0ed to less than !/!@S/ As %ell as being 0ostly in terms of energy, desalination also has environmental impa0tsdis0harge of very salty %ater may lo0ally kill plants and animals intolerant to salt and alter the habitat and lo0al e0osystems/

Figure ! ! 1 1lo% representation of desalination

1igure =/=/" sour0ed from &he MmpEE $roGe0t, &he Cambridge6MM& institute/ &he MmpEE %ebsite is designed as an edu0ational resour0e/ Mt may be reprodu0ed, modified and used freely for edu0ational purposes http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.;se0tion<topi0s&topi0<%ater&page<slidesho%

&he reverse osmosis method, the most %idely used for desalination of sea %ater, reFuires large amounts of energy in order to push sour0e %ater through a membrane at a pressure of around ),!!! bar 4"!!,!!!psi50see reference !12. &he high6te0h membranes are themselves e3pensive, although 0osts are redu0ing as the te0hnology matures and the market gro%s/ &hey reFuire 0leaning %ith 0hemi0als, %hi0h then 0ontribute to the problem of %aste disposal together %ith the e30essively salty %aste%ater produ0ed by the pro0ess/

'nly those 0ountries %hi0h are %ater6poor but energy6ri0h, su0h as oil6produ0ing nations in the Middle East, have the ne0essary 0ombination of Ddesperation, %ealth, and 0heap energyE 0!12 that make desalination %orth 0onsideration/ +esalination is 0urrently limited to lo0ations %ith a spe0ifi0 0on0entration of fa0tors/ +esalination plants on a large s0ale have high 0apital 0osts and high running 0osts/ Many of the e3isting plants have been built adGa0ent to 0oastal po%er plants in order to 0onsolidate impa0t and redu0e 0osts asso0iated %ith po%er transmission and %ater intake pipe %ork0see reference !12. Mt is possible to purify salty or bra0kish %ater using the po%er of the sun, through a pro0ess kno%n as Solar +istillation/ A te0hni0al brief of the pro0ess 0an be found herehttp-..pra0ti0ala0tion/org.solar6distillation6"

$ostel has the follo%ing insights about desalination-

;esalinating brackish water . which is too salt to drink but much less salt than ocean water . is among the most ra-idl growing uses of desalination. ... it t -icall costs less than half as much as seawater desalination. 0see reference !&2

...desalination holds out the unrealistic ho-e of a su--l -side solution, which dela s the onset of the water efficienc revolution so urgentl needed. 0see reference !&2

Global 'se of Water

Figure ! " 1 (lobal %ater by se0tor use sin0e ">!!

1igure =/@/" sour0ed from &he MmpEE $roGe0t, &he Cambridge6MM& institute/ &he MmpEE %ebsite is designed as an edu0ational resour0e/ Mt may be reprodu0ed, modified and used freely for edu0ational purposes http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.;se0tion<topi0s&topi0<%ater&page<slidesho%

As mentioned in the first 0hapter, %ater use has in0reased e3ponentially over the last 0entury/ &his is due not only to an in0rease in population and their dire0t %ater need, but also that populationJs asso0iated 0onsumption of food and manufa0tured goods %hi0h both 0onsume %ater/

D+uring the last @! years %ater use %orld%ide has gro%n fourfold no% a00ounting for roughly "!S of total river and ground%ater flo% from land to sea globallyE Psee reference !:2

Figure ! " # (lobal fresh%ater use by se0tor Psee referen0e "A, ">Q

1igure =/@/ sour0ed from &he MmpEE $roGe0t, &he Cambridge6MM& institute/ &he MmpEE %ebsite is designed as an edu0ational resour0e/ Mt may be reprodu0ed, modified and used freely for edu0ational purposes http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.;se0tion<topi0s&topi0<%ater&page<slidesho%

Figure ! " $ :ater use by se0tor for a sele0tion of 0ountries Psee referen0e !, "Q

1igure =/@/# sour0ed from &he MmpEE $roGe0t, &he Cambridge6MM& institute/ &he MmpEE %ebsite is designed as an edu0ational resour0e/ Mt may be reprodu0ed, modified and used freely for edu0ational purposes/ http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.;se0tion<topi0s&topi0<%ater&page<slidesho%

'f the fresh%ater that is %ithdra%n for human use, in the industrial %orld, the bulk of %ater is used for industry/ Mn developing 0ountries the bulk is used for agri0ulture and in pla0es like Afghanistan and Nepal, this is >>S/ Mn all 0ountries, domesti0 use is a small, but important part/

:orld%ide the biggest use of %ater by far is agri0ulture/ :e %ill no% look into more detail at %hat this %ater is used for in agri0ulture, then manufa0turing and finally breaking do%n domesti0 use in the U,/

Agricultural -ater *se 8igure 5.1.5 Dse of water in agriculture

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As the human population in0reases, there is gro%ing 0on0ern that there %onCt be suffi0ient %ater to gro% the food reFuired/ As the figure sho%s, meat takes mu0h more %ater to produ0e than 0ereals, and a steady in0rease in meat 0onsumption has in0reased %orld%ide %ater stress/ 0see reference **2 Table ! " 1 :ater reFuired per kg of a variety of food

Sustainable food produ0tion %ill be 0overed in more depth in the ne3t 0hapter but it is important to grasp at this stage the dire0t link bet%een food and %ater, and the %orld relian0e on both/

(ndustrial -ater *se

Manufa0turing pro0esses of various types often reFuire large amounts of %ater/ Mn many 0ases these pro0esses %ere developed at a time %hen %ater s0ar0ity %as less realised than it no% is/ :ater 0onservation measures taken by industry 0an be improved %ith the development of ne% eFuipment and pro0esses that reFuire less %ater/

Figure ! " " :ater reFuired for sele0tion of manufa0turing pro0esses

1igure =/=/" sour0ed from &he MmpEE $roGe0t, &he Cambridge6MM& institute/ &he MmpEE %ebsite is designed as an edu0ational resour0e/ Mt may be reprodu0ed, modified and used freely for edu0ational purposes http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.;se0tion<topi0s&topi0<%ater&page<slidesho%

Table 5.1.* Water use of various manufacturing -rocesses 0see reference *52

Mu0h additional %ater is used in the pro0ess of manufa0ture for non6invasive pro0esses su0h as 0ooling/ :hile this does not ne0essarily greatly redu0e river flo%, if that is the sour0e, it 0an result in 0hanges to the riverCs e0ologi0al system/ +o%nstream of a %arm %ater dis0harge, the 0hange in river %ater temperature may en0ourage gro%th of algal blooms %hi0h 0an suffo0ate other flora and fauna inhabitants/

)omestic -ater *se

Figure ! " % +omesti0 %ater use in the U,

1igure =/=/" adapted and sour0ed from &he MmpEE $roGe0t, &he Cambridge6MM& institute/ &he MmpEE %ebsite is designed as an edu0ational resour0e/ Mt may be reprodu0ed, modified and used freely for edu0ational purposes http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.;se0tion<topi0s&topi0<%ater&page<slidesho%

Although domesti0 %ater use a00ounts for only a small fra0tion of the total, it is 0on0entrated in urban areas %here it may 0ause lo0al problems/ &here are many %ays in %hi0h domesti0 %ater use 0ould be redu0ed at relatively small 0ost/ :ater pri0ing poli0ies %ill be0ome in0reasingly important/ $ubli0 per0eption of %ater is based on pri0e and availability/

Table ! " $ +omesti0 %ater use in the U, Psee referen0e =Q

&able =/@/# sour0ed from &he 'pen University under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike /! 7i0en0e http-..%%%/open/edu.openlearn.s0ien0e6maths6te0hnology.s0ien0e.physi0s6and6 astronomy.physi0s.rene%able6energy

All %ater that is piped into homes in the U, is treated to very high EU Fuality standards/ Mu0h of the %ater %e use domesti0ally is 0onsumed in non6potable uses su0h as gardening and flushing toilets/ 'nly uses in0luding drinking, 0ooking and for baths and sho%ers need to be potable for health reasons/ &hese uses a00ount for only around one third of total supply/ see reference 0*12

Note- +ish%asher figures vary depending on the type of dish%asher/ Some estimates are as lo% as " 6"? litres per load, %hi0h is substantially less than %ashing by hand P#!Q, although energy 0onsiderations must also be taken into a00ount %hen 0omparing the t%o/

Ener!y )osts of Water

Table # " $ Energy 0osts of stri0ter %ater treatment legislation

&able /@/# sour0ed from &he MmpEE $roGe0t, &he Cambridge6MM& institute/ &he MmpEE %ebsite is designed as an edu0ational resour0e/ Mt may be reprodu0ed, modified and used freely for edu0ational purposes http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.;se0tion<topi0s&topi0<%ater&page<slidesho%

Mn their !!" Annual report, &hames :ater highlighted the problem of treating %ater to ever higher standards and the effe0t that the in0reased energy 0onsumption has on 0limate 0hange/ 0*&2 &he %ater se0tor is identified as the third most energy intensive se0tor in the U, a00ording to the Marshall report on energy use in U, 0see reference *:2.

Pollution
Mn ">? US 8iologist *a0hel Carson published her ground6breaking book DSilent SpringE %hi0h initiated an a%akening about the impa0t of human a0tivities as never really 0onsidered before/ 0*H2 $rior to this revolutionary thinking the %idespread understanding and pra0ti0e had been that the earth and its systems are so vast that human a0tivity 0ould have no lasting impa0t on them/ As su0h %aste %as dealt %ith by applying the Ddilute and disperseE philosophy %hereby %aste 4solid, liFuid or gaseous5 %as released to the environment 0ontinuously, but in small unit Fuantities/ &he idea %as that the environmental systems %ould be able to pro0ess this %aste if it %as suffi0iently diffused/

International )onference on Water and the Environment

Mn ">> the Mnternational Conferen0e on :ater and the Environment %as held in +ublin, Mreland/ &he output from this 0onferen0e %as a de0laration regarding %ater that %as presented to the United Nations Conferen0e on Environment and +evelopment 4UNCE+5 that %as held in *io de 2aneiro in 2une that year %here the ideas from the ">A) UN *eport 4the 8rundtland *eport5, %ere dis0ussed and developed/ &he *io 0onferen0e, %hi0h 0ame to be kno%n as the DEarth SummitE, %as attended by one6hundred6and6 eighteen heads of government and %as the maGor turning point in bringing the issues of sustainability and sustainable development onto the international politi0al stage/ &he in0lusion of the +ublin $rin0iples in the 0onferen0e debate helped to highlight the importan0e of %ater as a resour0e for environmental prote0tion and human development/ &he +ublin $rin0iples remain the standard for 0onsideration of the issues surrounding %ater resour0e use and prote0tion/ &he prin0iples are listed belo%-

2rinciple No 16 1resh %ater is a finite and vulnerable resour0e, essential to sustain life, development and the environment/ Sin0e %ater sustains life, effe0tive management of %ater resour0es demands a holisti0 approa0h, linking so0ial and e0onomi0 development %ith prote0tion of natural e0osystems/ Effe0tive management links land and %ater uses a0ross the %hole of a 0at0hment area or ground %ater aFuifer/

2rinciple No #6 Water develo-ment and management should be based on a -artici-ator a--roach, involving users, -lanners and -olic -makers at all levels.

&he parti0ipatory approa0h involves raising a%areness of the importan0e of %ater among poli0y6makers and the general publi0/ Mt means that de0isions are taken at the lo%est appropriate level, %ith full publi0 0onsultation and involvement of users in the planning and implementation of %ater proGe0ts/

2rinciple No $6 Women -la a central -art in the -rovision, management and safeguarding of water. &his pivotal role of %omen as providers and users of %ater and guardians of the living environment has seldom been refle0ted in institutional arrangements for the development and management of %ater resour0es/ A00eptan0e and implementation of this prin0iple reFuires positive poli0ies to address %omenJs spe0ifi0 needs and to eFuip

and empo%er %omen to parti0ipate at all levels in %ater resour0es programmes, in0luding de0ision6making and implementation, in %ays defined by them/

2rinciple No !6 Water has an economic value in all its com-eting uses and should be recognised as an economic good. :ithin this prin0iple, it is vital to re0ognise first the basi0 right of all human beings to have a00ess to 0lean %ater and sanitation at an affordable pri0e/ $ast failure to re0ognise the e0onomi0 value of %ater has led to %asteful and environmentally damaging uses of the resour0e/ Managing %ater as an e0onomi0 good is an important %ay of a0hieving effi0ient and eFuitable use, and of en0ouraging 0onservation and prote0tion of %ater resour0es/

+e0laration of the Mnternational Conferen0e on :ater and the Environment, +ublin, Mreland, ?th6#"st 2anuary ">> available at the UNJs :orld Meteorologi0al 'rganiHation

-ydropolitics
Many 0ountries are fa0ing a global %ater shortage that is linked to their food supply/ &here are a number of other %ays in %hi0h %ater supply may affe0t %orld politi0s/ Confli0t events often fall under several 0ategories of definition listed belo%/

!ontrol o Water Resources: :ater supplies or a00ess to %ater at the root of tensions

Military Tool6 :ater resour0es, or %ater systems themselves used by a nation or state as a %eapon during military a0tion

Political Tool: Water resources, or water s stems themselves, used b a nation, state or non-state actors for a -olitical goal

Terrorism: Water resources, or water s stems, as targets or tools of violence or coercion b non-state actor

Military Target: Water resource s stems as targets of militar actions b nations or states

De"elopment Disputes: Water resources or s stems as source of contention in the conte,t of social and economic develo-ment 0see reference *I2

Summary
'ften the fo0us on sustainability issues 0entres around energy supplies, and the depletion of non6rene%able resour0es/ &his 0hapter has outlined that a00ess to 0lean %ater is as mu0h of a problem if not more so, and although 0onsidered a ubiFuitous rene%able resour0es, %e have sho%n this is only the 0ase if treated %ith 0are and 0onsumed and treated in a sustainable manner/

:ater is essential for life, and fresh%ater supplies %orld%ide are depleting through over use and pollution/ :e have 0overed %ater supply %orld%ide, %hi0h 0ountries are in %ater debt and %hat the maGor uses for %ater are %orld%ide/ :ater supply is be0oming an in0reasingly important geopoliti0al point of 0on0ern, and engineers %ith their ability to design and implement infrastru0ture for %ater supply, and %ith kno%ledge on sustainable %ater systems %ill be invaluable in advising poli0y de0ision making and ensuring the %orlds gro%ing population has a00ess to the element essential for survival/

Further %eadin!
&he follo%ing online resour0es outline sustainable %ater usehttp-..%ebpages/uidaho/edu.sustainability.0hapters.0h!).inde3/asp

&he follo%ing 0hapters are from the Sustainability I the geography perspe0tive http-..eFuellatemp/nottingham/a0/uk.uon.items.?b@"=!"f6d!!f60) b6fad?6 #">#>#a@=A0a.".Oie%MMS/Gsp

European Environment Agen0y6 Sustainable :ater Use $oli0ies http-..%%%/eea/europa/eu.themes.%ater.%ater6resour0es.poli0ies6and6measures6to6 promote6sustainable6%ater6use

Sustainable :ater Solutions http-..%%%/globalste%ards/org.%ater/htm

Engineers :ithout 8orders I :ater and Sanitation *esour0es http-..%%%/e%b6uk/org.kno%ledge.%atsan

&he :ater, Engineering and +evelopment Centre at 7oughborough University have a %ealth of resour0es fo0used on %ater in development situations, and also offer Ligher Edu0ation level 0ourses in the subGe0ts http-..%ed0/lboro/a0/uk.

$ra0ti0al A0tion are an international N(' that %ork in developing 0ountries under a range of engineering and development themes/ &heir online $ra0ti0al Ans%ers portal provide te0hni0al briefs on a range of subGe0ts/ 8elo% is the link for %aterhttp-..pra0ti0ala0tion/org.%ater6and6sanitation6ans%ers

%eferences
&his 0hapter is available online from the Mmproving Engineering Edu0ation $roGe0t, Cambridge University/ Unless other%ise stated, te3t and figures are from http-..%%%6 g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.;se0tion<topi0s&topi0<%ater&page<slidesho% 1rom the sour0e- N&his material %as produ0ed as a part of the MmpEE $roGe0t at the University of Cambridge/ Mt may be reprodu0ed, modified and used freely for edu0ational purposes/

"/ Mylius, Andre% 4 !!!5 D,eeping the $ea0eE Ne% Civil Engineer, !th April !!!, pp "=6"@

/ $ostel, Sandra 4">> 5 D&he 7ast 'asis- 1a0ing :ater S0ar0ityE Earths0an, 7ondon, p )

#/ Oolumes taken from- (lei0k, $eter 4 !!"5 D&he :orldCs :ater- &he 8iennial *eport on 1resh%ater *esour0esE Msland $ress, p " &able /"-maGor sto0ks of %ater on Earth/

=/ Mmproving Engineering Edu0ation Camridge http-..%%%6g/eng/0am/a0/uk.impee.; se0tion<topi0s&topi0<%ater&page<slidesho% A00essed on #rd Mar0h

@/ Sour0e- (lei0k, $eter 4 !!"5 D&he :orldCs :ater- &he 8iennial *eport on 1resh%ater *esour0esE Msland $ress, p

?/ Atmospheri0 %ater volume taken from 8all, $hilip 4">>>5 DL '- A 8iography of :aterE $heoni3.'rion, 7ondon/

)/ Annual fresh%ater resour0es data taken from (lei0k, $eter 4 !!#5 D&he :orldCs :ater- &he 8iennial *eport on 1resh%ater *esour0esE Msland $ress, pp #>6 = , &able "&otal *ene%able 1resh%ater Supply, by Country 4 !! Update

A/ Annual fresh%ater %ithdra%als data taken from (lei0k, $eter 4 !!#5 D&he :orldCs :ater- &he 8iennial *eport on 1resh%ater *esour0esE Msland $ress, pp =@6 @", &able 1resh%ater :ithdra%als, by Country and Se0tor 4 !! Update5

>/Countries arranged in des0ending order of Luman +evelopment Mnde3 rank as taken from United Nations +evelopment $rogramme 4 !!@5 D&he Luman +evelopment *eport

I Mnternational Cooperation at a Crossroads- Aid, trade and se0urity in an uneFual %orldE '3ford University $ress, '3ford and Ne% 9ork

"!/ $opulation data from :orld 8ank 4 !!#5 D:orld +evelopment Mndi0ators :orld 8ank, :ashington, !! figures

!!#E &he

""/ +efinitions of limits of %ater stress from (lei0k, $eter 4 !!#5 D&he :orldCs :ater&he 8iennial *eport on 1resh%ater *esour0esE Msland $ress, p>>, &able =/ - :ater Stress

" / Sphere $roGe0t 4 !!!5 DLumanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in +isaster *esponseE '3fam $ublishing, p#!, available at http-..%%%/sphereproGe0t/org

"#/ BEnvironmental S0ien0e 6 Earth as a 7iving $lanetC, +aniel 8 8otkin and Ed%ard A ,eller/ pub/ 2ohn :iley & Sons !!@

"=/ Annual fresh%ater resour0es data taken from (lei0k, $eter 4 !!#5 D&he :orldCs :ater- &he 8iennial *eport on 1resh%ater *esour0esE Msland $ress, 4 !! Update5

"@/ M0+onald, 8ernadette & +ouglas, 2ehl 4eds/5 4 !!#5 D:hose :ater Ms Mt;- &he unFuen0hable thirst of a %ater hungry %orldE National (eographi0 So0iety, :ashington, pp">>6 ""

"?/ $ostel, Sandra 4">> 5 D&he 7ast 'asis- 1a0ing :ater S0ar0ityE Earths0an, 7ondon, pp=@6)

")/ Loughton, 2ohn 4">>)5 D(lobal :arming- &he Complete 8riefingE Cambridge University $ress, p/"")

"A/ $ostel, Sandra 4">> 5 N&he 7ast 'asis- 1a0ing :ater S0ar0ityN, Earths0an, 7ondon/

">/ Loughton, 2ohn 4">>)5 D(lobal :arming- &he Complete 8riefingE Cambridge University $ress

!/ (lei0k, $eter 4 !!#5 D&he :orldCs :ater- &he 8iennial *eport on 1resh%ater *esour0esE Msland $ress, pp =@6 @", &able Se0tor 4 !! Update5 - 1resh%ater :ithdra%als, by Country and

"/ Countries arranged in des0ending order of Luman +evelopment Mnde3 rank as taken from United Nations +evelopment $rogramme/ United Nations +evelopment $rogramme 4 !!@5 D&he Luman +evelopment *eport I Mnternational Co6operation at a CrossroadsAid, trade and se0urity in an uneFual %orldE '3ford University $ress, '3ford and Ne% 9ork

/ 'pen University 4">>@5 DS ?A- $hysi0al *esour0es and EnvironmentE 8lo0k #, pp?

#/ 1igures for meat 6 pork and 0hi0ken- 8ro%n, 7ester & Lal%eil, 8rian 4">>A5 DChinaCs :ater Shortage Could Shake :orld 1ood Se0urityE :orld :at0h, 2uly.August ">>A, pp"!6 "

=/ 'pen University 4">>@5 D$hysi0al *esour0es and EnvironmentE 8lo0k #, pp?

@/ Environment Agen0y !!" DConserving %ater in 8uildings 4September *esour0es available at &he Environment Agen0y :ebsite

!!"5E :ater

?/ &hames :ater 4 !!"5 DEnvironment and Conservation *evie% !!"E pg =/

)/ Marshall, 7ord 4">>A5 DE0onomi0 Mnstruments and the 8usiness Use of EnergyE LM &reasury, November ">>A

A/ Carson, *a0hel 4">? 5 DSilent SpringE $enguin, 7ondon

>/ +efinitions from- (lei0k, $eter 4 !!"5 D&he :orldCs :ater- &he 8iennial *eport on 1resh%ater *esour0esE Msland $ress, pp"A 6#

#!/ http-.."greengeneration/elementsintime/0om.;p<#"=

Chapter 5: "ood and #gri$ulture

Agri0ulture %orld%ide is fa0ing the daunting 0hallenges of providing for an in0reasing population that has 0hanging food 0onsumption patterns under the 0onstraints of natural resour0e s0ar0ity, environmental degradation, 0limate 0hange, and a restru0turing global e0onomy/ Mn addition, 0onsumers are in0reasingly 0ons0ious about the sour0es of their food and ho% it is produ0ed/ Consumer 0on0erns 0an translate into politi0al and market demands for addressing the 0hallenges/ &hus, agri0ulture appears to be at a pivotal stage in terms of so0ietal demands for agri0ultural systems %ith improved sustainability \that is, systems that address and balan0e so0ial, e0onomi0, and environmental performan0e, and in0rease robustness in the fa0e of ne% 0hallenges/ 0see reference !2

As %ith %ater, food is essential for life/ &he trends in food produ0tion have 0hanged signifi0antly over the last 0entury, as population in0reases and the use of fossil fuels in agri0ultural produ0tion and pro0essing have e3panded food produ0tion greatly/ &he trends have 0ome at an asso0iated 0ost ho%ever, namely the relian0e on fossil fuels %hi0h are running out, and similarly the 0hallenge of maintaining a substantial agri0ulture system in a 0hanging 0limate e3a0erbated by the burning of the fossil fuels/

Engineers, although not farmers, often support the agri0ultural industry through design of te0hnology, systems planning and supplying energy for farms/ Any engineer %ith a global perspe0tive on sustainability should have an understanding of the systems in pla0e to provide so0iety %ith the elements %ithout %hi0h life %ould be impossible/

&his 0hapter %ill begin %ith outlining the trends in food produ0tion over the last 0entury, ho% eating habits have 0hanged and ho% agri0ulture has adapted to 0ater for this 0hange in diet for an e3panding population/ Mn 0on0urren0e %ith previous 0hapters, %e %ill then outline the environmental and so0ial issues asso0iated %ith 0urrent farming methods, finishing %ith suggestions for a sustainable food produ0tion system/ Also in0luded at the end of the 0hapter %ill be 0ase studies of food gro%ing proGe0ts that are su00essfully implementing sustainable pra0ti0es in food produ0tion/

Trends in A!riculture and Associated Problems

As sho%n in Chapter ", the biggest 0hange in agri0ulture has been supplying food for an e3ponentially gro%ing population/ $rimarily, this has resulted in a proportional in0rease in land use for agri0ulture/ Although the produ0tion per a0re has in0reased due to te0hnologi0al innovation 4as %ill be dis0ussed in the ne3t se0tion5 the sheer volume of food reFuired for a burgeoning population has put stresses on the land, and as dis0ussed in the previous 0hapter, %ater/ Mn many 0ases farmland has en0roa0hed onto natural habitats, destroying natural e0osystems/ An e3ample of this is parts of the AmaHon being 0ut do%n to provide spa0e for soya farms, %hi0h in turn feed 0attle farms for the meat industry in the :est/

&he general paradigm in land use has been a shift from a large amount of small, family run farms dispersed evenly a0ross the 0ountryside, to a smaller amount of mu0h bigger farms, employing fe%er %orkers but a0hieving higher output through the use of large ma0hinery su0h as tra0tors/ &his is evident in some parts of the USA, %here there are 0olossal farms run by only a fe% %orkers/ &hese large farms %ill invariably gro% immense fields of one 0rop %hi0h 0an be farmed effi0iently to in0rease output/ &his is kno%n as mono0ulture farming and 0an lead to a loss in biologi0al diversity and make 0rops more sus0eptible to disease/

&here are gro%ing 0on0erns about %hether the trends of in0reasing produ0tivity per a0re of land 0an 0ontinue %hile maintaining or restoring the natural resour0e base upon %hi0h agri0ulture depends/ Similarly, resear0hers and some members of the publi0 are in0reasingly %orried about many of the unintended negative 0onseFuen0es of agri0ultural produ0tion\for e3ample, the effe0t of agri0ulture on environmental Fuality and e0osystem fun0tioning, the potential risks of agri0ultural pollutants or risks of 0ontamination of food and %ater by agri0ultural input to human health, and the safety and nutritional 0ontent of the food produ0ed/ Some observers raise the issues of ho% modern agri0ulture affe0ts the %ell6being of farming 0ommunities, farm families, farm labourers, and livesto0k/ 0see reference !2

#d"ance o Technology in #griculture

&he in0rease in produ0tion per a0re dis0ussed above has been a0hieved through an advan0e in te0hnologi0al innovation, su0h as tra0tors, pro0essing ma0hinery, storage, refrigeration, transportation and pa0kaging/

&he maGority of these innovations have only been made possible due to the in0reased availability of fossil fuels/ A report by 1easta estimates that the energy in a kilogram of oil is eFuivalent to the output of about = %orking days or Gust under !! hours of human %ork/ &hat makes a dayJs human %ork eFual to about =! grams of oil, a 0ouple of desert6spoons full/ Another %ay of looking at it is that a =! litre fill6up at a petrol station is the eFuivalent of about four years of human manual %ork 0see reference )2/

Using this 0on0ept of Denergy slave eFuivalentsE it is easy to see ho% the agri0ulture system 0an 0hange from many people %orking on the land to a relatively lo% labour for0e farming larger land areas implementing oil dependent ma0hinery/ Similarly, the pro0essing, storage, drying and refrigeration of food produ0e all have an asso0iated energy 0ost/ &he pa0kaging of food has made it easier to transport and sell, %hi0h has in0reased markets and therefore in0ome for the farmers and therefore investment to in0rease produ0tion/ Most pa0kaging is made from plasti0s %hi0h started their lives as oil/

&he fossil fuel based transportation options for food has 0hanged the availability and variety of the food %e eat and has had asso0iated so0ial and environmental impli0ations %hi0h %ill be 0overed in more detail in further se0tions/ Albert 8artlett said that DModern agri0ulture is the use of land to 0onvert petroleum into foodE 0see reference 52, and in the same book Ma0kay estimates that %e need "@k%h.day per person for our food, farming and fertiliHer in the U, 4although this varies for the type of diet, %ith meat eaters reFuiring the most energy and vegans the least5/0see reference 52

&he impa0ts of using fossil fuels, in0luding the 0arbon dio3ide emitted and asso0iated resour0e depletion have been 0overed in previous 0hapters/ Lo%ever it is %orth pointing out here that due to agri0ultureJs relian0e on oil, as oil pri0es flu0tuate so too do food pri0es/ &his 0an be seen in the re0ent food pri0e in0reases related to the oil pri0e in0reases/

&he follo%ing is a 0omment by a farmer in the USA-

<eo-le suddenl realized that almost all of our food -roduction methods relied on oil...The giant factor -like farms, which -roduce so much of our food, not onl need

much energ to run their e/ui-ment, but re/uire far larger amounts to take the food the -roduce to -rocessing -lants and markets often located thousands of miles awa . A more organic food--roducing s stem, based largel on smaller farms located near markets, suddenl began to seem like a ver -ractical idea. The suggestion that we might need organic methods in the future to feed ourselves and others began to be discussed as a serious -ossibilit . 0see reference 12

Above te3t sour0ed from ME*7'& under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6ShareAlike #/! Unported 7i0ense http-..%%%/merlot/org.merlot.vie%Material/htm;id<@@)=@?

Another te0hnologi0al advan0e %orth noting here is the introdu0tion of geneti0ally modified 4(M5 0rops/ (M is the pro0ess of gene sele0tion for a parti0ular trait, for e3ample breeding a disease resistant 0rop/ (M 0rops are gro%n e3tensively in the USA but not in the EU, and the global area planted %ith (M has in0reased more than "!S ea0h year sin0e they %ere introdu0ed in ">>?/ &here are ethi0al 0on0erns about (M/ (M 0rops are often designed to produ0e a to3in %hi0h %ill resist the inse0t or pest atta0king it/ &his 0an also be to3i0 to other plants or %ildlife %hi0h 0an de0rease geneti0 biodiversity/ &here are also issues %ith profitability, managerial freedom and 0onsumer safety and 0hoi0e/ 0see reference &2

$ood Miles

At the beginning of the 0entury, itJs likely that an average %eekday rural meal %ould 0onsist of seasonal vegetables and grains gro%n by the lo0al farmer, %ith some even 0oming from the familyJs ba0k garden/ &he advan0es in transport te0hnology, global trade and international markets has resulted in supermarkets sto0king food from all over the %orld at any time of year/ Mt is no% possible to buy stra%berries in the depth of %inter, and a %hole host of e3oti0 fruit and vegetables that %ould be impossible to gro% in the U,/ &he seasonal aspe0t of fruits and vegetables also applies to livesto0k/ Mu0h of the lamb industry in the U, supplies Ne% ]ealand during lambing season here, and in return %e get lamb from Ne% ]ealand %hen it is out of season in the U,/ &he energy 0ost of flying this 0ommodity half %ay around the %orld is signifi0ant/

&he driving for0e of this Danything at any timeE phenomenon has been supermarkets striving to in0rease profits by %idening the variety of produ0e they sto0k/ Consumers donJt Fuestion the fa0t that they 0an buy anything, from any%here in the %orld, at any time of the year, or %hat the impa0ts of this lu3ury are on the environment/

&he food miles are not Gust asso0iated %ith transporting produ0e from %here it is gro%nK produ0e %ill often travel very far for pro0essing operations on its %ay to the supermarket shelf/ Mt is not unheard of for produ0ts gro%n in the USA to be flo%n to Afri0a for %ashing or pro0essing due to the 0heap labour before being flo%n ba0k for sale/

&he obvious asso0iated 0ost of this mass transportation of food a0ross the globe is the energy used in transporting this food, either by plane or 0argo ship and the burning of fossil fuels to a0hieve this aim/ &his adds to agri0ultureJs relian0e on fossil fuels, and e3a0erbates the problem of ho% to feed the population as fossil fuels run out/

Another so0ial fa0tor of the international food market is the e3ploitation of poorer nations providing produ0e su0h as 0offee and bananas pur0hased in the developed North/ &here are ineFuality and Gusti0e issues %hen the %orkers produ0ing the food item 0ould never afford to buy %hat they are farming, and indeed often donJt have enough money to supply their families %ith a basi0 level of nutrition/ &his %ill be dis0ussed in more detail in a further se0tion, and a positive movement to 0ombat this, fair trade, %ill be dis0ussed in the solution part of this 0hapter/

1inally, another signifi0ant problem of food miles, espe0ially in the U, is the redu0tion in food se0urity/ +ue to the relian0e on foreign food produ0ers the U, has a lo% resilien0e to flu0tuating food and oil pri0es/ As fossil fuels deplete a big 0hange in gro%ing systems must take pla0e if the U, is to independently support its population to supply food through agri0ulture/

Fertilisers and Soil Fertility )epletion

Another trend in agri0ulture has been the in0reased use of 0hemi0al fertilisers in gro%ing food/ $lants reFuire three 0hemi0al elements to gro% I Nitrogen, $hosphorus, and $otassium 4N, $, and ,5/ Early in the !th 0entury a te0hni0al innovation made it possible to obtain nitrogen from the air by putting it under large amounts of pressure/ Sin0e then nitrogen based fertilisers have been used in mainstream farming in in0reasing amounts/

+uring the ">)!Js the so 0alled Dgreen revolutionE o00urred, %hen 0hemi0al fertilisers %ere introdu0ed on a very large s0ale globally/

&he added nitrogen in0reases yields of the soil in the short term, ho%ever over longer periods soil nutrition %ill be severely affe0ted due to soil a0idifi0ation/ Another problem %ith over use of fertilisers is the lea0hing of Nitrates and $hosphates into rivers, 0ausing an overgro%th of algae over the surfa0e of the %ater/ &his pro0ess kno%n as eutrophi0ation 0auses all life in the %ater system, in0luding the fish to die/

An impa0t of Nitrogen spe0ifi0ally is the signifi0ant amount of energy reFuired to produ0e it/ &he energy %ill inevitable 0ome from fossil fuels, the impa0ts of %hi0h 4resour0e depletion and 0limate 0hange5 have been a 0ommon theme of this module/ $hosphorous, although o00urring naturally in the soil in small amounts, is mined and added to artifi0ial fertilisers to boost yields/ As %ith any mined mineral, there is a finite amount and peak phosphorous %ill be rea0hed at some point in the future/

1inally, heavy metal a00umulation 4su0h as Hin0 from steel industry %aste re0y0led into fertilisers5 has been re0orded in regions that have used fertilisers regularly, and methane emission from 0rop and livesto0k paddy fields in0rease %ith the use of nitrogen fertilisers/0see reference &2

Change in )iet in )eveloped Countries

As agri0ulture has in0reased produ0tion, the type of foods 0onsumed has also 0hanged over the last 0entury/ 7argely due to in0reased in0omes espe0ially in the :est, the average diet has 0hanged to in0orporate more meat, more refined sugar and generally more food being eaten per person/0see reference :2

&here are spe0ifi0 health effe0ts arising from this 0hange in diet/ Spe0ifi0ally, due to the in0reased 0onsumption of refined sugars, there has been a related in0rease in rates of obesity, diabetes and heart disease/ &here has also been a steady in0rease in 0an0ers, and some studies link this to 0onsumption of red meat/ 0see reference H2

&he environmental effe0ts of this 0hange in diet are most notable for the in0rease in meat produ0tion and 0onsumption/ As %e sa% in the previous 0hapter, meat reFuires an order of magnitude more %ater per kg than vegetables, and the same is true for land use/ Mt is true that some livesto0k graHing, for e3ample sheep in mountainous regions of

:ales or 0attle in arid plains of Afri0a, is an effi0ient use of land, as it %ouldnJt be possible to gro% anything there any%ay/

Lo%ever for the maGority of 0attle farming in parti0ular this isnJt the 0ase, as large areas of land that 0ould produ0e a substantially larger amount of vegetables or grain is being taken up by livesto0k to supply the gro%ing meat industry/ As %ell as land and %ater, there is an in0reased energy reFuirement for produ0ing meat, and pollution effe0ts su0h as effluent run off 0an also be severe/ 'ther effe0ts of large meat produ0tion have been found in the 0ase of mad 0o% disease and other livesto0k diseases su0h as foot and mouth/

After energy produ0tion, livesto0k is the biggest sour0e of greenhouse gases, bigger than transport/ Co%s produ0e methane %hi0h is ! times stronger greenhouse gas than 0arbon dio3ide, and the in0reased number of 0o%s bred eFuates to an in0reased release of greenhouse gases/ 0see reference I2

Mn some 0ases the mass produ0tion of livesto0k has led to a de0rease in Fuality of life for the animals farmed, %ith large dairy and livesto0k farms feeding animals %ith gro%th hormones and antibioti0s, and 0ramped living 0onditions leading to a poor Fuality of life/

Sustainability is as mu0h a so0ial problem as it is environmental, and in this 0ase it is 0lear %hat so0ial impa0ts this 0hange in diet has had on so0iety/

The Role of +ig +usiness

Another trend in food produ0tion has been the rise of big 0orporations o%ning the maGority of the farms/ Corporations su0h as Monsanto have introdu0ed (M 0rops and then patented them/ &his means that if any farmers are found to have seeds of this patented 0rop on their land they 0an be liable for breaking the la% and sued/ Mt 0an be diffi0ult for farmers to prevent the spreading of seeds onto their land %hen they are distributed by the %ind/

Corporations have also put farmers into debt by for0ing them to pur0hase their (M seeds %hi0h offer a big yield, but making it so they have to buy them year on year as they are Dsingle yieldE varieties/ &his has for0ed farmers into debt and there are reports of farmers in Mndia 0ommitting sui0ide as they are unable to pay ba0k the debt/ 0see reference !@2

A00ording to :alsh and :ood0o0k - D&he mainstream food system and supply 0hain is unfair and unsustainable/ +e0isions and profits are taken by a handful of large 0ompanies driving do%n pri0es and ma3imising profits at the e3pense of farmers, lo0al 0ommunities and the environment/ 'ur 0urrent unsustainable food system has turned us 4the U,5 into a nation of passive 0onsumers in a top do%n system from %hi0h %e e3pe0t unlimited J0hoi0eJ but over %hi0h %e have little 0ontrol/0see reference !!2

7lobal Food (ne9uality

1inally, as the in0reased produ0tion in the :est and levels of obesity in0rease, so too have the number of people in developing 0ountries that do not have a00ess to adeFuate food supplies/ 'ne of the UN millennium development goals is to halve, bet%een ">>! and !"@ the number of people %ho suffer from hunger/ &he UN reports that " in = 0hildren in developing 0ountries are still under%eight/ 0see reference !*2 *e0ent famines in east Afri0a have left millions starving/ As %ith other themes of unsustainability, everything is relatedK it is areas that are already suffering from poor food yields that %ill be %orst affe0ted by 0limate 0hange 40aused in part by the overprodu0tion of food in the :est5 %hi0h %ill e3a0erbate the problem/

Similarly, developing 0ountries are aspiring to :estern diets be0ause of the advertising for0ed by the more e0onomi0ally developed 0ountries/ An in0rease in :estern farming pra0ti0es on a global s0ale %ill see e3ponential rises in environmental, health and so0ial problems e3amined earlier in this 0hapter/

No% %at0h the follo%ing talk by Mark 8ittman des0ribes %hatJs %rong %ith our 0urrent food system, %ith a spe0ifi0 fo0us on the trends that have o00urred in the USA %ith regards to food/

http-..%%%/ted/0om.talks.markTbittmanTonT%hatTsT%rongT%ithT%hatT%eTeat/html

Sustainable Food Production

Mt is 0lear that our 0urrent food system is unsustainable, and that a0tion must be taken to 0reate an alternative vision and implement it/ Laving 0overed these unsustainable trends in food produ0tion and asso0iated so0ial and environmental problems, %e %ill no% e3amine %hat a sustainable food produ0tion might look like, before highlighting some 0ase studies of lo0al and global initiatives that have a0hieved steps in this dire0tion/

&he Ameri0an So0iety of Agronomy provide the follo%ing definition for sustainable agri0ulture-

DA sustainable agri0ulture is one that, over the long term, enhan0es environmental Fuality and the resour0e base on %hi0h agri0ulture dependsK provides for basi0 human food and fibre needsK is e0onomi0ally viableK and enhan0es the Fuality of life for farmers and so0iety as a %hole/N

&he ,indling &rust have produ0ed a short film, D:hat is Sustainable 1ood;E, %hi0h e3plains the various elements so0iety needs to 0onsider in building a sustainable food system/ 'ver "! minutes, the film runs through eight prin0iples, %hi0h are also dis0ussed in the report DSustainable 1ayreE , published by ,indling-

"/ 7o0al and seasonal/ 1ood no% travels further than ever before %ith money leaking from lo0al e0onomies/ 7o0al and seasonal food offers a %ay to minimise energy use in transportation and storage, in0rease freshness and Fuality, strengthen lo0al distin0tiveness and build more resilient 0ommunities, %hilst supporting lo0al food outlets and farmers/

/ 'rgani0 and sustainable farming/ 'rgani0 and lo%60arbon farming avoids artifi0ial fertilisers and geneti0ally modified organisms, %hile ma3imising 0rop diversity/ &his en0ourages biodiversity, and offers a long6term investment in soil fertility for future food produ0tion, as %ell as 0ountering 0limate 0hange through soil 0arbon seFuestration/

#/ *edu0tion of %aste and pa0kaging/ Appro3imately )!S of primary pa0kaging is used for food and drink %hi0h be0omes 0ontaminated by residues of the original 0ontents, making it diffi0ult to re0y0le/

$ur0hasing lo0al and seasonal food redu0es the need for unne0essary pa0kaging, minimising the negative impa0t on the environment from the 0urrent large s0ale disposal of inorgani0 %aste/

=/ *edu0ing foods of animal origin and ma3imise %elfare standards/ Meat and dairy produ0ts are among the most energy and greenhouse6gas intensive food produ0ts of all/

@/ E30ludes fish spe0ies identified as at risk/ 'verfishing is the greatest single threat to marine %ildlife and habitats, %ith nearly A!S of %orld fish sto0ks fully or overe3ploited/

?/ 1airtrade60ertified produ0ts/ 1airtrade ensures produ0ers are paid fairly for their %ork, offering a strategy for poverty alleviation and sustainable development/ Mt 0reates so0ial and e0onomi0 opportunities for produ0ers and %orkers %ho have been e3ploited, disadvantaged or marginalised by the 0onventional trading system/

)/ $romote health and %ellbeing/ A sustainable food system is about health and %ellbeing for all I individually, lo0ally and globally/ &his in0ludes ta0king both 0hildhood obesity and malnutrition/

A/ 1ood demo0ra0y/ 1ood demo0ra0y is about re0onne0ting people to food and taking responsibility for it, ensuring 0ontrol by and fairness among lo0al produ0ers, suppliers and 0onsumers, and %orking to redu0e ineFuality in the food supply 0hain/E

&he do0umentary also sho%0ases some of Man0hesterJs leading sustainable food proGe0ts in0luding- Abundan0e Man0hester, (lebelands City gro%ers, Uni0orn (ro0ery, 1airfield Materials Management and :ild at Leart/ (enerally, the video provides an e30ellent overvie% of the importan0e of food sustainability from the U, perspe0tive/ $lease vie% the video here- http-..kindling/org/uk.%hat6sustainable6food/

4Sour0e for Se0tion @/ (osling Psee reference " Q5

Case Studies

E0o %orks

E0o %orks is a 0ommunity organisation %ith the interests of people and the environment at its heart/ E0o%orks e3ists to promote the interests and personal development of people %ho are so0ially disadvantaged by delivering a0tivities 0onne0ted %ith the 0onservation, restoration and enhan0ement of the environment/ E0o%orks manage t%o site 4 ) gardens in total5 St/ AnnCs, Nottingham and a "#6a0re perma0ulture site on the urban fringe of Nottingham/ E0o%orks Community (ardens are based on "! gardens on the Lungerhill allotment site/ :e have been on the site for fifteen years and are the oldest 0ommunity garden in Nottingham/ :e gro% a %ide range of fruit and vegetables but also provide a spa0e that is beautiful and rela3ing/

&he 1*ESL $roGe0t Market (ardens and Edu0ation Centre is a 0ommunity food proGe0t offering edu0ational opportunities on St AnnCs Allotments in Nottingham City/

1*ESL represents-

1''+ I helping lo0al people to a healthier lifestyle through the gro%ing, harvesting, preparation and 0onsumption of 0hemi0al6free fruit and vegetables/

*E(ENE*A&M'N I of the lo0al 0ommunity, its e0onomy and environment, and of the histori0 St AnnCs Allotments/ E+UCA&M'N I through training in sustainable horti0ulture, volunteer opportunities and open 0ommunity events

SUS&AMNA8M7M&9I produ0ing food in a %ay that preserves and enhan0es the environment/ LEA7&L I our 0hemi0al6free fruit and vegetables are sold to 0afes and %e operate a seasonal veg bo3 s0heme/ @! present of our produ0e is subsidiHed and made available to disadvantaged families and individuals as %ell as 0ommunity groups predominantly %ithin a t%o miles radius of our gardens/

More info- %%%/e0o%orks/org/uk

Further %eadin!
3nline Teaching Resources Sustainability and food se0urity I video le0ture http-..o0%/u0i/edu.le0tures.le0ture/asp3;id<"A#

&E+ talk about gro%ing your o%n vegetables http-..%%%/ted/0om.talks.rogerTdoironTmyTsubversiveTgardenTplot/html

'rgani0 (ardening http-..%%%/oer0ommons/org.0ourses.tea0hing6organi06farming6gardening.vie% $erma0ulture, $eak 'il, Climate Change and the Soul of the :orld 6 ANMMA MUN+M offi0ial trailer !""

http-..%%%/youtube/0om.%at0h;v<=H6f*[ayrUk

-eb Resources

&he state of the %orldJs land and %ater resour0es for food and agri0ulture 4S'7A:5 6 Managing systems at risk/ Summary *eport/ 1ood and Agri0ulture 'rganiHation of the United Nations, *ome and Earth s0an, 7ondon/

Available- http-..%ebpages/uidaho/edu.sustainability.0hapters.0h!).0h!)6p!?/asp 1ootprint of food, AllianH

http-..kno%ledge/allianH/0om.;)=>.environmental6impa0t6footprint6food6life60y0le Oeggies, a Nottingham Oegan Catering Campaign

http-..%%%/veggies/org/uk.

%eferences
"/ National *esear0h Coun0il, &o%ard Sustainable Agri0ultural Systems in the "st Century, http-..%%%/nap/edu.openbook/php;re0ordTid<" A# &page<" A00essed on "=th Mar0h !"

/ Nutrition, MneFuality and Agri0ulture- Contested Models of +egenerative +isease in Chiapas, Me3i0o, *onald Nigh, CMESAS6Sureste http-..%%%/oer0ommons/org.0ourses.nutrition6ineFuality6and6agri0ulture60ontested6 models6of6degenerative6disease6in60hiapas6me3i0o.vie% A00essed on "?th Mar0h !"

#/ &LE (*EA& EMMSSM'NS *M(L&S (MOE A:A9, 1easta 41oundations for the E0onomi0s of Sustainability http-..%%%/feasta/org.do0uments.energy.emissions !!)/htm A00essed on "@th Mar0h !"

=/ +avid 2/C/ Ma0kay/ Sustainable energy I %ithout the hot air/ UM& Cambridge, !!A/ MS8N >)A6!6>@==@ >6#6# Available free online from %%%/%ithouthotair/0om

@/ 7and & $o%er Sustainable Agri0ulture and Afri0an Ameri0ans A 0olle0tion of essays from the !!) 8la0k Environmental &hought 0onferen0e edited by 2effrey 7/ 2ordan Ed%ard $enni0k :alter A/ Lill *obert ]aba%a Sustainable Agri0ulture *esear0h and Edu0ation 4SA*E5 http-..%%%/merlot/org.merlot.vie%Material/htm;id<@@)=@? A00essed "?th Mar0h !"

?/ Mepham, 8/ bioethi0s an introdu0tion for the bios0ien0es, '3ford University $ress, Ne% 9ork !!A MS8N >)A6!6">6> "=#!6#

)/ 2osef S0hmidhuber and $rakash Shetty, &he nutrition transition to !#! 6 :hy developing 0ountries are likely to bear the maGor burden/ http-..%%%/google/0o/uk.url; sa<t&r0t<G&F<&esr0<s&sour0e<%eb&0d< &ved<!CCA[1GA8&url<httpS#AS 1 S 1%%%/fao/orgS 1fileadminS 1templatesS 1esaS 1(lobalTpersep0tives S 17ongTtermTpapers S 12S$Stransition/pdf&ei<Hd@3&)&]$,,o![:Tr$#T+%&usg<A1[GCN1nUd'$Ad#yE>"vF

^L]M(MbAmkC[[&sig <U6F76'(:Ev[i?,"S"m%nfg A00essed ")th Mar0h !"

A/ La%kes%orth, S et al/ 1eeding the %orld healthily- the 0hallenge of measuring the effe0ts of agri0ulture on health/ $hilosophi0al transa0tions of the royal so0iety of biologi0al s0ien0es, September !"! http-..rstb/royalso0ietypublishing/org.0ontent.#?@."@@=.#!A#/full A00essed ")th Mar0h !"

>/ http-..%%%/ted/0om.talks.markTbittmanTonT%hatTsT%rongT%ithT%hatT%eTeat/html

"!/ Ethan% #% Monsanto $onne$ted to at least 200%000 sui$ides in &ndia throughout past

de$ade '200 ( #)aila*le online: http:++,,,.naturalne,s.$o-+030913.Monsanto.sui$ides.ht-l #$$essed 5th May 2012

""/ http-..kindling/org/uk.%hat6sustainable6food

" / http-..%%%/un/org.millenniumgoals.poverty/shtml

"#/ (osling, Simon Sustainability the geography perspe0tive, 1ood and Agri0ulture 4referen0e to 0ome %hen published5

Chapter 6: /uildings
:e have looked at ho% engineers 0urrently provide the essentials for life to so0ietyK spe0ifi0ally %ater and food, and the impli0ations for sustainability in ea0h/ &he final ne0essity of humankind is the infrastru0ture to be prote0ted from the elements, a roof over our heads/ &he 0onstru0tion industry is one of the biggest 0onsumers of energy and natural resour0es, as %ell as one of the biggest polluters/ &he trend in buildings has been a%ay from long life design 0hara0terised in the U, by bri0k built Oi0torian building still sturdy after "!! years to Fui0k and 0heap 0on0rete steel and glass designs, %hi0h not only have a high embodied energy, but de0ay relatively Fui0kly/

Some fa0ts about the 0onstru0tion industry-

A large proportion of the global (N$ is spent on buildings Constru0tion and operation of buildings 0onsumes over a third of the %orlds energy and =!S of the %orlds mined resour0es Psee reference "Q

Mn the U, 8uildings are also responsible for_ almost half of U, 0arbon emissions,

_ half of %ater 0onsumption,

_ about one third of landfill %aste and "#S of all ra% materials used in U, e0onomy Psee reference Q

_ 8uildings a00ount for some @ S of total energy use in the U, Psee reference#Q,Psee reference =Q/

Mn the USA buildings 0ontribute to-

_ #!S of ra% materials use

_ #!S of %aste output 4"#? million tons.year5

_ " S of potable %ater 0onsumption Psee reference @Q

&here is 0onsiderable s0ope for affe0ting these national statisti0s by a 0ombination of 0areful design, pro0urement, alteration, refurbishment, repla0ement, use, 0ommissioning and maintenan0e of ne% and e3isting buildings used for %hatever purpose/ see reference P?Q

&his 0hapter %ill e3amine the impa0t of the 0onstru0tion industry on the environmentK the land, energy, %ater and material resour0es it reFuires and the problems arising from their use/ :e %ill then e3amine sustainable building pra0ti0es, %hat %e 0an do to redu0e the footprint of buildings, manage %aste during their 0onstru0tion, ho% to design for less energy use over their lifetime, and the options of redu0ing the energy 0onsumption of e3isting buildings, kno%n as Dretro6fittingE/ 1inally %e %ill look at 0urrent legislation in pla0e in the U, related to sustainable 0onstru0tion pra0ti0es, before e3amining some 0ase studies of sustainable building proGe0ts/

Environmental Impacts of "uildin!s

&he 0on0ept of 7ife Cy0le Analysis %as introdu0ed in Chapter #/ 1igure ?/"/" looks at the 7ife Cy0le Analysis of a building, in0luding the inputs and outputs of the various stages of the materials used for buildingJs life 0y0le Figure % 1 1 7CA of a building

1igure ?/"/" sour0ed from '*8EE under a Creative Commons 7i0en0es Attribution6Non Comme0ial6Share Alike http-..%%%/orbee/org.tea0hing6learning6resour0es/html;vie%<oerareas&e3pand<#S#A @

:e %ill no% e3amine these steps individually, firstly looking at the environmental impa0t of materials, the %aste produ0ed during 0onstru0tion, the energy use during the lifetime of the building and finally demolition/

Environmental Impact of )onstruction +aterials

8uilding and 0onstru0tion a0tivities %orld%ide 0onsume # billion tonnes of ra% materials ea0h year, %hi0h is =!S of total global use/ &he U,Js annual 0onstru0tion output reFuires ")! million tonnes of primary materials and produ0ts, " @ million tonnes of Fuarry produ0ts and )! million tonnes of se0ondary re0y0led and re0laimed produ0ts/ &o manufa0ture and deliver these produ0ts, ? million tonnes of energy are 0onsumed and # million tonnes of C! are emitted 0see reference *2. &he main materials used in 0onstru0tion are steel and 0on0rete, both of %hi0h have a high embodied energy/ &he 0hoi0e of materials and building elements for any building %ill mainly be made on the basis of thermal properties, stru0tural properties and 0ost/ As %ell as the energy impli0ations of the materials, other fa0tors to be 0onsidered in0lude-

the impli0ations of mineral e3tra0tion to derive the basi0 produ0t

the pollution and energy 0onseFuen0es of the manufa0turing.produ0tion pro0ess

to3i0ity of produ0t and 0hemi0als et0/ used in manufa0turing pro0ess e/g/ global %arming potential.oHone depletion potential

%aste issues at all stages of the produ0tion and 0onstru0tion pro0esses

distribution.transport issues

life60y0le and re0y0ling options at the end of its e3pe0ted life

'ne measure often used to measure environmental impa0t is embodied energy/ A number of (reen (uides have been produ0ed that in0lude the above issues and attempt to provide some %eighting on the likely impa0t of all the above 0see reference &2.

)onstruction Waste
Mn the U, appro3imately "#S of material delivered to a 0onstru0tion site go the skip %ithout being used/ Annually, the U, produ0es around =!!million tonnes of %aste of %hi0h ) million 0ome from the 0onstru0tion industry, this is eFuivalent to about "/=@ tonnes for every person in the U,/ Mn the USA by 0omparison, about =S of solid landfill %aste is generated by the 0onstru0tion industry/ Up to >@S of 0onstru0tion %aste is re0y0lable, and most is 0lean and unmi3ed/ 0see reference 12

Above te3t sour0ed from MM& open0ourse%are under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike #/! United States 7i0ense http-..dspa0e/mit/edu.bitstream.handle.") "/".#>"#=."6>?=1all6 !!=.'0%:eb.Civil6and6Environmental6 Engineering."6>?=1all6 !!=.7e0tureNotes.inde3/htm

Figure % # 1 &ypes of 0onstru0tion %aste Psee referen0e )Q

1igure ?/ /" sour0ed from '*8EE under a Creative Commons 7i0en0es Attribution6Non Comme0ial6Share Alike http-..%%%/orbee/org.tea0hing6learning6resour0es/html;vie%<oerareas&e3pand<#S#A @

&he figure above demonstrates that the maGority of 0onstru0tion %aste is 0on0rete/ Not only is this very diffi0ult to re0y0le 4apart from as aggregate for more 0on0rete5 it also has a very high embodied energy/

.peratin! Ener!y for "uildin!s

As %ell as the embodied energy 0ontained in the materials of a building, and that of the pro0esses used to 0onstru0t a building, the main environmental impa0t %ill be the energy used during its lifetime/ &he figure belo% sho%s different s0enarios of energy use over a lifetime of a building 0ompared to the embodied energy

Figure % ! 1 'perating Energy of 8uildings Psee referen0e @Q

1igure ?/=/" sour0ed from MM& open0ourse%are under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike #/! United States 7i0ense http-..dspa0e/mit/edu.bitstream.handle.") "/".#>"#=."6>?=1all6 !!=.'0%:eb.Civil6and6Environmental6 Engineering."6>?=1all6 !!=.7e0tureNotes.inde3/htm

A00ording to the US +epartment of Energy, in the USA buildings a00ount for #)S of primary energy 0onsumption, and ?@S of ele0tri0ity use/ &his is the biggest use, follo%ed by industry %hi0h is #?S and transportation %hi0h is )S/ &his energy use by building a00ounts for #!S of greenhouse gases/ 0see reference 12

Energy is used in buildings for heating, ventilation, lighting and ele0tri0al applian0es used %ithin the building/ &he maGority of the energy use is for spa0e heatingK in fa0t =6)S of a developed nationJs energy 0onsumption is due to heat losses from domesti0 %indo%s alone/ Mn EC 0ountries, at least one Fuarter of the domesti0 heating bill is due to the thermal energy loss through %indo%s be0ause they are the %eakest thermal 0omponent in the e3terior envelope/ 0see reference 12

Some of this energy 0an be redu0ed through behavioural 0hanges 0ondu0ted by the residents of the buildings, su0h as turning the heating do%n, s%it0hing off lights %hen not in rooms, or turning ele0tri0al devi0es off %hen not in use/ Lo%ever a larger amount 0an be redu0ed through effe0tive design of the building to make use of natural resour0es su0h as solar energy and effe0tive insulation, %hi0h %ill be 0overed in the ne3t se0tion/

Laving briefly 0overed the main negative impli0ations of the 0onstru0tion industry, %e %ill no% e3amine sustainable alternatives/

Sustainable "uildin!s Strate!y

Juilding =esearch Establishment 48*E !! 5 published a guide to assist developers %hen identifying sustainability issues, %hi0h in0lude-

7and Use, Urban 1orm and +esign &ransport Energy Mmpa0t of individual buildings Natural resour0es E0ology Community 8usiness

Above te3t sour0ed from '*8EE under a Creative Commons 7i0en0es Attribution6Non Comme0ial6Share Alike http-..%%%/orbee/org.tea0hing6learning6resour0es/html;vie%<oerareas&e3pand<#S#A @

Mt is 0lear that buildings impa0t a range of so0ietal fa0tors in their 0onstru0tion and use/ &he area of green ar0hite0ture is a gro%ing industry and a larger subGe0t to be 0overed in its entirety than 0an be in0luded in this 0hapter/ :e %ill fo0us on 0ertain aspe0ts of green building/

1irstly %e %ill look at designing environmental sustainable buildings by redu0ing their embodied energy in the materials used for 0onstru0tion, and designing for lo% energy use during their lifetime/ Ne3t %e %ill e3amine ho% to redu0e %aste during the 0onstru0tion pro0ess/ 1inally %e %ill e3plore the 0on0ept of DretrofittingE e3isting housing sto0k, that is making alterations to e3isting high energy use houses, and %hether there is a limit to ho% mu0h you 0an do before it be0omes more feasible to kno0k it do%n and start again/ Also in0luded at the end of this se0tion are 0ase studies of e3amples of sustainable buildings/

Sustainable &esi!n * +aterial )hoice

Mmpa0ts of material use outlined 0an be redu0ed in the follo%ing %ays-

)esign for less material use I optimising geometries 0an redu0e the total amount of steel or 0on0rete for e3ample used in the building/

Source local 1 $ur0hasing materials manufa0tured lo0ally %ill avoiding high energy 0osts asso0iated %ith transportation/ As al%ays 0ost %ill be the limiting fa0tor, making it 0heaper in the U, to get the steel from 0hina than from Sheffield/

*se green building materials 1 Mnnovative building designs make use of natural materials su0h as timber, 0lay, or stra% bales/ Not only do these materials have a very lo% embodied energy, they often have good insulation values/ E3amples of su0h building are listed in the further reading se0tion/ Also, using re0y0lable materials %ill in0rease the sustainability of a building proGe0t/

Figure % % 1 $rin0ipals and result of building %ith stra% bales Psee referen0e AQ

1igure ?/?/" sour0ed from Simon +ale/net under a Creative Commons Attribution6Non0ommer0ial6Share Alike #/! 7i0ense http-..%%%/simondale/net.house.stra%/htm

Responsible Sourcing : 1or materials su0h as timber, a 0onsideration should be made as to %here the %ood 0ame from, and %hether it is being repla0ed at a rate eFual or more than that %hi0h it is being e3tra0ts/ *esponsible sour0ing is demonstrated through auditable third party 0ertifi0ation s0hemes, for e3ample the sustainable forestry initiative or the 1SC/

Water 'se
:ater stress and problems %ith %ater have been highlighted in 0hapter =/ Careful building design 0an help to save %ater and use the pre0ious resour0e sparingly/ :ater saving measures are displayed belo%, they in0lude garden %ater butts, underground rain%ater harvesting tank, the use of grey %ater systems, dual flush systems in toilets and redu0ing drips and leaks/

1igure ?/)/" sour0ed from '*8EE under a Creative Commons 7i0en0es Attribution6Non Comme0ial6Share Alike http-..%%%/orbee/org.tea0hing6learning6resour0es/html;vie%<oerareas&e3pand<#S#A @

&esi!n for #ow Ener!y 'se

Mn domesti0 buildings total energy use 0an be broken do%n into 0onsumption for spa0e heating, %ater heating, 0ooking, lighting and small applian0es/ &he largest element of this energy use is for spa0e heating purposes/ A typi0al breakdo%n is illustrated in table ?/)/"/ &he per0entage figures for 0onsumption and for C' differ be0ause the maGority of energy use for spa0e6heating purposes in the domesti0 se0tor is for gas %hilst the remaining 0onsumption is by grid6produ0ed ele0tri0ity/ Table % ; 1 I +omesti0 Energy Use

Although relatively small in absolute terms the 0onsumption of ele0tri0ity for applian0es has 0hanged dramati0ally in re0ent years %ith the in0reased use of 0onsumer goods in most households/ &able ?/)/ sho%s the breakdo%n of 0onsumption in ea0h of a number of 0ategories/

Although relatively small in absolute terms the 0onsumption of ele0tri0ity for applian0es has 0hanged dramati0ally in re0ent years %ith the in0reased use of 0onsumer goods in most households/ &able ?/)/ sho%s the breakdo%n of 0onsumption in ea0h of a number of 0ategories/ Table % ; # I Ele0tri0al Consumption of Lousehold Applian0es

Mn order to provide lo% energy buildings the potential energy losses from a building need to be minimiHed and the potential gains to a building I su0h as that from solar radiation I need to be ma3imiHed/ Mt is also essential that applian0es and building servi0es elements su0h as boilers and %ater heaters are as effi0ient as possible and 0ontrols are provided to support these aims and to fa0ilitate and ensure user satisfa0tion/

0eat <osses Leat 0an be lost from a building through the e3ternal fabri0 and these losses 0an be redu0ed by thermal insulation in any part of the e3ternal elements I the roof, the %alls or the floor/ Most 0ommon building materials have thermal resistan0e properties due to their porosity and the 0onseFuent presen0e of air in the pores/ Most elements are multi6 layered and therefore have thermal resistan0e due to air 0avities bet%een layers/ &e0hni0ally the thermal transmittan0e of any element is represented by its BUC value, measured in :atts.m `C 4a lo% U6value indi0ating better thermal resistan0e5/ A good lo% energy design ne0essitates a 0onsideration of the relative areas and U6values of all the e3ternal building elements in a building in order to minimiHe fabri0 losses/

$it0hed roofs 0an be simply insulated by means of glass fibre or mineral %ool Fuilt laid bet%een and over 0eiling Goists/ An a00eptable U6value for the roof of a property 0onstru0ted in !!? %ould be of the order of !/ @ :.m `C and that %ould reFuire a depth of appro3imately #!!mm of insulation Fuilt in the roof spa0e/

E3ternal %alls are typi0ally multi6layered and 0an be insulated in a number of %ays, bet%een the layers or by the substituting of relatively poor insulators %ith materials of higher thermal resistan0e/ Mn traditional masonry 0onstru0tion the internal blo0k%ork may have to be light%eight and the 0avity may have to be fully filled in order to a0hieve a reasonable U6value/ $erhaps the most straightfor%ard method is to 0hange the method of 0onstru0tion and to use a timber frame solution %ith a heavily insulated internal timber frame and a bri0k%ork e3ternal leaf/ &he U6value for a %all should be a ma3imum of !/#@ :.m `C/

1loors may take one of t%o forms I solid or suspended timber/ Solid 0on0rete floors 0an be insulated belo% the slab, using a non60ompressible insulant, and depending on the 0onstru0tion detail, additionally beneath the floor finish/ Suspended floors 0an be insulated bet%een the timber Goists %ith the insulation, su0h as glass fibre or mineral

%ool, supported by netting draped over the Goists/ A target U6value for a floor %ould be a ma3imum of !/ @ :.m `C/

:indo%s are traditionally the largest thermal bridge in the e3ternal envelope of a building %ith older properties having single glaHed %indo%s %ith timber frames and poor draught6proofing/ &o redu0e heat losses through doors and %indo%s reFuires double or triple glaHed elements, as is 0ommon in S0andinavian 0ountries, as %ell as seals for opening lights and thermal breaks in the surrounding frames/ &raditional %indo%s have a U6value of appro3imately @/) :.m `C and this 0an be improved to less than /! by 0areful design and spe0ifi0ation/

Leat is also lost by means of ventilation and infiltration/ BOentilationC is the 0ontrolled removal of pollutant6laden air and its repla0ement by fresh air/ Mn a domesti0 situation ventilation 0an be natural, through %indo%s, 0himneys, flues and the like or me0hani0al, by means of e3tra0t fans/ BMnfiltrationC is the un0ontrolled movement of air in a building/ Mt 0an arise though gaps in the building fabri0, %hi0h may seem insignifi0ant but may a00ount for up to @!S of the heat loss from a house/

0eat 7ains

Adventitious or BfreeC heating to a building is to be en0ouraged and utiliHed as long as it does not lead to overheating and the 0onseFuent need for 0ooling/ Leat gains are obtained from a number of sour0es I o00upants themselves, any ele0tri0al 0onsumption su0h as for %ater heating, 0ooking, lighting and small applian0es and from solar gain/ Mt is the latter that 0an be the most benefi0ial in overall energy terms/ A design that best utiliHes solar radiation to supplement or repla0e spa0e heating demand is termed BpassiveC solar design I the term Ba0tiveC solar design is generally reserved for systems for %ater heating or photovoltai0s/

$assive solar design takes into a00ount site fa0tors su0h as orientation and layout and the relationship of one house to another adGoining house in order to avoid overshado%ing/ Mt also reFuires a parti0ular 0onsideration of glaHed areas and the 0orre0t siHing and balan0e of glaHing a00ording to orientation and room use/ Sele0tion of glaHing types and shading and the use of thermal mass in a building are also ne0essary in order to redu0e the likelihood of overheating/ (laHed building elements I %indo%s in domesti0 properties and 0urtain %alling in 0ommer0ial properties I provide the best opportunities for ma3imum solar gains but 0onversely are the %orst thermal insulators/ Mt is ne0essary

to 0onsider the net balan0e of energy through su0h elements on a month6by6month basis, parti0ularly to determine likely heating loads a0ross the season and to avoid e30essive summer temperatures/

+uilding Services

Modern heating systems 0omprise a primary heat produ0ing unit I a boiler I and a distribution net%ork, 0omprising pipe%ork and heat emitters su0h as radiators/ Mn domesti0 installations the system is designed and siHed simply to provide suffi0ient heat even in the depths of %inter/ &he system generally provides heating onlyK there is no reFuirement for 0ooling or for ventilation/

8oilers may use a variety of fuel types, in0luding mains gas, oil 4kerosene or gas oil5 or bulk 7$( 4butane or propane5/ Mndependent boilers 0an also be fueled by 0oal, anthra0ite or %ood/ &he key 0onsideration is the design of the heating system in order to operate at optimum load 0onditions and, linked to this, the sele0tion of a boiler %ith high seasonal effi0ien0y/ Mnformation on boiler effi0ien0ies 0an be obtained from manufa0turers or, in the U,, from the SE+8U, 4Seasonal Effi0ien0y of +omesti0 8oilers, U,5 %ebsite/

Condensing boilers are generally more effi0ient boilers, designed to utiliHe the latent heat released by the 0ondensation of %ater vapour in the 0ombustion flue produ0ts/

:ater heating may be provided by the main heating system or it may be supplied using an independent %ater heating system I su0h as an immersion heater in a hot %ater storage 0ylinder/ Some boilers in domesti0 use in the U, are 0ombination or B0ombiC boilers, %hi0h have the 0apa0ity to provide domesti0 hot %ater dire0tly, in some 0ases 0ontaining an internal hot %ater store/

Leating systems may be 0ontrolled in a number of %ays/ Mn the simplest systems a room thermostat is used/ &his is a sensing devi0e that measures the air temperature %ithin the building or in different rooms and s%it0hes the spa0e heating system on or off/ Systems may also in0orporate a time 0lo0k enabling a user to 0hoose one or more BonC periods in a daily or %eekly 0y0le/ &he most sophisti0ated systems %ill have a variety of 0ontrols, in0luding for e3ample, thermostati0 radiator valves 4&*Os5 for ea0h radiator, an e3ternal thermostat for %eather 0ompensation, a boiler thermostat and a programmer/ &hese may all be brought together in a boiler energy manager system/

Rene&able .nergy

At the s0ale of an individual building it is possible to employ a number of te0hnologies to generate energy lo0ally, 0olle0tively kno%n as Bmi0ro6generationC/ 'ptions for rene%able 0onne0ted to a domesti0 building are listed in table ?/A/"

1or a 0omprehensive overvie% of the te0hnology as installed see the Energy Saving &rust report published in September !"!/ http-..%%%/energysavingtrust/org/uk.Media.nodeT"= heat6pumps6
Se0tion ?/A is sour0ed from '*8EE under a Creative Commons 7i0en0es Attribution6Non Comme0ial6Share Alike 7i0ense http-..%%%/orbee/org.tea0hing6learning6resour0es/html;vie%<oerareas&e3pand<#S#A @

.(etting6%armer6a6field6trial6of6

Waste +ana!ement
As outlined in 0hapter #, dealing %ith %aste follo%s a hierar0hy starting %ith the most important measures to redu0e, follo%ed by reuse to finally re0y0le/

Figure % = 1 &he %aste hierar0hy for 0onstru0tion materials Psee referen0e )Q

1igure ?/>/" is sour0ed from '*8EE under a Creative Commons 7i0en0es Attribution6Non Comme0ial6Share Alike 7i0ense http-..%%%/orbee/org.tea0hing6learning6resour0es/html;vie%<oerareas&e3pand<#S#A @

Reduce

&he best %ay of dealing %ith %aste is redu0ing the amount you 0reate in the first pla0e/ &his a0tion is often negle0ted in terms of %aste management, but it is by far the most important/ &he follo%ing are methods of %aste redu0tion-

+esign spe0ifi0ation I &his %ill be most effe0tive in the planning stages of the proGe0t/ A lot of %aste is 0reated by 0utting materials on site to fit a 0ompli0ated design/ &his %aste 0an be redu0ed by 0onsidering %aste %hen designing the proGe0t I designing dimensions to fit available material lengths, simplifying the design and giving thought to the 0onstru0tion type and method/

7aterial <rocurement and Aogistics I Constru0tion %aste arises from ina00urate material orders, 0hanges to the design mid%ay through the proGe0t, or poor storage of materials from badly planned logisti0s/ (enerally, material 0osts have a lo%er priority than labour 0osts so arenCt given as mu0h 0onsiderationK this shouldnCt be the 0ase as material %astage has a high environmental as %ell as e0onomi0 impa0t/ Effe0tive logisti0al planning 0an redu0e these problems/

Eff-3ite 7anufacturing : 'rdering parts of the proGe0t to be built off site before delivery 0an signifi0antly redu0e on6site %aste/ E3amples of this in0lude- pre60ast 0on0rete, light steel frame 0onstru0tion and timber framing/ &he use of timber frame 0onstru0tion has the potential to redu0e on site %astage by =!S 0ompared to traditional 0onstru0tion 4sour0e- :*A$5/

=educe <ackaging I &he 0onstru0tion industry has the highest %aste arising from pa0kaging in all industry se0tors/ &he site manager 0an redu0e this impa0t by 0hoosing materials that have less pa0kaging, buying in bulk and re0y0ling pa0kaging %herever possible/

Reuse

&here are many situations %hen materials 0an be re6used in their ra% form/ *e6using materials doesnCt reFuire energy, so is preferable to re0y0ling/ &he key is to store

materials in good 0ondition on site/ ,eep on good terms %ith the builders mer0hants so you 0an return goods for 0ash/

*a% materials that 0an be re0laimed in0lude timber, tiles and bri0ks/ Sometimes pa0kaging su0h as 0rates 0an be re6used or returned to the supplier/ Mf you donCt need the surplus materials maybe somebody else does/ &he proGe0t manager must 0onsider-

:hat materials 0an be re6used %ithin their proGe0t;

:hat %asted materials from their proGe0t 0ould be re6used else%here;

&herefore they must have kno%ledge of %here to obtain se0ond hand materials 4e/g/ re0laimed timber yards5, as %ell as %here to take their un%anted reusable materials/

E,am-les of reusing materials4

&opsoil 0an be re0laimed and re6used for lands0aping or as 0ompost on0e all the ne0essary tests 4for physi0al properties, 0hemi0al 0omposition and moisture 0ontent5 have been 0arried out/

8ri0ks 4e/g/ from an old Oi0torian house5 that are still stru0turally sound 0an be reused in 0ertain types of 0onstru0tion and 0an sometimes fet0h a high resale pri0e/ *e0laimed timber 0an often be used for an assortment of Gobs/

Recycle

Many materials 0an be either re0y0led on site or sent a%ay to be re0y0led/ / An e3ample of on6site re0y0ling is breaking up old 0on0rete or rubble to use as aggregate or hard0ore/ &he key to making %aste ready to be re0y0led is segregation- the on6site sorting of materials before 0olle0tion for re0y0ling/ &he follo%ing are e3amples of labels that 0an be used for bins on site to sort %aste-

&here are online databases %hi0h list all the re0y0ling fa0ilities near the 0onstru0tion site/ Mt %ill be the Gob of the site manager to 0onta0t these re0y0ling 0ompanies and se0ure pi0k up and transportation of the separated %aste from site to be re0y0led/ 8elo% are some links to e3amples of su0h databases-

-ood6 %%%/re0y0le%ood/org/uk 7lass6 %%%/re0y0leglass/org/uk 2lasterboard6 http-..%%%/%rap/org/uk.0onstru0tion.plasterboard.plasterboardT=/html Aggregates- http-..%%%/aggregain/org/uk.supplierTdire0tory.inde3/html

%etrofit Existin! "uildin! Stoc/

Using the suggestions above %hen designing ne% houses 0an make a big differen0e in redu0ing the environmental impa0t of the 0onstru0tion industry/ Lo%ever, ne% buildings a00ount for a very small per0entage of energy 0osts in developed 0ountries/ :ith this in mind, 0onsiderations must be made to the e3isting housing sto0k, and %hat 0an be done to redu0e the environmental impa0t of these buildings/

Many of the building in the U, %ere 0onstru0ted during the Oi0torian period, during %hi0h ar0hite0ts employed su00essful methods for solid, long life buildings, but not %ith s0ar0e energy resour0es or sustainability fa0tors in mind/ Mn fa0t, 0oal %as the main energy sour0e so many buildings %ere designed to be heated %ith a 0oal burner in ea0h room/ Also very little insulation %as employed, as the plentiful supply of 0oal didnJt reFuire energy saving measures/ As a result, many of these old building are under6 insulated, and %aste a huge amount of energy/ Measures to redu0e the impa0t of these old buildings are kno%n as Dretro6fittingE and are outlined belo%/

;raft <roofing

Leat is lost through draughty %indo%s and other gaps in the building envelope/ Stopping these leaks %ill keep the heat inside the house and redu0e the energy needed to keep it %arm/ Mnstalling double glaHing 4or se0ondary glaHing5 is one measure to a0hieve this, as %indo%s are %here the greatest amount of heat is lost/ Lo%ever one must %eigh up the insulation benefits of the double glaHing to the embodied energy and to3i0ity of U$OC %hi0h is used to make the %indo% frames/

%nsulation

Leat is lost through solid %alls/ &his 0an be redu0ed by adding insulation to the e3isting %alls/ Mnternal insulation 0an be mounted onto interior %alls, but %ill redu0e the overall spa0e/ E3ternal insulation is a possibility, %here insulating panels are mounted to e3ternal %alls/ Mn houses that have an inner and outer %all in the building envelope, 0avity %all insulation 0an be put in, %hi0h involves pumping insulating material into the gaps bet%een the t%o %alls/ 7oft insulation prevents heat loss through the roof/ &here

are many government s0hemes to en0ourage people to save energy by insulating their homes/

#eating 3 stem D-grade

'ften the most 0ost effe0tive solution 0an be to repla0e the heating system %ith an effi0ient boiler or thermostat, %hi0h %ill redu0e the gas used to heat the house by in0reasing heating effi0ien0y/

&he 0ost and embodied energy of retrofitting must be %eighed in %ith 0ost and energy savings resulting in their implementation/ Some argue that there is only so mu0h that 0an be done %ith the e3isting housing sto0k, and a more su00essful ta0ti0 %ould be to kno0k them do%n and start again/

Many measures su0h as putting up thi0k 0urtains, turning do%n the thermostat and %earing %arm Gumpers 0an be employed by residents of domesti0 properties to redu0e their houses energy use/

No% %at0h the follo%ing ! minute video about green buildings, %hi0h introdu0es more green building te0hniFues su0h as green roofs, integrated $O %indo%s, permeable paving, bamboo flooring, aerated 0on0rete blo0ks, and insulation innovations/

http-..%ebpages/uidaho/edu.sustainability.0hapters.0h!=.0h!=6p!#/asp

#e!islation
Mn the U, the system of 0ontrol on the design of all ne% domesti0 properties is 0overed by the 8uilding *egulations 0see reference I2/ Ne%, more onerous standards 0ame into for0e in !!? reFuiring an overall redu0tion in energy 0onsumption of some AS on previous standards/ &he regulations reFuire target U6values for building elements/ U, Louses no% reFuire pressure6testing to ensure that heat losses through infiltration have been kept to an a00eptable level and that the house has been 0onstru0ted to the same standard to %hi0h it %as designed/ &he method of demonstrating 0omplian0e %ith the ne% regulations is by means of a simple building energy model 4a Standard Assessment $ro0edure 4SA$5 0al0ulation 0see reference !@25 that provides ma3imum target energy 0onsumption measured in k:h.m . per annum and C' emissions per m per annum/ &he system is intended to be relatively easy for the 0onsumer to understand resulting in a band of values ranging from ! to "!! %ith "!! being the most energy effi0ient/ 8uilding energy 0ertifi0ates are reFuired to be displayed from !!), based on the SA$ 0al0ulations and in a00ordan0e %ith the EU Energy $erforman0e of 8uildings +ire0tive 0see reference !!2/ &hese are likely to be along similar lines to those already adopted for domesti0 applian0es su0h as fridges and freeHers I a band from ( through to A %ith A being the most energy effi0ient/

&he 1eed in &ariffs 41it5 is a rene%able energy subsidy announ0ed in !"!/ &he feed in tariff aimed parti0ularly at $O and %ind turbines provide a strong finan0ial in0entive to install rene%able te0hnologies/ At the domesti0 level for e3ample energy suppliers %ill pay =#p 4redu0ed in Mar0h !" to #p5 per k: for rene%able ele0tri0ity from a domesti0 $O installation %hilst the going rate for grid ele0tri0ity is "#p/ &his generous subsidy, based on the (erman model, is aimed at stimulating supply and generating e0onomies of s0ale/ At the time of %riting 4spring !" 5, the 1i& has stimulated a s0ramble for domesti0 and 0ommer0ial $O installations, and is soon to be redu0ed again/

)ase Studies
&he follo%ing are 0ase studies of building proGe0ts that have used the sustainable pra0ti0es outlined above/ 'bviously not all of the methods used in some of the e3amples %ould be suitable on a mass s0ale, but sustainability is about a mi3 of solutions and ea0h listed here provide an inspiration for ideas/

The +righton .arthship http-..%%%/lo%0arbon/0o/uk.earthship6brighton A lo% impa0t d%elling in0orporating stra% bale, %aste materials, and passive solar design/

+eddington >ero .nergy 2ro?ect A housing 0omple3 in 7ondon that is run entirely on rene%able energy and employs many measures to en0ourage a sustainable lifestyle for residents http-..en/%ikipedia/org.%iki.8ed]E+

<ammas An e0o6village 0ommunity of families living in self built lo% impa0t houses, all of %hi0h employ natural building materials http-..%%%/lammas/org/uk.

Nottingham *niversity <o& .nergy +uilding &he s0hool of the built environment at Nottingham University has designed and built several lo% energy building on the University $ark 0ampus http-..%%%/energy/nottingham/a0/uk.Energy6*esear0h.7o%6Energy68uildings/html

Summary
&he 0onstru0tion industry %orld%ide is one of the biggest polluters and resour0e 0onsumers/ Mt is a se0tor that invites a huge amount of finan0ial investment, and employs a large number of people/ Everybody on the earth reFuires a pla0e to live, and the 0onstru0tion industry strives to provide this servi0e/

Currently, materials used in 0onstru0tion are being 0onsumed at an unsustainable rate, the energy used for 0reating the materials is having detrimental effe0ts on the environment and the fossil fuels used to 0reate this energy are running out/ &he large amounts of %aste 0reated by the 0onstru0tion industry is affe0ting e0osystems and taking up spa0e in landfill/ Energy used during the lifetime of a building is greater than that used during its 0onstru0tion, and has asso0iated problems/

Measures 0an be taken to redu0e the impa0ts of building, firstly by designing them to make use of natural or re0y0lable materials, optimising natural gains and minimising energy use during their lifetime by redu0ing heat loss, installing %ater saving devi0es, and employing rene%able energy devi0es/ :aste during 0onstru0tion 0an be redu0ed by initiating a %aste management plan implementing the %aste hierar0hy of redu0e, re6use re0y0le/

&he green building industry is gro%ing fast, as legislation is for0ing ar0hite0ts to design for sustainable 0onstru0tion, and the problems %ith traditional building te0hniFues are be0oming apparent/ A re6think of our methods for inhabitation is reFuired to sustainably house the %orlds gro%ing population/

Further %eadin!
E-en =esources in Juilt Environment Education http-..%%%/orbee/org. <assivhaus . energ -erformance standards for buildings http-..%%%/passivhaus/org/uk. DB Timber 8rame Association . building with wood http-..uktfa/0om. 3traw Jale Juildings http-..%%%/stra%bale6building/0o/uk The Centre for Alternative Technolog offer a masters in Advanced Environmental and Energ 3tudies, which has a focus on sustainable building -ractices

http-..gse/0at/org/uk.ms06ar0hite0ture6advan0ed6environmental6and6energy6studies

%eferences
!. Straube, 2/, 4 !!@5 ?reen Juilding and 3ustainabilit 8uilding S0ien0e +igest !!@

/ +8E** 4 !!)5 ;raft 3trateg for 3ustainable Construction 7ondon, +epartment for 8usiness, Enterprise and *egulatory *eform

#/ L M (overnment, 'ur energy future I 0reating a lo% 0arbon e0onomy, Cm @)?", +epartment of &rade and Mndustry, &he Stationery 'ffi0e, 7ondon, !!#/

=/ L M (overnment, &he Energy Challenge I Energy *evie% *eport !!?, Cm ?AA), +epartment of &rade and Mndustry, &he Stationery 'ffi0e, 7ondon, !!?/

1. Echsendorf, >. 3ustainable ;esign4 The role of the construction industr available at http-..ebookbro%se/0om.le0 60onstru0tion6pdf6d>)=@##?# A00essed "=th Mar0h

?/ Lolmes, 2/ and Capper, (/, 7': CA*8'N +ESM(N, Northumbria University http-..%%%/orbee/org.tea0hing6learning6resour0es/html; vie%<oerareas&e3pand<#S#A @ A00essed "st Mar0h )/8radley, 2/ Sutainable 0onstru0tion, http-..%%%/orbee/org.tea0hing6learning6resour0es/html; vie%<oerareas&e3pand<#S#A @ A00essed "st Mar0h

A/ +ale, S/ 8uilding %ith Stra% 8ale, http-..%%%/simondale/net.house.stra%/htm A00essed "st Mar0h

>/8 building *egulations !!!, Approved do0ument 7"A I Conservation of fuel and po%er in ne% d%ellings, *M8A 8ookshops, 7ondon, !!?/

"!/ &he (overnmentCs Standard Assessment $ro0edure for Energy *ating of +%ellings, !!@ Edition, +efray, !!@/

!!. Euro-ean < <arliament and Council ;irective *@@*KI!KEC4 Energ <erformance of Juildings Lolmes, 2/ and Capper, (/, 7': CA*8'N +ESM(N, Northumbria University

http-..%%%/orbee/org.tea0hing6learning6resour0es/html; vie%<oerareas&e3pand<#S#A @

Chapter 7: 0o$ial 1i-ensions o2 0ustaina*ility and Engineering

So far the fo0us of this module has been on the environmental impa0ts of human progress, and the sustainability issued raised by them/ Lo%ever, it is important to be reminded that an engineerCs duty foremost is to so0iety, and that engineers 0an have a part to play in %orking to%ards solutions to so0ial as %ell as environmental problems/ &his 0hapter %ill firstly outline so0ial issues firstly related to ineFuality bet%een nations %ithin the %orld, and the asso0iated problems arising from these su0h as poverty in less e0onomi0ally developed 0ountries/ Mt %ill then e3plore so0ial issues fa0ing more e0onomi0ally developed 0ountries, before looking at the links bet%een the t%o and ho% globalisation has had a part to play/ 7inks bet%een 0limate 0hange, poverty, globalisation and engineering %ill then be outlined, before finally looking at suggestions for ho% engineering 0an assist in progressing so0ial issues to%ards a more sustainable future/

B'ur 0olle0tive 0hallenge I governments, the private se0tor, humanitarian organiHations, 0ivil so0iety groups and others I is to remedy a gross violation of the most basi0 rights I to 0lean %ater, adeFuate food, basi0 health 0are I that 0urrently leads to millions of 0hildren and %omen dying annually from easily preventable 0auses/ &his is a moral imperative/ Every 0hild %ho dies in e3treme poverty represents an una00eptable loss of human potential/C

+ean Lirs0h, !!A, the $resident of :orld Oision Mnternational Psee reference

above te3t sour0ed from &he 'pen University under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike /! 7i0en0e http-..%%%/open/edu.openlearn.so0iety.international6development.international6studies.%ill6the6poor6be6 al%ays6us

Ine0uality and Poverty

Mf the misery of the poor be 0aused not by the la%s of nature, but by our institutions, great is our sin 6 Charles +ar%in Psee reference @Q

&he 8runtland reportCs definition of sustainability Dmeeting the needs of the present %ithout 0ompromising the needs of the futureE Psee reference ?Q implies intergenerational eFuality, and this 0on0ept of eFuality 0an therefore be applied to so0iety in the present generation/ Using eFuality as a measure of sustainability therefore, it 0an be observed through the follo%ing figures that so0ially %e are far from a0hieving a sustainable system/

&he figure belo% sho%s a %orld map and highlights the per0entage of people living on less than "/ @ dollars per day/ &he figure of "/ @ dollar is used by the UN as an e0onomi0 line under %hi0h people are des0ribed as living in poverty/ &he map sho%s a huge divide over the %orld, %ith most of Afri0a living in poverty and most of the Ndeveloped NorthN having poverty levels of under S/

7imited a00ess to money usually implies people living in poverty do not have a00ess to basi0 %ater and sanitation fa0ilities, lo% nutrition levels, la0k of a00ess to edu0ation and a very poor Fuality of life/ &he amount of people living %ithout these basi0 fa0ilities for life is alarming 0ompared %ith the lu3uries and e30esses enGoyed by the maGority of the populations in more e0onomi0ally developed 0ountries/

Another %ay of looking at the divide is 0omparing (ross +omesti0 $rodu0t 4(+$5 4ho% %ealthy a nations is5 and their average life e3pe0tan0y, %hi0h is a rough measure of the health of a nation/ &his is displayed in the figure belo% and again the spread is remarkable/

Figure 4 1 # 1igure )/"/ is not 0learly visible on a ,indle devi0e due to resiHing issues/ Mf you %ish to vie% this figure, please visit the link belo%/ http-..%%%/gapminder/org.do%nloads.gapminder6%orld6map

Mt 0an be seen that an in0rease in %ealth is generally follo%ed by an in0rease in health, but the primary observation from the figure is the %ide distribution throughout the nations of the %orld/ :ith this level of ineFuality 0urrently so0iety is a long %ay off from being 0alled NsustainableN/

(+$ is a measure of ho% mu0h money a nation spends, but is not ne0essarily a measure of the 0ountries %ealth, as it %ill in0lude money spent on hospitals, poli0ing, pollution 0ontrol and %eapons/ An in0rease in 0ar 0rashes, violent 0rime, 0leaning up an oil spill or going to %ar %ill all in0rease a 0ountries (+$, but does not represent a better Fuality of life/

.5ercise

(o to http-..%%%/gapminder/org.%orld and vie% the graph Nhealth and %ealth of nationsN %hi0h sho%s ho% these figures for (+$ and life e3pe0tan0y have 0hanged over time/ &here are several datasets %hi0h you 0an vie%, in0luding poverty rates, a00ess to %ater, LMO rates and de6forestry/ Mt is in an interesting depi0tion of %orld statisti0s and sho%s 0learly the la0k of eFuity present in the %orld/

&he ne3t figure ta0kles a similar 0on0ept but instead of (+$ looks at the e0ologi0al footprint, and instead of life e3pe0tan0y looks at the Luman +evelopment Mnde3 4L+M5/ &he e0ologi0al footprint is a 0on0ept introdu0ed in the first 0hapter of this module, and is measure of resour0e 0onsumption in terms of land use measured in he0tares per person reFuired for that lifestyle/ Mt is a %ay of pi0turing %hether a 0onsumption rate is sustainable in terms of number of planets needed if everybody on the earth had the same level of 0onsumption/ Marked on the graph is the red line for " planet, or /" he0tares per person/

&he Luman +evelopment Mnde3 %as devised by the UN+$ in an attempt to a find a better Fuantifier of Fuality of lifeK it takes into a00ount life e3pe0tan0y, litera0y, edu0ation and standards of living/

Mt 0an be seen that a relatively high measure of human %elfare 0an be obtained %ith a 0omparatively small e0ologi0al footprint 4e/g Cuba5/ After this point 0onsuming more resour0es does not improve your Fuality of life by a large amount/ Another important

observation to take from this graph, apart from the spread bet%een the 0ountries, is the number of 0ountries 0urrently 0onsuming more than the EarthJs 0arrying 0apa0ity, and the degree to %hi0h this limit has been surpassed in the 0ase of the most resour0e hungry nations 4e/g/ USA5/

&he ineFualities are linkedK poor nations are often poor be0ause they have been e3ploited by the ri0her nationsK and international trade rules e3ist to perpetuate this system- by making money in one part of the %orld you are taking money from another/ A game of 0onsolidation of po%er through 0apitalism is in progress %here generally the ri0h get ri0her and the poor get poorer/

No% read the follo%ing e3tra0t from a blog post by *i0hard Skellington %hi0h highlights the disparities bet%een the ri0h and poor-

Mn times like these the %ords of !!? Nobel $riHe %inner Muhammad 9unus ring true-

Bpoverty has been 0reated by the e0onomi0 and so0ial system that %e have designed for the %orld/ Mt is the institutions that %e have built and feel so proud of, %hi0h 0reated poverty for them/ &%o months ago the :orld 8ank %arned that the %orldCs poor %ere far greater in numbers than they first estimated/ &he 8ank shifted the poverty line from a dollar a day to a dollar t%enty five 0ents/ Mt is amaHing %hat adding a BFuarterC does to the proGe0tions- a mere @ 0ents plunges a further @!! million people in the developing %orld into poverty/ &hus it %as that the :orld 8ankCs ne% estimate of its poor rose in August from >A@ million people to "/= billion people/ &his ne% estimate does not take into a00ount the re0ent in0reases in food and fuel pri0es/

Mn early '0tober, %hen +i0k 1uld the 0hief e3e0utive of 7ehman 8rothers 6 the investment bank %hose 0ollapse did so mu0h to trigger the 0risis in %orld finan0ial systems 6 %as FuiHHed by Congressional leaders, he did not spare a thought for those billion people living in the %orld today on around a dollar a day/ No/ Le talked about his 0ompensation pa0kage/ +efending a00usations of a R@!! million dollar pay off he 0ontested its siHe- N&he R@!!m number is not a00urate, although it is still a large number,N he told an angry Congress hearing/ :ait a minute, @!! million dollarsa &hat is one dollar for every human being in the developing %orld %ho have no% been added to the poverty inde3/

(iven the in0rease in %orld population, the rate of %orld poverty has fallen substantially from @!S to @S over the past @ years/ 8ut the number of people in poverty has in0reased/ Mn Afri0a, bet%een ">A" and !!@, the number of people in poverty rose from !! million to #A! million, %ith the average poor person living on around )! 0ents a day/

Unlike other regions of the %orld, the rate of Afri0an poverty has remained the same, around @!S of the 0ontinentCs population remained in poverty in !!@, 0ompared to ">A"/ Mn Asia, ho%ever, the rate of poverty has fallen sin0e ">A", from ?!S to =!S/ Asia is home to @>@ million people living in povertyK =@@ million of its poor live in Mndia/ Mn China, poverty has fallen dramati0ally, from A#@ million in ">A" to !) million people in !!@/ Mts rate of poverty fell massively from A@Sto "@S/ &he :orld 8ank estimate that China alone almost a00ounted for all the redu0tion in %orld poverty sin0e ">A"/

:orld poverty, e30luding China, dropped from = out of "! people to # out of "! people during the same period/ A00ording to the :orld 8ank the %orld is still on tra0k to halve the ">>! poverty rate by !"@/ 8ut at the 0urrent rate of progress, about a billion people %ill still live belo% R"/ @ a day in !"@, and some areas, su0h as Sub Saharan Afri0a, %ill be a0utely affe0ted/ P&he :orld 8ankJs A ne% poverty line of R"/ @ per day in !!@ is eFuivalent to its R" per day poverty line introdu0ed in ">A" after adGustment for inflation/Q

Else%here, espe0ially in those middle in0ome 0ountries %here the :orld 8ank uses a poverty line of R a day the poverty rate has indeed fallen/ 7atin Ameri0a, the Middle East and North Afri0a have improved but not enough to bring do%n their total number of poor/ &he R a day poverty rate has in0reased in Eastern Europe and Central Asia though these areas sho%ed some small signs of progress sin0e the late ">>!s/

:e live in a %orld in %hi0h ten 0hildren die every minute from malnutrition, %here "!/) million 0hildren never live to see their fifth birthday, and %here = out of "! human beings have no a00ess to basi0 sanitation/ &hese are all avoidable statisti0s/

Meeting the United NationsC > millennium goal to halve the proportion of people in the %orld %ithout a00ess to 0lean %ater %ould 0ost R= billion dollars a year for the ne3t de0ade/ 1our billion dollars is roughly %hat EuropeCs population spends ea0h month on bottled %ater/

*i0hard Skellington Psee reference "!Q

&he above figures and blog e3tra0t serve to illustrate the point that sustainability is as mu0h about humanity as it is the environmentK a 0ornerstone of the sustainability triangle is Nso0ialN, and the 0entral ethi0 of the so0ial paradigm is eFuity/ 1rom the figures presented it 0an be seen that a large proportion of the %ealth is held by a small proportion of the population, and in 0omparison a large amount of the %orldJs population survive on very little/

Social Problems in more economically developed countries

'ur enormously produ0tive e0onomy demands that %e make 0onsumption our %ay of life, that %e 0onvert the buying and use of goods into rituals, that %e seek our spiritual satisfa0tion, our ego satisfa0tion, in 0onsumption/// %e need things 0onsumed, burned up, repla0ed and dis0arded at an ever6a00elerating rate/

Oi0otr 7ebo% 4">>@5 Psee reference ""Q

As %ell as so0ial problems relating to sustainability being present in less e0onomi0ally developed 0ountries as outlined above, the rise in in0ome and te0hnologi0al advan0es have also 0aused so0ial problems of a very different nature in more e0onomi0ally developed 0ountries/ Although the population of the ri0her 0ountries may have a00ess to 0lean %ater, health 0are and shelter, other problems have arrived spe0ifi0ally %ith the in0rease %ealth and asso0iated te0hnology implemented by the rise of engineering kno%ledge/

&he general trend of in0reased %ealth has been that of in0reased 0onsumption 6 of food, fossil fuels, materials and goods/ &he environmental impa0ts of this in0reased 0onsumption have been 0overed in previous 0hapters, but there are so0ial problems too/ 1irstly, the pursuit of %ealth as the primary 0on0ern for individuals leads to in0reased stress, breakdo%n of family and 0ommunity and a spiritual 0hasm/ *ates of divor0e are rapidly in0reasing in more e0onomi0ally developed 0ountries and families are not as 0lose as in previous generations, as 0hildren %ill be more likely to move a%ay from parental homes seeking e0onomi0 betterment/

A general trend is of individualism, %here people pla0e themselves at the 0entre of importan0e %hi0h 0an lead to mistrust of others, fear, and isolation/ Mental illness is also on the rise in more e0onomi0ally developed 0ountries and it 0ould be argued that this isolation is one 0ontributing fa0tor/

Lealth issues %ere 0overed in the food 0hapterK 0ases of diabetes, obesity, heart atta0ks and 0an0ers are all on the rise, 0aused by poor lifestyle asso0iated %ith ri0h and e30essive food and la0k of e3er0ise often attributed to 0omputer addi0tion or te0hnologi0al innovation redu0ing physi0al a0tivity/

$eople are generally less 0onne0ted and have less kno%ledge about natureK 0hildren often do not kno% %here food 0omes from further than the supermarket/ &he maGority of the population live in 0ities surrounded by 0on0rete and have a la0k of a00ess to green spa0e/

&he follo%ing passage sums up %hat %e should be aiming for but are still far a%ay from-

4:e need to5 *e0ognise that people hunger for a %orld that has meaning and loveK for a sense of aliveness, energy and authenti0ityK for a life embedded in a 0ommunity in %hi0h they are valued for %ho they deeply are, %ith all their %ants and limitations, and feel genuinely seen and re0ognisedK for a sense of 0ontributing to the goodK and for a life that is about something more than Gust money and a00umulating material goods/

Globalisation * The "lurin! of the &ivide

&he above definitions of Nmore e0onomi0ally developedN 0ountries and Nless e0onomi0ally developedN 0ountries do not imply a dire0t split throughout the %orld/ :ithin ea0h 0ountry there are divides bet%een ri0h and poor/ &he in0rease in trade, spread of politi0s and ideas internationally has blurred the divide bet%een these definitions/ &his mass e30hange of money, pollution, goods, population and ideas is termed as NglobalisationN and has dramati0ally 0hanged the so0ial profile of the %orld, and is 0ontinuing to do so/

&he follo%ing passage gives four threads or themes of impli0ations of globalisation-

"/ E0onomi0- &he flo%s of money, goods and servi0es around the %orld/ Mn any hour of any day, you 0an be reminded of this by a glan0e at the labels on the produ0ts you use, or at ne%s reports of a 0ompany shifting its plant from one part of the %orld to another 4usually 0heaper5 lo0ation/ Although the %orld has seen unpre0edented %ealth 0reated via e0onomi0 globalisation, it has also seen ineFualities %iden/ Mn0reasingly interdependent global e0onomi0 stru0tures present a huge 0hallenge to attempts to redu0e greenhouse gas emissions/

/ $oliti0al- &he flo% of ideas, ideologies and politi0al systems/ &he pro0ess of globalisation has disseminated free market 0apitalist orthodo3y I generally allied to demo0rati0 systems of government I throughout the %orld/ :ith these pro0esses has 0ome gro%th in the environmental and so0ial movements/ Conventions on 0limate 0hange, biodiversity and trade agreements, shaped by, among others, global rather than national net%orks 4patterns of intera0tion5 of s0ien0e, business and N(' interests, are tangible e3pressions of this politi0al globalisation/ (lobalisation sees longer 4and usually more 0omple35 0hains of 0ause and effe0t established/ Mt is often pointed out that %e donJt have %ell6 established institutions of global governan0e/ &hey 0ertainly 0anJt yet 0laim to mat0h the pa0e and e3tent of e0onomi0 globalisation/

#/ So0ial.0ultural- &he flo% of so0ial pra0ti0es and 0ultural produ0ts/ &his is often 0hara0terised as BM0+onaldisationC I the relentless spread of %estern 4espe0ially Ameri0an5 0ulture/ Lo%ever, these flo%s also in0lude 0ounter60urrents, su0h as the global fame or notoriety of the 1ren0h anti6 globalisation 0ampaigner and farmer 2oseph 8ovY, and the Mndian author and environmentalist Arundhati *oy/

Some authors argue that the emergent Bglobal 0ultureC allo%s the development of a politi0al and ethi0al underpinning for sustainable development/

. E0ologi0al (lobal- movements of spe0ies, spe0ifi0ally in tandem %ith globalisation

human a0tivities of development, trade and tourism/ $ubli0ity about global flo%s of pollutants in the ">?!s and ">)!s drove many people to support environmentalism/ More re0ently, oHone depletion and 0limate 0hange represent perhaps the most dramati0 eviden0e of globalised and linked pro0esses of environmental 0hange/

Above te3t sour0ed from &he 'pen University under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike /! 7i0en0e http-..openlearn/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<#>>#@>&se0tion<"/

(lobalisation has both positive and negative effe0ts on the so0ial systems of the %orld/ Mn some %ays it enhan0es the grip of the poor to keep them in poverty through international markets, in others it offers a 0han0e for the mass spread of ideas and kno%ledge %hi0h 0ould bridge the divide bet%een the ri0h and poor/ Mt is a 0entral 0on0ept linked to all other themes e3plored in this moduleK some of these linkages %ill be e3plored ne3t/

)limate )han!e Poverty Globalisation and En!ineerin! #in/a!es

&here are links bet%een all of the themes dis0ussed so far, and engineering is a 0entral aspe0t %hi0h applies to these topi0s/

Above table reprodu0ed %ith permission by +r +ouglas 8ourn, Mnstitute of Edu0ation/

1or ea0h of the blue bo3es above, %rite do%n as many fa0tors that you 0an think of that apply to the highlighted impa0t/ 1or e3ample an impa0t of 0limate 0hange on poverty is that the areas affe0ted by 0limate 0hange are often %ere the poorest people live 4e/g/ desertifi0ation in Afri0a5/ Conversely an impa0t of poverty on 0limate 0hange is that poor people 0annot afford to have environmental 0on0erns, for0ing them to 0onsume natural resour0es su0h as trees to stay alive/ 8elo% are listed the four aspe0ts 40limate 0hange, poverty, globalisation and engineering5 and for ea0h are listed important fa0tors of ho% they are linked to ea0h other/ &he information is taken from N&he (lobal Engineer 6 Mn0orporating global skills %ithin U, higher edu0ation of engineersN a report funded by the +epartment for Mnternational +evelopment and %ritten by Engineers Against $overty and the Mnstitute of Edu0ation, University of 7ondon/ Mt is reprodu0ed here %ith permission from the authors/

)limate )han!e #in/a!es and Impacts

(mpact of climate change on poverty $oor hit earliest and hardest %ith the least 0apa0ity to adapt/ Climate 0hange may lead to 7oss of habitats & biodiversity 7oss of livelihoods.ne% opportunities, Mn0reased freFuen0y. severity of natural disasters, flooding and e3treme %eather :ater s0ar0ity and desertifi0ation Confli0t, 0ivil unrest and migration Lealth impa0ts and food inse0urity Comple3 trade6offs- e/g/ biofuels 0ould boost or undermine livelihoods of poor, 0arbon markets 0ould redu0e or entren0h poverty

(mpact of climate change on globalisation &he impa0ts of 0arbon trading and the shift to%ards a lo% 0arbon e0onomy espe0ially in energy, transport, foodstuffs, manufa0turing, 0onstru0tion and tourism markets 7o0alisation of supply 0hains and markets due to higher transport 0osts Mn0reased risk, un0ertainty and market volatility, disruption to agri0ulture and infrastru0ture 1ailure to address 0limate 0hange undermines global e0onomy and support for globalisation pro0ess

(mpact of climate change on engineering Ne% markets and opportunities in rene%able energy, alternative fuels, energy 0onservation and %aste redu0tion Ne% resear0h.innovation opportunities +isaster preparedness and relief and post disaster re0onstru0tion 7o% 0arbon e0onomy espe0ially in energy, infrastru0ture and 0onstru0tion markets

Poverty #in/a!es and Impacts

(mpact of poverty on climate change 1arming, energy, transport, urbanisation and development 0hoi0es of developing nations are 0ru0ial if global C! redu0tion targets are to be met espe0ially in rapidly industrialising 0ountries 48raHil, *ussia, Mndia and China5 (lobal 0arbon trading and emissions targets must re0ognise the needs and rights of the poor and the obligations of the industrialised nations (mpacts of poverty on globalisation &he responsibility to a0t ethi0ally, 0ontribute to poverty redu0tion and involve poor in de0ision making is be0oming re0ognised by global 0orporations 1ailure to a0t responsibly or to address poverty undermines support for 0urrent models of globalisation (lobalisation 0riti0ised by international development and trade reformers

(mpact of poverty on engineering *eFuires lo% 0ost solutions that are appropriate to 0ultural, politi0al, so0ial and e0onomi0 environment *eFuires parti0ipation of the poor and lo0al kno%ledge +eveloping 0ountries are often high risk.high return markets

Globalisation #in/a!es and Impact

(mpact of globalisation on climate change Mnternational supply 0hains in0rease energy and transport impa0ts *edu0ed produ0tion 0osts in0rease %aste and 0onsumerism fuelling 0arbon emissions environmental impa0ts displa0ed to less developed 0ountries

(mpact of globalisation on poverty So0ial, legal and environmental safeguards often lo%er in less developed 0ountries 'ffers e0onomi0 opportunities espe0ially in natural resour0es and agri0ulture, tourism, manufa0turing and fair trade goods less developed 0ountries 47+Cs5 e0onomies vulnerable to 0apital flight and brain drain, trade rules disadvantage 7+Cs and undermine national sovereignty

(mpact of globalisation on engineering (ro%th in 7+C markets espe0ially in utilities, infrastru0ture and e3tra0tive industries Mnternational supply 0hains promote te0hnology transfer and standardised systems (ro%th in labour mobility, a00ess to kno%ledge

En!ineerin! #in/a!es and Impacts

(mpact of engineering on climate change &ransport, energy, agri0ulture, infrastru0ture and manufa0turing 0hoi0es determine impa0ts Engineering and innovation key to mitigation and adapt ion Engineering key to disaster preparedness and re0onstru0tion

(mpact of engineering on poverty Engineering key to providing pro6poor energy, transport, shelter, health and %ater produ0ts and servi0es $latform infrastru0ture and te0hnologies provide an enabling environment for gro%th Engineering supply 0hains and te0hnology transfer offer poverty redu0tion opportunities (mpact of engineering on globalisation Engineering kno%ledge and innovation espe0ially in transport, energy manufa0turing and MC& are the drivers behind e0onomi0 integration and globalisation Sustainability and 0limate 0hange %ill for0e a revised model of engineering and globalisation &he (lobal Engineer Psee reference "=Q
Above te3t sour0ed from eprints 48ourn, +/ and Neal, 7/ 4 !" 554*eprodu0ed %ith permission5 http-..eprints/ioe/a0/uk.A#>.

Steps Forward for Solutions to Social Problems

As %ith the environmental problems listed previously in this module, there is no silver bullet for the so0ial problems highlighted/ &hree suggestions are outlined belo%- the first is appropriate te0hnology, or form of engineering to assist people living in poverty/ &he se0ond, fair trade, a method of ensuring farmers in less e0onomi0ally developed 0ountries obtain a fair pri0e for their produ0e/ &he final method advo0ated is edu0ation in both less and more e0onomi0ally developed 0ountries/

Appropriate Technolo!y
E3tra0t from an essay by Mi0hael Clifford, a resear0her and le0turer in the +epartment of Me0hani0al Engineering at the University of Nottingham/ *eprodu0ed %ith permission/

'pinion is divided on the best route to alleviate poverty, but it is 0lear that te0hnology has a part to play/ 'ften, :estern attempts to impose solutions on less developed 0ountries have failed for a variety of reasons/ &hese in0lude la0k of training, poor 0ommuni0ation %ith those %ho %ill use the te0hnology, la0k of understanding of the problem, suspi0ion on the part of the users and poor support I inability to obtain spare parts for tra0tors for e3ample/ An alternative approa0h %as proposed by S0huma0her/ Mn his ground6breaking book, Small is 8eautiful 4S0huma0her, ">>>5, he suggested that the use of te0hnology in any 0ulture should be appropriate to the needs and resour0es of the 0ommunity it is intended to serve/

&he pre0ise definition of appropriate te0hnology varies from author to author/ 'ne definition suggests some general 0hara0teristi0s that tools and te0hniFues must possess to be in keeping %ith Appropriate &e0hnology in0luding that it should be lo% in 0apital 0osts, use lo0al materials %herever possible, 0reate Gobs, employing lo0al skills and labour, be small enough in s0ale to be affordable by a small group of farmers, and 0an be understood, 0ontrolled and maintained by rural d%ellers %ith agri0ultural skills and non s0ientifi0 te0hnologi0al edu0ation/ &he te0hnology should bring people together to %ork 0olle0tively and bring improvements to lo0al 0ommunities, involve de0entralised rene%able po%er resour0es and be fle3ible so that it 0an 0ontinue to be used or adapted to fit 0hanging 0ir0umstan0es/ 1inally, it should not involve patents, royalties, 0onsulting fees or import duties 4:illoughby, ">>!5/

S0huma0her des0ribed su0h te0hnology as vastly superior to te0hnology of bygone ages but at the same time mu0h simpler, 0heaper and freer than the super te0hnologies of the ri0h/ Le also 0alled it Dself help te0hnologyE, Ddemo0rati0 or peopleCs te0hnologyE, or Dintermediate te0hnologyE des0ribing the 0on0ept as te0hnology to %hi0h everyone 0an gain admittan0e and %hi0h is not reserved to the ri0h and po%erful/

S0huma0herCs vision has been interpreted in many %ays/ Some advo0ates of developing %orld interests have baulked at the idea that appropriate te0hnology might mean denying people the right to develop, and have seen the philosophy as a 0onvenient

devi0e to perpetuate the ri0h6poor divide, %ith some 0ountries lo0ked into an inferior se0ond division of lo% produ0tivity and drudgery 4Emmanuel, ">A 5/ Lo%ever, the 0on0ept of appropriate te0hnology is more about fostering a responsible attitude to the use of te0hnology than restri0ting it to a parti0ular level 48la0k, ">>"5/

Mf te0hnology is to be used to help to alleviate poverty, it is vital that engineers %ork 0losely %ith 0ommunities %here the te0hnology %ill be used rather than impose :estern solutions %ithout a thorough understanding of the problem and the 0apabilities of those using and maintaining any ma0hinery/ &he appropriate te0hnology approa0h ensures a parti0ipatory pro0ess of 0onsultation, dis0ussion, implementation and feedba0k, allo%ing ma3imum use to be made of inventiveness and resour0efulness of village 0ommunities and outside engineers/

Clifford Psee reference "@Q

Fair,trade
'ne 0riti0al aspe0t of the 0urrent global 0risis is the plight of small produ0ers, parti0ularly those operating in agrarian se0tors/ &he e3tent of the problem is perhaps most dramati0ally illustrated by the re0ent %aves of sui0ides among 0otton farmers in Mndia, in %hi0h thousands of farmers have taken their o%n lives/" 'ne initiative that seeks to address the situation of small agri0ultural produ0ers is the 0ertified 1air &rade 41&5 net%ork/ Mnitially purporting to offer an alternative form of trade relations, 1& 0ertifi0ation offered members of small produ0er organiHation higher pri0es for their produ0e than available at the %orld market, as %ell as providing several other benefits 4e/g/, advan0ed payments, a so0ial premium for 0ommunity development proGe0ts, te0hni0al assistan0e, long6term 0ontra0ts, et0/5/

MukherGee, *eed Psee reference "?Q

above te3t sour0ed from univeritasforum/org 4Author- MukherGee5 under a Creative Commons Attribution #/! 7i0ense/ http-..%%%/universitasforum/org.inde3/php.oGs.arti0le.vie%.">.A@

Ma3 Lavelaar 4Netherlands5 is a0kno%ledged as laun0hing the first 1airtrade 0onsumer guarantee in ">A? on 0offee from Me3i0o/ SubseFuently, the number of organisations in0luded in the 1airtrade 1oundation number some nineteen, running the international standard and setting up and maintaining the 1airtrade 7abelling 'rganisations Mnternational 417'5/ 7abelling initiatives in0lude many items su0h as tea, 0offee et0/ $rodu0ers registering %ith 17' re0eive a minimum pri0e %hi0h 0overs produ0tion 0osts and an e3tra premium to be invested in the lo0al 0ommunity/ Members of the 17' 8oard in0lude four produ0er representativesC t%o 0ommer0ial partners and national 1airtrade initiative representatives/ 8y September !!= there %ere = 1airtrade 0ertified produ0ers operating in => 0ountries/ Lundreds of 1airtrade registered importers and retailers operate in "> 0ountries/ Sales a0ross the "A 0ountries that li0ense the 1airtrade market are gro%ing at about !S year on year/ Mn most of these 0ountries, 1airtrade produ0ts are no% mainstream items and available in maGor supermarkets and independent retailers and are beginning to gain market shares/

'pen7earn Psee reference ")Q

Above te3t sour0ed from &he 'pen University under a Creative Commons Attribution6NonCommer0ial6 ShareAlike /! 7i0en0e http-..labspa0e/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<= @@) &se0tion<"/ /#

Education
:orld%ide, there is a need for edu0ation to shift the balan0e of po%er/ &he ineFuality in the %orld has long been re0ognised, and re0ently there has been a large movement to protest against the large levels of %ealth/ &he finan0ial 0risis in the :est is a sign that the 0urrent system is unsustainable, and has arguably rea0hed its natural 0on0lusion/ &he protest movements starting %ith '00upy :all Street in !"" spread throughout the %orld to most of the maGor 0ities and %as a 0lear sign to the authorities that there is resistan0e to the 0urrent %orld po%ers/

Mt is 0lear that there is need for edu0ation %ith in the :est, as people be0ome more a%are of the disparities in the %orld they %ill make life 0hoi0es to %ork to%ards a sustainable future/ Edu0ation in developing 0ountries %ill spread kno%ledge and help to alleviate poverty/ Mt is the role of engineers, %ith their duty to%ards so0iety to be a%are of the so0ial problems and use their kno%ledge and e3pertise to edu0ate as %ell as implement systems and make use of te0hnology to better the lives of so0ially disadvantaged both in ri0her and poorer 0ountries/

Summary
Mn this 0hapter %e have e3plored the levels of ineFuality in the %orld, and issues of poverty 0oupled %ith e30essive %ealth %hi0h e3ists/ (lobalisation, and the rapid in0rease of sharing of goods, servi0es, %ealth and ideas has been e3plored, and the links bet%een globalisation, 0limate 0hange, engineering and poverty have all be detailed/ 1inally %e have looked at steps to%ards a sustainable so0ial future in0luding appropriate te0hnology, fair trade and advo0ating edu0ation in both less and more e0onomi0ally developed nations as tools to progress humanity for%ard/

&he so0ial dimension of sustainability is a 0ore element, and engineers %ill have a key role to play in realigning the so0ial system to ensure a Gust and eFuitable %orld for so0iety and the %orld/

Further readin!
+eveloping 0ountries in the %orld trade regime http-..openlearn/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<#>)>#? &he 0hallenge of %orld poverty http-..%%%/oer0ommons/org.0ourses.the60hallenge6of6%orld6poverty6fall6 !!>.vie% &E+ &alks Lo% e0onomi0 ineFuality harms so0iety http-..%%%/ted/0om.talks.ri0hardT%ilkinson/html Ending Lunger No% http-..%%%/ted/0om.talks.GosetteTsheeranTendingThungerTno%/html $overty, Money, 7ove http-..%%%/ted/0om.talks.Gessi0aTGa0kleyTpovertyTmoneyTandTlove/html Ne% insights on poverty http-..%%%/ted/0om.talks.hansTroslingTrevealsTne%TinsightsTonTpoverty/html

Millennium development goalshttp-..%%%/undp/org.0ontent.undp.en.home.mdgovervie%/html

Environmental degradation and poverty 6 online tea0hing resour0e http-..o0%/unu/edu.maastri0ht6e0onomi06and6so0ial6resear0h6and6training60entre6on6 innovation6and6te0hnology.environment6and6sustainable6development.le0tures. 8log 6 Sustainability Edu0ation http-..%%%/Gsedimensions/org.%ordpress.

Appropriate &e0hnology http-..%%%/aidg/org.te0hnologies/htm

$ra0ti0al A0tion 6 appropriate te0hnology for poverty redu0tion http-..pra0ti0ala0tion/org.

Appropedia 6 0ollaborative solutions in sustainability, appropriate te0hnology and poverty http-..%%%/appropedia/org.:el0omeTtoTAppropedia

%eferences
"/ Ehrenfeld, 2 4 !!A5, Sustainability by design 6 a subversive strategy for transforming our 0onsumer 0ulture,, 9ale University $ress, 7ondon

/ Skellington, *, :ill the poor be al%ays %ith us; Available onlinehttp-..%%%/open/edu.openlearn.so0iety.international6development.international6 studies.%ill6the6poor6be6al%ays6us, A00essed @th May !"

#/ *usty 8laHenhoff, &he $ink & 8lue $roGe0t, $ortraits of ,ids :ith &heir $ink & 8lue 'bGe0ts, Available online- http-..laughingsFuid/0om.the6pink6blue6proGe0t6portraits6of6 kids6%ith6their6pink6blue6obGe0ts., A00essed @th May !"

=/ G0andeli, %hat does poverty look like; Available onlinehttp-..faithlikemustard/%ordpress/0om. !"".!".!?.%hat6does6poverty6look6like. A00essed =th May !"

@/ Skellington, *, :ill the poor be al%ays %ith us; Available onlinehttp-..%%%/open/edu.openlearn.so0iety.international6development.international6 studies.%ill6the6poor6be6al%ays6us, A00essed @th May !"

?/ 'pen 7earn, &he 8runtland *eport, http-..openlearn/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<=!@?)A&se0tion<#/#, a00essed ?th May !"

)/ :ikipedia, http-..en/%ikipedia/org.%iki.1ile-$er0entageTpopulationTlivingTonTlessTthanTR"/ @Tper TdayT !!>/svg A00essed on "st May !"

A/ (apminder, http-..%%%/gapminder/org.do%nloads.gapminder6%orld6map., a00essed on =th May !"

>/ m0kayro, Luman development vs/ e0o footprint, Available onlinehttp-..design good/%ordpress/0om. !"".!@.!#.human6development6vs6e0o6footprint., A00essed #rh May !"

"!/ Skellington, *, :ill the poor be al%ays %ith us; Available onlinehttp-..%%%/open/edu.openlearn.so0iety.international6development.international6 studies.%ill6the6poor6be6al%ays6us, A00essed @th May !"

""/ +r Maurie Cohen, E$S ? April !"

- Sustainable +evelopment, 7e0ture ? E0ologi0al +esign, 60ohen.inde3/php, A00essed "?th

Available online- http-..o0%/nGit/edu.n0e.eps.eps6?

" / Ehrenfeld, 2 4 !!A5, Sustainability by design 6 a subversive strategy for transforming our 0onsumer 0ulture, 9ale University $ress, 7ondon

"#/ 'pen7earn, (lobalisation is About Net%orks, available onlinehttp-..openlearn/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<#>>#@>&se0tion<"/ A00essed ?th May !"

"=/ 8ourn, +/ and Neal, M/ 4 !" 5 &he (lobal Engineer 6 Mn0orporating global skills %ithin U, higher edu0ation of engineers, Available online- http-..eprints/ioe/a0/uk.A#>. a00esssed Ath April !" 4reprodu0ed %ith permission5

"@/ Clifford, M/ 2/ 4 !!@5 Appropriate &e0hnology- &he $oetry of S0ien0e, &he Ligher Edu0ation A0ademy 6 Engineering SubGe0t Centre 8riefing $apers- Edu0ation for Sustainable +evelopment, Energy and Energy Systems Edition 2uly !!@

*eferen0es %ithin the above e3tra0t8la0k, 2,/ 4">>"5 +evelopment in theory and pra0ti0e, :estvie% $ress/

Emmanuel, A/ 4">A 5/ Appropriate or underdeveloped te0hnology; 2ohn :iley & Sons/ S0huma0her, E1/ 4">>>5/ Small is beautiful, Lartley & Marks/ :illoughby, ,:/ 4">>!5/ &e0hnology 0hoi0e, :estvie% $ress/

"?/ 'pen 7earn 7ab Spa0e, +eveloping Communities of E0o 8usiness $ra0ti0e, Available online- http-..labspa0e/open/a0/uk.mod.ou0ontent.vie%/php;id<= @@) &se0tion<"/ /#/ A00essed #rd April !"

")/ MukherGee, A and *eed, + 1AM* &*A+E AN+ +EOE7'$MEN&-

:LA& A*E &LE MM$7MCA&M'NS '1 MAMNS&*EAMMN(; Available onlinehttp-..%%%/universitasforum/org.inde3/php.oGs.arti0le.vie%.">.A@, A00essed #rd May !"

Chapter 8: E$ono-i$s
So far %e have 0overed issues relating to sustainability and ho% an engineer 0an implement their skills %ithin so0iety to %ork to%ards sustainable systems/ Mn ea0h of the 0hapters there has been a 0ommon theme as to the 0ause of the unsustainable systems I the 0onstant drive by so0iety for e0onomi0 gro%th/

&his 0hapter is therefore intended to e3plain %here e0onomi0 gro%th 0omes from, to dis0uss different understandings of it in e0onomi0s and %hat problems it 0auses/ :e %ill also introdu0e Ne0ologi0al e0onomi0sE %hi0h is a 0on0ept system that re0ognises problems %ith the 0urrent system and seeks solutions to them %ithin the bio6physi0al 0arrying 0apa0ity of the planet/ E0ologi0al e0onomi0s takes many of its ideas from the mainstream subGe0t but %ith important differen0es %hi0h %e %ill highlight/

E0onomi0s, in parallel %ith environmental and so0ial fa0tors is a 0ornerstone of the sustainability triangle/ &he reason for in0luding a 0hapter on e0onomi0s in this module is so that engineers 0an understand the driving for0es affe0ting ma0ro s0ale so0ial organisation in order to better help 0ontribute to a sustainable future/

&he follo%ing essay %as %ritten by 8rian +avey, an E0ologi0al E0onomist based in Nottingham and is published %ith a 0reative 0ommons li0ense/

http-..%%%/feasta/org. !" .!=."".an6introdu0tion6to6e0ologi0al6e0onomi0s.

What is Economics1 * What the &ifferent Paradi!ms Focus on

+efinitions I E0onomi0s 0an be des0ribed as the study of ho% people make 0hoi0es bet%een alternative allo0ations of resour0es I %here %hat %e 0all Dresour0esE are the means available to attained desired ends/ ,ey 0on0epts are-

Allo0ation- E0onomi0s is 0on0erned that allo0ation de0isions about resour0es are effi0ient I so that the best use of available means are made 6 bearing in mind that resour0es are s0ar0e and not all desired ends 0an be met/

Mn neo0lassi0al e0onomi0s, the mainstream, this Fuestion of allo0ative effi0ien0y is the key fo0us/ Lo%ever Ballo0ative effi0ien0yC is not the only dimension/ Another approa0h, that of e0ologi0al e0onomi0s, gives prominen0e to t%o other issues in 0onsidering the impa0t of the e0onomi0 pro0ess on the e0ologi0al system and on so0iety/ &hese are-

S0ale- ho% far 0an %e go in any given a0tivity and use of resour0es I %hat are the bio6 physi0al limits of the e0ologi0al system; Mf %e go beyond these limits, e0ologi0al e0onomists argue that %e are involved in une0onomi0 gro%th I be0ause the additional benefits of e0onomi0 a0tivity are less than the additional 0osts/ &hese 0osts take the form of a degraded and e3hausted environment, impoverished resour0es and impaired De0o6system servi0esE passed on to future generations/

2usti0e- ho% are the benefits and 0osts of e0onomi0 a0tivity distributed in so0iety, in0luding the benefits and 0osts of a0tion to mitigate or adapt to environmental damage; +o the benefits go predominantly to one group and the 0osts to another;

A momentJs refle0tion tells us that sustainability is itself a Gusti0e 0on0ept/ As des0ribed in Chapter " the 8rundtland Commission report, %ritten for the UN, defined sustainable development as 6 Ddevelopment that meets the needs of the present %ithout 0ompromising the ability of future generations to meet their o%n needsE

As mentioned in the previous 0hapter, this definition is about intergenerational Gusti0e and it seems, at the very least, in0onsistent to assert the importan0e of inter6 generational Gusti0e %ithout a parallel 0on0ern for Gusti0e for people alive today/

Mn fa0t there are good reasons to suppose that all of so0iety gains from a 0on0ern for distributive Gusti0e/ 1or e3ample, t%o authors, *i0hard :ilkinson and ,ate $i0kett have assembled a mass of eviden0e in their book D&he Spirit 7evelE %hi0h sho%s that in ri0h 0ountries a smaller gap bet%een ri0h and poor means happier, healthier and more su00essful populations more generally http-..%%%/eFualitytrust/org/uk.%hy.

Although distributive Gusti0e is negle0ted in the e0onomi0 mainstream, the eviden0e sho%s that it matters to general human %ell6being/ &he idea, that %e do not need to 0on0ern ourselves %ith distribution if gro%th 0ontinues be0ause greater produ0tion %ill provide more for everybody, is too simplisti0/ &he eviden0e assembled by :ilkinson and $i0kett sho%s that gro%th %ill N'& lead to happier, healthier or more su00essful populations/ &here is no relation bet%een in0ome per head and so0ial %ell6being/

Pre,Analytical 2isions
&he 0on0ern about s0ale in e0ologi0al e0onomi0s is related to %hat Lerman +aly has 0alled its different Dpre6analyti0al visionE from that of the neo60lassi0al mainstream/ &hese visions 0an be represented diagrammati0ally as follo%s&he relationship bet%een the e0onomy and the e0ologi0al system is essentially 0olonial I profit ma3imising 0ompanies push %hat are termed Denvironmental 0ostsE unpaid for onto the %orld around them %hi0h e0onomists 0all De3ternalitiesE as if they are minor aberrations in an other%ise effi0ient system/ &his aberration 0an be 0orre0ted for as long as pri0es for resour0es and %aste absorption by the planet are set 0orre0tly to in0entiviHe markets to provide substitutes for s0ar0e resour0es and alternative arrangements for %aste absorption/ &he e0onomy 0an go on e3panding indefinitely/

Mn the mainstream vie% any e0onomi0 a0tivity involves 0osts, in0luding environmental 0osts, so %hether any parti0ular a0tivity should o00ur or not is best %orked out by 0omparing the stream of benefits and 0osts in the future to %ork out the net benefits/ &hen, be0ause people have a Dtime preferen0eE in %hi0h 0urrent benefits are preferred to future ones, there is a need to dis0ount future net benefits to sho% %hat should happen %hen resour0es are allo0ated here and no%/ Mn the e0onomi0s mainstream the interest rate is a payment to 0ompensate people be0ause %hen they lend money they forego 0urrent spending and 0onsumption so need to be paid for doing so/ At a #S interest rate b"!! today is %orth b"!# in one yearJs time and the logi0 of dis0ounting arises be0ause, looking at that the other %ay round, b"!# in one year should be dis0ounted ba0k to b"!! to get its present value/

Lere and no% suffi0e it to note that a 0on0ept system that dis0ounts future benefits like this a0ross generations and sees the in0ome of future generations as less important than benefits no% is already do%ngrading priority to future generations/ Mainstream e0onomists ho%ever have no problem %ith this be0ause they see e0onomi0 gro%th as 0ontinuing and assume that future generations %ill be mu0h ri0her than %e are/ E0ologi0al e0onomists think that this begs important Fuestions/

+ar/ets Technolo!y Substitutes to the %escue1

Mainstream e0onomists do not see things in this %ay/ &hey assume that markets %ill be able to anti0ipate s0ar0ities and problems arising from the limits to gro%th, that these problems %ill be refle0ted in rising pri0es in for%ard markets I and then the rising pri0es %ill 0reate and in0entivise profitable opportunities for te0hnologi0al solutions/ Mf ne0essary it is re0ognised that the state may have to step in to adGust pri0es to ensure that in0entivisation is strong enough to bring about the ne0essary ne% te0hnologies and substitute arrangements/ &hus markets and ingenuity %ill al%ays provide alternative arrangements on a rising 0urve of human %ell6being/ &he message is therefore that %e do not need to be parti0ularly %orried about 0limate 0hange or peak oil or the depletion of fossil energy or other resour0es/ (reater effi0ien0y of resour0e and energy use and other %ays of doing things %ill enable us to find a %ay out of our problems/

8ut there are problems %ith this vie% %hi0h 0an be illustrated %ith a 0ase study I energy usage and 0arbon by the internet/ At the 0urrent time the internet uses about " to S of the global energy supply/ *oughly @!S of this is energy used in the internet day to day and the other @!S is the energy used to 0reate the 0omputers, infrastru0ture and so on/ &e0hnologi0al 0hange is so rapid that the energy effi0ien0y of the internet is improving "! times every @ years/ &hat seems highly reassuring I ho%ever despite this, overall energy usage by the net is doubling every @ years/ Continue that trend for half a lifetime and the net %ould be using an amount of energy eFuivalent to the 0urrent entire global energy usage/ 4Starting at S and doubling every @ years this %ould be =S in @ years, AS in ten, "?S in "@, # S in ! and so on////5

&he fa0t that energy usage in0reases even though energy effi0ien0y is rising %as first noti0ed by the English e0onomist Stanley 2evons in the ">th 0entury/ Mndeed in0reased energy effi0ien0y tends to generate in0reased usage I people %ith 0heaper lo% energy light bulbs leave them on all night/ Corporations that use internet video 0onferen0ing bet%een their e3e0utives rather than flying them to meet ea0h other save a lot of money and energy I but the money saved is then used for business e3pansion %hi0h means the pur0hase of goods and servi0es///%hi0h 0onsume energy///so the value to the environment of the gains are undone %ith no absolute redu0tion o00urring/

&o lo0k in the gains of energy and materials effi0ien0y reFuires an absolute 0ap on energy usage that is redu0ed to the sustainable ma3imum that the planet 0an bear/

The &rivers of Economic Growth

Mf this is so, %hat drives the 0urrent fi3ation of 4un5 e0onomi0 gro%th; 'ne aspe0t of the ans%er is that gro%th appears to avoid the need to address a variety of problems I be0ause %ith more gro%th, it is argued that greater in0ome and %ealth in the future 0an be devoted to dealing %ith poverty and even environmental problems/ &he so60alled DEnvironmental ,uHnets 0urveE appears to sho% an improvement in environmental 0onditions as so0ieties be0ome ri0her/ Lo%ever, it turns out that this is largely an illusion be0ause as they be0ome ri0her 0ountries they BoffshoreC their dirty industries to poorer 0ountries like China and then import the produ0ts produ0ed %ith environmentally destru0tive te0hnologies instead of produ0ing them themselves/

:hat parti0ularly drives the gro%th pro0ess is, ho%ever, a debt based money and banking system/ 1or 0enturies most so0ieties regarded money lending against 0ollateral and the payment of interest as unethi0al and so0ially 0orrosive/ Mn pre6 industrial e0onomies %hi0h do not gro% repayment of loans %ith interest 0ompounded ea0h year %ould transfer greater proportions of national in0ome to money lenders and be destabilising/ Lo%ever, %hen lending o00urs to industries and people %hose produ0tion and in0omes are gro%ing there is an in0rement of in0ome and produ0tion to be shared %ith lenders/ 7arger s0ale produ0tion, involved pur0hased inputs and paying %ages %ith a time gap until later produ0t sales brought money in from distant markets I this freFuently ne0essitated money to be advan0ed to 0over the gap/

&he finan0e se0tor evolved to serve this need/ 8ut no% the e0onomy had to keep on gro%ing to repay loans and pay the interest too/ Mf and %hen the e0onomy did not gro% this lead to insolven0ies/ Mt also put the solven0y of the finan0e se0tor at risk if loans 0ould not be repaid/

An insolvent bank se0tor %ould have further impli0ations for aggregate demand and markets in the e0onomy/ Although most people probably think that it is 0reated by governments >)S of the money in 0ir0ulation is in the form of deposits 0reated out of nothing %hen banks make loans/ Mf lending slo%s do%n, or goes into reverse %ith loans being paid ba0k, then the money supply falls/ A self6reinfor0ing vi0ious 0ir0le o00urs/ :ith unemployment and bankrupt0ies in0reasing, households and 0ompanies hold ba0k on dis0retionary spending on themselves or on investment proGe0ts/ E3penditure falls

even more/ &he gro%th e0onomy based on debt money does not have a reverse gear/ Mt gro%s or 0ollapses/

'nly the state 0an save the e0onomy in these 0ir0umstan0es/ 1altering e0onomi0 a0tivity typi0ally means that ta3ation revenues %ill fall %hile some state e3penditure like so0ial %elfare and unemployment benefit %ill rise/ So the state tends to fill the defi0it in demand but at the e3pense of a budget defi0it/ &he state 4or the 0entral bank5 may also step for%ard to bail out important Dtoo big to failE institutions like the banks/ All of these pro0esses mean, ho%ever, that a 0risis of private se0tor finan0es arising from too mu0h debt in relation to faltering e0onomi0 gro%th gets turned into a 0risis of state finan0es as state revenues fall, and e3penditures rise, leading to a rising defi0it/

Economic Problems Facin! the World Today

'f 0ourse, it %ould be misleading to understand all e0onomi0 problems in the %orld as simply symptoms of a limits to gro%th 0risis/ &here are other pro0esses going on too that 0onte3tualise the situation in %hi0h engineers are %orking/ &%o other pro0esses in parti0ular are having dramati0 0onseFuen0es for e0onomi0 a0tivity- finan0ialisation and 0hanging 0ompetitive imbalan0es bet%een 0ountries/

Financialisation

&his is the gro%th and influen0e of the finan0e, real estate and insuran0e se0tor in many 0ountries has transformed %hat %ere servi0e a0tivities into being effe0tively the dominant se0tors in e0onomies I %ith 0onsiderable influen0e in politi0al systems/ (lobally the number of transa0tions involved in trading finan0ial and other assets, transa0tions in foreign 0urren0y e30hange, in borro%ing and lending, as %ell as the transa0tions %hi0h are essentially bets about the for%ard pri0es of 0urren0ies, interest rates and finan0ial assets are all, taken together, mu0h greater than the number of transa0tions involved in the produ0tion of goods and servi0es in the so 0alled Dreal e0onomyE/

As a general rule the finan0e se0tor attempts to put all of the risk of borro%ing onto the borro%er/ 'ther forms of 0apital provision approa0hes are possible I for e3ample 0apital providers and 0apital users 0an share profits and losses/ Lo%ever, most :estern debt finan0e involves reFuiring borro%ers to forfeit 0ollateral, for e3ample their house/ &hus modern finan0ial systems tend to lend very little to %hat are seen as risky businesses ventures I instead a large part of lending is for land and buildings and indeed most bank lending is 0ollateralised against the housing and property markets/

Another part of finan0e se0tor lending is to governments/ Mf states 0annot pay their lenders then the pra0ti0e enfor0ed by e0onomi0 orthodo3y is no% to privatise their assets I as in the 0urrent (reek 0risis/ 'f 0ourse, in theory 0ountries that issue their o%n 0urren0ies 0an al%ays get their 0entral banks to print more to pay their debts and mainstream e0onomists are typi0ally disapproving about this/ DMonetiHing state debtsE risks 0reating too mu0h money 0hasing too fe% goods I in other %ords it is said to risk inflation and a fall in the value of money to the detriment of savers, typi0ally pensioners/

&hus the &reaty of Maastri0ht bans 0entral banks in the European Union from dire0tly providing money for state bonds/ And of 0ourse in the euroHone member states 0annot print money as they do not issue their o%n 0urren0ies/

&his is some%hat ironi0 be0ause %hen the money supplies of 0ountries have been 0reated and 0ontrolled by the private banking se0tor in a 0ompletely unregulated %ay then money 0reation os0illates bet%een the over 0reation of money %hi0h inflates asset pri0es 4parti0ularly land and house pri0es5 and the under 0reation of money %hi0h leads to re0essionary 0onditions/ &his should not surprise/ 8anks lend %hen they and borro%ers are most 0onfident, %hi0h is during periods of e3pansion/ &hey thus 0reate 0redit money and pur0hasing po%er %hen it is not needed and thus tends to over hype the booms/ 7and pri0es and rents in parti0ular are inflated be0ause the supply of land and lo0ations is fi3ed/ So %ealth 0on0entrates in property and 0redit is 0reated to 0ash in on rising property values, %hi0h pushes rents and pri0es up even more/ &his is a spe0ulative bubble %hi0h ends typi0ally be0ause servi0ing the debt a00umulated %hen buying at the higher and higher pri0es be0omes unsustainable/

SubseFuently, in the re0ession, sentiment is pessimisti0 so banks are 0autious about lending and borro%ers 0autious about borro%ing/ So banks 0reate debt money %hen it is not needed and do not 0reate it %hen it is needed/

None of us have a divine gift of being able to foresee the future %hi0h remains inherently un0ertain/ &his is true also for players in the finan0ial markets %ho, %hen they 0ommit money, are making Gudgements about %hat they think %ill happen motivated by the prospe0t of gain and the fear of loss/ So ho% do they make these Gudgements; &he ans%er is that, to a large e3tent, they go along %ith %hat other traders are thinking/ Markets are po%erfully driven by 0ro%d///or herd///psy0hology/ Mn a spe0ulative boom optimism prevails/ Mn a re0ession pessimism is infe0tious/ Mndeed a largely ignored e0onomist 0alled Lyman Minsky des0ribed bubbles as Dthe euphori0 e0onomyE/ Mn su0h periods of over 0onfiden0e ethi0al restraints also tend to loosen/ A professor of e0onomi0s and la%, :illiam , 8la0k, estimated that there %ere at least one half a million 0rimes 0ommitted in the period of the subprime bubble in the USA/ *e0kless lending to people %ith no in0ome and no assets brought the brokers bonuses and then the risks of these unsound loans %ere par0elled up into 0ollateralised debt obligations and passed on to unsuspe0ting investors like pension funds and banks on the other side of the %orld/

As 8la0k observes, neo0lassi0al e0onomists like to point out that %hen e0onomi0 a0tors pursue their private interests through markets that a self6organising pro0ess o00urs that leads to the provision of the goods and servi0es that people %ant/ 8ut the same self organising pro0ess, motivated by self6interest, %ill also self organise the provision of BbadsC too 6 for e3ample, a market for 0rooked a00ountants to look the other %ay during a bonanHa of predatory lending/

Another important observation is that finan0ial markets 4and the politi0ians looking after their interests5 are in0redibly short term in their thinking/ Mt is these markets, and their players that have most influen0e over governments and preo00upation %ith short term finan0ial issues tends to 0ro%d out 0onsideration of the long term issues that is needed to take de0isions about sustainability/

Competitive imbalances bet&een countries

+ebt and finan0ial problems are 0ompounded by 0hanging po%er relationships bet%een nations and parts of the %orld/ 8orro%ing is a me0hanism for dealing %ith imbalan0es I if an individual, 0ompany, state or nation is spending and 0onsuming more than its in0ome this is possible by running do%n savings and.or by getting into debt I but only up to a point beyond %hi0h 0rises loom/ As 0ompetitive imbalan0es bet%een 0ountries gro%, a me0hanism for rebalan0ing e3ists in 0hanging the e30hange rate bet%een their 0urren0ies/ Mf the dollar falls against the Chinese yuan then Ameri0an people have to pay out more dollars to buy yuan and pay out more dollars to buy Chinese goods/ At the same time Ameri0an e3ports to China %ould be0ome 0heaper in China/ Mt is therefore 0ontroversial that the Chinese peg the yuan to prevent this at a rate that makes Chinese imports into Ameri0a 0heap/

Mn the euroHone, member 0ountries have given up national 0urren0ies and therefore lost a me0hanism adGusting for 0ompetitive imbalan0es/ &he southern euroHone 0ountries are sending their pur0hasing po%er abroad to buy (erman goods more than the (ermans and northern Europeans are buying in the southern 0ountries and Mreland/ &his produ0es shortages of pur0hasing po%er I and then unemployment not to mention 0ausing shortages of state revenues and in0reased state support e3penditures in the 0ountries of the south/ &o a large e3tent the budgetary 0risis in the southern 0ountries are an indire0t result of the inability of southern 0ountries and Mreland to 0ompete %ith (ermany/ &he budget and state debt 0rises of these 0ountries 0annot be solved by 0uts and ta3

in0reases as this only drives these e0onomies deeper into re0ession 0ausing state revenues to fall even more in a vi0ious 0ir0le/ &he other aspe0t of the 0risis has been a property bubble I 0heap finan0e from euroHone banks 0reated spe0ulation in the building and property that burst and leaving southern and Mrish governments to bail out the banks/

&isaster )apitalism
+isasters 0aused at the limits to gro%th 4e/g/ the *ussian heat %ave that destroyed the harvest in !"!, the floods for t%o years in $akistan and in 8angkok, the hurri0ane that destroyed large parts of Ne% 'rleans5, 0atastrophes 0aused by the finan0ial 0risis as %ell as by 0ompetitive imbalan0es bet%een 0ountries, intensify in0reasing ineFuality of po%er, in0ome and %ealth/ &hose e0onomi0 se0tors that are Dtoo big to failE and %hi0h have a00ess to finan0e from state ba0ked res0ues are in a position to take advantage of the 0rises of states, 0ompanies and individuals/ 8y driving %hole so0ieties into ruin opportunities are opened up/ $rivatised assets 0an be a0Fuired 0heaply/ At the same time so0ial unrest, rising 0rime and distress are profit opportunities for the armaments and se0urities industries/ 1urther, the R"# trillion bail outs to the US finan0e se0tor gives elite finan0iers 0heap money they 0an use to buy up natural 0apital resour0es that be0ome s0ar0er as the limits to gro%th ki0k in I land, harvests, fossil %ater resour0es, D0arbon 0reditsE and so on/ 1urther money is to be made by funding the publi0 relations industry to bambooHle people %ith reassuring messages to stabilise by lulling and lying about ho% serious things are/

)onclusions( )ontroversies in Economics

Mn 0on0lusion, it is useful to remember that e0onomi0s evolved originally out of the moral philosophy of +avid Lume, Adam Smith and then the utilitarianism of 2eremy 8entham 4%hose mummified body 0an still be seen on display at the 7ondon S0hool of E0onomi0s at his o%n reFuest5/ Mainstream e0onomi0s is anthropo0entri0 and takes for granted that $lanet Earth is there for human use/ Mn this %orld vie% nature is turned into a human artefa0t available as a resour0e for our 0onsumption/ Mt 0ould not be more different from a vie% of nature as $a0hamama, for e3ample, loosely translated as mother earth, %hi0h is the %orld vie% of indigenous peoples in the Andes to %hom the e3tra0tive e3ploitative e0onomi0s of Dadvan0ed e0onomiesE is an anathema, %hi0h is %hy they have passed la%s, for e3ample in E0uador, embodying rights for e0o6systems in their 0onstitution/ &he utilitarian philosophy from %hi0h e0onomi0s %as developed assumed that the %elfare of individuals %ould be refle0ted in their preferen0es based on %hat gives pleasure or redu0es pain and these D%elfareE seeking motivations are refle0ted in %hat pri0es people are prepared to pay, or %ill a00ept in payment for things, in0luding for a 0lean or safe environment/ &hese preferen0es are sa0rosan0t to many neo60lassi0al e0onomists and the attempt of politi0ians or offi0ials to de0ide about the environment is held to be inferior to de0ision me0hanisms in %hi0h %hat people are %illing to pay, or to a00ept in payment, for Benvironmental goodsC is held to most a00urately reveal the best 0hoi0es to ma3imise D%elfareE/ &his %ay of thinking then leads to benefit 0ost analysis and to so 0alled N7east Common +enominator UtilitarianismE embodied in the ,aldor6 Li0ks 0ompensation prin0iple I a poli0y 0hange is Gustified if the %inners 4measured in stri0tly e0onomi0 terms5 0an 0ompensate the losers of a poli0y and still have something left over/ [uite ho% this is supposed to %ork %hen future generations are not yet here to e3press their preferen0es and to be 0ompensated remains une3plained/ Nor does the e0onomi0s mainstream have anything to say about ho% preferen0es are formed/ Ask people %hat they are prepared to pay to prote0t pandas and polar bears and you might get a positive sum of money offered I but a survey of uninformed people are probably less prepared to pay for the bamboo that pandas eat and even less for the 0reepy 0ra%lies that are integral part of the e0o6system in %hi0h pandas/// and humans//// find themselves/ All of this suggests that for environmental poli0y to be appropriate it must be %ell informed and the subGe0t of 0olle0tive deliberation in de0ision making pro0esses that are Fuite

unlike ho% %e e3press our preferen0es in pur0hasing de0isions bet%een the alternatives of baked beans and spaghetti hoops in a supermarket/ &he matter of available information is parti0ularly important be0ause many environmental de0isions are about issues %here there is a great deal of un0ertainty in %hat out0omes %ill be/ Mainstream e0onomi0s does not have a good re0ord in taking un0ertainty into a00ount, espe0ially %here it is %hat is 0alled Dstrong un0ertaintyE 6 unkno%n unkno%ns or kno%n unkno%ns but %here risks and probabilities 0annot be 0al0ulated/ Mn order to sho% from its starting assumptions that 0ompetitive markets optimally allo0ate resour0es in the best of all possible %orlds, e0onomi0 theorists have 0onstru0ted theoreti0al models that assume that market a0tors have Dperfe0t informationE no% and about the future/ &his seems a long %ay from the real %orld in %hi0h none of us have a divine ability to foresee the future, in %hi0h it takes time and effort to find about 0urrent situations, in %hi0h people have great relu0tan0e to a00ept unpleasant realities, in %hi0h there are taboos against some kinds of kno%ledge be0ause of ideologi0al allegian0es in groups, in %hi0h there is a massive net%ork of arrangements to ensure that many business dealings, in0luding environmentally destru0tive ones, are kept se0ret 6 and in %hi0h there is good deal of misinformation put out by the publi0 relations industry hired by vested interests in order to thro% doubt on in0onvenient truths I for e3ample about 0limate s0ien0e/ Nor is it true that all people de0ide on environmental issues based on ma3imising their personal %elfare/ Many people de0ide to do things not be0ause those things %ill give them pleasure, or redu0e their pain, but be0ause they think that they ought to or be0ause they think that it is the right thing to do/ &his in0ludes doing things that do not give them pleasure but are perhaps risky, or involve 0onsiderable self6sa0rifi0e/ &he %orld is full of %ar memorials 0elebrating dead people %ho %ere 0learly not motivated by utilitarian prin0iples/ Mn 0on0lusion, as the e0onomy rea0hes the limits to e0onomi0 gro%th ne% %ays of thinking are needed in order to be able understand %hat is happening, approa0hes that are transdis0iplinary/ Unfortunately there is 0onsiderable inertia in the realm of ideas and 0onsiderable fragmentation of subGe0ts %hi0h makes the broad vie%point that is needed unavailable to mainstream e0onomi0s, a dis0ipline that has be0ome over6spe0ialised/ Even %orse, the thinking of e0onomists typi0ally refle0ts the vie%point of po%erful vested interests, taking for granted the %orld vie% and agendas of %ealthy 0lients as

self6evident and unproblemati0/ &he physi0ist Ma3 $lan0k argued that in s0ien0e, ne% ideas rarely displa0e old ones be0ause an old guard are 0onverted to ne% %ays of thinking 6 Saul does not be0ome $aul on the road to +amas0us/ *ather the old guard retires and dies and a ne% generation repla0es them %ho are familiar %ith a different %ay of thinking/ Mt is important that training engineers familiarise themselves %ith the ne% %ay of thinking in e0onomi0s for the very different and diffi0ult %orld %e are entering/

%eadin! %eferences and Internet 2ideos

Lerman E +aly and 2oshua 1arley/ NE0ologi0al E0onomi0sN, Msland $ress, !!= A te3tbook of e0ologi0al e0onomi0s one of %hose authors, Lerman E +aly, is one of the original pioneers of the subGe0t/ Lerman E/ +aly NUne0onomi0 gro%th in theory and in fa0tN 1irst annual 1easta 7e0ture ">>> , in 1easta *evie% number one, +ublin !!" 6 available at http-..%%%/feasta/org.do0uments.feastarevie%.daly"/pdf &ides 1oundation.Annie 7eonard &he Story of Stuff http-..%%%/youtube/0om.%at0h; v<>(orFroigFM *i0hard +outh%aite and (illian 1allon 4eds5 N1leeing Oesuvius/ 'ver0oming the 0onseFuen0es of e0onomi0 and environmental 0ollapseN 1easta 8ooks !"" available as separate do%nloadable arti0les from http-..fleeingvesuvius/org.0ontents. 2osh *yan6Collins, &ony (reenham, *i0hard :erner and Andre% 2a0kson N:here does money 0ome from; A guide to the U, monetary and banking systemN Ne% E0onomi0s 1oundation, !"" E3plains ho% the banking system 0reates ne% money and 0on0ludes that the 0urrent money system is inherently unstable/ Steve ,een N+ebunking E0onomi0s/ &he Naked Emperor +ethronedN, ]ed 8ooks !"" &his is a sort of anti6te3tbook that demolishes most of the theory found in standard e0onomi0s te3tbooks/ Mt has little on e0ologi0al and environmental issues ho%ever/ Oery thorough in %hat it does but not for beginners/ $hillip 8 Smith and Manfred Ma36Neef NE0onomi0s Unmasked/ 1rom po%er and greed to 0ompassion and the 0ommon goodN/ (reen 8ooks !""/ Another general 0ritiFue of mainstream e0onomi0s 6 this one 0on0entrates on so0ial Gusti0e and environmental issues/ 1red Larrison N8oom 8ust/N Shepheard 6:al%yn $ublishers, !!@ A study of the e0onomi0s of the land market and the finan0ial system/ Larrison is also asso0iated %ith the *enegade E0onomist blog http-..%%%/renegadee0onomist/0om. http-..mi0hael6hudson/0om. !" .!#.film6real6estate6=6ransom. *eal estate for ransom

66 Australian internet video on the role of property spe0ulation, land and rent in the (reat *e0ession/ &his internet video is on the %ebsite of $rofessor Mi0hael Ludson %ho, taking a vie%point derived from of the 0lassi0al e0onomists, vie%s most neo60lassi0al theory, that Gustifies the predations of the finan0e, real estate and insuran0e se0tor, as NGunkN/ Naomi ,leinJs Sho0k +o0trine and the rise of disaster 0apitalism http-..%%%/naomiklein/org.sho0k6do0trine also http-..%%%/youtube/0om.%at0h; v<hA)#?o,>1$g 9ves Smith, NE0onnedN $algrave Ma0millan !"! &his book is an e3pose of the 0orruption and la%lessness of :all Street high finan0e by an author %ho runs the Naked Capitalism blog http-..%%%/naked0apitalism/0om. internet video le0ture on e0onomi0 0rime by a $rofessor of 7a% and E0onomi0s, :illiam , 8la0k :hy Elite 1rauds Cause *e0urrent, Mntensifying E0onomi0, $oliti0al and Moral Crises/ https-..%ebdisk/l0lark/edu.e0on.steinhardt !"!.steinhardt !"!/html +aniel :/ 8romley and 2ouni $aavola 4eds5, NE0onomi0s, Ethi0s and Environmental $oli0y/ Contested Choi0es/N 8la0k%ell $ublishing, !! a set of essays that debate the philosophi0al basis of e0onomi0s thinking on the environment/ (ood to help understand the limits of benefit 0ost analysis and the utilitarian 0on0epts at the heart of e0onomi0s that turn nature into a human artefa0t/ internet video Clive 7 Spash N&he 7imitations and +angers of E0onomi0 Oaluation/ *efle0tions on the JNe%J Approa0h to 8io6$oli0yN Oideo le0ture 6 sho%s the Fuestionable logi0 and ethi0al issues involved in market approa0hes to prote0ting biodiversity http-..vimeo/0om. !)A)"A@ internet video Clive 7/ Spash N&he 8rave Ne% :orld of Carbon &radingN 6 debunks the arguments for the 0urrent 0arbon trading regime 6 these are ideas for %hi0h Spash %as 0ensored and ended up having to resign his Gob http-..%%%/youtube/0om.%at0h;v<M:[=EN9,]H=&feature<playerTembedded 8rian +avey 4ed5 NSharing for Survival- *estoring the Climate, the Commons and So0ietyN 1easta 8ooks !"

Clive 7 Spash 1alla0ies of e0onomi0 gro%th in addressing environmental losses- Luman Mndu0ed 0limati0 0hange/ Arti0le that does %hat it says on the tin/ %%%/0livespash/org.fgml/pdf Lo% to help 0reate environmentally sustainable and self6reliant neighbourhoods http-..%%%/life%ithoutmoney/info.images.A0hieveS !No%/pdf 6 Start living no% as you may have to during energy des0enta

Chapter 9: Mo)ing "or,ard

&his is the final 0hapter of the module and is intended to highlight ne3t steps from the variety of so0ial, environmental and e0onomi0 fa0tors that have been outlined in the area of sustainability and engineering/ &he problems sho%n demonstrate very real problems the %orld and so0iety is fa0ing in the 0oming years/ &his 0hapter is intended to ans%er the Fuestion of Nthat is all very %ell, but %hat 0an %e do about it;N

&his Fuestion is not an easy one to ans%er, as the problems related to sustainability are 0omple3, linked and of no single sour0e/ 7ogi0ally therefore there are no single Nsilver bulletN ans%ers to these problems and none are presented here/ Mnstead suggested are 0on0epts, general ideas and methods for an engineer to have in their meta toolbag to eFuip them to make de0isions in their life and 0areer to %ork to%ards a sustainable future/

Sustainability has begun to take a more prominent role in the media and so0iety as a %hole, as the very obvious problems of e3ponential gro%th, resour0e depletion, environmental pollution and so0ial ineFuality are be0oming more apparent/ &he role of engineering, in a broad sense a profession of problem solving, is signifi0ant/ Engineering in itself is a %ide and diverse profession, and its appli0ations applied to sustainability are similarly diverse/

&he 0hapter %ill be split into three se0tions- the first outlining steps individuals 0an make in their o%n lives to address the 0hallenges of sustainability, the se0ond 0ontains suggestions for starting a 0areer in engineering related to sustainability/ &he final se0tion %ill give some 0ase study e3amples of organisations and individuals %orking in the broad field of sustainability/

&hroughout the 0hapter are blogs, essays and 0ase studies from a variety of authors ea0h giving their o%n thoughts and e3perien0es of %orking to%ards sustainability/ &he diversity of the authors highlights the fa0t that there is a need for a diverse range of solutions, and a similarly %ide skill set and approa0h to problem solving in sustainability/ &he resour0es are there to provide ideas and inspiration for you to de0ide if and %here you 0an pla0e yourself to be most effe0tive %orking for a better %orld/

Individual Actions Towards Sustainability

LJe the change ou want to see in the worldL 6(handi :hen fa0ed %ith the enormity of a problem su0h as global 0limate 0hange, %ide6s0ale deforestation or peak natural resour0es, there are t%o %ays of 0onfronting it/ &he first %ould be to assume that the problem is so big and the 0auses so %ide and diverse that any a0tion made by an individual is insignifi0ant so therefore not of any relevan0e and not %orth starting/ Another angle %ould be to 0onsider the %orld and everything in it as immensely 0omple3 but %ith individual 0omponents and indeed a0tions all linked and interdependent/

&he 0on0ept that everything is linked in some %ay means that a0tions ho%ever small are signifi0ant, and %ill affe0t everything else/ Mt %ith this latter philosophy that lifestyle 0hoi0es 0an be made 0ons0iously and %ith 0onvi0tion, and through greater number of people putting into pra0ti0e %hat they believe day to day, that positive 0hange 0an o00ur/ &here is an obvious need for top level 0oordination and dire0tion %hen ta0kling global issues su0h as 0limate 0hange, but as is e3plained in a follo%ing arti0le, real 0hange 0an be lead from the bottom up, %ith governments responding to po%erful grassroots movements/

Mn this %ay everybody has the potential to be a leader in sustainability/ Mn the :est espe0ially there is a level of privilege and se0urity that give freedom to 0onsider these ideas and put into pra0ti0e %hat %e believe/ &he 0on0ept of leadership 0oming from the bottom up is des0ribed in more detail by Satish ,umar, editor in 0hief of resurgen0e magaHine, in the arti0le belo%/ We are all leaders% &atish 'umar ()* True and effective leadershi- is more about ins-iration, facilitation and right action than about outcome, achievements and unrealistic targets.

A real leader leads b e,am-le. An one who demands, ;o as % sa and not as % doM is not a good leader. %ntegrit between words and deeds is an essential /ualit of ins-irational leadershi-. 7ahatma ?andhi was once asked4 When ou call u-on -eo-le to do something, the follow ou in their millionsF what is the ke to our successful leadershi-$

?andhi re-utedl re-lied4 % have never asked an bod to do an thing % have not tried and tested in m own life. We have to -ractise what we -reach. %n other words, we have to be the change we wish to see in the world.

Ene living e,am-le is more effective than a million wordsF congruence between -reaching and -ractice is a -rere/uisite for -ur-oseful leadershi-. We are all -otential leaders, because we can all lead our own lives in the right direction.

We can show the world that a good life can be lived without e,-loitation, sub'ugation or domination of others, or of natural resources. We can show that a sim-le, wholesome and e/uitable life can be 'o ful and good. We can show that ha--iness doesnNt flow from material goods or the amount of mone in our bank accounts4 rather, ha--iness flows from the /ualit of the life we live, and the kind of relationshi-s we have with our families, with our communities and with the natural world.

This is bottom-u- leader-shi-. ?enuine leadershi- is not going to emerge from -arliament or -residential -alace. Aeadershi- is not about legislation. The end of a-artheid in 3outh Africa, the establishment of civil rights in the D3A and man other such transformations occurred in the histor of humanit because millions of -eo-le took action at grassroots level and refused to acce-t the un'ust order of the da . The feminist movement and the environmental movement are e,am-les of -eo-le taking -ersonal res-onsibilit to -artici-ate in the -rocess of the great transformation necessar for a 'ust, sustainable and resilient future for the Earth and her -eo-le.

Aeadershi- is an inner calling to lead ourselves and the world from sub'ugation to liberation, from falsehood to truth, from control to -artici-ation and from greed to gratitude.

We can all be leaders. All we have to do is wake u-, stand u-, live and act.

&his eloFuent passage gives inspiration that our a0tions have signifi0an0e, and that %e should be a0tive in leading the %ay from the bottom up/ &he ne3t Fuestion, then, is %hat to do;

&he ans%er relies often on an individualJs personal ethi0s, ba0kground and lifestyle/ Some may be more 0on0erned %ith so0ial Gusti0e, and put their efforts to%ards 0ampaigning/ 'thers may have more environmental 0on0erns, and do everything they 0an to live a lo% impa0t lifestyle, eventually aiming to be living self6suffi0iently a%ay from so0iety/ Some %ould say that money is the root of all the problems and dedi0ate their time to living %ithout it in a gift or barter e0onomy/

&hese may all be e3tremes, and the reality is that a balan0e needs to be obtained %here you 0an address issues that 0on0ern you %hile finding time to earn a living and enGoy yourself/ Mn the ne3t arti0le, again by Satish ,umar, the 0on0ept of a manifesto is introdu0ed/ ,umar outlines his N(reen ManifestoN, a list of a0tions he feels address the problems of sustainability/ &he list of a0tions stems from a po%erful 0on0ern for the problems that they address/

$erhaps the first step of 0onfronting sustainability is to de0ide %hat %e feel strongly about, %hat our vision for the future looks like, and from this 0onsider ho% %e 0an best a0hieve that %ith the resour0es available to us/

Above te3t sour0ed from Satish ,umar 4See referen0e "5, reprodu0ed %ith permission from &he &ablet 4%%%/thetablet/0o/uk5

!aring or the Planet% &atish 'umar (+* %t is eas to feel im-otent in the shadow of the -olitical and cor-orate interests that e,ercise so much -ower over the environment. The /uestions that instinctivel arise when we feel a sense of anger and urgenc about human treatment of the natural world - What can % do$ Can % effect change$ Can % make m voice heard$ - seem so often to be answered with a resigned 6othing or 6o. What -ossible difference could m living habits make to the future health - even survival - of the natural world$

Jut 'ust as individual habits will remain an eccentric idealism without -olitical and cor-orate change, so -olitical and cor-orate change will remain su-erficial and inade/uate without -ersonal change. %ndeed, without individual action these larger changes will not occur. <olitical change will onl ha--en when large numbers of -eo-le -ractise what the believe in. When there is a big enough groundswell of o-inion and enough action, then governments will be forced to bring in laws and structural transformations. Jased on m own -ersonal e,-eriences of -racticable, sustainable living, here is m manifesto for how we, as individuals, can begin to cause this to

ha--en. % ho-e that others ma gain hints for their own lives from m recommendations.

Change our attitudes. Eur industrial culture is human-centred and utilitarian. We value nature because of its usefulness to usF we believe that we are in charge and can do what we like with the worldNs natural resources. %f we want a sustainable future we need to change this mind-set. We need to recognise that all life has intrinsic value. Without such a shift in our -ersonal attitudes towards the natural world, no sustainable lifest le can be achieved. %n -lace of the utilitarian calculus, a reverential, res-ectful world-view is re/uired. Then we will destro less, -oison less, kill less.

Aive sim-l . A high living standard . measured b wealth and material ac/uisition - has become the be-all and end-all of modern societ . 8or an eco-friendl life we need to seek /ualit of life instead. 7ore bluntl , we need to live more sim-l , so that others ma sim-l live. An fool can make life com-licatedF it re/uires genius to make it sim-le.

Consume less. 8ift

ears ago the worldNs -o-ulation was ) billion. 6ow it has doubled to

& billion and humans, at their -resent rate of consum-tion, are e,ceeding the ca-acit of the earth - something we all have to take -ersonal res-onsibilit for. 3omeone living in the West consumes 1@ times more than a -erson in the Third World, which means, effectivel , that the Western -o-ulation is multi-lied b 1@ times. Therefore, live more lightl , taking from nature onl what is needed, so as to make a smaller foot-rint on the earth. There is enough in the world for ever bod Ns need, but not enough for an bod Ns greed, said 7ahatma ?andhi.

Waste not. Waste is a sin against nature and a curse of modern life. Ever da , millions of tons of waste are thrown into the natural world, which it sim-l cannot co-e with. The -ile of old cookers, washing machines, fridges, com-uters and televisions is now accumulating at &m. tons a ear, a rate that is e,-ected to double b *@!@, and most of it ends u- as landfill, wasting resources and -osing risks to health and the environment. 7illions of -lastic bottles and -lastic bags are cluttering and clogging the s stem, -olluting rivers and oceans. Therefore, reusing, mending and rec cling must be regarded as great virtues. Waste-makers sim-l cannot call themselves res-onsible citizens.

Dse less harmful -roducts when cleaning the house and washing clothes (such as the Ecover detergents+. Ene ver sim-le ste- is to re-use -lastic bags, or take a cloth bag when ou go sho--ing. Another is to rediscover the old ma,im make do and mend, to

resist the tem-tation to re-lace utensils (old cookers and washing machines+ and furniture when the old ones will do. %n doing this ou will strike at consumerism.

Walk. Eur lives have become de-endent on cars - even for a short distance. This lack of e,ercise makes us obese and unhealth , with less energ than we might have if we walked. We live in homes, drive around in machines and work in officesF we hardl ever come into contact with the natural world. Jut if we do not know, see, and e,-erience nature, how can we love it$ And if we do not love nature, how can we -rotect it$ 3o walking in nature, talking walking holida s and walking to work can be a real doorwa to green living.

7editate and -ra . Eur lives have become too bus and too stressful. <ressure of work, -ressure to succeed, -ressure to achieve, -ressure to co-e with e,cess information -ressure all around. To restore the balance we need to take some time during the da for -ersonal re-lenishment, for the develo-ment of soul /ualities, for reflection and for our -ro-er relationshi- with the natural world and the Creator to develo- and grow. Ever da , for at least half an hour, we need solitude, stillness and silence, so that the rest of the da is built on a foundation of s-iritual tran/uillit .

Work less. %n s-ite of mass -roduction, industrialisation, automation and mechanisation, Westerners are overworked, often to the -oint of e,haustion. Too often b the time -eo-le come home the have no energ to do an thing other than sit in front of the television set. %n s-ite of our wealth and un-recedented economic growth, our work makes us slaves. 8or a sustainable future we need to work less, do less, s-end less and be more. 8rom sim-l being will emerge relationshi-s, celebrations and 'o . 3ustainable living is 'o ful living.

Je informed. 6o one can la down a blue-rint for green living4 each of us has to develoour own ideas. Jut we have to build on all the new thinking in this field. There are books, magazines and courses which can hel- us. We need to make time to stud .

<rotest. Oested interests will alwa s find wa s to fool -eo-le and seek -rofit and -ower which damage the earth. Therefore we need to be awake and alert to the e,-loitative actions of others. Jut such -rotests cannot be made aloneF we have to be in solidarit with organisations working for a sustainable future, such as 8riends of the Earth, ?reen-eace, and Christian Aid. Choose an organisation which suits our tem-erament and work with our local communit , form a local grou- and take interest in local -olitics.

8inall , take heart in the fact that huge multinational com-anies are now beginning to -roclaim the virtues of sustainable consum-tion. Dnilever, for e,am-le, has vowed that b *@@1 it will onl fish onl from sustainable sources, while its com-etitor <roctor P ?amble is coming u- with innovative -roducts such as detergents that re/uire less water, heat and -ackaging.

These moves are not e,-ressions of some sort of cor-orate social res-onsibilit , however. Com-anies will onl embrace environmental ethics if there are -rofits in them. Those -rofits will de-end on the choices made b individuals like ou and me.
Above te3t sour0ed from Satish ,umar 4See referen0e 5, reprodu0ed %ith permission from &he *esurgen0e %ebsite 4%%%/resurgen0e/org5

.5ercise : &hat is your manifesto/

(ive some thought to %hat subGe0ts 0overed in this module 4or other areas not 0overed in this module5 that have parti0ularly stu0k out as important issues to address/ :hat should people be doing about them; +raft a manifesto/ Start %ith NM believe////N

)areers in Sustainability
Laving looked at 0hoi0es an individual 0an make in their lives to%ards sustainability, %e %ill no% e3amine steps to take for a 0areer in sustainability, spe0ifi0ally in the engineering se0tor/ Ea0h 0hapter in this module has suggested engineering solutions to the problems of unsustainability, and looking at the s0ale of the problems it %ould be prudent to assume that there should be no shortage of %ork for engineersa

1irstly suggestions about gaining edu0ation both formal and informal are suggested, follo%ed by a list of resour0es on volunteering and internships/ &hen some blogs and %ebsites giving information about getting a Gob in the area of sustainability are in0luded, before a final se0tion about Ndoing it yourselfN, or setting up a 0ompany or organisation from s0rat0h/

Education
7earning and edu0ation are a key first step in 0onfronting sustainability/ 8y keeping yourself %ell informed about the problems that are happening to the %orld and so0iety you are better eFuipped to have the 0reativity and innovation reFuired to produ0e solutions/ As mentioned in the first 0hapter, e3ponential gro%th of 0onsumption of resour0es means that everything is 0hanging at a fast rate/ &he statisti0s presented in this module %ill soon be out of date, so it is essential to stay informed and be up to date %ith the 0urrent %orld%ide situation/

7earning 0an take the form of formalised edu0ation, su0h as a masterCs degree, or other a0ademi0 Fualifi0ations/ *e0ently there has been a big in0rease in the number of institutions offering degree and postgraduate Fualifi0ations on subGe0ts related to sustainability/ Mnternet sear0hing %ill provide many more opportunities, 0atered e3a0tly to your interests, but listed belo% is a small sele0tion of Masters +egrees offered related to the subGe0t 0ontent of this module-

Centre for Alternative Technolog ?raduate 3chool of the Environment MS0 *ene%able Energy and the 8uilt Environment 4*E8E5 MS0 Ar0hite0ture- Advan0ed Environmental and Energy Studies 4AEES5 MS0 Sustainable Lorti0ulture and 1ood $rodu0tion http-..gse/0at/org/uk.

Centre for =enewable Energ 3 stems Technolog , Aoughborough Dniversit *ene%able Energy Systems &e0hnology 4MS05 http-..%%%/lboro/a0/uk.departments.el.resear0h.0entres.0rest.

Water, Engineering and ;evelo-ment Centre, Aoughborough Dniversit :ater and Environmental Management :ater and :aste Engineering Mnfrastru0ture in Emergen0ies http-..%ed0/lboro/a0/uk.

Dniversit of 6ottingham MS0 Sustainable 8uilding &e0hnology Sustainable Energy Engineering Masters 4MS05

http-..pgstudy/nottingham/a0/uk.

1ormalised a0ademi0 edu0ation is not ne0essarily the best path for everyone, and kno%ledge, e3perien0e and skills 0an be gained through other informal routes, su0h as reading books, peer learning and internet resear0h/ Many organisations run pra0ti0al 0ourses for those %ishing to gain a more hands on approa0h of learningK some of these are listed belo%-

Aow %m-act Aiving %nitiative 7M7M offer pra0ti0al short 0ourses on a range of topi0s related to sustainability http-..%%%/lo%impa0t/org.0ourses/htm

3chumacher College An edu0ational institute based on the ideas of E/1/ S0huma0her that offers a range of 0ourses for anyone interested in sustainability http-..%%%/s0huma0her0ollege/org/uk.0ourses.short60ourses

Centre for Alternative Technolog CA& also offer short 0ourses of a pra0ti0al nature on a range of subGe0ts http-..%%% /0at/org/uk.short0ourses.

Experience
Any employer related to sustainability or not, %ill be interested in taking somebody on that has had at least some relevant %ork e3perien0e %hen they apply/ Oolunteering or taking on an internship at a relevant organisation or 0ompany 0an be a good %ay to gain this e3perien0e, and also to get a better idea if that type of %ork is %hat you are looking for/ 8elo% is a list of %ebsites that list opportunities for volunteering in the U, and abroad in the field of sustainability and engineering/ :eb sear0hing for volunteering opportunities of a spe0ifi0 interest %ill provide a more detailed sele0tion of va0an0ies/

EWJ %nternational Engineers Without Jorders - %nternational (EWJ-%+ is an international association of national EWJK%38 grou-s whose mission is to facilitate collaboration, e,change of information, and assistance among its member grou-s that have a--lied to become -art of the association. http-..%%%/e%b6international/org. %dealist Non6profit Career Centre %ith volunteer opportunities in your 0ommunity and around the %orld, and a list of organiHations that 0an help you volunteer abroad/ Also features Gob and internship listings %%%/idealist/org

Oolunteering England this site provides free information, and details of the servi0es provided to those %ho %ork %ith volunteers and people looking for volunteer %ork/ %%%/volunteering/org/uk.

Environment'ob.co.uk Environmental 2obs, Course and Events http-..%%%/environmentGob/0o/uk.volunteering.@!6Sustainability

O3E Engineering and Technical Engineering and te0hni0al volunteers tend to %ork in either se0ure livelihoods programmes to help people make a de0ent living or our health programmes to support

health0are servi0es/ http-..%%%/vso/org/uk.volunteer.opportunities.engineering.

?lobal Career Juilding %nternshi-s 1o0us on international pla0ements http-..%%%/gointernabroad/0om.

Aondon 3tudents Towards 3ustainabilit (A3T3+ %nternshi- 3cheme Lelps harness the skills and enthusiasm of the ne3t generation of sustainability professionals by providing links to employers a0ross the publi0, private and N(' se0tors/ http-..%%%/ls3/org/uk.%hat%edo.internshipS !s0hemeTpage#"=@/asp3

Engineers Without Jorders DB 'ffer volunteering pla0ements in international development and sustainability in the U, and abroad for student engineers http-..%%%/e%b6uk/org.

Findin! a 3ob
&he eventual aim of anyone %anting to %ork in sustainability is to ideally find a Gob that mat0hes their 0ompeten0ies, ideals and pays enough to 0over the bills/ A0hieving a perfe0t balan0e of all three %ill be diffi0ult to find, but it may be the 0ase that ea0h are addressed at different times in your 0areer/ As is e3plained in the follo%ing blog post, there is no set path to obtaining a perfe0t Gob, and in the field of sustainability there is less of a linear 0areer path/ 1le3ibility, a diverse skill set and strong 0onvi0tions are useful tools to have/

, &trategies to $inding a &ustainability -ob% .ob Willard (/*

We all seek the hol grail of a -osition that matches our convictions, needs, and com-etencies. <eo-le who want to make a difference sometimes ask me for advice on how to find a 'ob in the sustainabilit sector. The bad news is that there is no such sector, an more than there is a /ualit sector. The good news is that there are roles in organizations that include var ing degrees of res-onsibilit for sustainabilit 4 in the organization, with its su--liers, andKor hel-ing its clients become more sustainable enter-rises. #ere are five strategies to hel- find one of those great 'obs. )0 Decide where you would be most energi1ed 3ector4 <ublic sector$ <rivate sector$ 6ot-for--rofit sector$ Academia$ Consulting$ Erganization 3ize4 Aarge$ 3mall$ 3olo$ 3ustainabilit 8ocus4 Environmental$ 3ocial$ %ndustr 3ector4 Which industr sector attracts ou$ Aocation4 Which cit or countr attracts ou$ 8inancial 3ecurit 6eeds4 #ow im-ortant are salar and benefits$ Dse our e,citement level as a barometer for each choice. ;oes the -ossibilit e,cite ou$ Wh $ Wh not$ To hel- confirm our o-tions, consider volunteering or doing a small contract at a -otential organization of interest. %t will give ou first-hand knowledge of what itNs like to work thereF it shows tangible evidence of our interestF it gives ou a chance to ac/uire new e,-erience and skillsF and it adds new contacts to our -rofessional network.

+0 Wor2 your existing networ2

As =ichard Jolles e,-lains in L:hat Colour is 9our $ara0hute;N H@" of 'obs are found through e,isting -rofessional ac/uaintances, friends, and famil . These known folks usuall -rovide the most fruitful leads. Jolles advises 'ob-seekers to devote most of their search-time to ta--ing intoQor rebuildingQtheir e,isting networks, and to develo-ing new contacts. <eo-le are the ones who -rovide a real-time -i-eline of information about where the 'obs areQideall before the are -osted. Alumni and -rofessional associations are strong resources, as are social media, such as Ainked%n. %f our /ualifications warrant a senior role in a large com-an , ou might consider using an e,ecutive recruiting agenc .

/0 &hop your non3sustainability s2ills% match your "alues

There are not man sustainabilit 'obs out there et. #owever, there are a growing number of organizations that es-ouse sustainabilit and which are undertaking e,citing initiatives for environmental and social res-onsibilit . %f ou o-t for the cor-orate sector, seek organizations whose values match ours. 3ell them on our transferable and technical skills, and our e,-erience. That is, use the Tro'an #orse a--roach4 enter the com-an gates b starting in a normal 'ob. Then, assess how ou can legitimatel su--ort sustainabilit initiatives from that -osition, or from a subse/uent -osition within the com-an that ou later discover is a better fit.

40 Tal2 their language

This is a -et theme of mine. As ou a--l to various organizations, re-tune our CO and our interview vocabular so that it relates to their conte,t, values, and challenges. 3ell them on how ou can add value to their current -rioritiesQalwa s being careful to avoid sustainabilit -s-eak if the interviewer is not comfortable with that lens on the com-an Ns business concerns.

,0 Embrace a 5on36inear !areer Path

%n the -ast, our -aths towards careers were much more linear. We graduated from school, college, or universit F we got an entr level -osition in a com-an F and in cases like mine, we slowl climbed through the ranks in that com-an . Toda , in a 'ob market that is constantl shifting and -resenting new t -es of 'obs we need to embrace a nonlinear career -ath. That means being o-en to taking a mechanical engineering 'ob designing a well in a foreign countr , then coming back and using that e,-erience to get a 'ob in another cor-oration designing their broader sustainabilit -lans.

% e,-ect that these strategies reinforce our instincts and e,-erience when finding a good 'ob. >ust because sustainabilit is a good thing, that doesnNt mean that organizations are waiting with o-en arms for ou to hel- them become more res-onsible enter-rises. %t takes real effort and -atience to find a good fit, and it ma re/uire a few interim -ositions to get there, but it is worth it.

&he follo%ing are Gob portals in the U, listing engineering Gobs related to sustainability/ Again %eb sear0hing %ith spe0ifi0 key%ord to areas of interest %ill produ0e more fruitful results/ Aearning for 3ustainabilit &his page provides some key links for using the Mnternet to tra0k do%n Gob va0an0ies and volunteering programmes in the fields of environment and development/ http-..learningforsustainability/net.Gobs. Environment'ob.co.uk Environmental Gobs from 0onservation through re0y0ling to environmental edu0ation/ %%%/environmentGob/0o/uk Ethical >obs Solar engineering to sustainable development and 0are %ork/ %%%/ethi0al6Gobs/0o/uk ?rad Cracker (eneral site for graduate engineers 4sear0h for a relevant key%ord5 %%%/grad0ra0ker/0o/uk Amide A spe0ialist re0ruitment business dedi0ated to global Sustainable +evelopment, re0ruiting

for 8uildings, &ransport, Energy, :ater, Environment and Corporate Sustainability/ http-..%%%/amida6re0ruit/0om.home/asp3 Acre An international re0ruitment and e3e0utive sear0h firm spe0ialising in the 0orporate responsibility, energy effi0ien0y, 0arbon, environmental and health & safety market http-..a0re6resour0es/0om.

"e 4our .wn "oss

&he final option is to set up a 0ompany or organisation yourself/ &he re%ards of being your o%n boss and being able to dire0tly follo% your o%n vision are %eighed up %ith the 0hallenges and responsibilities of running a 0ompany in full, %hi0h has the possibility of taking up a large amount of your time/ Lo%ever in the field of sustainability there is more of a need for innovative solutions that may not be addressed by 0urrent 0ompanies/ Mn this respe0t it is feasible that many ne% start6up 0ompanies %ill o00ur in the follo%ing years all fo0using on a different part of the sustainability 0hallenge not 0urrently addressed/ Mf this is does sound attra0tive to you, it may still be advisable to get some e3perien0e in a 0ompany that already e3ists if not only to see ho% a business is run and learn some Ntri0ks of the trade/N

&%o 0ase studies are presented belo% of groups that sa% a need and set up an organisation to address it/

7/ Power

O# $o%er is a +M9 rene%able energy 0ooperative that fo0uses on edu0ational proGe0ts in the field of rene%able energy/ &heir main a0tivity is running 0ourses tea0hing people ho% to build small %ind turbines using simple tools and materials/ O# %as started by a group of students 4myself in0luded5 from Nottingham University that %anted to use skills gained in their degree in a pra0ti0al and useful %ay/ &hey felt strongly about the need for people to +M9 4+o Mt 9ourself5 and have fo0used on pra0ti0al edu0ation and 0apa0ity building in this respe0t/ &he 0ooperative has been going for ? years no%, and have %orked internationally installing over "@ %ind turbines and running 0ourses for diverse audien0es around the %orld/ &he servi0es it offers have e3panded to in0lude running pra0ti0al and engaging %orkshops in s0hools about rene%able energy, installing off and on grid %ind turbines, te0hni0al servi0es for medium siHed %ind turbines and rene%able energy 0onsultan0y/ http-..%%%/v#po%er/0o/uk.

Demand Energy E8uality

&his is a 8ristol based group that run %orkshops on building solar $O panels, providing a 0heaper %ay of utilising rene%able energy for lo% in0ome housing/ 1rom their %ebsiteWe have two ob'ectives to our ;%R 3olar <O worksho-s.

!.To reduce the cost of solar -anels and enable low income households to gain access to em-owering solar <O technolog as there is a growing divergence between those who can afford renewable -ower.

*.To utilise the -otential these technologies offer in reducing household energ demand. Energ demand reduction is -ossible when -eo-le have a greater understanding and relationshi- with these technologies.

The two ob'ectives are achieved through worksho-s where communit grou-s and individuals build their own solar -anels, learn how to connect the -anels to their homes, source rec cled materials and correlate their su--l of renewable -ower with their demand. We also teach worksho- leaders the skills to go out into their communities to run their own worksho-s. We are about teaching the skills and knowledge so -eo-le can then build themselves solar -anels, in doing so em-ower and -ower themselves. The -anels cost half that of the chea-est commercial -anel and we -rovide the worksho-s on a sliding scale so financial barriers to attendance are as minimised. http-..%%%/demandenergyeFuality/org.inde3/html

&he follo%ing is an e3tra0t from a talk given by an a00ountant %ho %orks in the area of sustainability field, and his advi0e on getting a Gob in the field

!areers in &ustainability% Da"id .rent (4*

% work at 1orum for the 1uture, a sustainable develo-ment charit that works in -artnershi- with com-anies and government bodies to create a sustainable future. % believe that Ssustainabilit N issues are alread huge and will become more im-ortant. We will s-ending the ne,t decades creating a low-carbon world. 3ustainabilit issues are driving the conte,t in which all of us have to forge our careers. The will dominate our working lives.

% did a 7asters in <h sics at E,eter College but s-ent most of m time on what were then known as develo-ment and environment issues. % was -art of Third World 8irst (now called ($eople and $lanet+ and of that first Alternative Careers 8air. Then % had a bit of an alternative careers fail. % didnNt want to be a burden on m -arents, and % wanted a solid -rofessional /ualification. 3o % became an accountant with <ricewaterhouseCoo-ers. 7 friends accused me of selling m soulF % said % had mortgaged it.

6ot sur-risingl % didnNt en'o m time at <wC. % realised that, fundamentall , whoever does the accounts or audit should come u- with the same answer. And that means training -eo-le to conform, and avoid too much critical thinking or creativit . % needed a -ath out, so % did a 7asters in =es-onsibilit and Jusiness <ractice at the Dniversit of Jath. 3o man -eo-le found the course to be life-changing . generating an invaluable set of skills and connections. %n the last weeks of that course no fewer than eight -eo-le sent me a 'ob advert to be a green accountant at 8orum for the 8uture. % a--lied and go it. %n the last H ears % have had a new role in 8orum ever two ears . sustainabilit accountant, #ead of Jusiness 3trategies and now ;e-ut ;irector. %Nm satisfied b 4 making a differenceF contributing the sum of human knowledgeF and breaking new ground in a vital area.

:hat does it mean for you; !.Rou 0an mortgage our soul (that is, it is -ossible to use cor-orates for training and credibilit + but ou need to be careful ou donNt get sucked in, with evernarrowing horizon and de-endent on the salar .

*.8ollow our -assion, with an e e to what our future self might want.

).3ustainabilit is an immature field, so there is no established career -ath et. This is both a blessing and a curse . ou can forge something new but the onus is on ou to make that new -ath. There is greater -rofessionalism on the wa , with s-ecialisms and associated /ualifications.

5.Ever one has a choice about whether to go dee- and s-ecialise or go wide as a connector and intellectual omnivore. Rour choice will de-end on our skills and -ersonalit .

1.%nternshi-s are common routes for credibilit .

&.the normal rules of 'ob hunting and career develo-ment a--l . !.what are ou good at and what value is that to an one else$ *.what weakness do ou need to make sure ou get to a minimum level$ ).how does our ne,t ste- build the o-tions ou want$

1inallycThere has alwa s been something to be done. %n the last centur -eo-le fought fascism, rebuilt Western Euro-e and saw off communism. Juilding a sustainable word is the task of our generation. %t will be tough, but it will also be a great lifeNs work for us all.

)ase Studies
Mn0luded belo% are a snapshot of e3amples of organisations and individuals that demonstrate engineeringJs role in sustainability/ &hey are intended to give suggestions and inspiration to someone interested in getting involved in %orking in a 0areer in engineering and sustainability/ At the end of this 0hapter is a 0omprehensive list of links to relevant %ebsites of organisations, both %ith an engineering fo0us and some %ith more general themes %hoJs aims are to ta0kle to problems fa0ing the %orld/

.r!anisations
&he organisations are here to sho% suggestions of types of groups someone %anting to embark on a 0areer in sustainability might %ish to apply to for an internship or a paid position/ &he organisationJs histories are also detailed as they sho% ho% Fui0kly a shared idea of a fe% enthusiasti0 individuals 0an gro% to national or international organisation making big 0hanges in the %orld/

&he Centre 1or Alternative &e0hnology 4CA&5

CA& %as started in ">)# by a group of environmental enthusiasts and a0tivists that %anted to 0reate a Ntest bedN for ne% ideas and te0hnologies related to sustainability/ &hey pur0hased a disused slate Fuarry in Mid :ales to use as a base to live %hile resear0hing, 0reating and testing e0o6friendly te0hnologies/ $rogress %as slo% to start, but the proGe0t gained momentum as %ord spread about %hat %as happening and ne% volunteers arrived bringing a variety of skills and kno%ledge %ith them/ Mn ">)= follo%ing a visit from the +uke of Edinburgh, part of the site %as turned into a visitors 0entre to generate interest in alternative te0hnology and demonstrate CA&Js Oision/

CA& has sin0e gro%n to be EuropeJs leading e0o 0entre, %ith >! permanent staff and volunteers and re0eiving around ?@,!!! visitors every year/ &oday the mission statement of the organisation is as follo%s- NCA& is 0on0erned %ith the sear0h for globally sustainable, %hole and e0ologi0ally sound te0hnologies and %ays of life/N &hey a0hieve this by inspiring, informing and enabling people to make positive 0hange in their life to%ards sustainability/

&heir themes of pra0ti0e are diverse, 0overing topi0s su0h as land use, shelter, energy 0onservation and use, diet and health, %aste management and re0y0ling/ &hey stress that a holisti0 approa0h to sustainability is paramount/

&he site itself 0ontains a large range of demonstrations of rene%able energy, sustainable build pra0ti0es, and organi0 gro%ing/ &here is also a resident 0ommunity and %ork organisation based on the site, %hi0h has evolved and formed from the original members living on the Fuarry/ &he 0ommunity and %ork group are 0ommitted to the implementation of 0o6operative prin0iples and best a0hievable environmental pra0ti0es/

&he servi0es CA& offers in0lude the follo%ing-

A visitor 0entre %hi0h is open ) days a %eek, %ith ) a0res of intera0tive displays/ A free information servi0e ans%ering enFuiries on all aspe0ts of sustainable living/ A graduate s0hool %ith a range of postgraduate degrees in environmental ar0hite0ture and rene%able energy/ *esidential and one6day 0ourses for the general publi0, as %ell as more spe0ialised 0ourses for builders, engineers, ele0tri0ians and plumbers/ Curri0ulum6based edu0ation to visiting s0hools, 0olleges and universities/ *esidential edu0ation trips for s0hools and 0olleges in uniFue e0o60abins/ Edu0ational outrea0h %ork, in0luding tea0her training and s0hool visits/ $ublishing books on key environmental issues I and their solutions/ 7ong6term and short6term volunteer programmes for those that %ant to gain hands6on e3perien0e/

CA& also has 0ondu0ted a series of resear0h reports addressing s0enarios for redu0ing the U,Cs emissions to Hero in ! years, 0alled ]eroCarbon8ritain/ CA& has re0ognised the need to edu0ate and inform and these 0on0epts have been 0entral to their goals/ As %ell as a Fuality training institution for engineers %anting to %ork in sustainability it is also an invaluable sour0e of information for anyone 0on0erned about the environmental degradation of the planet and interested in holisti0 solutions/ http-..%%%/0at/org/uk.

$ra0ti0al A0tion

1ritH S0huma0her %as a radi0al e0onomist %ho is best kno%n for his book NSmall Ms 8eautifulN 4published in ">)#5, %hi0h 0riti0ises 0onventional development strategies of large s0ale 0apital intensive industry and e0onomi0 gro%th to redu0e poverty/ Mnstead he suggested a strategy involving lo0al solutions, %ith small s0ale te0hnology that %as appropriate to the needs of the 0ommunity it %as intended for/ &he term he used for this thinking %as NMntermediate &e0hnologyN based on the needs and skills possessed by the people of developing 0ountries/

:ith these ideas in mind S0huma0her set up an advisory 0entre in ">?? to promote the use of effi0ient labour intensive te0hniFues that %as 0alled NMntermediate &e0hnologyN/ &he group started by promoting the do0umentation and assembly of any data that 0ould be found relating to intermediate te0hnologies and te0hniFues/ As the organisation gre% reFuests for te0hni0al advi0e and information about spe0ifi0 tools and te0hniFues in0reased so an enFuiry servi0e %as set up %hi0h utilised voluntary e3perts from a0ademi0 and resear0h institutions, industry and government spe0ifi0ally for the purpose/

Soon M&+( had 0reated panels for Agri0ulture, 8uilding, Co6operatives, Edu0ation and &raining, 1ood $ro0essing, :ater, $o%er, *ural Lealth, and :omen in +evelopment and %as providing servi0es to organisations su0h as the '+A, the :orld 8ank, et0, on appropriate te0hnology/ &he group began to e3pand its proGe0t involvement, %hi0h led it opening offi0es in developing 0ountries/

Mn !!@ M&+( 0hanged its name to $ra0ti0al a0tion, and no% it no% employs #!! staff in four 0ontinents, and has %orked in over ?! 0ountries/ $ra0ti0al A0tion re0ently published $eople and &e0hnology- transforming lives, a ne% group strategy for !!)6" , and it is aiming to be0ome the leading authority on the use of te0hnology to redu0e poverty in developing 0ountries/ &he S0huma0her Centre for &e0hnology and +evelopment is to evolve as a national and international 0entre for kno%ledge and e3pertise on te0hnology, poverty redu0tion and the environment/

$ra0ti0al A0tion has fo0used on redu0ing poverty through the use of te0hnology, and there are many inter%oven themes %ith %hat they do and sustainability/ &he po%erful %ords of Shuma0herJs vision are still at the heart of this %orthy organisation/

http-..pra0ti0ala0tion/org.

Engineers :ithout 8orders U,

E:86U, is a national organisation %ith a goal to fa0ilitate human development through engineering/ Mt %as started in !!@ by a group of students from Cambridge University %ho all shared an interest in issues of poverty redu0tion and sustainability, and %anted to put their engineering skills to good use to%ards these aims/ &hey began by organising talks and presentations informing their fello% students about rates of poverty, environmental degradation, and te0hni0al solutions to these problems through

engineering/ $la0ements %ere organised to developing 0ountries to implement engineering designs %orking %ith partner N('Js/

&he organisation has gro%n from a university so0iety to a nation%ide 0harity that has inspired and trained a multitude of young engineers and %orked on a diverse range of proGe0ts internationally/

E:86U,Js key ideas are as follo%s-

Lolisti0 Engineering 6 %orking %ith an interdis0iplinary approa0h that takes into 0onsideration the lo0al kno%ledge, e0onomy, 0ulture and environment/ A0tive $artnerships 6 building long term relationships and %orking in 0ollaboration %ith 0ommunities and lo0al organisations $eople $arti0ipation 6 believing in demand6led development and parti0ipatory 0hange/ Small 1ootprint 6 Adopting a sustainable use of natural resour0es and minimising any impa0t to the lo0al environment, biodiversity or global 0limate/ Appropriate &e0hnology 6 Adapting e3isting lo%6risk te0hnology and applying modern engineering methods/

&he operations of E:86U, are divided into the follo%ing se0tions-

$la0ements 6 arranging # month to " year pla0ements for students to %ork %ith N('Js in developing 0ountries and in the U, to gain e3perien0e in international development and implementing pra0ti0ally skills gained at university/

&raining 6 fa0ilitating pra0ti0al training 0ourses for engineering students about international development and sustainability *esear0h 6 Coordinating N('Js %ith a need for te0hni0al resear0h %ith universities and students that have a00ess to eFuipment and funds to 0omplete the resear0h

Edu0ation 6 Advising on 0ourse stru0ture of university degrees to in0lude more about international development and sustainability 'utrea0h 6 running engaging %orkshops in s0hools based on the aims of the organisation

:ithin these operations, E:86U,Js %ork is divided into 0ommunities of pra0ti0e, 0overing Energy, :ater and Sanitation, Shelter, &ransport, MC& and Lealth/

Most U, universities no% have an E:86U, so0iety %hi0h organises its o%n events, talks, trips and proGe0ts/ MtJs not essential to be an engineer to Goin these so0ieties, %hi0h refle0ts the diverse skills reFuired in the area of development/ &here is also a professional net%ork for pra0titioners, e3perts and industry members from related fields to get involved/

As dis0ussed in Chapter > 6 So0ial, environmental issues are often interlinked %ith so0ial issues, and an organisation su0h as E:86U,, by fo0using on proGe0ts to redu0e poverty in developing %orld %ill similarly be advo0ates of environmentally sustainable te0hnologies/ http-..%%%/e%b6uk/org

Individual )ase Studies

&he individual stories listed here are to demonstrate that there is no single path to a 0areer in sustainability, and the fa0t that roles, positions, fo0uses and motivations all 0hange throughout a 0areer/ &hey also demonstrate the diverse roles and opportunities available in the field of sustainability/

Steven 0unt@ (nternational .nergy Coordinator@ 2ractical Action

1our years after graduating from the University of (lasgo% in $rodu0t +esign Engineering, Steven left his Gob %ith a te0hnology development 0ompany for a pla0ement %ith E:86U, on Slum Net%orking at the Alang Shipbreaking 9ards in Mndia/ Shortly after%ards, he also did a part6time pla0ement %ith Shelter Centre in Cambridge looking at emergen0y shelter, %hi0h led on to a Gob in small %ind turbines %ith ^C' /

A year later, Steven started a Masters in Engineering for Sustainable +evelopment at Cambridge/ At the same time Goined the National E3e0utive of E:86 U,, establishing the $rofessional Net%ork as a 0ommunity of professionals, a0ademi0s and pra0titioners/ Steven soon got a Gob as an energy spe0ialist for $ra0ti0al A0tion Consulting fo0using on energy a00ess in developing 0ountries around the %orld I from 0ook stoves to treadle pumps, from Madagas0ar to AHerbaiGan/

Steven also served as a trustee of E:86U, for t%o years during %hi0h time he established a series of 0ollaborations %ith $ra0ti0al A0tion, in0luding a partnership on a series of pla0ements for E:86U, members/ Mt has been a great su00ess, %ith volunteers making great and diverse 0ontributions to $ra0ti0al A0tion %hile gaining e3perien0e of %orking in development/ LeCs also been involved %ith providing briefs for the *esear0h $rogramme and is a speaker for the &raining $rogramme/

Steven has taken up the role of international energy 0o6ordinator at $ra0ti0al A0tion, and is also 0urrently se0onded part time to the U, +epartment for Mnternational +evelopment as Energy Advisor/ At +1M+, Steven is developing a ne% results6based in0entive system to a00elerate off6grid energy markets for produ0ts a00essible to poor people in developing 0ountries I hopefully 0reating the in0entives for more innovators and entrepreneurs to apply themselves to the issue of energy poverty/

Aath 2asteur@ currently initiating a community &oodland As a 0hild M %as never Fuite sure %hat M %anted to Ddo %hen M gre% upE/ :hen asked by a friend of my mums aged about "!, apparently M said M %anted to be a gypsya 8y the time M got to "A that 0areer 0hoi0e %asnJt going to impress the parents so M applied to university to study psy0hology/ M took a year out first to see a bit of the %orld and during that year M had the opportunity to go to Uganda for a month/ M 0ouldnJt get over ho% green and lush the 0ountry %asa My images of Afri0a %ere based on the 8and Aid video during the Sahel famine in the mid6">A!s, i/e/ desert and hungry people/ &his didnJt Fuite add up/

M %ent home %anting to study agri0ulture but didnJt think M %ould get on a 0ourse %ithout a s0ien0e A level, so M s%it0hed to a geography degree %hi0h had a fo0us on developing 0ountry agri0ulture and global politi0al e0onomy/ M didnJt feel Fualified enough %ith Gust a ba0helorCs degree so M %ent straight on to do an MS0 in *ural *esour0es and Environmental $oli0y at %hat %as :ye Agri0ultural College in ,ent 4no% sadly 0losed do%n5/ +uring that 0ourse M heard about an opportunity to apply for a grant to %ork as a resear0h assistant in Me3i0o/ M obviously needed some overseas e3perien0e to get into the %orld of international development so M found a position doing a study of beekeeping and its role in the farming household e0onomy in 9u0atan/ Not kno%ing anything about beekeeping nor being able to speak mu0h more than pigeon Spanish, this %as 0ertainly a learning e3perien0ea M 0ame home t%o and a half years later %ith fluent Spanish and kno%ing a lot more about rural livelihoods and honey produ0tiona M fell straight into a @ month *esear0h Assistant Gob at the Mnstitute of +evelopment Studies 4M+S5, at the University of Susse3 and ended up staying there for > yearsa Mainly M %orked on DSustainable 7ivelihoodsE i/e/ promoting a more diversified and integrated approa0h to supporting the livelihoods of the rural poor/ +uring those years M felt more and more un0omfortable about the un6sustainability of our livelihoods in the north, and sa% that 0hange in the poli0ies of developed 0ountries %as far more valuable than DaidE to the south/ M started doing a lot of voluntary 0ampaigning %ith the :orld +evelopment Movement and made more efforts to green up my o%n lifestyle 4not flying unless for %ork, buying lo0al food, home 0omposting, et0/5/

&hough M loved living in 8righton, M never felt at home in an a0ademi0 environment so M finally moved on from M+S and got a Gob %ith the 0harity $ra0ti0al A0tion based Gust outside *ugby/ &his Gob involved supporting the international offi0es to develop and

manage proGe0ts on livelihoods issues, food se0urity, disaster risk redu0tion and 0limate 0hange/ M really liked $ra0ti0al A0tionJs approa0h %hi0h is to strengthen and improve lo0al te0hnologies and skills/ So parti0ularly on food issues, %e didnJt push ne% seeds and fertiliHers, but rather revived lo0al seed diversity and traditional soil and %ater 0onservation methods, %hi0h are more appropriate to the fragile environments %here %e %ere %orking/

:hen M Goined $ra0ti0al A0tion M moved to 7eamington Spa and got involved in a lo0al Community Supported Agri0ulture 4CSA5 proGe0t %hi0h produ0ed vegetables for around " ! households/ M kept up 0ampaigning through going to the annual Climate Camps and got involved in the lo0al &ransition &o%n initiative/ &hrough doing 0ampaigning at festivals M also got to kno% people %ho %ere living in intentional e0o60ommunities in Somerset and +evon/ M started to feel some%hat troubled by being paid a lot to redu0e poverty, and flying around the %orld to %ork on 0limate 0hange/ M %anted to get out of the offi0e, live more simply and %ork out %hat M believed life %as about/ So after = years %ith $ra0ti0al A0tion M simply handed in my noti0e///

M had some savings so M spent about a year living very 0heaply, and doing the things M didnJt have time to do %hen M %as %orking in0luding a "! day silent meditation 0ourse, reading books, helping more at the CSA, learning to dra%, taking a 0ampervan trip round S0otland, %orking at e0o60ommunities like &inkers 8ubble, and spending the summer %orking at festivals %ith the D&in OillageE 4promoting lo% impa0t living5/ Mt %as great- M loved being outdoors, M loved the freedom to manage my o%n time, and M loved learning ne% pra0ti0al skills/ More than anything M valued having the time to think about %hat M believed in both spiritually and about sustainability/ My 0on0lusion %as that there are no definitive ans%ers 6 %e should ea0h %ork out %hat they mean for ourselves/ :e need to be informed about the %orld to make and reassess those Gudgements, so there is an important role in e30hanging and e3ploring ideas and beliefs 4rather than harping on at people about %hat they should or shouldnJt doa5/ :e should be the 0hange %e %ant to see, and hopefully that in it %ill en0ourage others to think/

As %inter dre% in M realised M needed to %ork again if M %as going to keep paying the bills in 7eamington/ So M put feelers out about freelan0e %ork/ Mt %as a struggle at first but M trusted that something %ould 0ome up and sure enough a dream opportunity 0ame my %ay- a Gob setting up a 0ommunity %oodland on a dereli0t site in 7eamington/ Mts only one day a %eek, so M supplement that %ith o00asional international development 0onsultan0y Gobs, 0ontinue to live 0heaply, and take regular trips in my 0ampervan, to satisfy the gypsy spirit in me/

'ames Curry@ )irector of a Spanish Rene&able .nergy Company

Mn the last year of my undergraduate degree in English 7iterature and Cultural Listory, M be0ame in0reasingly interested in politi0s/ Laving gro%n up in a suburb of 7ondon that had been %itness to a large anti roads protest, the M"" link road 0ampaign, M began to gravitate to environmental a0tivism/ Mid6%ay through my final year M be0ame involved in the Camp for Climate A0tion/ 8y the end of my degree M felt that my humanities degree %as an opportunity to further my kno%ledge and understanding about the %orld, and that no% it important to test these ideas through pra0ti0al appli0ations/ Laving finished my degree M then took a > %eek 0ourse in Sustainable 7and Use %ith $erma0ulture tea0her $atri0k :hitefield/ &his %as an important 0ourse for me as it helped me develop a holisti0, land based approa0h to sustainability and personal autonomy/

At the Camp for Climate A0tion at +ra3 po%er station M met an engineer offering to tea0h a %ind turbine building 0ourse/ :ith funding from the :orkers Edu0ation Asso0iation M organiHed a %eek long 0ourse in the 0onstru0tion of /=m, @!!% a3ial flu3 %ind turbine, at an arts 0entre in East 7ondon, the =>" gallery/ 'rganising the 0ourse %as a big leap beyond anything that M had done before, having very little pra0ti0al skills or kno%ledge, but M felt parti0ularly empo%ered by the e3perien0e of non6hierar0hi0al organisation at the Climate Camp that summer/ M also understood the importan0e of skilling up in order to 0hallenge 0apitalism and prote0t the planet/ &he 0ourse fostered a small group %anting to build more %ind turbines, and M subseFuently built another t%oK the first for an e0ologi0al 0ommunity in the South :est of England, and the se0ond for the 7ondon neighborhood of the Camp for Climate A0tion, in Leathro%/

Laving no% built three %ind turbines M realiHed that M needed to undergo some further te0hni0al training and started an MS0 in Advan0ed Environmental and Energy Studies at the Centre for Alternative &e0hnology, in :ales/ Laving previously studied a humanities degree, it %as a diffi0ult transition to a s0ien0e based masters but M persevered/

At the se0ond Climate Camp M met members of O# $o%er, a Nottingham based %orkers 0ooperative/ &hey invited me to help tea0h a 0ourse building %ind turbines, %hi0h offered me the opportunity to %ork %ith Fualified engineers/ &his e3perien0e %as invaluable for learning pra0ti0al skills and gaining general engineering kno%ledge/

1ollo%ing on from my e3perien0e %ith O# and my Masters, M then took up a Gob %ith the Spanish based, 8ritish 0harity, Sunseed +esert &e0hnology/ M %orked as their Appropriate &e0hnology 0oordinator, maintaining their ele0tri0al off grid rene%able systems, solar hot %ater, %ood burning masonry stoves and a hydrauli0 ram pump/ M have stayed on in the area and M no% run a 0ompany installing off grid rene%able energy systems/

DSustainability for me is a Fuest for personal empo%erment through the grass roots provision of food, energy, 0lean %ater, housing et0/ 1rom the very small, like saving seeds, to the very large, building oneCs o%n house, anything that %e 0an do that helps us to empo%er the 0ommonality through harmony %ith nature bring us 0loser to this goal, no matter ho% small/

&o end %ith a Fuote- NM am only one/ M 0an only do %hat one 0an do/ 8ut %hat one 0an do, M %ill doaN Lappy grub6grabbinga 48etter than money grabbing any daya5 6 2ohn Seymour 4&he ne% 0omplete book of self6suffi0ien0y5

.llie 7riffiths@ Trustee@ .-+:*A

Ellie (riffiths is 0urrently a Me0hani0al Engineer %ith the ar0hite0tural and engineering pra0ti0e, Arup Asso0iates/ She previously studied for her me0hani0al engineering masters at Nottingham University/ Ellie be0ame involved in Engineers :ithout 8orders U, through her University bran0h, she later be0ame bran0h $resident and ran numerous a0tivities in0luding %orkshops, proGe0ts and outrea0h programs/

Ellie %ent on an E:8 pla0ement %hile at university, to %ork on the implementation of improved 0ook stoves in rural Mndia/ She established strong relationships during her trip %hi0h lead to a 0ollaboration for her final year proGe0t, based on 0ook stove te0hnology, resear0h and design/ She follo%ed up this %ork %ith a further trip to Mndia to %ork %ith the so0ial enterprise for # months/ :ithin E:8 she is 0urrently %orking %ith the pla0ements and bran0h support teams/

EllieCs main interests and passions are in sustainability in human development and 0limate, %hi0h are both 0onfli0ting and 0ongruent %ith an unhealthy love for travel/

Further %eadin!
-orld +usiness Council for Sustainable )evelopment B-+CS)C http-..%%%/%b0sd/org.home/asp3 &he :orld 8usiness Coun0il for Sustainable +evelopment 4:8CS+5 is a CE'6led, global asso0iation of some !! 0ompanies dealing e30lusively %ith business and sustainable development/

7lobal 8illage .nergy 2artnership B78.2C %%%/gvep/org (OE$ is a voluntary partnership that brings together developing and industrialised 0ountry governments, publi0 and private organiHations, multilateral institutions, 0onsumers and others in an effort to ensure a00ess to modern energy servi0es by the poor/

-astenet http-..%astenet/defra/gov/uk. :astenet is a freely available kno%ledge portal for those either 0ondu0ting resear0h on or %orking in the field of %aste management/

Stop Climate Chaos %%%/stop0limate0haos/org $ra0ti0al A0tion is a member of the Stop Climate Chaos 0oalition, the U,Cs largest group of people dedi0ated to a0tion on 0limate 0hange and limiting its impa0t on the %orldCs poorest 0ommunities, %ith a 0ombined supporter base of more than = million/ &he 0oalition 0onsists of more than )! organisations, in0luding environment and development 0harities, unions, faith, 0ommunity and %omenJs groups/

Schumacher College %%%/s0huma0her0ollege/org/uk S0huma0her College in +evon, U,, %as founded in ">>" on the 0onvi0tion that a ne% vision is needed for so0iety, its values and its relationship to the earth/ 'ver the last de0ade the 0ollege has be0ome a 0entre of e30ellen0e and established an international reputation for the inspiration, Fuality and breadth of its tea0hing/

2(SC.S pis0es/or/ke $MSCES 4$oli0y Mnnovation Systems for Clean Energy Se0urity5 is a five6year +1M+6 funded resear0h proGe0t aimed at providing ne% poli0y6relevant kno%ledge and innovation around the use of bioenergy/ &his %ill lead to more sustainable energy pra0ti0es and in0reased a00ess to energy for the rural and urban poor in the target 0ountries of ,enya, &anHania, Mndia and Sri 7anka, and beyond/

).- 2oint %%%/de%point/org/uk &he +E: $oint *esour0e Centre generates and disseminates kno%ledge on behalf of +1M+ staff and their development partners in environment, %ater resour0es, %ater and sanitation and 0limate 0hange/

Spar,net %%%/sparknet/info A formal kno%ledge net%ork on sustainable energy for lo%6in0ome households in rural areas in Southern and Eastern Afri0a/ ,ey themes in0lude household energy and health, household energy and gender, and household energy and forestry/

.5perience )evelopment %%%/e3perien0edevelopment/org A %ebsite for students that brings together 0omprehensive information on the many different aspe0ts of international development/

The Schumacher Society : Schumacher *A %%%/s0huma0her/org/uk Mnspired by the philosopher, e0onomist and author E/1/ S0huma0her, S0huma0her U, 4&he S0huma0her So0iety5 promotes human s0ale sustainable development in 8ritain and abroad/ Some of the areas 0overed in0lude- sustainable development, green issues, e0ology, 0onservation, e0onomy, health, edu0ation, philosophy, spirituality, ar0hite0ture, energy and te0hnology/ The Soil Association %%%/soilasso0iation/org &he Soil Asso0iation is the U,Js leading 0ampaigning and 0ertifi0ation organisation for organi0 food and farming, founded in ">=? by a group of farmers, s0ientists and nutritionists %ho %ere 0on0erned about the %ay our food %as produ0ed/

7reen +oo,s %%%/greenbooks/0o/uk (reen 8ooks is a publishing 0ompany %hose aim is to inform and inspire the general reader about e0ologi0al, spiritual and 0ultural issues of our time/

Ne& .conomics Foundation %%%/ne%e0onomi0s/org &he Ne% E0onomi0s 1oundation 4NE15 %orks to 0onstru0t a ne% e0onomy 0entred on people and the environment/ 1ounded in ">A?, it is no% one of the U,Js most 0reative and effe0tive independent think tanks, 0ombining resear0h, advo0a0y, training and pra0ti0al a0tion/

Resurgence %%%/resurgen0e/org *esurgen0e is a bi6monthly magaHine of vision and a0tion/ *esurgen0e brings its readers a uniFue blend of ne%s and vie%s on a range of topi0s that in0ludes e0ology, development, edu0ation, health, s0ien0e and politi0s, together %ith art, 0ulture and spirituality/

Agromisa 1 Centre for Small:Scale Sustainable Agriculture %%%/agromisa/org &he Agromisa 1oundation aim is to strengthen the so0ial and e0onomi0 position of the underprivileged rural population in the south/ &o a0hieve its obGe0tives, Agromisa supplies information and advi0e on small6s0ale, sustainable agri0ulture and related topi0s to individuals and organisations/

-3T 1 -or,ing 7roup 3n )evelopment Techni9ues %%%/%ot/ut%ente/nl :'& is a0tive in the field of small6s0ale sustainable energy for developing 0ountries/

.nergy (nstitute http-..%%%/energyinst/org.home Mnternational 4U, based5 professional body for energy industries

.nergy*A http-..%%%/energy6uk/org/uk.

1orum for U, energy industry, government and other stakeholders on sustainable energy

.nvirotech org u, :ebsite 0on0erned %ith embedding sustainability prin0iples into engineering and 0onstru0tion

(nternational .nergy Agency http-..%%%/iea/org. A0ts as energy poli0y advisor to ? Member 0ountries

Rene&able .nergy Association BR.AC http-..%%%/r6e6a/net. &he *ene%able Energy Asso0iation represents rene%able energy produ0ers and promotes the use of all forms of rene%able energy in the U,/

Rene&able*A http-..%%%/b%ea/0om. *ene%ableU, is the trade and professional body for the U, %ind and marine rene%ables industries/ 41ormally the 8:EA 6 8ritish :ind Energy Asso0iation5/

SC2infonet http-..s0pinfonet/defra/gov/uk. SC$infonet is a free, online servi0e providing easy sear0h and dis0overy of kno%ledge related to Sustainable Consumption and $rodu0tion 4SC$5, provided as part of +efraCs (reen E0onomy $rogramme/

%eferences
!. We are all leaders, 3atish Bumar :e Are All 7eaders features in *esurgen0e issue ?=, 2anuary.1ebruary !""/ &his arti0le is reprinted 0ourtesy of *esurgen0e & E0ologist/ &o buy *esurgen0e & E0ologist, read further arti0les online or find out about &he *esurgen0e &rust, visithttp-..%%%/resurgen0e/org

All rights to this arti0le are reserved to *esurgen0e & E0ologist, if you %ish to republish or make use of this %ork you must 0onta0t the 0opyright o%ner to obtain permission/

/ Caring for the <lanet, 3atish Bumar =e-rinted with -ermission, Available At4 http-..%%%/thetablet/0o/uk.arti0le.#!>= Accessed !st August *@!*

). 1 3trategies to 8inding a 3ustainabilit >ob, Job Willard =e-rinted with -ermission, Available at4 http-..sustainabilityadvantage/0om. !"!.!)."#.@6strategies6to6finding6a6 sustainability6Gob. Accessed4 *nd August *@!* 5. Careers in 3ustainabilit , ;avid Jrent Available at4 http-..davidbent/%ordpress/0om. !""." ." .0areersTinTsus. Accessed4 *nd August *@!* Creative Commons Aicense ).@

+odule Assessment
&he purpose of the assessment is to demonstrate your a%areness of the issues raised in this module/ Also, as edu0ation has been a re0urring theme of the solutions to the problems presented in this module, it is intended to give you pra0ti0e in resear0hing, 0ollating and presenting information to your peers and thereby raising a%areness about an issue that you feel strongly about/

&he assessment %ill involve 0reating a learning resour0e based on the theme of this module 4i/e/ sustainability and engineering5/ &he learning resour0e must be a poster or a presentation %hi0h %ill be presented to all other students %ho have 0ompleted this module at a one day event at the University of Nottingham/ &he presentation must be ma3imum "! minutes long, after %hi0h you should ans%er any Fuestions about the information you have resear0hed/

Suggestions for %hat the poster or presentation 0ould 0over are belo%Mntrodu0tion to the subGe0t of 0hoi0e 'utline of 0urrent %orld %ide . lo0al situation $ast and predi0ted future trends *easons for the spe0ifi0 fo0us on the area you have 0hosen

:hat are the problems %ith the 0urrent situation; Mndi0ators to%ards unsustainability *easons for getting to the 0urrent situation E0onomi0, so0ial and environmental fa0tors, links bet%een them

:hat solutions e3ist; (overnment poli0y, organisations or individual a0tions Case studies of any of the above

Con0lusions :hat are the best. %orst 0ase s0enarios for the future; :hat is your personal opinion of %hat 0ould be done to in0rease the sustainability of the topi0 you have 0hosen; 1urther *eading

7ist any relevant %ebsites, videos, or online tea0hing resour0es that you have found useful/

9ou 0an fo0us on a %ide and general topi0 or on a very spe0ifi0 lo0alised issue/ 9our subGe0t should in some %ay be related to engineering and sustainability/ Mt doesnJt have to be a subGe0t 0overed spe0ifi0ally in this module, ho%ever if you do 0hoose a subGe0t from one of the 0hapters it should be 0overed in more depth than it already has/ 9ou 0ould fo0us more on a problem or on a solution/ 9ou 0ould even suggest a solution that doesnJt e3ist yeta

Suggested titles-

Can the U, support itself entirely from rene%able energy; A 0ase study of a lo% impa0t housing 0ommunity in :ales Environmental 0onseFuen0es of %aste ele0troni0 goods ChinaJs use of 0opper &he embodied energy of ele0tri0 0ars Engineering solutions for redu0ing poverty 4energy, %ater, health0are et05 :ave. &idal Energy A summary of 0urrent predi0tions for peak oil &he &ransition Net%ork 6 building resilient 0ommunities $erma0ulture in engineering 6 using nature as a design aid

$oster (uidelines

A# format Mn0lude pi0tures, te3t, 0harts and graphs 1lo% diagrams 0an e3plain pro0esses 0on0isely

$resentation (uidelines

Mnformation presented 0learly Mn0lude te3t, 0harts, graphs and pi0tures Mdeally should make sense %ithout needing a presenter 6 i/e/ 0an be a useful standalone online resour0e

(eneral (uidelines

$osters or presentations that are of a high standard %ill be in0luded as part of the online learning resour0es for this module in U6No%, and %ill be available for future students to use as part of their studies/

1or this to be possible, any pi0tures, te3t 4that is not your o%n5, 0harts or graphs used from the internet should be appropriately referen0ed/ &ry to use resour0es %ith a 0reative 0ommons li0ense %here possible 4this %ill make it possible to in0lude your %ork as part of the online resour0e5 &o a0hieve this use the internet sear0h engine as follo%s- Nyour sear0h termN d 0reative 0ommons and look for the follo%ing logo-

&his means that the author has been attributed, the item is non60ommer0ial and it is 0leared for sharing 4Bshare6alikeC5/ More information about Creative Commons 7i0ensinghttp-..%%%/0reative0ommons/org/uk.