DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

DISCOURSE AND TEXTS

STUDENT: ERBAN Edelina-Maria COORDONATOR: conf. dr COPOSESCU Liliana

DISCOURSE AND TEXTS

Abstract. This paper is meant as an attempt to show the differences between discourse and texts
and also to exemplify the cohesive devices (verb form, conjunctions and adverbials, parallelism, referring expressions, substitution and ellipsis. In order to do that, I have chosen an article composed by me to explain how all these cohesive devices appeared and their role. 1. Introduction Remember that we defined texts earlier as being the verbal record of a communicative event. A number of authors have been concerned to provide a more formal account of how speakers of English come to identify a text as forming a text (for example, Halliday & Hassan, 1976). They are concerned with what binds a text together and force co-interpretation, i.e. what makes them to be interpreted in the same way by readers (hearers in the case of spoken texts). Halliday and Hassan consider that the primary determinant of whether a set of sentences do or do not constitute a text depends on cohesive relationships within and between the sentences, which create texture. 2. Cohesion Cohesion refers to facts inside the language and it is achieved through the formal links that give a sense of unity beyond the sentence. According to Halliday and Hassan (1976) a text is a text rather than a mere sequence of sentences. This is due to the linguistic features that cause sentences to stick together; i.e. what makes sentences constitute a text depends on cohesive relationships within and between sentences which create texture: A text has texture and this is what distinguishes it from something that is not a text [...]. The texture is provided by the cohesive relations (1976:2), what makes any length of text meaningful and coherent has been termed texture. Texture is the basis for unity and semantic interdependence without text, and text without texture would just be a group of isolated sentences with no relation to one another. Conjunction

A conjunction represents semantic relation that expresses how a clause or statement is related in meaning to a previous clause or statement; it is signaled by a specific connecting word or phrase. Following is a variety of types of semantic relations with examples of words that typically signal each: additive, amplification, adversative, causal, temporal, spatial, example. e.g Presbyterians and Methodists and Baptists are the prevalent Protestant congregations in Oklahoma. A comma is also used with but when expressing a contrast: This is a useful rule, but difficult to remember. The term reference is traditionally used in semantics to define the relationship between a word and what it points to in the real world, but in Halliday and Hasans model it simply refers to the relationship between two linguistic expressions. In the textual sense, though, reference occurs when the reader/listener has to retrieve the identity of what is being talked about by referring to another expression in the same context. References to the shared world outside a text are called exophoric references. References to elements in the text are called endophoric references. Only the second ones are purely cohesive, although both of them are important to create texture. There are times when the reference is not explicit in the text itself, but it is obvious to those in a particular situation. This is called exophoric reference. For he's a jolly good fellow And so say all of us. As outsiders, we dont know who the he is, but, most likely, the people involved in the celebration are aware of the he that is being referred to, and therefore, can find texture in the sentences. Another type of reference relation that is not strictly textual is co-reference. A chain of co-referential items such as Mrs Thatcher the Prime Minister The Iron Lady Maggie reveals that co-reference is not strictly a linguistic feature but depends on realworld knowledge. You need some external information to realize that the terms refer to the same person. Lexical Textual cohesion between one word and another is created by repetition of the word or use of a synonym, a superordinate word, a more general word, or an associated word. Same word: The darkness of night came swiftly. The children were afraid of the darkness. Synonym: Hansel and Gretel huddled together to wait for daybreak. Oh, when would dawn come? Superordinate word: Mice and raccoons snuffled closer to investigate the intruders. The animals were curious.

General word: Finally, the tired children snuggled down in the leaves and pine needles of the forest bed and went to sleep. Associated word: As the dawn broke, sunlight filled the forest. Demonstrative reference keeps track of information through location using proximity references like this, these, that, those, here, there, then, and the. e.g I always drink a lot of beer when I am in England. There are many lovely pubs there. This is not acceptable. Substitution A word is substituted for the referent that is not identical in meaning or carries some differentiation, but performs the same structural function. Nominal: The witch wanted a bigger pot. She ordered Gretel to go and get one. Clausal: Could Gretel save Hansel? She thought so. Ellipsis A word, phrase, or clause is left unsaid, but is understood. Verbal: "Are you coming?" called the witch. "I am (coming)," answered Gretel. Nominal: Gretel looked for a sharp tool, but she knew she would take whatever (tool) she could find. Clausal: I know I can kill the witch. I'm sure I can (kill the witch).

Ellipsis (zero substitution) is the omission of elements normally required by the grammar which the speaker/writer assumes are obvious from the context and therefore need not be raised. There are three types of ellipsis too: nominal, verbal, and clausal. (a) Do you want to hear another song? I know twelve more [songs] (b) Sue brought roses and Jackie [brought] lilies. (c) I ran 5 miles on the first day and 8 on the second

Comparison

compared with in the same way similarly in comparison with likewise

Examples:

I used to work fifteen hours a day. In comparison with that, my present job is more like holiday! The doctor advised him to give up smoking. Similarly, he recommended him to eat much less and take plenty of exercise.

Parallelism Parallelism suggests a connection, simply because the form of one sentence repeats the form of another. It is often used in speeches, prayers, poetry and advertisements because the rhythmical repetition of the same structure renders an emotional touch and may also function as an aide-memoire. e.g Le Generale de Gaulle est mort. La France est veuve. e.g Teach us, Good Lord, to give and not to count the cost, to fight and not to heed the wounds, to toil and not to seek for rest, to labour and to ask for no reward, save that of knowing that we do Thy will (St. Richards Prayer) Conclusion What I have tried to do in this paper was to identify and analyze some of the ingredients which are necessary in any discourse. We have seen that in order to be able to compose a discourse , we need to have cohesive devices. Finally, since any text needs to be both coherent and cohesive, I have shown how the various type of devices employed by the writer contribute to the cohesion of the paragraphs chosen by me.

References Brown, Gillian & George Yule. 1989.Discourse Analysis.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress. http://percybal.files.wordpress.com/2008/11/cohesive-devices-list-of-items-for-writing-acomposition.pdf Discourse analysis course. Liliana Coposescu